Enhancing Resilience of Vulnerable Coastal Areas and ... · Mouth, and Bintang Bolon tributary....

Enhancing Resilience of Vulnerable CoastalAreas and Communities: MangroveRehabilitation/Restoration Worksin the Gambia

Jean-Hude E. Moudingo, Gordon Ajonina, Diyouke M. Eugene,Ansumana K. Jarju, Kwasu Jammeh, Foday Conteh, Saul Taal,Lamin Mai Touray, Modou Njei, and Saiko Janko

J.-H. E. Moudingo (*)FAO Cameroon Representation Mangrove Project & Cameroon Wildlife Conservation Society(CWCS), CWCS Coastal, Forests & Mangrove Programme, Mouanko, Littoral Region, Cameroone-mail: [email protected]

G. Ajonina · D. M. EugeneCameroon Wildlife Conservation Society (CWCS), CWCS Coastal, Forests & MangroveProgramme, Mouanko, Littoral Region, Cameroone-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

A. K. JarjuNARI, Brikama, West Coast Region, Gambiae-mail: [email protected]

K. JammehDepartment of Parks and Wildlife Management, Kanifing, Gambiae-mail: [email protected]

F. ContehDepartment of Water Resources, Abuko, Gambiae-mail: [email protected]

S. TaalMinistry of Agriculture/Research Institute, Banjul, Gambiae-mail: [email protected]

L. M. TourayDepartment of Water Resources, Banjul, Gambiae-mail: [email protected]

M. NjeiWABSAWest Africa Study Birds Association, Banjul, Gambiae-mail: [email protected]

S. JankoKOMFORA, The Kombo/Foni Forestry Association, Kafuta, Gambiae-mail: [email protected]

# Springer International Publishing AG 2018C. M. Hussain (ed.), Handbook of Environmental Materials Management,https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-58538-3_68-1

1

http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/978-3-319-58538-3_68-1&domain=pdf

mailto:[email protected]










https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-58538-3_68-1

ContentsIntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3Overview of Wetland Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

A Brief History of Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4Basic Concepts and Principles of Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

The Mangrove Restoration Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10What Are Mangroves? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Importance of Mangroves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Basic Factors in Mangrove Regeneration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13Overview and Status of Mangrove Restoration in the Gambia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Overview Cost of Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Techniques of Mangrove Planting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16Preliminaries Mangrove Planting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16Pro and Cons of the Direct Planting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Seeding or Planting Mangrove Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Mangrove Health Monitoring and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31Concept of Monitoring and Evaluation: Why Monitoring? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31Usefulness of Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31Monitoring Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32Monitoring Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33Data Management, Analysis, and Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Conclusion and Way Forward in Mangrove Restoration in the Gambia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39Appendix 1 Principles of Restoration (Prepared from USEPA 2000; Ajoninaand Tata 2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

AbstractGrowing awareness of the protective, productive, and social functions of thetropical mangrove ecosystem has highlighted the need to conserve and managethem sustainably. The majority of these efforts with community implication areoversimplified planting projects, largely attempts to force mangroves to grow inintertidal mud flats, usually below mean sea level, where mangroves simply donot grow due to poor understanding of the ecological and requirements ofmangroves, and the processes which lead to their establishment and early growth.Restoration principle and methods have been applied mindful of the challenges ofdevelopment projects and their impacts and the difficult terrain.

This chapter while promoting active and passive restoration approaches focusof this “how-to-do” to bring community animators or practitioners through themajor steps of a mangrove rehabilitation project. It is organized as follows: givesan overview of wetland restoration and a general overview of restoration ofwetlands with the viewpoint on basic concepts, principles, and the reason forrestoration and existing methods and case studies of restoration, dwells onrestoration issues dealing with aspects of mangrove dispersal and propagationand its limits, and involves community in mangrove replanting and potential costfor restoration. And finally it covers relevant aspects and techniques of

2 J.-H. E. Moudingo et al.

monitoring mangrove nurseries and plantations for health and growth necessaryfor evaluating mangrove restoration projects and programs.

In structuring an appropriate response to manage mangrove sustainablythrough restoration, within an integrated context in the Gambia, it is necessaryto recognize that there are yet many information gaps (technically, financially,etc.) and constraints.

KeywordsAcrostichum aureum · Avicennia germinans · Care · Coastal · Communities ·Conservation · Control · Coppicing · Creation · Degradation · Diaspores ·Ecological character · Ecosystem · Engineering · Environment · Eocological ·Equipment · Estuarine · Evaluation · Gambia · Geo-referenced · Guide ·Guidelines · Health · Knowledge · Lacustrine · Laguncularia racemosa,Conocarpus erectus · Management · Mangrove · Marine · Mitigation · Monitor ·Monitoring · Nursery · Outplanting · Palustrine · Plantation · Planting ·Pneumatophores · Potting · Preparation · Principles · Propagule · Protection ·Ramsar Convention · Reconstruction · Rehabilitation · Replanting: Restoration ·Rhizophora · Rhizophora harrisonii; R. mangle; R. racemosa · Riverine ·Salinity · Sensitisation · Space · Species · Species · Stilt root · Sustainable use ·Technique · Tidal · Vantage point · Water · Wetland

Introduction

Background

Gambia has lost more than 17.5% of its mangrove between 1980 (70,400 ha) and2006 (58, 100 ha) to a range of human-accelerated factors such as populationgrowth, infrastructural development, and other human activities (CBD 2006;UNEP 2007; Spalding et al. 2010). Many factors have been blamed for the declinemostly human induce especially urbanization, infrastructural development, riceagriculture, etc. with the manifested consequences of massive mangrove diebackand decline especially in Tanbi Wetland Complex, Niumi National Park, GambiaMouth, and Bintang Bolon tributary. Most efforts have been made to restore thesemangroves especially through the community-based organizations (WABSA andCONFORA) with communities and other stakeholders. Unfortunately, most man-grove rehabilitation efforts being targeted, only Rhizophora genus easily regeneratedfrom harvesting and pricking of propagules thus failing to reestablish the requiredmixed species mangrove forests. The majority of these efforts are oversimplifiedplanting projects, largely attempts to force mangroves to grow in intertidal mud flats,usually below mean sea level, where mangroves simply do not grow due to poorunderstanding of the ecological requirements of mangroves, and the processes whichlead to their establishment and early growth. This manual takes the reader through aprocess of assessment, design, implementation, and reflection around social, eco-nomic, and ecological factors which contribute to the failure or success of a

Enhancing Resilience of Vulnerable Coastal Areas and Communities: Mangrove. . . 3

mangrove rehabilitation effort. By understanding both pitfalls and recommendedpractices around mangrove rehabilitation, it is our hope that by 2020 the rathersimple but enigmatic practice of restoring mangrove forests is approached morescientifically and rationally and that practitioners and community animators becomemore reflective about their actions.

The purpose of this manual is to provide community animators and practitionerswith activities, tools, and options to be used in assessing, designing, implementingand monitoring a mangrove rehabilitation project. The focus of this “how-to-do”chapter is to bring community animators or practitioners through the major steps of amangrove rehabilitation project. These steps are based on the principles of learningby doing.

Overview of Wetland Restoration

A Brief History of Restoration

Ecosystem restoration is the process of recreating an ecological community. It is anemerging profession within the science of ecology. It is attracting billions of dollarsand producing an enormous stream of published papers. Restoration has beenpracticed since time immemorial and on different ecosystem. Many other writersin this field traced the roots of restoration back as far as Philips wrote a book on therestoration of forests in 1883; Clements in 1935, who wrote an essay titled “exper-imental ecology in the public service”; and Aldo Leopold 1949 (Keddy 2010). Healso noted that during the 1900s, Beard’s basic book on the vegetation of theCaribbean Bands discussed forest restoration activities to wetlands. Spartina angel-ica for reclamation’ of coastal mud flats (Keddy 2010). In Africa, especially inBurkina Faso, in 1980s building of irrigation canals and terrace to prevent spread ofdesert in Sahel.

There is no need for us to pretend that restoration is something entirely new tohuman thinking. We should know something about the historical origins of ourscientific discipline. Indeed it is vital that we learn from past mistakes, what theyrenew in the scope of the project and the number of people involved in them.

Currently, restoration ecology has one important potential benefit to the historyand development of ecology. This is the potential to bring together a wild range ofscientific activities. It challenges conservationists, applied ecologist, and theoreti-cians in different ways. Conservationists are challenged to shift some energy fromprotecting remnant fragments of habitat toward the longer-term goal of restoring andreconnecting entire landscapes. There is now the society for ecological restorationinternational too. Applied ecologists are being challenged to move from manipulat-ing single species, such as few species of fish or water birds, to the reconstruction ofthe entire ecosystem. Theoretical ecologists are challenged to develop practical toolsto guide restoration and monitor its success with indicators.

These challenges are increasing due to the request of goods and services by localpopulation; hence the synergy of the anthropogenic actions and pressure coupled to


the natural phenomenon like climate change renders most ecosystem worldwidevulnerable.

The Gambia ecosystem is not exempted from adverse climate change impacts.Many initiatives to curb the degradation of the ecosystem especially that of themangrove are ongoing. But most of the replanting actions triggered by local NGOsare gradually failing to yield desirable and healthy mangrove environment. Thereasons not exhaustive include poor spacing between and within rolls, plantingapproach at somewhat very poor tides, and practically no monitoring plantationsuccess even with the direct planting adopted.

Conscious of these facts, the Gambian government through the UNDP/COundertook a project termed “enhancing resilience of vulnerable coastal areas andcommunities to climate change project,” and its component studies mangrovedieback. It is worth mentioning that the UNDP program funds practical fieldexperience and scientific training opportunities for promising scientists and conser-vationists worldwide. By providing these opportunities, UNDP supports the Gam-bian government to address a key need cited in the Convention on BiologicalDiversity, the Kyoto Protocol, and the Millennium Development Goals: the needfor conservation goal and career development in emerging countries. This projecthas many deliverable among which is the production of a “Training Manual formangrove planting and Monitoring of health of Mangrove.”

This manual therefore serves to build mangrove conservation capacity – thecapacity of individuals and communities to become future mangrove conservationand restoration leaders in Gambia to be more effective stewards of their country’srich and irreplaceable mangrove biodiversity. Hence, this manual is conceived andprepared to help mangrove custodian and grassroot communities to understandreplanting and M and E mangrove plantation.

Basic Concepts and Principles of Restoration

Definition of Concepts and TermsThe word restoration is often carelessly used to mean many different things. Awordthat means too many things often seem to end up meaning nothing. Hence, let us usethe word precisely, guided by Fig. 1. We start at the upper left, with the original stateof the system, which could also be termed a pre-perturbed system, or in somecircumstances, a natural or pristine system. One or more forces have damaged(rapid change) or degraded (gradual change) the site (first solid line) so that thepresent state is different from this original state. So rating from the present state,what are the options? There are four. The most obvious is that the system coulddegrade further (second solid line). Should humans intervene, thus intentional, theyhave three options shown by the dashed lines which include (1) convert the site to analternative ecosystem, (2) repair certain selection attributes of the system, and(3) restore the site to its original state.

As one of effort to manage wetland, restoration, often termed ecological, tries tomimic the specified structure, functioning, diversity, and dynamics using reference


ecosystems as models or analogue ecosystem (Moudingo 2010). First restoration hasa specified target state, and second, there is evidence that this state existed in the past.Nevertheless, rehabilitation, creation, or restoration is frequently used interchange-ably in wetlands and conservation literature.

As defined by the Convention (Ramsar 2007), wetlands include a wide variety ofhabitats. They include marshes, peatlands, floodplains, rivers and lakes, and coastalareas such as saltmarshes, mangroves, and sea grass beds, but also coral reefs andother marine areas no deeper than 6 m at low tide, as well as human-made wetlandssuch as wastewater treatment ponds and reservoirs.

Restoration. Restoration is more challenging (Primavera et al. 2012) and aimedat a return of an area of landscape to a specified previously occurring ecologicalstate. (Example: removing embankments to allow) a river to annually flood a formerwetland with the objective of recreating a wet prairie). Restoration as an intentionalact is open and “breathing,” of supporting the recovery of an ecosystem that has beendegraded, damaged, or where homeostasis has been permanently stopped,unarrested, or inhibited in a way by anthropogenic activities.

Mitigation. Purchasing or creating wetlands to compensate for damage beingdone elsewhere (e.g., paying for restoration of one cypress swamp to compensate forbuilding a subdivision on another), a legal rather than scientific term that is mostcommonly used in the United States of America.

Rehabilitation. Making specified changes to an existing wetland in order toimprove one or more services (e.g., a group such as Ducks Unlimited removespatches of cattails to create pools of open water for ducks and wading birds).

Preservation. Maintaining an existing highly valued wetland in its valued state.(Example; a group such as The Nature Conservancy purchases a set of vernal poolswith the intentions of keeping populations of endangered species at their currentlevel).

Creation. Making a new wetland in an area where it was not previously present.(Example: making a pond in a city to attract wildlife. This could be called restorationif there are historical records of similar ponds there before the city was built).

Fig. 1 Restoration state andsystem. (Adapted from Keddy2010)


Conservation. A general term that implies a wetland will be retained more or lessgreen wet but without specific exactly how it will be managed. Often a group ofstakeholders will be allowed to choose the future state. (Example: the AtchafalayaSwamp is still being heavily altered by humans but with the general agreement thatwill remain a wetland).

Ecological character. Is the combination of the ecosystem components, pro-cesses, and benefits/ services that characterize the wetland at a given point in time.

Why Restore a Wetland Ecosystem?Restoration is a holistic process not achieved through the isolated manipulation ofindividual elements (Ajonina 2008). There are three basic aims for restoration:ecosystem preservation, sustainable use, and coastal protection. All is to enhancethe ecological character of system (Ramsar 2007). In that regard, restoration com-pletes management processes, since the signal comes from the results of inventoryand assessment of the milieu (Ajonina and Tata 2006; Ajonina 2008). If so, then themost important step in an ecosystem restoration is passive (Moudingo 2010), whichis the removal or the correction of the disturbance to let nature create its own system.

The need to reverse wetland degradation, in addition to the recognition of benefitsassociated with wetland restoration, has led to initiation of numerous restorationprojects globally. The multiple roles of wetland ecosystems and their value tohumanity have been increasingly understood and documented in recent years. Thishas led to large expenditures to restore lost or degraded hydrological and biologicalfunctions of wetlands. But it’s not enough – the race is on to improve practices on asignificant global scale as the world’s leaders try to cope with the accelerating watercrisis and the effects of climate change and especially at a time when the world’spopulation is likely to increase by 70 million every year for the next 20 years.

Global freshwater consumption rose sixfold between 1900 and 1995 – more thandouble the rate of population growth. One third of the world’s population today livesin countries already experiencing moderate to high water stress. By 2025, two out ofevery three people on Earth may well face life in water-stressed conditions. Theability of wetlands to adapt to changing conditions, and to accelerating rates ofchange, will be crucial to human communities and wildlife everywhere as the fullimpact of climate change on our ecosystem lifelines is felt.

Policy- and decision-makers frequently make development decisions based uponsimple calculations of the monetary pros and cons of the proposals before them – theimportance of wetlands for the environment and for human societies has traditionallybeen underrated in these calculations because of the difficulty of assigning dollarvalues to the wetland ecosystem’s values and benefits, goods, and services. Thus,more and more economists and other scientists are working in the growing field ofthe valuation of ecosystem services. This is a difficult task, but in order for decision-makers to have the correct information before them about the comparable monetaryvalues of a healthy wetland, the economic losses of a lost or degraded wetland, thereis no choice but to progress in this direction (Ajonina and Tata 2006).


Ramsar Convention Principles and Guidelines for Wetland RestorationThe following section is based on comprehensive guiding principles for wetlandecosystem restoration developed by the Ramsar Convention of Parties (COP) 2002.These principles and guidelines for wetland restoration use the term “restoration” inits broadest sense, which includes both projects that promote a return to originalconditions and projects that improve wetland functions without necessarily promot-ing a return to pre-disturbance conditions. The development of these principlesstems from the fact that although there is increasing interest in wetland restorationand opportunities are widespread, efforts to restore wetlands are still sporadic, andthere is a lack of general planning at the national level. Moreover, individuals andorganizations interested in restoration often work in isolation and without the benefitof experience gained on other projects.

General principles and guidelines were developed by Ramsar Convention basedupon the experience with many projects in many settings that can offer a usefulstarting point for restoration projects. They provide the underlying ideas that formthe foundation of a successful restoration project, and as such they should beintegrated into national wetland policy. The guidelines provide a step-by-step pro-cess guiding the identification, development, and implementation of a restorationproject, and as such they can be integrated into administrative guidelines. Given theuniqueness of every restoration project and while these principles and guidelines aredesigned to be useful in many situations, they are neither universally applicable nordefinitive.

Principles for Wetland RestorationNowadays, valuable lessons exist based on field restoration projects like stream,river, lake, estuary, etc. (USEPA 2000; Ajonina and Tata 2006; Ramsar 2007). A listof principles with a scientific and technical issues and critical for the success of awide range restoration projects was developed (USEPA 2000; Ajonina and Tata2006; Ramsar 2007). These principles include (1) need for a national program andpriorities for wetland restoration; (2) need for clear understanding and statement ofgoals, objectives, and performance standards; (3) need for careful planning at allstages; (4) maintaining natural processes; (5) scale of wetland restoration planning;(6) stakeholders’ participation; (7) long-term stewardship and monitoring; (8) indig-enous traditional knowledge; (9) adaptive management; (10) disseminated successstories; and (11) awareness generation (see Appendix 1 for detailed description).These principles which are environmental management activities apply to wetlandrestoration project life cycle (inception, implementation, and monitoring) and areequally an all-inclusive process to ensure sustainability.

Existing Methods for Wetland RestorationWetland ecosystems provide invaluable products and services to mankind (Millen-nium Ecosystem Assessment 2005; UNEP 2014) yet have been badly degraded as aresult of unsustainable human use activities (Nellemann and Corcoran 2010). Thereis an urgent need to restore these wetlands to sustain benefits for the present and the


future. There is also the need for well-planned restoration programs involvingrelevant stakeholders at all phases. Many tools and methods have been applied torestore degraded wetland ecosystems scattered within the existing literature.Methods applied depend largely on wetland types and the underlying factor con-tributing to the degradation of the wetland type in question. For convenience, thesemethods can be grouped into four major categories: replanting, control, engineering,and management.

The employment of any particular method or combination of methods will largelyhinge on the cost of economic factors such as labor and capital equipment availableas well as time weighed against expected benefit from restoration.

Replanting: This is often used to rehabilitate degraded forested wetlands. Treesmay be planted from established nurseries or direct seeding. Once the collectedseeds/propagules or saplings are hand planted at a given spacing, we termed thatdisposition as plantation (an area where tree stands are grown for wood or for otherintentional purposes). Five forest types can be identified according to their origin(Evans 1982). These include:

1. Afforestation of bare land where there has been no forest for at least 50 years2. Reforestation of land which has carried forest within the last 50 years but where

the previous crop is replaced by an essentially different one3. Reforestation of land which has carried forest within the last 50 years by renewal

of essentially the same plant or crop as before4. Forest established by natural regeneration with deliberate silvicultural interven-

tion and assistance from man5. Forest which has regenerated naturally without assistance from man. Most natural

forest in the tropics

Mangroves throughout Africa especially Rhizophora-dominated mangroves havebeen replanted by community action through direct seeding of propagules. As forAvicennia, direct planting is rare. NGOs and partners have been playing a highlyfacilitating role in the revegetation process. The use of indigenous species is highlyrecommended in such replanting schemes. In this manual plantations are the firstthree forest class and that artificial regeneration is the basic criterion.

Control: Control is another method by which wetland ecosystems can berestored. Control activities may range from total protection of wetland site fromfurther human use to allow the wetland to regenerate naturally to the application ofmechanical, chemical, and biological methods to control invasive species. Mechan-ical control usually involves the employment of human labor to weed out invasivespecies. This method is time-consuming. Chemical control uses a wide spectrum ofchemical substances including herbicides to control invasive species. Biologicalcontrol introduces living organisms to feed on and control the pest in questionsuch as crabs (Neochetina eichhorniae and N. bruchi) used to control water hyacinthEichhornia crassipes (Howard and Matindi 2003). Integrated control methodsemploy a combination of mechanical, chemical, and biological control methodswith due consideration to the ecosystem health.


Engineering: This embraces construction activities putting in place physicalstructures to restore wetlands. These include the building of dams and dikes tocontrol water flow and stop sedimentation as well as using equipments to dredgewetlands degraded through sedimentation.

Management: We put under management all actions needed to control humanbehavior and habits for the sake of wetland restoration. These range from thedevelopment of policies, laws, and institutions to regulate behaviors, community/stakeholder mobilization, education, and awareness creation to the development ofviable economic alternatives to reduce dependence on wetland resources so that theycan regenerate.

Situation of Wetland Restoration/Rehabilitation in AfricaMany tools and methods have been applied to restore degraded or damaged wetlandecosystems. More often, restoration methods (Table 1) are associated with differentmajor wetland types and the factor contributing to the degradation of the wetlandtype in question. Thus, restoration is treated in isolation or integrated depending onthe level of threats. Most of these situations are applied to the Gambia ecosystem.

The Mangrove Restoration Issues

What Are Mangroves?

Mangroves occupy less than 1% of the world’s forested surface (Maniatis 2005).They are a diverse group of predominantly tropical trees and shrubs growing atintertidal edges of tropical and subtropical coasts worldwide (Kathiresan and Bing-ham 2001). It is also termed wetland (Selvam et al. 2003) because it is made up ofmangrove forests and associated water bodies (Frazier 1996; Selvam et al. 2003;Ramsar 2007), which is predominantly un-drained or saturated at a given season.

Mangroves are usually referred to as “tanda” (sing.) or “matanda” (pl.) in theDuala language, Cameroon, or either as “egba” or “odo nowe” for Nigerian language(Letouzey 1968; Vivien et Faure 1985). In the Gambian experience, it is usuallyknown either as Manko in “Mandinka” or Mangi in “Wolof.” The dominant treespecies in the intertidal zone are characteristic for the West African mangroves. Sixtrue mangrove species are known to exist in the Gambia (Tomlinson 1986; UNEP2007; Spalding et al. 2010). This includes Avicenniaceae (Avicennia germinans),Combretaceae (Laguncularia racemosa, Conocarpus erectus), and Rhizophoraceae(Rhizophora harrisonii; R. mangle; R. racemosa) (Plate 1) with little or no invasivemangrove fern Acrostichum aureum (Pteridaceae).

Importance of Mangroves

As illustrated in Fig. 2, mangrove forests are vital for healthy coastal ecosystems inthe regions where they occur, providing vital ecosystem services that support


Table 1 Methods of restoration of different types of wetlands in Africa. (Adapted from Ajoninaand Tata 2006)

Majorwetlandtype

Wetlandsubtype

Underlyingfactor ofdegradation Restoration method(s) Case studies

Marine Shallowcoastal watersand shores,coral reefs,coastallagoons

Sedimentation Engineering: dredging Wouri estuaryCameroon by PortsAuthority Douala,Cameroon

Inundation Engineering: buildingcanals and dikes

Djoudj NationalPark, Senegal

Pollution Control: protectionManagement:pollution controlpolicies and laws

Regulationavailable acrossAfrica but hardlyapplied

Invasivespecies

Control: mechanical,chemical (herbicides),biological, integratedpest management

Control of waterlily in LakeNaivasha

Estuarine Deltas/creeks,tidal marshes

Sedimentation Engineering: dredging Wouri estuaryCameroon


Regulationavailable acrossAfrica but hardlyapplied

Invasivespecies


Mangroves Deforestation Control: protection;replantingManagement:policies, laws,institutions, anddevelopment ofalternative sources ofenergies for fishsmoking

FAO/World BankMangrove projectsin Guinea Conakry;IUCN/EU Projectsin Senegal; FAOand WWF Projectsin Cameroon

Shrimpaquaculture

Engineering:Canalization anddredging

Rufiji DeltaTanzania

Invasivespecies Nypapalms (Nypafruticans)


Nypa palms controlproject Nigeria

Lacustrine Lakes Sedimentation Engineering: dredging Lake Victoria

Inundation Engineering: buildingcanals and dikes

Lake Naivasha,Kenya

(continued)


Table 1 (continued)

Majorwetlandtype

Wetlandsubtype

Underlyingfactor ofdegradation Restoration method(s) Case studies


Lake VictoriaLake Naivasha,Kenya

Invasivespecies

Control: mechanical,biological, integratedpest management

Lake Victoria, LakeNaivasha, Kenya

Eutrophication

Riverine Streams,rivers/deltas/creeks,floodplains,watercatchments/springs/oases

Sedimentation/inundation ofbanks

Engineering:dredging, canalization


Invasivespecies


Waza Logone inCameroon

Deforestation Replanting HELVETASHighlandsWatershed Projects

Palustrine Swamps/marshes


WetlandsManagementProgram, Uganda

Invasivespecies


Mangroves sustaining fisheries & livelihoodsMangroves are store housesof biodiversity

Mangroves are bio-shields: Protecting our dwellings and cities from storm surges, strong waves, erosion and sea level rise helping fight climate change

Fig. 2 Importance of mangroves


livelihood and ecological securities of people living in coastal areas (Bos et al.2006): provisioning services (tangible goods/resources – fuel wood, fish, oysters,crabs, shrimps, salt, sand, medicines, etc.), regulatory services (carbon sequestration(blue carbon) mitigating climate change where they sequester more carbon per hathan tropical forests, shoreline protection against storms and surges, and othernatural disasters such as hurricanes and tsunamis), supporting services (habitat andnursery grounds for fish and other aquatic faunas, e.g., the oysters and fish you eat),and cultural services (ecotourisms, recreation, research, education, etc.).

In regions where the forest has been destroyed or lost as in current trends throughpressures from unsustainable exploitation of mangrove resources, encroachmentsfrom urbanization, and development infrastructure, local coastal communities areleft with marginal or unproductive fisheries and loss of traditional livelihoods.

Basic Factors in Mangrove Regeneration

Reproductive Approaches and Mangrove RestorationMangroves have little capacity for vegetative propagation and are thus dependent onseedlings for forest maintenance and spread (Feller and Sitnik 1996). No mangrovespecies can spread vegetatively by root suckers. No form of agamospermy has beenreported for mangroves although the Nypa palm, Acrosticum spp., can spread by

Fig. 3 Photoplate (a) cigar-shaped propagule and (b) growing seedling of the Rhizophora spp.; (c)bark-fissured seeds of the parental tree Conocarpus erectus; (d) fruit ellipsoid and (e) seedlingsurrounded by pneumatophores of the Avicennia germinans; (f) flowering whitish bell shape of theL. racemosa


rhizome or recumbent stems. Rhizophora and other genera do not coppice becausethey lose the ability to produce reserve meristems at a very early stage. Althoughsome species (A. germinans and L. racemosa) (Fig. 3d, e, f) can resprout fromstumps (coppicing), this process is not equivalent to propagation.

Mangroves exhibit two relatively unique reproductive strategies: hydrochory andvivipary. Hydrochory (dispersal by water) is a major means by which mangrovespreads seeds, fruit, and/or propagules. Tidal action can carry mangrove diasporesgreat distances from their point of origin. Vivipary refers to the condition in whichthe mangrove embryo germinates while still attached to the parent tree. A number ofmangrove species, including R. mangle, for example, propagules (Fig. 3a), mayremain attached to the parent tree for 4–6 months and attain lengths of 25–35 cm at“maturity,” and they fall to the ground or into the water where they are dispersed bythe tides. Once it detaches, the seed established into a suitable substrate and grows(Fig. 3a, b). The embryo of A. germinans breaks through the seed coat (Fig. 3d, e)but remains enclosed in the fruit wall until detachment. Upon falling into the water,the thin pericarp is quickly shed, leaving the seedling, which is composed of twofolded cotyledons. Laguncularia racemosa is not considered to be viviparous(Fig. 3f), but germination often occurs during dispersal. Vivipary increases thechances of successful establishment in an unpredictable environment where germi-nation of seeds would typically be inhibited.

Limits on Mangrove Dispersal and DistributionExtensive development of mangroves has occurred in the estuaries of large riversflowing over shallow continental shelves. The Amazon and Congo, the two largestrivers in the world, do not have extensive stands of mangroves primarily because ofthe huge outflow of freshwater. Major factors determining mangrove spreading anddistribution (FAO 1994; Lewis and Brown 2014) include:

Climate. Mangroves are tropical species and are not tolerant of freezing temper-atures. Their latitudinal limits worldwide vary depending on air and water temper-atures (Tomlinson 1986). The abundance of mangroves is also affected by aridity,and development is much greater along coasts that have high inputs of rainfall.

Salinity. Salt is generally not a requirement for growth, since most mangrovescan grow in freshwater. However, they do not develop in strictly freshwater habitatsbecause of competition from freshwater species. Salinity is thus important in elim-inating other vascular plant species that are not adapted for growth in a saline habitat.

Tidal fluctuation. Tidal influence is also not a requirement, but plays an impor-tant indirect role:

(a) Inundation with saltwater helps exclude most other vascular plants and reducescompetition.

(b) Tides bring saltwater up estuaries against the outflow of freshwater and extendmangrove development inland.

(c) Tides transport sediment, nutrients, and clean water into the mangrove environ-ment and export organic carbon and reduced sulfur compounds.

(d) Where evaporation is high, tides help flush soils and decrease salinity.


The effect of this “tidal subsidy” can be seen on two landscape scales: a regionalor geographic scale (mangroves reach their greatest development around the worldin low-lying regions with large tidal ranges (Tomlinson 1986)) and a local scale –trees closest to the edges of land masses, which are subject to the largest fluctuationsof the tide, are obviously larger and more productive than trees in the interior. Thelatter is the situation in the Gambia mangrove. In the then Gambia, most roadscrossing the wetland aren’t eco-friendly with mangrove ecosystem, the conse-quences are visible, but the underlying causes have not been addressed accordingly.The mangroves aren’t fed with tidal water as required; hence there is dieback ofsome mangrove stands.

Sediment and wave energy. Mangroves grow best in a depositional environmentwith low wave energy according to Tomlinson (1986). High waves prevent propa-gule establishment, expose the shallow root systems, and prevent accumulation offine sediments.

Overview and Status of Mangrove Restoration in the Gambia

There have been positive responses worldwide. In West Africa, efforts are ongoingsince 1993 with over four hundred and fifty (450) hectares of mangrove forestsplantations were established within the coastal regions of Benin, Guinea, andSenegal (AMN 2009). In the Gambia replanting mangrove is recent. Most of theseinitiatives or trials restored close to 300 ha between 2000 and 2014. Hence, in theyear 2000, direct sowing of seed or propagules pricking from the Rhizophoraparental tree were used and at irregular spacing (1 �1 m; 2 � 1 m; 2 � 1.5 m).All these efforts are done through community participation, NGOs (KOMFFORA,WABSA, and TRY Oyster Women Association), CBOs, and donors and partners likeGEF, WWF, UNDP, etc. While such efforts are very commendable for the situationaldieback trees, they are some important shortcoming. Monitoring on the manyplantations is ad hoc or complete absence even with claimed 95% of success rate.There is no adequate silvicultural organization and process in place for replanting.Among these, there are no clear understanding of the flowering and fruiting behaviorof most mangrove species, badly appreciated hydrologic system for site selectionrestored, absence of nursery operations and best practices.

Consequences to these shortcomings include the preferential choice forRhizophora spp. at the expense of other species like Avicennia sp., and Lagunculariaracemosa leads to monoscultural stand and poor or difficult scientific follow-up andmonitoring, making it difficult to assess growth parameters (diameters, height,number of branches, etc.). In the absence of this dynamics, most, if not all, of thebiodiversity of the mangrove ecosystem is comprised. A good mastering of thesilvicultural organization and its subsequent implementation will further enhancemangrove restoration projects. This manual will help ameliorate most of theseshortcomings and produce scientific monitoring mangrove endeavor.


Overview Cost of Restoration

Efforts have been made worldwide over the past decade by nationals and multina-tionals like UNDP-GEF, IUCN, ITTO-ISME, WWF, AMN, and CWCS (Cameroon)and KOMFFORA and WABSA (Gambia) to reverse mangrove loss through anumber of restoration projects and initiatives and other research programs. Everyrestoration project or initiative is unique and depends on conditions specific toindividual and the area to restore persuaded by its goal(s) and objective(s) and sois the costs of mangrove restoration (Lewis and Streever 2000), influenced by thetype of method involved and the species considered. Contrary to political, cultural,and economic priorities, restoration necessitates time (Alongi 2002). In an earlyreview of restoration of mangrove habitats, Lewis (2000) and Gilman and Ellison(2007) reported that the price of labor and the extent of necessary earthwork alsovividly affect the costs. Moreover, Lewis (op. cit.) noted that the price differs if it isthe private sector or government attempting mangrove restoration.

In Asia, for example, more precisely in Bangladesh and Vietnam, the World Bank(in 1990) funded projects worth US$ 81.4 million (35.8 billion Fr. CFA), with 39.1%and 60.9% for each country, respectively. Lewis (op. cit.) reported that eight projectsin Biscayne Bay, Florida, USA, ranged in cost from about US$ 5,300 to200,000 ha�1 (2.3–88 million Fr. CFA ha�1). While Karieva (2002) reported thatColumbia’s government spent over US$ 25 million (11 billion Fr. CFA) around theMagdalena River to restore the normal hydrology in model estuarine wetland andmangrove forests between 1995 and 1998. Recent tsunami-hit countries (India, SriLanka, Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia) spent US$ 4.5 million (2 billion Fr. CFA)to restore degraded coastal areas. Restoration of comparable areas of abandonedshrimp aquaculture ponds and tsunami-hit areas back to mangroves would takeabout 3 years and cost averagely US$ 9 million (4 billion Fr. CFA).

According the AMN (2014), in some West Africa countries especially in Benin,mangrove planting costs that include propagule collection and sell by the localcommunities and planting were estimated at up to 400,000 FCFA (US$ 8000)/haat rate of 16 (US$0.032) FCFA per propagule. Maintenance cost was estimated at100,000–125,000 FCFA per ha.

Techniques of Mangrove Planting

Preliminaries Mangrove Planting

Generally, a first thought that comes to our mind about mangrove restoration israising mangrove nursery and planting mangrove propagule or seedling in coast(Ellison 2012). These two methods have been used before in the tropics to restoremangrove-degraded areas (Ochsner 2001; Choudhury 1996; Clarke and Johns 2002;Lewis et al. 2006).

Natural regeneration: It uses naturally occurring mangrove propagules as thesource for regeneration by protecting the forest. The species composition of theareas depends on the species composition of the natural sources (wild seedling) of


the forest. Artificial regeneration: artificial regeneration of mangroves involves handplanting of desired propagules and saplings at the selected intertidal areas. It is animportant challenge to organize plantations in time when propagules are available inthe particular season.

As a matter of fact, mangrove replanting can use direct or indirect approaches.Mangrove “climate smart” species (Ellison 2012) specific to the area should be used,and this can either be Avicennia germinans or Rhizophora spp. for the Gambia, forexample. Direct approach of mangrove planting refers to the collection mangrovesseeds/propagules from a parental tree or floating, whereas in the indirect approachthere is an intermediary stage where the seed/propagules growth under control or notplant (equally wild seedling) before outplanting. It appears that direct seeding isparticularly effective in areas where waters (tides) are scarce or irregular (Ochsner2001) and are inaccessible permanently of periodically.

In reality, as promoted by MAP the method known as “Ecological MangroveRestoration” (MAP 2007; Lewis III and Brown 2014), there are several facts to beconsidered before we go into mangrove planting. These stages usually successes arestrongly linked to the cost available:

1. As mentioned in EMR techniques, we need to find the reason for existingmangrove degradation in the project site.

2. Discuss with local communities to know their interest in mangrove restoration,and explain how it would benefit them both economically and ecologically. Notethat failure to get community interest in the project will not lead to successfulproject impacts.

3. Develop a community-based work plan to remove the threats to natural man-groves (assess modifications to hydrology or added stress) (Ellison 2012).

4. Restore natural water circulatory systems (select the replanting site based ontechnical, political, social, and economic considerations).

5. Restore natural seed sources (if the threats to natural adult mangrove trees areremoved, then it will be very easy to get enough seeds/seedlings).

6. Go for nursery raising and plantation if it is necessary. However, in developingcountries, mangrove nursery plays an important role to bind community partic-ipation in mangrove restoration activities such as backyard nursery.

Whatever the approach used in regenerating mangrove-degraded areas, there isneed for the involvement of the local communities and the government departmentsince restoration (Fig. 4) is not just manipulation of one aspect (Moudingo 2010,Ellison 2012; Lewis III and Brown 2014). Hence, curbing the pressure from localwill influence the dynamics of mangrove forests that surround these areas (Ajonina2008). The process of mangrove replanting is usually involving communities asshown in the chart below. Apart from the six points mentioned, monitoring and datasharing are inclusive and important to the success of mangrove restoration ingeneral.


7. Monitor, evaluate, and reporting of progress of nursery/replanting activities.8. Share and disseminate information and experience. A monitoring report is pro-

duced, its content and findings (lessons learnt and best practices) shared with keystakeholders.

Pro and Cons of the Direct Planting

Advocates of natural regeneration argue that such silvicultural systems are more intune with the natural indigenous forest ecologies (FAO 1994). The pros and cons ofnatural versus artificial regeneration are described in Table 2 (FAO 1994; Ochsner2001; Primavera et al. 2012).

Seed/ propagules

material (A)

Preparation of nursery bags

Sensitization, capacity building and organization of model village orcommunities to uphold mangrove replanting is the site selected

Nursery constructionand pseudo-bed

Seed selection

Storing seeds(temporary)

Gathering mud

Removing debris

Potting mud in nursery bags and transport to shade

Site selection

Shade construction

Making pseudo -bed, water facility, poles for keeping the nursery bags

Potting of propagules/seeds

Nursing

Monitoring (diseases, diameter, etc.)

Outplanting and field monitoring

Selection of seedlings

Seed collection

Direct seeding

Fig. 4 Chart of possible stages toward direct or indirect mangrove replanting. (Adapted Moudingo2010)


Seeding or Planting Mangrove Method

Site PreparationWith the decision made following a meeting with the communities, the selected siteto be prepared will depend on previous use of the area and the method of seeding.Take note to remove any identified disturbances in site. Consult the calendars toselect a suitable date and time.

Species, Seeds/Propagule CollectionIn the Gambia, among the six true species, there is one main species (Rhizophoraspp., red mangrove) used for mangrove restoration in the Gambia. Other mangrovespecies like Avicennia germinans (black mangrove) and Laguncularia racemosa(white mangrove) still have to be tested under such a scheme. However, there areanother species that needs to be equally mentioned because it is found dispersedalong the coast – Conocarpus erectus (buttonwood). For restoration purposes onlythe red mangrove is usually used. Preference should be equally placed on the blackmangrove because once establishes, it creates conditions for most of the mangrovespecies to grow in the area. Mindful of the limited number of seeds and/or propa-gules produces seasonally by mangrove species, passive restoration can be consid-ered Useful to the ecosystem. Therefore, protecting mangrove degraded site fromany disturbance can favor establishment and growth of propagules into seedling/sapling them maturing into adult tree. This type of seed or propagules is termed

Table 2 Advantages and disadvantages of direct seeding

Advantages of direct seeding Disadvantages of direct seeding

Establishment cost is low as there are nonursery and planting expensesTransport is much cheaper; normally the seednecessary for a truck-full of nursery plants canfit into the glove compartment of a normal caror boatBetter root development and avoidance oftransplanting shock, which is common fornursery-raised seedlings that are transplantedfrom the sheltered nursery to the harshenvironment of the planting siteTree seed can be sown at the same time as anagricultural crop. Usually minimum of 4 yearsDirect seeding will normally ensure moreplants per unit area, which through naturalselection or selective thinning can result in astand of better qualityLarge areas or inaccessible areas such as mudflats or swamps can be seeded from the air ormoderate tidesCertain species and sites are not suitable fornursery production. Suitable for both seafrontand abandoned ponds

Normally more seed is required to stock anarea sufficiently, mainly because seeds are lostto seed predators or tidal waves or erosion. Ifseed of a desired species is scarce, it will bemore advantageous to raise plants in a nurseryfor later transplanting, for example, Avicenniasp.Tree density is more difficult to control andmonitorToo high may require early thinning, whereastoo low density may require additional seedingor plantingSeedlings are better protected in the nurseryfrom hazards like fire, pests, livestock, etc.It is easier to discover and control pests anddiseases in the nursery


wildings. The following are descriptions of the mangrove species recommended forpropagation in the nursery:

The red mangrove is an evergreen tree, which grows to about 25 m in height and40 cm in diameter at breast height. A single seed germinates inside the conical fruitforming a long narrow first root (radicle), which is green except for the brownenlarged and pointed end up to 1.25 cm in diameter. It can grow up to 30 cm inlength before it gets detached from the mother tree and falls. The root systemsstabilize the trees and act as a first line of defense against wave action, in line with itsposition on the seaward edge of the system. The species normally grows in softmuddy soils along sheltered river banks and estuarine margins. Flowering andfruiting occurs during the entire year (Hussain 1990).

The black mangrove is the most important and dominant mangrove species in theopen mud flats of the Gambia. It is tolerant to high saline conditions and the treegrows in the form of isolated groups or woodland formations. The tree is fairly largeand may grow up to 10–15 m in height and 20–40 cm in diameter at breast height.The species flowers and fruits all year round. This species regenerates and coppiceswell and can be managed under a coppice system (Hussain 1990).

Propagules are produced at any time of the year. However, it was the most prolificproduction commences in early September and may be available for 3 months. Thefirst ripe seeds of the season are the best. The earlier they are picked, the better thechances for the new plant, as this gives the longest optimal conditions for growthduring the period of warm weather ensuring good sized, sturdy young seedlingsready for planting time. For Avicennia sp. the best time to pick the seed is when theyare slightly yellow and fat. Small seeds will produce small plants. Fallen seeds areokay to be collected, but if they are starting to germinate, take care not to damage thefragile roots. Shaking the trees can make ripe seeds fall. A plastic bucket will holdabout 2,000 seeds.

It is important to note that during this period, there are also many unripe seedswhich do not come off the branches easily. While it is tempting to gather as many aspossible, it is a waste of time to pick small or unripe seeds as they will not germinate.They will simply go black and eventually rot. Small seeds produce smaller plants.

Need for Mangrove NurseriesMangrove seedlings can be grown in the nursery in black or white plastic biode-gradable bags. These containers hold the soil and the seeds/propagules together andallow water to drain from them. Usually the nursery is constructed in situ where it isaccessible and tides are favorable. Seedlings grown in these containers have strongerand healthier root systems. The natural availability of seeds and propagules some-times does not coincide with the timing of replanting of degraded areas. Hence, theseedlings raised in the nursery can be used for planting in degraded areas in theabsence of natural planting material.

The survival rate of nursery-raised seedlings in restoration areas is high comparedto the direct planting of seeds/propagules (Ravishankar and Ramasubramanian2004). This is due to the fact that nursery-raised seedlings have a well-establishedroot system before being transplanted in the degraded areas.


Seed Preparation and OutplantingFollowing the flowchart above, outplanting uses either propagule planting or seed-ling/sapling planting (Ellison 2012; Lewis and Brown 2014) especially throughnursery plan (Selvam et al. 2005).• Nursery Practices for Different Species In Situ

Nursery techniques differ from one species to another, depending on the salttolerance level and the ecological zone. In the following pages, guidelines thatshould be followed for each species are described.(a) Avicennia germinans – Local name: Black mangrove

Selection and Processing of the Seeds• Mature fruits should be selected and checked for insect borers.• Seeds should be placed in brackish water overnight to remove the seed

coats. This treatment reduces the establishment time by 2–3 days.• Seeds should be placed in damp jute bags until the roots and shoot appear.Sowing into Nursery Containers• For nursery established in situ the tides favors potted soil peaty and

seedlings growth. No hardening of the soil is required.• The radicle (root) part of the seeds must be gently pushed 2 cm inside the

soft mud.• Use goo substrate to pot seedling.IrrigationNursery and its shade should be put in the tidal zone for salt water at leasttwice a day. Studies show that Avicennia has the best survival at high tidalsites owing to its tolerance of higher salinities (Ellison 2012).Pest and Disease ControlCaterpillars and crabs may be the major pests for mangroves in the nursery inthe Gambia. Damping off fungal disease may affect very young seedlings.This can be treated with one of the recommended fungicides.Selection of Nursery Seedlings for Outplanting

The recommended specifications of the seedling areas are follows:1. Height: 30–35 cm2. No. of leaves: at least four to six3. Duration in nursery: 3 months4. The germination period: 5–8 days

(b) Rhizophora mangle – Local name: Red mangroveCollection of PropagulesHealthy and mature propagules should be collected from the tidal zones,handpick or using fishing nets and baskets. Mature propagules of Rhizophoramangle are pale green to yellow.Selection and Processing of PropagulesHealthy propagules should be selected and checked for insect borers. Thepropagules should then be planted immediately in the polythene bags. In caseof storing, the seeds should be kept in the shade for 1–2 days, without beingexposed to direct sunlight.Sowing into Nursery Containers


Polythene bags filled with mud should be prepared. The hypocotyls (root) ofthe propagule should be inserted to a depth of about 7–8 cm in the bags. Insome cases small sticks are to be tied to the hypocotyl to provide support.IrrigationTidal water usually flows in twice daily.Pest and Disease ControlSame like for Avicennia sp.Selection of Seedlings for OutplantingThe recommended specifications of the seedlings areas are follows:1. Height: 35 cm2. No. of leaves: four to six leaves3. Duration in the nursery: 3 months4. The germination period: 20 days

• Direct: Seeding or Propagule Planting (Sowing the Propagules)Rhizophora spp. propagules can be sown by hand into the mud at most 2/3 of thepropagule. Usually, radicals are pushed gently into soft mud to about 5–8 cm deepdepending on the Rhizophora species. The seeds are placed more exactly in theground where it is expected to grow. Interval between and within row is 2 � 2 m(ideal for monitoring) based on management objective.

Manual method is dibbling, where a small hand tool is used to punch a hole inthe muddy ground into which the seedling or saplings are placed. Dibbling iscommonly used where there is little competition from weeds and when the soil isnot too muddy.

Aftercare OperationsIntensive care should be given to the young seedlings in a plantation for the first2–3 years. The following aspects are appropriate to be taken care of to establish asuccessful mangrove plantation.

Algal growth All algae (seaweeds) that are entangled with the transplanted seedlings/propagules should be removed by hand during low tide to reduce seedlingmortalityEffect of algae can also be prevented by using seedlings that are 1–2 yearsold, so that their leaves would be held above water level

Siltation Silt may get deposited on leaves of the seedlings (if they get flooded withtide), and subsequently gastropods (mollusks) may damage the leaves. Thisdamage can be avoided by using 1–2-year-old seedlings

Predation Plants predated by crabs or cattle should be replaced. Planting propagules inthe hollow of a piece of bamboo or PVC pipe, for example, will keep thecrabs out of reach of the delicate parts of the seedling that are eaten by crabs

Cattle grazing Planted area should be demarcated with a mesh/barbed wire/bamboo fence tokeep the cattle and goats away. Regular patrolling the area for presence ofcattle

Erosion Mud flats that can experience erosion with tidal water movement can bestabilized first with an appropriate species of grass that can consolidate themud before planting the seedlings

Humanintervention

Community should be educated of the importance of restoration efforts andshould be made part of the team of monitors/protectors


Steps in Planting Mangrove: What You Need to Know About Rhizophoraspp.1. Community, sensitization, and organization

Organization is key to mangrove replanting. This activity most have leader technically empowered to arrange the villagers including men, women and children into propagule sorter and porter groups, some for the layout outplanting lines while the majority are drilled to sow the propagules in the designated site.

Best field practices include taking drinking water to the field and identifyingcontainers and bags to usefor the transportation of propagule.

Our mangrove needs you!Please follow these

orientations

2. Site selection for Rhizophora planting

The choice of area should be where mangrove already grow before (or have already pushed). Be careful mangrove don’t strive on any kind of soil.

This area is acceptable


Site selection-Continue)

The area must be submerged at least twice a day: at each high tide, including during neap tides in the dry season

It should be sandy or compacted

Good substrat

Tide is down! Please! Record

the time

Oh no! This soil is sandy.

Anyway if hydrologic channel are restored and the area protected wilding spread

and colonize this area


3. Tides and demarcate the area for replanting activities

This should be done at the end of the dry season, when the tidal coefficient is lower (that is to say when the moon appears in the sky has half).

The area waits until the tide is highest and plant stakes on thislimit.

This will help you be sure that the seedlings that you plant will be immersed each high tide, even during the harshest periods of the dry season.

Water movement is very important to the survival of mangroves, in nutrients are brought into the system by tides and its current even upstream flows

Tide entrance

Highest Tide

Tide withdrawal

Suitable tidal elevation !

Do the moon play a role in

tide fluctuation!

Yes! The tides follow the moon

more closely than the sun do


4. Propagules harvest, collection, and storage

Please don't pick up those

eaten by crabs

Warning!!!

Once harvest is completed, if the propagules cannot be transplanted the same day, the rest is kept in a bag close the top and the bags must be stored well especially under a shad where sea water reaches.

The team made off the youth should collect maximum propagules parental tree. Others collect those fallen to the ground or floating or easily accessible.

Care must be taken to choose the best propagules, the most mature, and least damaged and store carefully in a horizontal bags, not damaging them.


5. Sorting of propagules

NO NO NOYes Yes

It's time for replanting!

Take the path to the replanting site to join the team on site. Equip yourself with either buckets or basins; they will serve to transport propagules which will be sorted.

Once the bags are emptied, the team selects the best sorters of propagules then uncaps the propagules to update the small bud that grows up once planted

Key noteWorking in small groups of 10 to 15 people with a team leader. There can be many of these small groups with an overseer, and this will allow you to be much more effective if you are too large.


6. Demarcated line set for outplanting of propagules

Two method can be implored. Each zone can create its own strategy to mark the soiland plant. But here are some tips.

Please! Let us move in a

straight line toavoid

irregularity spacing in the

plantation then a step

forward then plant

a

b

The first (the cons-a) is to put a team down on the field with a guide to move on a straight line to plant. The actors are separated by 2 meters.

The second method is the most accurate. It will allow you to accurately assess the number of trees planted.

Seedling will need room to grow well. So avoid planting too tight propagules. It is recommended to plant 5 000 plants per hectare (ideal 2 meter x 2 meter).

The area is to mark the soil before planting.

Get yourself a rope and tie pieces of cloth every 2 meters.

Pull the cord and move towards established direction of the area reforested.

Please mark baseline with the aid of a stick. .

Two method can be implored. Each zone can create its own strategy to mark the soiland plant. But here are some tips.


7. Outplanting of seedlings

Planting should done timely because the tide will soon raise and propagules must be planted. With the propagules in the hand or in a bag, planters moving in the predetermining lines inserts the propagules not more 2/3 and progresses through the mud built along the predetermining lines.

KOMFORA trial of Rhizophora mangle outplanting at Bintang Bolon


8. Aftercare for seedling and saplings in the field

When the area is replanted, it is important to return regularly see the growth of young mangroves. Every 2 to 3 months, team (5-10 personnel), should tour the area and take stock of survival.

Living sapling with 103 leaves, 4

branches

Vigorous seedling!

WABSA trial of R. mangle plantation in the Nuimi National Park


Mangrove Health Monitoring and Evaluation

Concept of Monitoring and Evaluation: Why Monitoring?

There is distinction between monitoring and evaluation (Tuxill and Nabhan 1998;Davis-Case 1990). Monitoring refers to the regular collection and analysis ofinformation to determine whether or not activities are working and explain why(SNV 1997; Keddy 2010). Common factors to measure include water depth,dissolved nutrients, and number of calling amphibians or birds. The challenge inmonitoring is to choose the minimum number of variables that will produce themaximum amount of information (Keddy 2010). Monitoring is usually done atregular intervals (daily, weekly, or seasonally) so that over a cumulative time period(a month, a year, or longer), trends in a particular situation become evident andmeasurable. Without monitoring, it is impossible to be aware whether or notrestoration has occurred. Adaptive environmental assessment allows one to changethe restoration project while it is in progress to respond to unexpected events.

Evaluation is an opportunity for participants in a conservation effort to step back,review information, and look at whether their work has met the desirable goals andobjectives (Davis-Case 1990). It is chance to take stock of the effects, positive and/ornegative, expected and unexpected, created by the project actions and activities.Evaluation and monitoring are often part of the same process. For instance, theinformation obtained by monitoring the reproductive success of plant population canbe indispensable for evaluation management designed to maintain habitat favored bythe plant. Overall, evaluation tends to take place less frequently than monitoring,which is more of a continual process. Evaluation also offers an ideal opportunity fordebating and modifying the direction of a project or management effort or foraddressing problems that have arisen during implementation.

Usefulness of Monitoring

However academically interesting it is to know the status, characteristics, or healthof a particular natural ecosystem, monitoring is not usually an end in itself(Sriskanthan et al. 2008). It is a means to an end for better and more informedconservation and development decision-making. A key aim of carrying out moni-toring is to improve management practice and to ensure that it is well-informed by,and responsive to, the situation on the ground (Ellison 2012; Lewis and Brown2014).

In the case of the Gambia, there is no clear management plan sets specific tomangrove management and related environment issues, ranging from scientificinformation and research, through active management of species and ecosystems,to local participation in mangrove management. Monitoring can provide usefulinformation for planning and implementing all of these management decisions(Lewis and Brown 2014), including:


1. To record how the actual replanting compares to earlier designs. This is accom-plished through an as-built survey and a site and Time-Zero Monitoring Report,which provides a benchmark to assess change over time.

2. To quantify the recruitment, establishment, and early growth of mangroves in aninitial period after restoration (usually 2–5 years).

3. To identify, early on, potential issues inhibiting establishment of mangroveseedlings and to inform midcourse corrections.

4. To increase community involvement, knowledge, and understanding of the entirerestoration process.

5. To inform future management strategies of mangrove area (facilitating the for-mulation and the implementation of mangrove conservation legislation andpolicies based on the informations provided).

6. To contribute to international knowledge bank of restoration project successes,failures, and lessons learned.

7. To develop nature-based tourism.

Finally, it is important to ensure that monitoring is planned and budgeted at theonset of the project and is in line with project goals and that success criteria areclearly established to determine what aspects of a site must be measured.

Monitoring Levels

It is generally understood that there are two distinct types of monitoring: ecologicalmonitoring and performance monitoring (Abbot and Guijt 1998). Performancemonitoring refers to the assessment of management effectiveness, examining theoutputs of laws, policies, community initiatives, donor projects, and spatial planning.Performance monitoring is thus linked inextricably to socioeconomic aspects andimpacts of mangrove management. Most mangrove restoration initiative don’tinform sufficiently both the perception of communities and the success rate ofmangrove replanting so far. For the Gambian mangrove monitoring, incorporatingperformance aspects into our monitoring system (is recommended) involves consid-ering factors such as local perceptions to mangrove conservation and restoration,community participation and management, revenues, and institutional arrangements.In many cases, the mere numbers of propagules or seedlings planted are consideredindicators of success. Yet subsequent investigation demonstrates that very few plantshave survived because either the site or species selection has been inappropriate andlimited community participation. Hence, possible pathway for mangrove restorationand monitoring with community involvement should be ensured and will in due costand time combine scientific (calculation of survival rate) or simple (visible healthproblem, indigenous knowledge is strongly used) methods.


Monitoring Techniques

Techniques on mangrove monitoring stand dynamics have been reviewed, tested,and proposed (Ajonina 2008; Ellison 2007, 2012; Ellison et al. 2012; Lewis andBrown 2014).

Ecological MonitoringFirst Approach – Transect-/quadrat-based survey recording mangrove locations,species zones, mangrove condition, and identifying pressures. This is quick to doand is a suitable exercise for capacity building with community groups.

Second Approach – Vegetation plots in each zone recording community struc-ture, height and diameter of trees, and density of seedlings. This takes about a dayper transect and is better carried out by project staff, though can be done withcommunity groups assisting.

The two different approaches build upon each other, hence rather than beingalternatives. You can start with the first and then add in second as capacity andexperience builds in the team or country.

According to Primevera et al. (2012), there are four steps to set up a fixed quadratwhere growth rate and survival rate are calculated. These include:

• Step A – Plant an area at least 100 m2 with mangrove seedlings and make a noteof the date.

• Step B – Measure a 100 m2 plot within your planted area which may be square(10 � 10 m) or rectangular (20 � 5 m) depending on the planted area. If the areahas varying substrate, elevation, etc., set up more than one quadrat in these micro-sites.

• Step C – Permanently mark the plot by inserting bamboo or wooden poles buried~1 m deep in each of the four corners. This will then give a permanent referencearea for monitoring. If available, take a GPS reference point of the quadrat, or usepermanent local landmarks or features to reference the plot.

• Step D – Through briefings with the community, ensure that no undocumented orad hoc replacement planting is undertaken within the quadrat as this will distortthe results.

Monitoring EquipmentAccording to Ellison (2012), many equipments are used to collect data. Theseinclude:

(i). PVC or other durable stakes to mark plot corners(ii). Small metric tape measures (e.g., sewing tape measures) with mm intervals(iii). Numbered aluminum tree tags (may be available at a forestry department)(iv). Aluminum, stainless steel, or brass nails of 4–5 cm length(v). Hammers(vi). Metal wire or heavy-duty cable ties(vii). Wire cutters (if metal wire is used)


(viii). Extending surveyor’s staff (can be borrowed from a survey department)(ix). Handheld GPS(x). Pencils and copies of data sheets (in Appendix)(xi). Clipboard(xii). 30–50 m measuring tape (open reel is best in mangrove mud)(xiii). Magnetic compass(xiv). Copies of aerial photos of the area – if possible(xv). Brightly colored flagging tape(xvi). Personal safety gear(xvii). Good and high-resolution camera

Monitoring can be done at the level of the nursery and the plantation within thetechnical capability and resources of some trained local monitoring teams, thoughinterpretation of results can be challenging (Primavera et al. 2012). An expert can beof assistance. The primary objective of communities involved in mangrove rehabil-itation projects is to conduct the most resource-effective approaches to start gainingthe resource benefits from recovered mangrove forests.

• At the nursery level

Existing nurseries and their surface area, survival rates (%), nursery stock (num-ber of leaves, number of branches, etc.) – seedlings per species; digital photo). At thenursery monitoring is usually done after three weekly or monthly.

• At the plantation level

Parameters to know will include planted or reforested area, survival rates (%),alongside post-planting activities – beating-up, thinning etc. existing nurseries,nursery stock – seedlings per species; digital photo) and stand dynamics – at thestage the monitoring is done after 6 � 2 months in the first years and once after2 years. The results can be compared to that of the permanent sample plots (PSPs)later.

Steps to Calculate Survival Rate (SRt)

• Step A: Count the total number of plants within your quadrat on the day it isestablished. This initial number will serve as the baseline for your future analyses.

• Step B: Return to the site, make a note of the date, and calculate how many days ithas been since your last visit.

• Step C: Count all of the surviving plants within your quadrat.• Step D: Calculate the survival rate of all plants.

(Number of survivors/initial number of seedling) � 100 = survival rate (%)


• Step E: Repeat steps B–D every time you monitor your quadrat.

Steps to Calculate Growth Rate (GRt)

• Step 1: Select at least 30 plants at random (meaning do not choose a particular sizeor characteristic, e.g., tallest, smallest) within your quadrat, and measure theirheight on the day the quadrat is established. This initial height (H1) will act as thebaseline for your future analyses. Using your meter stick and/or measuring tape,measure the height from ground level to the highest bud (not the tip of leaves) ofthe tallest branch; straighten out plants that are bent (by the weight of algae)before measuring to ensure the tip of the stem is measured. For plants with deadbranches, measure up to the living portion.

• Step 2: Return to the site, make a note of the date, and calculate how many days ithas been since your last visit.

• Step 3: Select another 30 plants at random (they do not have to be the same plantsas in step 1) within your quadrat and measure their height (H2) as described instep 1.

• Step 4: Calculate the growth rate as follows: (H2– H1)/ H1 � 100 = growth rate(%)

• Step 5: Repeat steps 2–4 every time you monitor your quadrat.

Equally, other parameters can be calculated; these include the number of leaves,number of nodes and nodal distance, and the number of pneumatophores or stilt rootalive or dead, and document first flowering and fruiting events.

Picture MonitoringThis involves keeping photographic data of image taken periodically from this sameinitially chosen vantage point (geo-referenced or marked point) located in theplantation toward the same direction. Such data gathered from the images orphotographs convey visibly and convincingly changes or evolution in the plantation.A good high-resolution camera is often needed for such activity.

Socioeconomic MonitoringIt is good to assess the change of community perception on the restoration seedissues especially through planting methodologies (focus or target group discussions,combined checklist/data sheet, questionnaire, and key informant interviews). Ques-tionnaire, for example, can assess the participation of the locals.

Cost and Expenditure MonitoringThe financial report of the project should be able to state and provide the trends ofexpenditures per activity per stage. Record keeping should be aligned with activityfor easy analyses. Hence, sections like outplanting activity and plantation mainte-nance (1 year) further break down into activities that can be used within the report.Total costs are lower if the community provides labor (transportation becomesminimal) and higher if protective fence is added.


Data Management, Analysis, and Presentation

The collection of data is only one step in the process of using information collectedfrom the field to influence management (Ellison 2012). Data storage and analysismust be carried out in a timely manner in order to ensure that it remains relevant anduseful. Furthermore, careful thought must go into the process of disseminating theinformation generated in the right form and to the right people, so as to ensure thatmonitoring information will be utilized in the most effective manner (Sriskanthanet al. 2008).

RecordingMaintaining accurate records is one of the most important activities in the nursery.Accurate records can help save the nursery unnecessary spending and assist youmaking your nursery well-organized. A daily report (activities) is a useful tool thatassists in record keeping and should have the following information (Table 3).

The record keeping can take many forms and should be simple and easilyunderstood by the nursery operator. This will further assist with the planning processof nursery management.

Data StorageAll original data inputted should be stored in an acceptable format such as Excel. Theideal timeframe is within 2 weeks of collecting the data. It is important to ensure thatthe names of the recorders are also inputted, so that any potential queries about thedata can be directed to the correct person.

For example, for image files (i.e., digital photos), the names should be in a waythat allows easy reference, including a description of what the photo is depicting, thedate the photo was taken and a location reference if possible.

Example 1File name: Rh_man_15apr08_SQ3Information: Rhizophora mangle, 15 September 2014, strip quadrat 3Example 2File name: plntd_seedlings_01jan14_nursInformation: planted seedlings 01January14, nursery

Table 3 Record keeping information needed

Activities Financial Planning

Species plantedSeed sourceDate seed sownGermination dateDate of pest or diseaseattackNumber of seedlingsDate seedling outplantedand location

Dates money was spentAmount spentPurpose for spending (labor,materials, equipment)

Number of seedlings tobe suppliedAmount of seeds neededAmount of labor neededNumber of bags required


Final monitoring reports containing all photos and original data files in excelformat should therefore be stored in a CD and hard copy accordingly.

Data Analysis and IntegrationIt is recommended that a person with experience in socioeconomic and ecologicaldata analysis should be tasked with processing and analyzing the inputted data.

A final report should be generated after each monitoring exercise, which inte-grates socioeconomic and ecological aspects of the monitoring, describes the statusand trends in all the measured indicators, and discusses the potential implications ofany changes.

Changes observed from the baseline (either negative or positive) over the partic-ular time period should be identified and measured. If necessary, comparisons can bemade with one period to another period to understand the specific trends of changes.This will help managers to change their management strategies according to theresults.

Based on the analysis of the monitoring data, management recommendationsshould be made. This step should be completed within 3 months of data collection toensure that the information generated is valid and useful for site-level managers.

Sharing and Disseminating InformationOnce monitoring reports are produced at a certain frequency (monthly, quarterly,biennially, or annually), it is suggested that its contents and findings should be sharedwith key stakeholders, for example, to:

• The institutions or authorities in charge of the management of the environmentand mangrove issues

• The ministries in charge of environment, forestry, agriculture, water, etc.• The mangrove custodian and bordered community involved• The private sector tour operators and hoteliers bringing visitors to the Gambia• The field recorders that were not involved in the analysis stage

Care should be taken to ensure that monitoring information quickly and effec-tively reaches the individuals who are responsible for management decisions. Indoing so, decision policy-makers will devise best management strategy for theGambia mangrove ecosystem and ensure that management approach is both adaptiveand reactive to any changes which are taking place or lessons learned that aregenerated. Sharing information in a transparent manner to the larger communityand associated field recorders encourages ownership and interest in management andmonitoring activities.


Conclusion and Way Forward in Mangrove Restorationin the Gambia

With the projected sea increase alongside anthropogenic activities, the Gambiamangroves are progressively degrading and losing it services. Ongoing efforts byindividual, NGOs, the Gambia government, and donors geared to reverse this trendare done by replanting mangrove. Most of these trials proved to be limited andincomplete in terms of silvicultural practices by local stakeholder.

Hence, this manual demonstrated the different approaches based on scientific andlearning-by-doing approaches in streamlining mangrove conservation for the Gam-bia vision by 2020. Moreover, in the cause of the production of this manual across anumber of sites where available, mangrove restoration is presented in Fig. 5, so as tofurther demonstrate the practical use of these approaches in the Gambia.

The following recommendations can be made:

• Testing and improvement of the manual. There is need for wide testing anddocumentation of the experience from the documentation of this manual pointingout its strengths and weakness geared toward better improvement from whichrevised versions can be produced to integrate such gaps.

• Complementing efforts from both PSPs and plantation monitoring schemes.There is a need to complement monitoring efforts from both natural and artificialplantations in order to ascertain responses of both system to anthropogenicpressures and impacts.

• Involvement of the universities and research institutes in monitoring. Asobserved during participatory site surveys for PSP location and selection ofrestoration sites, there was a conspicuous absence of these important groups of

Nursery Beds

Connected to creek

Foot path

Nursery Beds

Irrig

atio

n ca

nal

Dra

inag

e ca

nal

10 m

.

1 m

Fig. 5 Mangrove nurserylayout (Selvam et al. 2005)


stakeholders in monitoring efforts yet being custodians of knowledge productionand discussion for science and technological development; their involvement atvarious stages of project and program implementation cannot be overemphasized.

• Promoting data sharing for better decision-making and green planningprocesses. To this end data collected form of PSPs and planted plantation shouldcontinually be collected and reported. There is equally the need to promote dataand information sharing from these monitoring efforts in order to fit in decision-making processes for the better planning and implementation of projects andprograms toward sustainable management geared, enhancing the steady flow ofecosystem services, for improved livelihoods and poor reduction and generalgreen economic growth.

Cross-References

▶An assessment of the environmental impacts of oil and coal▶Environmental impact assessment of Biogas Exposure▶ Impact of Climate Change and Land Use Change Scenarios onWater Resources inTha Chin River Basin: A case study of Suphan Buri Prrovince, Thailand

▶ Integrated Assessment of Environmental Factors: Risks to Human Health▶Landscape Rehabilitation in Disturbed Areas▶Life-Cycle Assessment of Construction Materials: Analysis of EnvironmentalImpacts and Recommendations of Eco-Efficient Management Practices

▶Major Environmental Issues and Problems▶Monitoring and Risk Analysis of PAHs in the Environment▶ Performance Evaluation of Global Environmental Impact Assessment Methodsthrough a Comparative Analysis of Legislative and Regulatory Provisions

▶ Soil Pollution and Remediation▶Wastewater Management to Environmental Materials Management

Appendix 1 Principles of Restoration (Prepared from USEPA 2000;Ajonina and Tata 2006)

Basic principles of restoration Description

Need for a national program and prioritiesfor wetland restoration

This should be established, based on a nationalinventory of wetlands with potential forrestoration, as a component of the nationalwetland policy, plan, or strategy, so as tomaximize the benefit to the overallconservation status and wise use of wetlands ofthe efforts and resources applied to wetlandrestoration

(continued)


http://link.springer.com/An assessment of the environmental impacts of oil and coal

http://link.springer.com/Environmental impact assessment of Biogas Exposure

http://link.springer.com/Impact of Climate Change and Land Use Change Scenarios on Water Resources in Tha Chin River Basin: A case study of Suphan Buri Prrovince, Thailand

http://link.springer.com/Impact of Climate Change and Land Use Change Scenarios on Water Resources in Tha Chin River Basin: A case study of Suphan Buri Prrovince, Thailand

http://link.springer.com/Integrated Assessment of Environmental Factors: Risks to Human Health

http://link.springer.com/Landscape Rehabilitation in Disturbed Areas

http://link.springer.com/Life-Cycle Assessment of Construction Materials: Analysis of Environmental Impacts and Recommendations of Eco-Efficient Management Practices

http://link.springer.com/Life-Cycle Assessment of Construction Materials: Analysis of Environmental Impacts and Recommendations of Eco-Efficient Management Practices

http://link.springer.com/Major Environmental Issues and Problems

http://link.springer.com/Monitoring and Risk Analysis of PAHs in the Environment

http://link.springer.com/Performance Evaluation of Global Environmental Impact Assessment Methods through a Comparative Analysis of Legislative and Regulatory Provisions

http://link.springer.com/Performance Evaluation of Global Environmental Impact Assessment Methods through a Comparative Analysis of Legislative and Regulatory Provisions

http://link.springer.com/Soil Pollution and Remediation

http://link.springer.com/Wastewater Management to Environmental Materials Management


Need for clear understanding and statementof goals, objectives, and performancestandards

Should be taken as an element of nationalplanning for wetland conservation and wiseuse. If a project hopes to promote a return topre-disturbance conditions, this should bestated as part of the project goals, with moredetailed information on exactly how toincorporate restoration into project objectives

Need for careful planning at all stages This will limit the possibility of undesirableside effects. For example, careful planning canallow restoration projects to avoid problemssuch as increased numbers of mosquitoes,unwanted flooding, or saltwater intrusion intosources of drinking water. To assist inplanning, an assessment should be made of thefeatures of the site under consideration and thefactors that may affect its feasibility andsuccess

Maintaining natural processes Natural processes and existing conditionsshould be considered during project selection,design, and development. To the extent that ispossible, ecological engineering principlesshould be applied in preference to methodsrequiring hard structures or extensiveexcavation. Maintenance and conservation ofexisting wetlands is always preferable andmore economical than their subsequentrestoration. Moreover currently availablerestoration techniques almost never lead toconditions that match those of pristine naturalecosystems. As a corollary to this, tradinghigh-quality habitat or ecosystems forpromises of restoration should be avoidedexcept in the case of overriding nationalinterests. However, restoration of individualsites can contribute to ongoing management ofexisting high-quality wetlands by, for example,improving overall catchment condition andcontributing to improved water allocationmanagement

Scale of wetland restoration planning Whenever possible, the minimum acceptablescale for wetland restoration planning shouldbe at the catchment level. Individual, relativelysmall restoration projects targeting a singlewetland can be valuable provided that they areplanned within the context of the catchment.Wetland restoration planning should not ignorethe value of upland habitats and linkagesbetween upland and wetland habitats. Wetlandrestoration planning should consider waterallocation principles and the role thatrestoration can play in maintaining ecologicalfunctions of wetlands

(continued)



Stakeholders’ participation Wetland restoration should be an open processthat involves local community stakeholders aswell as stakeholders who will be affected by aproject even though they may begeographically distant from the project, forexample, stakeholders living well downstream.All stakeholders, including local communitiesand indigenous people and sectoral interestsboth in situ and ex situ, should be fullyinvolved in a wetland restoration project fromits earliest stage of consideration through itsimplementation to its long-term stewardship

Long-term stewardship and monitoring Restoration requires long-term stewardship,including ongoing management andmonitoring. Successful restoration should bedesigned, as far as possible, for self-maintenance, but it also generally requires aconstituency that understands the need forlong-term stewardship, the resources requiredto support this stewardship, and a commitmentto delivering this stewardship. Development ofincentive measures can make a valuablecontribution to the long-term success of arestoration project

Indigenous traditional knowledge Wetland restoration planning shouldincorporate, where practicable, knowledge ofthe traditional resource management thatcontributed to shaping the landscape.Incorporation of traditional environmentalknowledge, management, and sustainableharvesting practices by local people should bean integral component of restoration

Adaptive management The principles of adaptable managementshould be applied to restoration projects. As aproject develops, modifications may benecessary to accommodate unforeseendevelopments and take advantage of newlyacquired knowledge or resources. Anymodifications should be designed in the lightof evaluation of the project against itsestablished goals, objectives, and performancestandards

Disseminate success stories Successful restoration projects can provideinspiration and stimulus for continuingstakeholder involvement and for thedevelopment of further projects and programs.Information on proposals for, and the resultsand successes of, a restoration project shouldbe widely disseminated both in scientific andtechnical fora and as popular informationaccessible to stakeholders

(continued)



Awareness generation Restoration interventions should be coupledwith measures to raise awareness and influencethe behaviors and practices that led to thedegradation of the ecosystem, in order toensure that the causes, as well as the effects, ofdegradation are addressed. These actionsprovide a further mechanism for landowners,resource users, and surrounding communitiesto be drawn into restoration projects

References

Abbot J, Guijt I (1998) Changing views on change: participatory approaches to monitoring andevaluation, SARL discussion paper no. 2. International Institute for Environment and Develop-ment, London

Ajonina GN (2008) Inventory and modelling mangrove forest stands dynamics following differentlevels of wood exploitation pressure in the Douala-Edea Atlantic Coast of Cameroon. PhDthesis, Faculty of Forestry and Environmental Sciences, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, 215p

Ajonina GN, Tata TF (2006) Wetland assessment, planning, management and monitoring in Africa.Draft Report, African Development Bank (PSDU). (In press) 67p

Alongi D M (2002) Present state and future of the world’s mangrove forests. EnvironmentalConservation 29: 331–349

AMN (2009) Newsletter of African Mangrove Network. www.mangrove-africa.netBos D, Grigoras I, Ndiaye A (2006) Land cover and avian biodiversity in rice fields and mangroves

of West Africa. A&W-report 824. Altenburg & Wymenga, ecological research, Veenwouden.Wetlands International, Dakar

CBD (2006) The Gambia: Third national report. Banjul, The Gambia. 145pp (https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/gm/gm-nr-03-en.pdf retrieved September 2014)

Choudhury JK (1996) Mangrove Forest management: mangrove rehabilitation and managementproject in Sulawesi, pp 297

Clarke A, Johns L (2002) Mangrove nurseries: construction, propagation and planting: fisheriesguidelines, Department of Primary Industries, Queensland, Fish Habitat Guideline FHG004, p 32

Davis-Case D (1990) The community toolbox: the idea, the method and tools for communityforestry field manual 2. FAO/UN, Rome

Ellison JC (2007) Manual for mangrove monitoring in the pacific islands region: monitoringchanges in mangrove condition. Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Program,Apia, p 37

Ellison JC (2012) Climate change vulnerability assessment and adaptation planning for mangrovesystems. World Wildlife Fund (WWF), Washington, DC

Ellison JC et al (2012) Manual for mangrove monitoring: in the Pacific Islands region. Secretariat ofthe pacific regional environmental Programme (SPREP), Apia, p 53

Evans J (1982) Plantation forestry in the tropics. ELBS Clarendon Press, Oxford. 472ppFAO (1994) Mangrove forest Management guidelines. Forest Service Department of Agriculture

and the FAO forestry department, paper 117, RomeFeller C-I, Sitnik M (1996) Mangrove ecology: a manual for a field course. Washington,

Smithsonian institution, 135 pFrazier S (1996) An overview of World’s Ramsar Sites. Wetlands International Publication 39. 58pp


www.mangrove-africa.net

https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/gm/gm-nr-03-en.pdf

https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/gm/gm-nr-03-en.pdf

Gilman E, Ellison J (2007) Efficacy of Alternative Low-cost Approaches to Mangrove Restoration,American Samoa. Estuaries and Coasts 30 (4): 641–651

Howard GW, Matindi SW (2003) Les espèces étrangères envahissantes dans les zones, humides del’Afrique. Quelques IUCN Programme Régional de l’Afrique de l’Est. Nairobi, 15pp

Hussain MZ (1990) Restoration and expansion of the mangrove belt in Guyana. Technical paperno. 1. TCP/GUY/8953, FAO, Rome

Karieva P (2002) Colombia’s Model Wetland Restoration at Risk. TRENDS in Ecology andEvolution 17 (11): 500–501

Kathiresan K, Bingham B L (2001) Biology of Mangroves and Mangrove Ecosystems. Advances inMarine Biology 40:81–251.

Keddy P (2010) Wetland ecology: principles and conservation, 2nd edn. Cambridge UniversityPress, Cambridge, pp 365–387

Letouzey R (1968) Etude phytogeographique du Cameroun. Edition Paul Chevalier, Paris, 511ppLewis R R, Streever B (2000) “Restoration of mangrove habitat”WRP Technical Notes Collection.

U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, MS. 7 pLewis R R (2000) ‘Don’t forget wetland habitat protection and restoration for Florida’s fisheries’.

National Wetlands Newsletter 22(6): 9–20Lewis RR, Brown B (2014) Ecological mangrove rehabilitation (EMR): a field manual for practi-

tioners. Restoring Coastal Livelihoods Program, p. 151Lewis RR, Quarto A, Enright J, Corets E, Primavera J, Ravishankar T, Oswin DS, Djamaluddin R

(2006). Five steps to successful ecological restoration of mangroves. Mangrove Action Project/Yayasan Akar Rumput Laut, Yogyakarta, p 64

Maniatis D (2005) Retrospective study of the mangroves of the Tanbi Wetland Complex, TheGambia. M. Sc. Thesis, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Technology, Vrije UniversiteitBrussel, Brussel-Belgium. 129 p

MAP (2007) Ecological mangrove restoration- workshop series proceedings report, 5–9 &12–15 Feb

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) Ecosystems and human well-being: biodiversity syn-thesis. World Resources Institute, Washington DC

Moudingo EJ-H (2010) Assessment of community participation in mangrove ecosystem restorationin four selected villages in the Douala-Edea reserve, Cameroon. Master II. Department of PlantBiology, Faculty of Science, University of Yaounde I, 101 pp

Nellemann C, Corcoran E (2010) Dead planet, living planet – biodiversity and ecosystem restora-tion for sustain-able development. A Rapid Response Assessment. United Nations EnvironmentProgramme UNEP, GRID-Arendal

Ochsner P (2001) Direct seeding in the tropics. IUFRO joint symposium on tree seed technology,physiology and tropical silviculture College of Forestry and Natural Resources, University ofthe Philippines, Los Baños, Apr–May 2001

Primavera JH, Savaris JD, Bajoyo B, Coching JD, Curnick DJ, Golbeque R, Guzman AT,Henderin JQ, Joven RV, Loma RA, Koldewey HJ (2012) Manual on community-based man-grove rehabilitation – mangrove manual series no. 1. ZSL, London. viii + 240 p

Ramsar (2007) Ramsar handbooks for the wise use of wetlands. 3rdedition, US Department of Stateand the US Fish & Wildlife Service, Gland, Switzerland

Ravishankar T, Ramasubramanian R (2004) Manual on mangrove nursery techniques. M.S.Swaminathan Research Foundation; Chennai, India. pp. 48

Selvam V, Ravichandran K K, Gnanappazhan L, Navamuniyammal M (2003) Assessment ofCommunity-based Restoration of Pichavaram Mangrove Wetland using remote sensing data.Current Science 85(6): 794–798.

Selvam V R, T. Karunagaran R, Ramasubramanian P, Eganathan, A.K. Parida (2005) Toolkit forEstablishing Coastal Bioshield. M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, Chennai. 120 p

SNV (1997) Working paper “using the logical framework in process planning”. SNV, Den HaagSriskanthan G, Emerton L, Bambaradeniya C, Kallesoe M, Ranasinghe T (2008) Seocioeconomic

and ecological monitoring toolkit: Huraa mangrove nature reserve. Ecosystems and Livelihoods


Group Asia, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN),Colombo

Spalding M, KainumaM, and Collins L (2010) World atlas of mangroves. A collaborative project ofITTO, ISME, FAO, UNEP-WCMC, UNESCO-MAB, UNU-INWEH and TNC, Earthscan,London, 319 pp

Tomlinson P B (1986) The botany of mangroves. Cambridge University Press. 419 ppTuxill J, Nabhan GP (1998) Plants and protected areas: a guide to in situ management. WWF

international/UNESCO/Royal Botanic Gardens. Stanley Thornes Publishers Ltd, Cheltenham,pp 134–135

USEPA (2000) Principles for the ecological restoration of aquatic resources. EPA841-F-00-003.Office of Water (4501F). United States Environmental Protection Agency, Washington,DC. 4 pp

UNEP (2007) Mangroves of Western and Central Africa. UNEP – Regional Seas Programme/UNEP–WCMC.88pp. Available http://www.unep-U�wcmc.org/resources/publications/UNEP_WCMC_bio_series/26.htm (Retrieved 16 December 2007)

UNEP (2014) The Importance of Mangroves to People: A Call to Action. van Bochove J, SullivanE, Nakamura T (Eds). United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitor-ing Centre, Cambridge. 128 pp

Vivien J, Faure J J, (1985) Arbres des Forêts Denses d’Afrique Centrale. Agence de CooperationCulturelle et Technique (ACCT), Paris. pp. 370–371

Useful Websites Consulted

http://www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/restore/http://www.mangroverestoration.cohttp://www.omcar.org/user/Conservation.aspx?ID=1. Retrieved Sept 2014. Ecological mangrove

restoration techniques- field experience from southeast coast of Indiahttp://www.rcl.or.id


http://www.unep-U&ast;wcmc.org/resources/publications/UNEP_WCMC_bio_series/26.htm



http://www.mangroverestoration.co

http://www.omcar.org/user/Conservation.aspx?ID=1

http://www.rcl.or.id

Enhancing Resilience of Vulnerable Coastal Areas and ... · Mouth, and Bintang Bolon tributary....

Documents

Transcript of Enhancing Resilience of Vulnerable Coastal Areas and ... · Mouth, and Bintang Bolon tributary....