Enhancing physical performance -...

UNIT UNIT

4

Enhancing physical performanceOUTCOME 1

Plan and evaluate training programs to enhance

physical fitness.

OUTCOME 2

Evaluate practices and/or strategies that are used

in conjunction with each other to enhance sports

performance.

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CHAPTER 5

Fitness components,muscles and activity analysis

Fitness components are those aspects of fitness that should be performed to a reasonable level in any sport or recreational activity. They are not as impor-tant at a social level of activity involvement as at an elite level of competition. However, they are still required for safe and enjoyable activity, free from the risk of injury or low satisfaction levels.

This chapter aims to define and illustrate each of the recognised fitness components. An understanding of these components will allow you to recognise their individual importance in any sport or activity, and to apply them with the correct emphasis in any sport.

There are two groups of fitness components: those based on the actual physical qualities of the athlete,

and those that combine mental and physical qualities.Closely linked with most fitness components is

the body’s muscular system. Knowing major muscle groups and muscle action, understanding basic muscle anatomy and recognising types of muscular contractions are important in the analysis of physical activity.

Activity analysis forms an integral and primary role in developing appropriate fitness training schedules.

Understanding the precise movement patterns, energy systems, muscular contractions, specific fitness components, work–rest ratios, and skill movements, all determine the successful construction of a fitness program.

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137CHAPTER 5 FITNESS COMPONENTS, MUSCLES AND ACTIVITY ANALYSIS

Assessment tasks

Task Topics Page

Laboratory reports Aerobic power lab — various tests (activity 1)Anaerobic power lab — various tests (activity 2)Local muscle endurance tests (activity 6)Skill activity grid (activity 17)

139 140 143 158

Media analyses Becoming a better bench coach (activity 15)KPIs and AFL (activity 16)The netball shuffle (activity 17)

168 170 170

Written reports Anaerobic power (activity 3)Agility — self-designed test (activity 7)Balance — elite qualities (activity 8)

140 147 148

Structured questions Muscle movements (activity 10) 156

Case study analyses Strength — school-based assessment (activity 4)Weight-training session (activity 5)Muscle contractions in volleyball (activity 9)

142 143 155

Data analyses Netball activity analysis (activity 12)AFL data collection and analysis (activity 13) High-level activity analysis (activity 14)

160164 165

CH

AP

TE

R 5

• identify all fitness components, the major muscle groups and their actions, and the links between fitness components, the muscular system and activity analysis• describe the roles that each of the fitness components plays in physical activity and the types of muscular contractions

• explain the links between activity analysis and fitness development• analyse a variety of methods of activity analysis data collection• outline ways to use collected data to create specific fitness programmes using all required fitness components.

After completing this chapter, students should be able to:

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Figure 5.1:

Aerobic power is the combined

efficiency of both the circulatory

and respiratory systems.

Physiological fitness components

To analyse what is required for any team game, racquet sport or recreational activity, you need to recognise what aspects of physical fitness the per-former requires to be able to last the length of the activity. Fitness is specific to performers’ needs; for example, fitness levels for professional golf are

obviously quite different from fitness levels for professional tennis.Once participants know the specific fitness demands of a particular activity, they can physically prepare for the activity. They may also

work on some of the desired skill components, depending on how the training program is structured.

However, the primary aim of any athlete’s training program must be for the individual to attain specific physical fitness components.

Aerobic powerAerobic power is the fitness of the heart, blood vessels and lungs —

that is, the fitness of the circulatory system and respiratory system. Figure 5.1 illustrates how these two systems work together to deliver oxygen to the working muscles.

If these systems are highly trained, the athlete will be better able to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for the working muscles under aerobic conditions, and they will have increased capacity for efficiently replenishing the anaerobic systems during and/or after an extended performance in a team game or racquet sport. Aerobic power is of high importance in:• team games such as netball, football, hockey, soccer, volleyball, water

polo, basketball, lacrosse and rugby• racquet sports such as tennis and squash• extended athletic events such as the marathon, triathlons and cross-

country skiing.The body demands oxygen for each of the three energy systems:

1. phosphate2. anaerobic glycolysis 3. aerobic.

More efficient delivery of oxygen to the relevant areas of the body improves the performer’s ability to participate in and recover from an activity. (Chapter 2 outlines the ways in which the three energy systems use oxygen).

Individual capacities to deliver oxygen to the working muscles vary greatly, and they are a good indicator of personal and/or comparative fitness. A person’s maximum oxygen uptake, or ‘VO2 max’ (see chapter 2, page 75), is the usual measure of aerobic power. (Chapter 6 includes many tests for this measure).

Ways of improving aerobic power

• During continuous training (a minimum of three sessions per week), keep the heart rate in the ‘training zone’ for at least 20 minutes for each session.

• Participate in sports that offer the best aerobic activity, such as swimming, running and cycling.

• Join a local fitness centre that offers various forms of aerobic training, such as aerobics classes, super circuits, boxercise, spinning classes and pump circuits.

(See chapters 7 and 9 for more detail on aerobic training.)

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Figure 5.2:

Alex Sampi in action —

Australian Football is a fine

example of a team sport that

demands fitness across all the

physiological fitness components.

Key knowledge• Fitness components

and definitions

• Data collection activity

analysis

Key skill• Perform, observe, analyse

and report on laboratory

exercises designed to

explore the assessment of

fitness and the relationship

between at least two

training methods and gains

to fitness.

Activity 1 Laboratory report

Aerobic power lab — various tests

As a class, undertake the multi-stage fitness test to predict each student’s aerobic power. Then select some students to also undertake the Harvard step test. (See chapter 6, for details about both tests.)a What is the correlation between students’ aerobic power and their

main sport?b What is the correlation between different aerobic power tests?c What variables may affect results?d How are the tests relevant to different sports?e Which of the three energy systems dominates at different stages

of each test (see also chapter 2)?

Anaerobic powerAnaerobic power is the ability to produce energy quickly. This quick production does not depend on a supply of oxygen to the working muscles. The anaerobic energy system covers two types of effort:1. maximal effort for around 10 seconds2. near-maximal effort up to a limit of about 1 minute.These two energy systems are covered in detail in chapter 2.

Anaerobic power is of high importance in:• an elite-level, 100-metre men’s sprint• athletic field events such as the long jump, high jump, shot-

put, javelin, discus, pole vault and hammer throw• basketball rebounds and blocks• football long kicks and handballs• netball sprints to position• a 400-metre run• a 50-metre sprint in swimming• an uphill cycle for 30–60 seconds in a triathlon.

High levels of anaerobic power allow an individual to achieve explosive acceleration or power when it is needed in a game. The performer can also repeat these powerful move-ments as needed during an extended period of time, such as a one- or two-hour playing period in a team game. Further, if a longer, continuous effort is required for 10–60 seconds, a player with high anaerobic power will perform well.

Ways of improving anaerobic power

• In sprint or high-level interval training (at least three times per week), keep the heart rate in the ‘training zone’ for at least 20 minutes.

• Undertake 20–80-metre interval running sprints, starting with a ‘walk back’ recovery and progressing to a ‘jog back’ recovery.

• Undertake 300–600-metre running ‘cruises’, with the same progression in recovery as for sprints above.The same interval concept will produce anaerobic gains, when used

for related sports such as cycling or swimming. Weight training can also improve anaerobic power. (See ‘muscular power’pages 142–3, and chapters 7 and 9 for more information on anaerobic training).

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and definitions


analysis



exercises.


Anaerobic power lab — various tests

Examine the different levels of anaerobic power for students in your class. After a thorough warm-up, carry out the following anaerobic power tests: a standing long jump, 10-metre sprint, 60-metre sprint, 200-metre sprint and 400-metre run. Complete the tests using maximal effort, with at least 5 minutes recovery between each effort.a Graph the class results and link them to the sporting interests

of each student.b Discuss the results and explain the links between the better

performers and their preferred sport.c Do you think 5 minutes was an appropriate rest between efforts?d Outline some other anaerobic tests.


and definitions


analysis



exercises.

Activity 3 Written report

Anaerobic power

In groups of four, select one of the following team games each. List all the anaerobic power activities in each sport.• Hockey• Australian Football• Netball• Rugby Union

Muscular strengthClassically, muscular strength (MS) is a 1-RM (or ‘one repetition maximum’) in weight-lifting — that is, where the lifter can move the weight only once through the desired lift. 5-RM is the ability to lift the weight five times and no more; 12-RM is the ability to lift the weight 12 times and no more.

Apart from weight lifting, this ‘one-off’ maximal strength movement is used infrequently in competitive sport or recreation. However, it is not difficult to imagine muscles creating near-maximal efforts during sport par-ticipation. Muscular strength is of high importance in:• pushing with seven team mates against eight opponents in a Rugby

Union scrum• gripping a hockey stick while making a driving shot at goal• attempting a static hold against an opponent in wrestling• leaning out to try to keep a boat upright while sailing.

Muscular strength is usually present in conjunction with speed, when they combine to create muscular power. The main factors affecting mus-cular strength are summarised in table 5.1 opposite.

Ways of improving muscular strength

• For individuals who have completed their skeletal growth, weight training with 5-RM or less results in significant strength gains. Individuals who are still growing (including everyone of school age) should avoid using fewer than five repetitions because this effort may damage growth plates in the long bones (see chapter 5, Live It Up 1, second edition).

• Weight training, following the ‘power’ principles on pages 142–3, results in indirect gains to the strength fitness component.

Figure 5.3:

Nicki Hudson, current Australian

Hockey captain, in full flight

combining muscular strength

and speed

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Table 5.1Te

nsio

n

Angle of pull

Greatest

tension

Lowest

tension

180°

120°

30°

00

Elbow flexion

Figure 5.6:

The strength available as a

joint moves depends on the

angle of the joint.

0 5

5

10

15

20

25

30

10 15 20 250

Arm

fle

xo

r s

tren

gth

(kil

og

ram

s)

Cross-sectional area

(square centimetres)

Male

Female

Factors affecting muscular strength in the individual (learning acronym: SLAWFCS+J)

Figure 5.4:

As speed of contraction

increases, the amount of force

created decreases.

Figure 5.5:

As the cross-sectional area of

muscle increases, the strength

potential also rises.

0 20

20

40

60

80

100

40 60 80 1000

Fo

rce

(p

erc

en

tag

e o

f

ma

xim

al is

om

etr

ic f

orc

e)

Velocity (percentage

of maximum)

Factor Effect on strength

Speed of muscle contraction

The more slowly a muscle contracts, the more force it can create (figure 5.4). Compare an isometric contraction (see page 155) with a powerful, isotonic contraction. A 1-RM weight lift is performed much more slowly than 12-RM movements, because it requires more strength.

Length of muscle fibre If the muscle is slightly stretched, it is in the best position to create its maximum force. This is demonstrated when long jumpers lower their centre of gravity just before take-off — a movement that stretches the quadriceps just before they contract to achieve the powerful leap. Performers need to account for this fact along with the best ‘joint angle’ specific to the particular joint around which the movement is centred.

Age of the performer Strength peaks in performers aged 20–30 years, then decreases with the body’s diminishing ability to process protein. Regular exercise (see chapter 9, Live It Up 1, second edition) can slow this process.

Warm-up Warmed-up muscles have a greater ability to create strength than cold ones (see chapters 7 and 9).

Fibre type Fast-twitch (or white) fibres are capable of greater strength output than that of slow-twitch (or red) fibres (see chapter 4; and chapter 5, Live It Up 1, second edition).

Cross-sectional area The larger the muscle, the greater the strength potential (figure 5.5). But this relates to the muscle mass, not the total body area in which the muscle is found. The diameter of the biceps, for example, may include both muscle and fat.

Sex of the performer Males generally have greater muscle mass, so they have greater absolute strength. Relative to the cross-sectional area of muscle, there is no difference in the strength available to males and females (see figure 5.5; and chapter 9, Live It Up 1, second edition).

Joint angle around the muscle

For each joint angle in movement there is an optimal angle for the creation of strength (figure 5.6).

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Figure 5.7

All top athletes depend on speed

as a central fitness component.

(Right) Kookaburras

Nathan Englington (front) gets

away from Erik Jazet, Australia v.

Netherlands, 2004 Athens

Olympics.

(Below) Patrick Johnston takes a

training run.


and definitions

Key skill• Evaluate a training program.

Activity 4 Case study analysis

Strength — school-based assessment

With a small group of friends, organise to attend a training session or game for one of your school 1st teams (e.g. cricket, netball, football, basketball). List and explain the players’ strength-based movements during the session.

SpeedSpeed can be present as whole-body speed where the aim is to move from point A to point B as fast as possible. It can also be present as part-body speed where one or more parts of the body require movement as quickly as possible to complete a movement. Speed is of high importance in:• undertaking any sprint event in athletics (usually those of less than

200 metres)• accelerating to create space or evade an opponent in team games• releasing a javelin.

Speed is often seen as the discriminating factor in team games when com-paring elite performers with average ones. It enables performers to appear measured and relaxed when displaying the required skills in competition conditions. This ability often stems from possessing the speed to achieve the time or space in which to display those skills.

Ways of improving speed

Anaerobic power underpins speed. Useful anaerobic exercises are listed on page 139 and in chapters 7 and 9.

Muscular powerMuscular power is the combination of strength and speed. A powerful move-ment is achieved as quickly as possible, while imparting as much strength as possible.

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Power is of high importance in:• field events such as shot-put, discus, javelin, high jump, long jump and

hammer throw• tackling in football or rugby• a spike in volleyball• a leaping intercept in netball or basketball• a defensive clearance in hockey• a drive or long fairway shot in golf.

Power is central to successful performance in most sports where distance, height or any quick generation of force is important. It is difficult to think of many sports or recreational activities for which power is not needed.


and definitions


analysis



exercises.


Weight-training session

Organise a class practical session in a weight room. Work in pairs to perform a series of properly performed weight exercises where you move the weight at ‘power reps’ of 8–12RM. The emphasis of this exercise is on finding the correct individual weight and correctly performing the exercises.a Name the weight exercises you performed, then sketch each

exercise. (Stick figures are fine!)b Outline the importance of the speed of movement in power

weight training.c List the safety guidelines for working in a weight room.d Discuss the benefits of using free weights, multi-stations or

isokinetic machines. (See chapters 7 and 9 for more details.)

Ways of improving muscular power

• Undertake weight training three times per week, with repetitions ranging between eight and twelve.

• Use a weight that you can lift or move quickly for these repetitions.Once you begin to use a weight that slows the speed of your move-ment, you have established the maximum number of repetitions for that exercise.

• Consider the option of plyometrics, an advanced training method for elite performers. Well-coached individuals can gradually work up to it. (See chapters 7 and 9 for more details.)

Local muscular enduranceLocal muscular endurance is the ability of a particular muscle group to keep working at the desired level of effort for as long as the situation demands. It is often controlled by the body’s tolerance of the increasing levels of lactic acid which the activity creates. Local muscular endurance is of high importance in:• the arms in a 200-metre swim• the legs in a marathon• the arms, legs, abdominals and quadriceps in a 2000-metre rowing race• the legs in a 1-kilometre time trial in cycling• the abdominals in a 1-minute situp test.

The inclusion of ‘local’ in this term is important. All sports involve actions that emphasise specific groups of muscles rather than the whole body.

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The concept of time is also helpful in understanding this fitness component. Local muscular endurance is not a never-ending sporting task, but it does involve action that is prolonged enough to differentiate it from sprint or power events.

Ways of improving local muscular endurance

• Any continuous training (see chapter 7) improves the specific muscle groups that require local muscular endurance.

• You can also adapt weight training to train for local mus-cular endurance. Specifically selected exercises should be trained with high repetitions, starting at about 20 rep-etitions and progressing higher as the sport movement demands.Rowers training for a 2000-metre race will work with

lower repetitions than those of a triathlete who is building endurance in arms and legs for the three disciplines.

Figure 5.8:

Australia’s Sharelle McMahon, Australia v. South Africa,

March 2005. All team games require local muscular endurance.

The Australian Netball Team illustrates the effort needed,

particularly in the arms, legs and abdominals.


and definitions


analysis



exercises.


Local muscle endurance tests

a As a class, thoroughly warm up and stretch. Then undertake a local muscle endurance test:• 3-minute push ups following the ACHPER sit up cadence tape• bench jumps in 60 seconds• the ACHPER sit up test.(See chapter 6 for more details.)

b Present the collected data in tables and graphs.c Examine the varying results and their reasons in a class discussion.

FlexibilityFlexibility is the body’s ability to gain the range of movement that is demanded by a particular sport or activity. It is the interaction between the body’s skeletal and muscular systems to allow a full and unimpeded range of joint movement. Flexibility is of high importance in:• gymnastic events such as the Roman rings, uneven bars, parallel bars, floor routines, pommel horse and the beam• goalkeeping in hockey• competitive aerobics• a defensive shuffle in netball and basketball• playing short stop or catcher in softball or baseball.The main factors affecting flexibility are summarised in table 5.2 on page 146.

Flexibility is essential to all sports and recreational activities, so it must be an integral part of all fitness training programs. It is a specific fitness for the sport or activity, because some sports require more flexibility of more body

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parts than do others. Flexibility may be dynamic or static, as in moving or stationary. Generally it is needed in a dynamic way, and it is often combined with speed to create agility.

Ways of improving flexibility

Sports scientists now agree that flexibility training is best done when the body is fully warmed up. This state is generally achieved at the end of a training session or competition. Some preliminary, careful and partial stretches may be done before activity, but these are more for psychological preparation than aiming to improve flexibility. Some of the methods used to improve flexibility are described below.• Static stretching is considered the safest method. Stretch the muscles

with the joint as far as comfortably possible and hold the position for 20–30 seconds (figure 5.9).

• Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF stretching) may also be used by advanced athletes. The simplest way to perform PNF stretching is to first place the muscle in a static stretch position, with your partner in position (figure 5.10 on the following page). Isometrically contract the muscle for about 6–10 seconds against partner resistance, then stati-cally stretch the same muscle for 20–30 seconds with careful partner assistance providing an increased stretch position.

• Ballistic stretching is possibly dangerous to the inexperienced per-former, but it is often used as an on-ground warm-up in team sports — for example, going through the kicking action in football or soccer, or throwing a cricket ball or netball in a team warm-up session.

(See chapters 7 and 9 for more detail.)

Figure 5.9:

Static stretches are the most

commonly used and the safest

method of improving flexibility.

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Factors affecting flexibility (learning acronym: SSSSTRAWLB)

Factor Effect on flexibility

Specific sport and joint flexibility

Flexibility importance differs from one sport to the next — for example, gymnastics requires much more all-round flexibility than does rowing.

Somatotype Endomorphs with their extra bulk (from extra adipose tissue) have limited flexibility. Mesomorphs also may have limited flexibility because they have trained with a limited range of movement or because they have extra muscle tissue. Ectomorphs generally have quite good flexibility because they have lower amounts of body tissue.

Skin resistance Skin has lower elasticity than that of ligaments and tendons, so it can restrict higher ranges of movement.

Sex Hormonal differences mean that females are generally more flexible than males.

Type of joint (see chapter 5, Live It Up 1, second edition)

Specific joints are designed for either strength or mobility, or a combination of each. The shoulder has great mobility but is prone to dislocation in contact sports. The hip joint has high stability, but less mobility than that of the shoulder.

Resting length of ligaments and joint capsule

Stretching these surrounding structures in training may increase a joint’s flexibility.

Age Increasing age decreases flexibility.

Warm-up Warm-up routines generally increase the temperature of both the muscles and the structures within the joints, increasing flexibility.

Length of muscles at rest

If muscles at rest are shortened, then flexibility is limited. This may happen if the individual has too much sedentary work (which chronically shortens the hamstrings). If weight-training exercises are not performed through the full range of motion, then the muscles will shorten.

Bone Depending on the joint, the bone type and structure will vary and thus have different effects on the actual flexibility of the joint.

Table 5.2

Figure 5.10:

PNF stretches are best done in

pairs and by athletes who know

what they are doing.

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AgilityAgility combines speed with flexibility and dynamic balance, allowing the performer to change direction with maximal speed and control. Agility is of high importance in:• evading an opponent in soccer or rugby• reacting to an opponent’s baulk in hockey• dribbling the ball around opponents in soccer or basketball• changing direction during a dance, gymnastics or aerobics sequence• moving to make a play in squash while avoiding the opponent.

Agility is one of the physiological fitness components that visibly illustrates some of the neuromuscular fitness component qualities. An amount of coordination is required to demonstrate good agility, but agility involves enough emphasis on speed and flexibility to argue for its inclusion in this section. Both planned or unplanned (reactive) move-ments can demonstrate agility, as long as they emphasise the ability to change direction quickly and efficiently (see also the article in figure 5.24, page 171).

Reactive agility is a term more frequently used in reference to team games, where there is rarely any planned agility.

Ways of improving agility

• Specific agility courses designed by the coach can replicate the movement patterns and distances in a game.

• Frequently re-test team members in recognised tests such as the Illinois and Semo agility tests (see chapter 6).

• Regular sprint interval training and adequate specific stretching are the two key ingredients of agility.


and definitions


analysis



exercises.


Agility — self-designed test

Select a favourite team game and design an agility test which specifically represents the game’s movement patterns. Suggestions include:• Netball: a centre player’s first 5 seconds of movement following a

centre pass• Australian Football: an on-baller’s first 5 seconds of movement

following a centre bounce• Hockey: the inside-right’s movement as the team makes an

attacking break from defence.

Neuromuscular fitness components

The term ‘neuromuscular’ refers to the interplay of the nervous and muscular systems. Neuromuscular fitness influences a players’ ability, for example, to control a gradual or sudden shift in balance, to react quickly to changing circumstances and/or to efficiently co-ordinate a series of movements.

BalanceBalance is the ability of the body to remain in a state of equilibrium while performing a desired task.

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There are two recognised types:• dynamic balance, which involves keeping the body’s balance under

control while moving• static balance, which involves keeping the body’s balance under control

while not moving.Balance is of high importance in:• running a bend in a 200-metre athletic race• sprinting down the sideline in a Rugby Union game• performing a 60-second aerobics routine• performing a handstand in a gymnastics routine• standing on one foot while shooting at the goal in netball.

Balance is one of the discriminating characteristics of elite and average performers. Watch a 200-metre sprint in athletics, especially as the runners come around the bend. Sprinters run at varying distances from the inside line of their lanes, and their accompanying control of style, balance and speed ultimately contributes to their success at the finish.


and definitions


analysis



exercises.


Balance — elite qualities

List five more examples of dynamic and static balance from different sports. Select five from the ten examples (those in the text above and those you have listed) and outline how you could distinguish an average performer from an elite performer in each situation.

Ways of improving balance

• Weight training specific to a sport will improve the strength of muscles that act as synergists in any required movement for that sport. Synergists are muscles that help complete a movement, but are not the initiators (or ‘prime movers’) of that movement.

• Repetitively practising the required movements will strengthen the neurone controls of the muscles involved and therefore improve the overall balance of the movement.

Reaction timeReaction time is the speed with which an individual can react to an outside stimulus. The average reaction time is 0.2 second. It is the ability of the brain to react to various outside input sources, process them, select a response, then activate the expected muscular response. Reaction time is of high importance in:• reacting to the starter’s gun in a sprint race• deciding which player is in the best position to receive a pass in basketball• judging the probable direction of the ball from an opponent’s back

swing in tennis.The performer with the better reaction time is usually the dominant

player who appears controlled, rarely flustered and usually able to impart maximum force to a desired movement. Faster reactions allow the performer to be well positioned at the critical moments. Performers can improve their reaction time with specific training.

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Ways of improving reaction time

• Practise sprint starts for races.• During practice sessions, decrease the normal length of certain move-

ments in a game, for example, shorter kicks, passes, cricket bowls, baseball pitches.

• Play with a ‘fast’ squash ball instead of a ‘slow’ one.

CoordinationCoordination is the ability to link together a series of muscular movements so they appear to be well controlled and efficiently executed. Coordination is of high importance in:• dance, aerobics and ballet• discus throwing• hitting a cover drive for four in cricket• scoring from a netball shot• spiking in volleyball• all routines in gymnastics.

It is difficult to contemplate any activity that does not require coordina-tion to some extent. We tend to take for granted our ability to connect a number of closely or loosely linked movements, which result in varying degrees of expertise. A real awareness of the diversity of life comes from learning to appreciate how limited life can be without this ability.

Ways of improving coordination

Practise the relevant movements for the particular sports, beginning with those more basic to the activity and progressing to more complicated movements.

The muscular system

To be able to link knowledge of fitness components with a thorough activity analysis, students need a working knowledge of the body’s muscular system. There are over six hundred muscles in the human body that allow everyday activities such as running, jumping and brushing your teeth. Muscles vary in their sizes and functions; some are responsible for maintaining the body’s posture, some for providing force to produce movement, and some for helping in important bodily functions such as blood circulation, breathing and digestion.

Most muscles have certain common features:• Nervous control. Nerve stimuli control muscle action.• Extensibility. Muscles have the capacity to stretch when a force is applied.• Elasticity. Muscles can return to their original size once stretched.• Atrophy. Muscles can decrease in size as a result of injury, illness or lack

of exercise.• Hypertrophy. Muscles can increase in size with an increase in activity.

Types of muscleMuscles can be classified into three main groups: smooth, cardiac and skeletal.

Smooth muscle

Smooth muscle is found in hollow organs such as the walls of the digestive tract, the bladder and the blood vessels. You have no conscious control over their contractions (thus called ‘involuntary’), which are slow,

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Figure 5.11:

Skeletal muscle fibres viewed

through a light microscope

sustained and rhythmic. The contractions of the smooth muscle in the intes-tinal walls and stomach, for example, move food through the digestive tract. Such muscles fatigue more slowly than skeletal muscle.

Cardiac muscle

Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart. The muscle fibres are intertwined, which helps the heart push blood into arteries going to the lungs and other body tissues. The heart is an involuntary muscle (although some people claim that they can make their heart beat faster or slower at will) and it is difficult to fatigue. When a nerve impulse arrives at the heart, the message is relayed from cell to cell, causing rhythmic contractions and relaxations.

Skeletal muscleSkeletal muscle attaches to and causes movement of the skeleton. It is striated (that is, has a striped appearance) and under voluntary control (because you are consciously aware of the muscles and you can control their contractions). The movements may also take part in reflex actions, such as a knee-jerk reaction. If you want to throw a netball or kick a soccer ball, your brain sends a message to the muscles concerned and the required physical action results. Given that skeletal muscle is responsible for human move-ment, we will focus on this muscle type in the following sections.

Initiation of muscular activity

Motor units

A motor unit consists of the motor nerve plus the muscle fibres it stimu-lates. (Each nerve may stimulate a number of muscle fibres.) The number of fibres within each motor unit varies according to the precision of the move-ment required. Generally, muscles such as those in your hand that perform precise, controlled movements such as writing, typing or throwing darts have small motor units, where one motor neuron may be responsible for stimulating only a few fibres. Muscles such as the quadriceps that perform gross movements such as running or kicking a ball have large motor units, where one motor neuron may stimulate thousands of fibres.

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Figure 5.12:

Diagram of two motor units.

Neuron A stimulates three

muscle fibres, while neuron B

stimulates only two.

Strength of muscular contraction

Skeletal muscles can generate a range of contrac-tions varying from strong maximal contractions to complete relaxation. However, for a contraction to occur, there must be a strong enough nerve impulse to innervate the muscle fibres.

The ‘all or nothing’ principle

The ‘all or nothing’ principle states that the nerve impulse will not stimulate the muscle fibres until it reaches a certain threshold level. Once the nerve impulse reaches this threshold, all fibres of the motor unit will contract at the same time and maximally. If the impulse is too weak, no fibres will contract at all.

However, the intensity of muscular contractions can vary in two ways:1. by varying the number of motor units stimulated.

Not all the motor units within a muscle need to be recruited at one time for a muscle contraction. If you require a large degree of strength — for example, lifting a heavy weight — then more nerve impulses are sent, activating more motor units and therefore contracting more muscle fibres. If you require a minimal degree of strength — for example, putting a golf ball — then fewer impulses are sent, contracting fewer fibres.

2. by varying the frequency at which the impulses arrive at the motor unit. The greater the frequency of nerve impulses, the greater the contractions in the muscle. If you require a large degree of strength — for example, for performing a vertical jump — the impulse will be sent at a faster rate to the muscles involved.

The stretch reflex

The muscle spindle detects any sudden lengthening of a muscle, then activates the sensory nerves. Motor units are thus activated, causing an almost immediate contraction of the muscle to resist any further length-ening. This ‘stretch reflex’ prevents muscular and tendon injury which might have occurred.

Information about this reflex can assist performance in certain sporting situations. When performing a jump upwards, for example, athletes usually dip downwards just before the jump. The speed of the initial movement causes a sudden stretch in the quadriceps muscle and initiates the stretch reflex. This causes a reflex contraction in the quadriceps, which may increase the force developed to produce a higher jump. A similar movement can aid the long-jump take-off.

Major skeletal musclesTo be able to study body movements, it is important to identify the positions and actions of the major muscle groups of the body (figures 5.13 and 5.14).

Muscles are usually named from their various characteristics or locations, for example: the triceps, which has three points of origin; the pectoralis major, which is a large (major) muscle of the chest or pectoral region; and the quadriceps femoris, which consists of four separate muscles anterior to the femur.

Cell body of neuron A

A

B

Spinal cord

Motor endplate

of neuron B

Muscle fibres

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152LIVE IT UP 2

Muscle actionSkeletal muscles produce movement by exerting a pulling force on bones. They have a more rigid attachment to a bone at one end, and they are attached across a joint to another bone that is usually more moveable.

The muscle’s point of attachment to the more stationary bone is called the origin (often called the ‘fixed end’) and tends to be closer (or more proximal) to the main mass of the body. The origin of a muscle is often quite wide-spread because it helps ‘anchor’ the muscle. The muscle’s more moveable point of attachment is called the insertion (the ‘moving end’) and tends to be located away (or more distal) from the mass of the body. It usually attaches to the bone near the joint that is to be moved by the muscle, and adheres in most cases by means of a strong non-elastic tendon.

Figure 5.13:

Muscles of the human body

— anterior view

Trapezius

Deltoid

Pectoralis major

Latissimus dorsi

Serratus anterior

Brachioradialis

Wrist extensors

Sartorius

Gastrocnemius

Tibia

Soleus

Rectus femoris

Vastus lateralis

Vastus medialis

Quadriceps

femoris

Tibialis anterior

Patella

Adductors

Gracilis

Triceps

brachiiBiceps brachii

Brachialis

Obliques

Rectus

abdominis

Wrist

flexors

Iliopsoas

Figure 5.14:

Muscles of the human body

— posterior view

TrapeziusDeltoid

Teres minor

Teres major

Latissimus dorsi

Triceps brachii

(lateral head)

Brachioradialis

Obliques

Triceps brachii

(long head)

Gluteus

maximus

Achilles tendon

Iliotibial

band

Adductors

Gracilis

Biceps femoris (long head)

Semitendinosus

Semimembranosus

Gastrocnemius

Soleus

Hamstrings

1_61_02472_LIUch5.indd 152 2/12/05 9:22:53 AM


Origin

(Scapula)

Insertion

(Clavicle)

Insertion

Origin

Origin

When a muscle contracts, the origin and insertion are drawn together, shortening the muscle. The bones attached to the muscle produce movement in a specific direction. This movement is called the muscle’s action; for example, the action of raising your arm by your side (abduction) is caused by the contraction of the deltoid muscle, where the insertion of the muscle at the humerus moves towards the muscle’s origin at the scapula.

Muscle controlSkeletal muscles can only pull to produce movement; they cannot push. They pull by working in pairs or groups — that is, as a muscle contracts on the front side of the body (anterior), usually the muscles at the back (pos-terior) with the opposite action relax.

During a particular movement, a muscle performs one of the following four roles:• agonist (or prime mover). This muscle causes the major action. There

is usually more than one prime mover in a joint action, and there are prime mover muscles for all moveable joints.

• antagonist. This muscle must relax and lengthen to allow a movement to occur. It causes an opposite action to that caused by the agonist. Generally, muscle flexors and extensors work in an agonist–antagonist relationship: for example, when a person bends their elbow the flexor (biceps) is the agonist while the extensor (triceps) is the antagonist. These roles can be reversed; for example, when a person straightens their elbow (as when serving in tennis), the extensor (triceps) is the agonist while the flexor (biceps) is the antagonist. This pairing of actions can also be seen with other movements such as adduction and abduction.

• synergist (or assistant). This muscle assists the agonist to produce the required movement to reduce any excessive or unnecessary movements.

Figure 5.15 (a) and (b):

(Left) Trapezius muscle

(Right) Deltoid muscle

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154LIVE IT UP 2

During elbow flexion, for example, the biceps is the agonist and it is assisted by the brachialis and brachioradialis.

• stabiliser (or fixator). These muscles ensure that the joint remains stable while the agonist and antagonists are working. The muscle will shorten just slightly during contraction, causing only minimal movement to allow the action to be performed more effectively. When someone shoots a goal in netball, for example, the abdominals and the erector spinae muscles contract to stabilise the body and to enable the arms and shoulders to perform the skill.

Triceps contracts,

elbow straightens

Biceps

relaxed

Triceps

relaxed

Biceps

contracts,

elbow bends

Coordinated movementThe process of the agonist muscle contracting and its opposing muscle, the antagonist, relaxing is called reciprocal inhibition (figure 5.16). Efficient movement involves a process of give and take on each side of the joint. When you perform major movements such as kicking a soccer ball, a coordinated sequence of these muscle actions must occur. This depends on the nervous system, because the muscles need to be stimulated to contract in the proper sequence with exact timing and with the most appropriate degree of force to provide a smooth, controlled movement. This is why beginners at a task often appear jerky — for example, either overhitting or underhitting a ball.

Types of muscle contractionMuscle contractions are classified according to the movement they cause.There are three types of contraction: isotonic, isometric and isokinetic.

Figure 5.16:

Reciprocal inhibition — when one

muscle is contracting, the opposite

muscle in the pair is relaxing

1_61_02472_LIUch5.indd 154 2/12/05 9:22:56 AM


IsotonicAn isotonic contraction — one in which the muscle length changes throughout the range of movement as force is being developed — is the most common. Examples include: • pushups • kicking • throwing • most sporting movements.• situps

There are two types of isotonic contraction:1. concentric. The muscle length shortens during the contraction — for

example, the biceps curl where the bicep muscle shortens to lift the dumbbell from the straight arm position.

2. eccentric. The muscle lengthens while the force is developed. This occurs in activities that resist gravity, and it will slow the limb or trunk move-ment — for example, lowering the body during a situp, lowering the body during a squat or even gently setting down an object. The process is similar to a drawbridge, where the bridge must be lowered in control while working against the effect of gravity.Isotonic training is effective because you can easily adapt activities

to resemble exact sporting movements. The disadvantage of this type of training is that the benefits occur at the weakest points in a muscle’s range of motion, so the entire range is not trained to its full extent. Latest studies indicate that eccentric contractions have significant value in training and injury prevention.

Isometric

An isometric contraction occurs when force is developed, but there is no change in the length of the muscle. Examples include gripping a cricket bat (with the forearm muscles performing an isometric contraction) and holding a weight in a stationary position.

When training for an isometric activity, it is important to train the muscle at many different joint angles so strength can be developed for a wide range of motion. A major disadvantage of this type of training is that it increases blood pressure because the heart has to pump with more force to move blood through constricted blood vessels. This may be dangerous because it can stress your circulatory system.


and definitions


analysis



exercises.


Muscle contractions in volleyball

Even simply holding your textbook involves types of muscle contraction (see example below). Play a game of volleyball. Identify two activities in the game that involve performing the following contractions:a isometric contractionsb concentric contractionsc eccentric contractions.

Example• Pick up a textbook from the table. This is an example of a

concentric contraction of your biceps muscle. • Hold the textbook out in front of you for 3 seconds. This is an

example of an isometric contraction of your biceps muscle. • Slowly lower the textbook onto the table. This is an example of

an eccentric contraction of your biceps muscle.

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156LIVE IT UP 2


and definitions


analysis including skills

analysis, work–rest ratios,

movement patterns,

muscle groups

and muscle action



exercises.

Activity 10 Structured questions

Muscle movements

Work in a group of three to undertake the following tasks.a Demonstrate three sporting examples of uses of isotonic

movements. Outline the major muscle group(s) performing the contraction in each example, and nominate whether the contraction is eccentric or concentric.

b Demonstrate three sporting examples of uses of isometric movements. Outline the major muscle group(s) performing the contraction in each example.

Isokinetic

An isokinetic contraction develops maximal velocity throughout the entire range of motion. Highly specialised equipment, such as Hydra gym or Cybex machines, is required to perform these contractions. The amount of force applied by these machines always equals the amount of force applied by the muscle, so it is possible to develop strength through a muscle’s entire range of motion. Thus isokinetic contractions are considered to be the most effective way to develop strength and endurance.

Activity analysis and its use

Activity analysis enables coaches and performers to make the important link between training and the actual performance of an activity. The prin-ciple of ‘specificity’ is the key to activity analysis (see chapter 7) — that is, such analysis helps performers gain specific knowledge about:• energy system requirements• movement patterns, type and direction• muscle groups and muscle action• work and rest patterns and ratios• skill requirements• team strategies• opponents’ strengths and weaknesses• biomechanical techniques• the intensity of movement and the actions performed.

Team sports and individual sports of an intermittent nature are most suited to analysis. Analysis of continuous activities such as middle-distance and long-distance running, road cycling, rowing and swimming is limited to the measurement of heart rates and intensities. This is best done using electronic heart-rate monitoring equipment called telemetry.

Methods used to analyse activityAnalysis methods vary from simple observation to heart-rate telemetry and lactic acid readings using blood samples.

Simple observation

The coach or interested party views the player or team from the sideline. All gathered information is subjective and may include:• how they move around the playing area• where they move to

1_61_02472_LIUch5.indd 156 2/12/05 9:22:57 AM


• the intensity of their sprint or playing• the frequency of particular skill movements, such as backhand tennis

shots• the muscle groups that need strengthening• the team plays that are in use, and so on.There are no supportive data for observed information, which is all merely one person’s point of view.

Observation with supporting statistical records

Statistical data can be recorded live and analysed later, or gathered and ana-lysed after the game event from video recordings. The use of video is the preferred method because the coach and athlete can replay, slow and freeze-frame the images.

Heart-rate monitoring

Manual monitoring of the athlete’s heart rate is possible during rest periods to indicate the intensity of the athlete’s effort and work. However, electronic telemetry (using a strap-on heart-rate monitor) is much more effective because it gives a constant reading of the heart-rate response throughout the entire period of the analysis. More sophisticated monitors record all the heart-rate data, which can be downloaded when the analysis period is complete. These are used for detailed analysis of work intensities and lengths of rest periods.

Statistical analysis techniques

Analysis of a player’s performance covers four key areas:1. skill analysis2. work–rest ratios3. movement patterns4. muscle groups and muscle action.Each area provides valuable and specific information about the game and the player’s participation.

Skill analysisSkill analysis requires the use of a table or grid similar to the one below. This grid has been developed for tennis.

Skill analysis data should be used to provide positive feedback and to foster continued improvement in performance. The analysis is particularly important for identifying the muscle groups used in performing each skill. If using a recording grid, add a column for notes about muscle use during the observation period.

Shot First game Second game Third game Fourth game Fifth game

Performance

time

First serve

Second serve

Forehand

Backhand

Backhand volley

Forehand volley

Smash

� successful shot; × = unsuccessful shot; A = service ace

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158LIVE IT UP 2

You should be able to use the data to work out the percentage of first correct serves, the percentage of errors for all shots played (for example, successful forehand hits compared with forehand errors), any change in the style of shots, and any change in the error rate between games or sets (or the beginning or end of the match, for example). Skill analysis may provide information about:

• possessions • offensive plays• disposals• defensive plays• errors• types of passes• winners

• types of catches/mark• goals• shots played• tackles• successful plays• shots for goal• other.


and definitions


analysis



exercises.


Skill activity grid

1 Develop a skill-analysis grid for a sport or activity of your choice. (Team games are best suited to this activity.)

2 Use this grid to record data for an individual athlete. You may undertake the analysis at school or a venue of your choice on the weekend, and you may make a live recording or use a video recording. If using a video, keep the athlete in view at all times.

3 Provide a written summary of your findings, including data on:(a) the total number of skills performed(b) the success rate of skills performed(c) the intensity rate of skills performed(d) the amount of time spent performing each skill(e) recommendations for practice and training.

1_61_02472_LIUch5.indd 158 2/12/05 9:23:00 AM


The summary in table 5.3 illustrates one way of presenting skill analysis.

Men’s singles — Round 2

M. PHILIPPOUSSIS (Australia)M. CHANG (USA)

76

26

63

57

75

Elapsed time by set/(minutes) 56 35 33 47 54

M. Philippoussis M. Chang

1st serve 64 % 53 %

Aces 24 13

Double faults 2 5

1st serve points 81 % 73 %

2nd serve points 55 % 57 %

Winners (including serve) 95 43

Unforced errors 78 31

Break point (conversions) 33 % 50 %

Net approaches 67 % 74 %

Total points won 169 157

Table 5.3

Match summary, Australian Open 1999

Source:

Herald & Weekly Times,

21 January, 1999, p. 92

Work–rest ratiosData about work and rest periods are vital in determining an athlete’s energy systems and intensity of effort. Games analysis calculates work–rest ratios which provide information that should underpin decisions about methods of training, work intervals and rest intervals. To determine work–rest ratios, standing still, walking and slow jogging may be classified as rest, while all other movements may be work.

Record all work efforts on one stopwatch and all rest periods on another stopwatch. Once the activity is complete, you have a work–rest ratio — for example, for 5 minutes total work and 20 minutes total rest, the ratio is 5:20 or 1:4. Also note the intensity of the work efforts because this information is important in determining energy system requirements. Ideally, you could use a heart rate monitor to determine the intensities of each effort or work period, expressing the recorded heart rate as a percentage of the athlete’s maximum heart rate. Table 5.4 shows typical intensity levels for elite net-ballers as determined by their working heart rates.

Position Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4 Total

Goal attack 1 6 39 54 100

Wing attack 3 30 47 20 100

Wing defence 5 24 61 10 100

Centre 20 9 45 26 100

Table 5.4

Typical intensity levels for elite netballers expressed as a percentage of total playing time

Zone 1 = rest/recovery at less than 75 per cent of the maximum heart rateZone 2 = aerobic work at 75–85 per cent of the maximum heart rateZone 3 = anaerobic lactic acid at 85–95 per cent of the maximum heart rateZone 4 = anaerobic adenosine triphosphate production at greater than

95 per cent of the maximum heart rate.

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160LIVE IT UP 2

When analysing work and rest data, determine the following information:• total work time and total rest time• average work time per effort and average rest time• longest work time and longest rest time• the work–rest ratio.


and definitions


analysis



exercises.

Activity 12 Data analysis

Netball activity analysis

Examine table 5.4 and answer the following questions.a Which position in netball is the most demanding anaerobically?

Give two reasons to support your answer.b Why does the centre player spend 20 per cent of game time

in the least intense zone?c What energy systems are used in netball? How do they

interrelate?d What method of training would be most suitable for a

goal attack?

Movement patternsMovement patterns reveal typical locomotor activities completed during a game or performance of an activity. Movement patterns enable the coach or player to determine the fitness components that are used, and they provide (along with work–rest ratios and skill analysis) the specific information required to develop training programs relevant to the player or team.

To complete a movement pattern analysis, undertake the following steps:1. Prepare a movement pattern sheet showing the playing area drawn

to scale.2. Photocopy approximately ten sheets on graph paper. Use one sheet for

every 2–3 minutes of observation, or one sheet for every two points in tennis, badminton and so on.

3. Use the movement pattern sheets to record all player movements for the designated time frame (20 minutes of activity minimum).Decide on a key or code for each type of movement and skill to enable

ease of recording. Examples of various coding terms are provided below. Figures 5.18 and 5.19 opposite illustrate how these codes can be applied to a typical movement pattern in tennis.

Sprinting — — — Cruising = = = = =

Mark M Tackle T

Shepherd S Guarding G

Backward movement B Sideway movement SI

Running ............ Walking ~~~~~~

Kick K Punch P

Jumping J Shuffling SH

Rebound R Jump shot JS

1_61_02472_LIUch5.indd 160 2/12/05 9:23:01 AM


Scale

Legend

�

�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

T

H

KM

H

S

Legend

��

T

M

S

K

H

Figure 5.18 (left):

A typical movement pattern recorded for

tennis at the elite level

Figure 5.19 (below):

A typical movement recording for an ‘on

ball’ player during 2 minutes in a game of

Australian Football

Figure 5.17: Alicia Molik in action at

the Australian Open, 2005

1_61_02472_LIUch5.indd 161 2/12/05 9:23:03 AM

162

LIVE IT UP 2

4. Transfer the data plotted on the movement pattern sheets to suitable tables that will assist the collation and summary of data. The table below is an example of how to record and summarise the distance covered for each movement type.

Movement 5-metre effort 10-metre effort 15-metre effort 20-metre effort Total

Sprinting

Cruising

Jogging

Walking

Information recorded in such a table may help determine:• the number of efforts over each distance• the total distance covered in each movement category• the average distance covered in each effort.You can also develop tables for summarising information about the inten-sity of effort and direction changes.

The information on sports performance indicators in the box below and in figure 5.20 comes from GPSports Systems. The data in figure 5.20 has been collected by GPSports Systems and follows an AFL player’s move-ments for roughly one quarter of a practice match in March 2004.

The Sport Performance Indicator (SPI 10)

The SPI 10 (Pronounced ‘SPY’) is a world first in

miniaturised tracking technology for athletes and

fitness enthusiasts alike. GPSports has developed

the SPI 10, a miniature device worn by the athlete,

which stores important training and performance data

such as:

• Time

• Speed

• Distance

• Position

• Altitude

• Direction

• Heart rate.

SPI 10 technology is based around GPS (Global Positioning

Satellite) technology and at 11 cm by 5 cm by 3 cm, and

only approximately 110 g, the SPI 10 will be the world’s

smallest hand-held GPS receiver.

The SPI 10 technology involves a 1 Hertz GPS chip (data

collection once per second). Updates ... include a once

every 2-second data collection rate.

There is potential for software upgrades to the SPI 10

allowing the user to upload training programs, new software

programs, and the ability to be able to link in peripheral

devices such as cadence, stroke rate, temperature, relative

humidity and barometer devices.

The Sport Performance Indicator — Personal Coach (SPI-PC)

The SPI PC is the latest in the supply of functional

technology by GPSports for our sporting clients. This

unit, while similar to the SPI 10, has been scaled down in

functionality for availability to the general consumer ...

Source:

GPSports Systems Pty Ltd

GPSports Analyser Software

The Analyser program is a Microsoft Windows based

product that can capture the data stored by the SPI 10

allowing the user to:

• Store multiple sessions (database)

• View speed and heart-rate performance throughout the

entire session

• View the actual path taken during the session

• Generate multiple graphs and reports (totally configurable)

• Instantly determine the total time and distance spent in

different speed zones

• Instantly determine the total time spent in different

heart-rate zones ...

1_61_02472_LIUch5.indd 162 2/12/05 9:23:03 AM


�� Distance

Distance within Speed Zone

Speed Heart Rate Splits by Time Splits by Distance Compare

��

% of Distance within Speed Zone

1

2

3

4

5

6

0.0 km/h

4.0 km/h

14.0 km/h

12.0 km/h

18.0 km/h

20.0 km/h

4.0 km/h

12.0 km/h

14.0 km/h

18.0 km/h

20.0 km/h

30.0 km/h

361.6 m

1532.4 m

444.8 m

719.0 m

161.3 m

640.6 m

102

157

75

65

27

24

9.4%

39.7%

11.5%

18.6%

4.2%

16.6%

% of Distance within Speed Zone

Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4 Zone 5 Zone 6

9.4%

39.7%

11.5%

18.6%

4.2%

16.6%

Figure 5.20:

Collected AFL activity data from

one game’s quarter in 2004

Source:

GPSports Systems Pty Ltd

��

�

�

�

�

�

��

��

��

��

��

��

4775.0

90 bpm

120 bpm

150 bpm

165 bpm

170 bpm

300 bpm

00:05:32

00:00:39

00:07:52

00:03:23

00:01:02

00:05:05

332.0

78.0

1413.0

812.0

310.0

1830.0

7

4

26

41

27

22

23.5%

2.8%

33.4%

14.4%

4.4%

21.6%

Heart Rate Zone Exertion

Time within Heart Rate Zone

Total Exertion

To view more collected AFL

activity data, go to www.

jaconline.com.au/liveitup/

book2 and click on the

‘Heartbeat versus time’

graph and GPSports

Systems links

1_61_02472_LIUch5.indd 163 2/12/05 9:23:16 AM

http://www.jaconline.com.au/liveitup/book2

164LIVE IT UP 2


and definitions


analysis



exercises.


AFL data collection and analysis

Read the information on sports performance indicators (SPIs) on page 162 and consider the AFL data in figure 5.20. Then answer the following questions:a What advantages does the GPSports Systems technology have

over older data collection methods?b Examine the specific benefits of these extra records of player

responses when compared with older activity-analysis technology.

c Examine the graphs and tables in figure 5.20. Establish the relative value of each in determining the player’s exertion levels during the game.

d Calculate the work–rest ratio of the player. Discuss with the class the criteria you used.

e GPSports defines any run faster than 20 kilometres per hour as a sprint. What percentage of the game time was spent doing this?

f If the player is 20 years old, calculate his maximum heart rate (MHR). Also calculate how much time he spent above his probable lactate threshold.

g How far did the player travel during the data collection period?h What percentage of this distance did he sprint?i After you study methods of training in chapter 7, how would

this GPSports data translate to the design of an Interval Training program?

Muscle groups and muscle actionMuscle-use analysis is often neglected. It must be done in isolation from data gathering because it relies on subjective observation. When viewing the player, make notes about:• the major muscles or muscle groups most used• which main muscle groups are used early in the match, and whether they

are different from those used later in the match• whether the muscle action is isotonic or isometric (and if isotonic, whether

the contraction is concentric or eccentric)• whether the muscle contraction is powerful and fast, or slow and

repeated• whether muscle strength or muscle endurance is most important• what range of motion and flexibility is exhibited.It is important to link muscle groups to the skills performed in the game.

Using a video for activity analysisThe most convenient and accurate way to collect data is to video record the performer. You can record some sports from the television because the player remains in frame at all times — for example, tennis, squash, volleyball, table tennis and badminton. To analyse team sports such as soccer, basketball, Australian Football, netball, hockey and Rugby Union, focus on one player when recording original video footage at the actual game venue. Ensure the video camera is situated high in the stands, and film with a wide angle lens. You will then be able to track the movement of the player with reference to the field or court markings.

1_61_02472_LIUch5.indd 164 2/12/05 9:23:18 AM



and defi nitions


analysis



exercises.


High-level activity analysis

With a friend, attend a team game of your choice (one of the highest level possible). Have blank playing area sheets with relevant codes for recording game movements.a Make an activity analysis record over 20 minutes of play for a

selected player.b Create processed data from this primary data, displaying a

record of how the player used each of the fi tness components. (You could also attempt this analysis by videotaping a selected player.)

c Which components of fi tness are most used in the selected activity? Explain your answer.

d Which energy system is most important? Why?e Describe the role(s) of play for the performer you analysed.f What training methods should this player use?g Consider the following points in your games analysis:

• Is the muscular activity maximal (strength) or sub-maximal (endurance)?

• Is the speed of muscular contraction important (muscular power)?

• Is the contraction isotonic or isometric?• Does the activity depend on a full range of movement

(fl exibility)?• Is the quickness of movement important (speed, agility,

muscular coordination)?• What skills are required?• How much of the following is involved:

– jumping– sideways and or backwards movement– sprinting, jogging and/or walking?

• How many direction changes are required? How often do they occur?

The answers to the following questions determine the components of fi tness and muscular actions.• Is the sport continuous

or intermittent?• What is the duration and intensity

of the work interval?• Is there a recovery period? If so, for

how long?• Are the skills performed

maximally? How often?The answer to this question determines which energy system is involved.• What muscle groups are

used? What muscle actions?

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166LIVE IT UP 2

Being a good games coach

The ability to analyse a game’s progress during actual competition is a challenging skill. Being aware of different aspects of the whole playing environment is generally beyond your average under-age coach and is the main reason why so much money is spent on acquiring the best coaches at the elite levels of competition.

Actual playing experienceHaving actually played the game is central, but not essential, for good coaching. The ability to read the plays and predict probable outcomes leads to the best outcomes for both players and the club community.

Statistical recordsThis is useful background to attempt to predict a game’s outcome, but will not be available at the exact moments during the game when they may be needed. Modern technology is providing some data during play, but this still lags behind the immediate moment.

Pre-game spyingMost top coaches have opponents closely analysed before competition. They do this while knowing that the same is being done to their players.

Post-match analysisThis remains a critical component of a thorough games analysis. However, it is also the component that is often omitted or not done thoroughly enough. The article opposite examines the concept of becoming a better bench coach.

Figure 5.21:

Essendon AFL coach Kevin Sheedy

in 2005. He said watching ‘from

the bench’ gave him a better

perspective on the game.

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167

CHAPTER 5 FITNESS COMPONENTS, MUSCLES AND ACTIVITY ANALYSIS

Becoming a better bench coachCoaching in the game or ‘bench

coaching’, is arguably the most impor-

tant aspect of successful coaching at

elite level. While thorough planning

and preparation are crucial to success,

months or even years of effort may

be wasted because of a single error

by the coach at a crucial point in the

game.

Clearly some coaches do seem to

have an almost uncanny ability to ‘read’

a game and to make sound tactical

decisions while under great pressure.

Malcolm Blight’s almost magical inter-

vention at half time in the 2001 AFL

Grand Final is a dramatic example.

In a broader sense effective bench

coaching is important because it can

have an impact, both positive or

negative, far beyond a single game.

From a positive point of view a compet-

itive game provides coaches with some

of their best opportunities for effective

teaching. In a sense the tough game

provides the perfect learning situation;

the players are focused and want to

do well, action is real, the learning is

contextual and relevant and motivation

is high…

As with many highly complex

human capacities, the process of bench

coaching seems to be more intuitive than

refl ective in nature so it is not readily

amenable to a simple analysis. The

challenge for coach educators therefore

is to tease out the critical components

of this ability — make them intelligible

— and fi nd ways of helping all coaches

improve in this crucial aspect of their

craft because many novice coaches

often appear to be like mere spectators

who simply ‘watch’ the action but ‘see’

little.

Match analysis

A real game is a whirling, often chaotic,

ebb and fl ow of action with no ‘instant

replays’ so the coach must note, inter-

pret and react to, continuous sequences

of action, all the while remaining cool,

calm and collected.

The process of match analysis, that

is the ability to really ‘see’ what is

happening at every instant of the game,

underpins bench coaching. To ‘see’ in

this sense implies that they have the

capacity to both direct their observation

to what is really important and that they

know what to look for.

Templates — reading the game

In order to do this they need a precise

model or ‘template’ of the game to give

purpose and focus to their ‘seeing’.

Effective match analysis is therefore

based on a thorough understanding of

the fundamental nature, strategy and

tactics of a game.

For lacrosse, soccer and other

‘invasion’ games these are encapsu-

lated in the ‘Principles of effective play’.

These provide the verbal and concep-

tual ‘template’ necessary for intelligent

observation and thus help to simplify

the process of analysis. They also

provide a common tactical ‘language’

for both coach and players which makes

communication easier and helps the

latter more readily understand their

role in the total team effort.

With such a template to provide an

overall framework for observation the

coach is free to focus on other important

factors such as ‘one on one’ match-ups,

the ‘tempo’ of the game and specifi c

patterns of play employed by the

opposition.

Without the structure provided by

these ‘principles’ or ‘rules’ a coach is like

a tone-deaf conductor who cannot read

music, trying to improve an orchestra.

Statistics

The collection of ‘hard data’ on per-

formance at a basic level or advanced

level can be valuable when it gives

coaches a clearer picture of future

opponents or when it hardens the

post match analysis of one’s own

team. Even though sophisticated com-

puter programs are now beginning

to give coaches in some games access

to ‘real time’ data, they cannot yet

replace the coach’s capacity for real-

time analysis, based upon intelligent

eyeballing.

There are also intangibles such

as intensity or hustle which are not

easily measured but which can change

the course of a game as much by their

psychological impact as by their objec-

tive value in gaining or retaining the

ball. Perceptive coaches who value

these elements of good play are gradu-

ally fi nding ways to quantify them

and to factor them into any analysis of

player performance.

However, the fact is that most

coaches will have to rely on their own

powers of observation — intelligent eye

balling — to analyse what is happening

on the fi eld, and can rarely expect more

data than their eyes can give them.

As in our everyday lives, receiving

more information is often not as impor-

tant as how we interpret and respond to

what we already have.

Scouting — pre-game match analysis

Pre-game match analysis or the ‘scouting

process’ involves the obs-ervation and

analysis of future opponents, either in

the fl esh or through videotape. It can

give a coach invaluable insights into

the strengths and weaknesses of future

opponents and enables them to predict

the probable reactions of opposing

teams and individuals to specifi c

tactical situations.

Again it is worth pointing out that

player performance and statistics,

as well as specifi c patterns of play,

can vary from game to game so the

‘team’ you scout may not be the

same ‘team’ you play against statis-

tically or tactically. Remember they

will also be preparing — to play

against you! A scouting coach may

learn far more that is useful about an

opponent by identifying their

‘philosophy’ of play rather than merely

gathering statistics, for the former is

unlikely to vary much from game

to game. Thus a scout must try to

identify the crucial elements of an

opponent’s ‘style’ and consider a

whole range of issues such as: How

do they combine in attack? Who are

By Alan Launder and Wendy Piltz

(continued)

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Key knowledge• Data collection activity

analysis



exercises.

Activity 15 Media analysis

Becoming a better bench coach

Read the article in fi gure 5.22 and consider these questions:a What new concepts in activity analysis does this article consider?b List other examples you know of in which a coach has made an

‘almost magical intervention’ to change the course of a game.c Consider the coaches you have experienced in your

sporting life to now. Have they been good bench coaches? In what way? How could they have reacted better to the ebbs and fl ows during games?

d Compare the depths of some of your ‘post-match analyses’. Have they been effective? Why or why not?

High-level games analysis

David Parkin is a revered authority on AFL football and, as a highly quali-fi ed and authoritative Physical Education tertiary lecturer, has always been at the forefront of coaching techniques.

In the article in fi gure 5.23 Parkin outlines new approaches to analysing the complexities of Australian Football.

For a long time now football coaches

have been collecting data about their

team’s performance. Since the 1960s

statistics have been collected. We

started with kicks, marks and hand-

balls. These were manually taken

by the club’s statisticians during the

game and reviewed post-match by

the coaching staff.

There have been massive develop-

ments in this area of game analysis

in the past four decades. We now

have teams of people with the latest

computer and video technology to

gather appropriate information relat-

ing to ours and the opposition’s

game plan and game performance.

Not only can we evaluate the per-

formance following the game, we can

record and have available important

data in real time (during the game).

Coaches and their analysts can

now give meaning to the current

game, then, via the runner and breaks

between quarters, provide specifi c

direction to players. This can reinforce

the inputs, tactics and strategies which

Analysing our game planBy David Parkin

their key playmakers? How fast do they

counterattack or fast break? How well

do they recover in defence? Do they

play with heart? Are they tough and

resilient? Do they keep coming back

when they get behind? Among the most

crucial issues are the philosophy and

psychological make-up of their coach.

In order to quickly develop the

observation skills necessary for effective

match analysis the serious coach must

spend time watching lots of games, par-

ticularly at a level above the one they

are coaching.

Refl ection — post match analysis

Post-match analysis of game fi lm,

combined with match statistics, can

ensure that a very objective picture of

player and team performance emerges.

It gives players the chance to come face

to face with their own performance and

enables the coach to constructively plan

future strategies for improvement.

Even at the lowest level, post-match

analysis is critical because it provides a

coach with a specifi c focus for succeed-

ing practices — it will also help players

understand the reason for that focus.

It is important to use video replay

of games positively, to highlight and

reinforce successful aspects of play

which have been emphasised in prac-

tice and which provide evidence that a

team is beginning to achieve its goals

even if the results are not good.

Source:

Australian Football League,

28 January, 2002, afl .com.au

(viewed August 2005)

Figure 5.22:

Principals of effective bench coaching

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1. Effective disposal 6. Scoring from stoppages

2. Contested marks 7. Clearance effectiveness

3. Contested ball gets 8. Best defence

4. Marks inside forward 50m 9. Tackles

5. Best offence 10. One percenters

Club

2003

Round 12

ladder

positon KPI total

KPI

ladder

position

Ladder

position

difference

Adelaide 7 36 1 +6

Brisbane 3 61 5 -2

Carlton 13 82 16 -3

Collingwood 8 49 3 +5

Essendon 11 69 9 -2

Fremantle 5 64 7 +2

Geelong 14 75 13 +1

Hawthorn 12 69 10 -2

Kangaroos 6 63 6 same

Melbourne 15 81 15 same

Port Adelaide 1 56 4 -3

Richmond 9 78 14 -5

St Kilda 10 71 10 same

Sydney 4 68 8 -4

West Coast 2 40 2 same

Western Bulldogs

16 72 12 +4

are obviously working but, at the same

time, indicate where improvement

is needed to lift an individual’s or

team’s performance.

Most AFL teams today are trying

to play a similar brand of football,

although they probably wouldn’t

admit it. The so-called game plans

are based on the same kind of inputs.

At the moment [2003], my view sug-

gests that Port Adelaide and Sydney

(high possession, short game, which

is working extremely well for them)

and Carlton (a long-kicking, low-

possession style of play) are the three

clubs who should stand out from the

rest — thirteen teams are attempting

to structure up and play with basically

the same method.

For the football student and

enthusiast, we now have a couple of

professional IT companies (Champion

Data and Prowess Sports) who are

gathering this information on behalf

of all clubs. Their data, being used

by all forms of the media, plus what

clubs collect for themselves, are fi nally

giving us the capacity to understand,

analyse and benchmark the game

plans. What a bonus to have a set of key

performance indicators [KPIs] which

accurately underpin our game plan.

If we know there is a strong relationship

between the levels of certain player/

team inputs and our ability to play

well, and even win, then we have a

clear advantage over any club who

can’t complete the same process.

Using the available professional

categories, I have attempted to

choose the top ten (in my view only)

of the key performance indicators to

predict the AFL ladder after round 12.

How was this achieved? I ranked each

club in each category from 1 to 16,

1 being highest and 16 being lowest.

The combined rankings in all categ-

ories provided the basis for the ladder

positions for KPIs.

A very interesting exercise. I would

have to acknowledge that the formula

has failed to produce, with accu-

racy, the performances of Adelaide,

Collingwood and probably Richmond.

But it has under-pinned most of the

others. Certainly there are at least

11 teams who, by round 12, are posi-

tioned very much according to their

effectiveness in the key inputs we have

selected as performance indicators.

It is obvious that the three teams men-

tioned previously, Carlton, Sydney

and Port Adelaide, need a different set

of performance indicators to validate

their season’s performance.

Maybe there are far more criti-

cal performance inputs that I have

failed to include. An example is con-

version rate. Hasn’t that assisted

Sydney (59 per cent) and negated St

Kilda (49 per cent) already in 2003?

Coaches would need to deliver on that.

As understanding what a team needs

to do well to win becomes increasingly

important in the modern game, it is

food for thought.

What is certain though, is that a

formula of this type needs more data

over a longer period — at least a season

or two, to validate its effectiveness.

At the end of 2003, I will reapply the

same criteria and that should make

very interesting reading.

Source:

‘Understanding, analysing and

benchmarking our game plan’,

Australian Football League,

June 30, 2003, afl .com.au,

(viewed August 2005)

Figure 5.23:

Recent developments in AFL game analysis

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170LIVE IT UP 2


and definitions


analysis



exercises.


KPIs and AFL

1 Read the article in figure 5.23 and consider the following questions:(a) What are the key performance indicators (KPIs) that

David Parkin sees as central to comparing Australian Football teams?

(b) Think up some extra KPIs that could be used to compare relative team strengths in the AFL.

(c) Construct some KPIs for other sports.(d) Examine the other factors that Parkin believes put Port

Adelaide, Sydney and Carlton into different categories than the other thirteen AFL teams during the 2003 AFL season.

(e) How do Parkin’s ideas on game strategies match up with the ideas in the article, ‘Becoming a better bench coach’, in figure 5.22?

2 How do you think this more modern approach to activity analysis improves on the more basic methods we covered earlier in this chapter?

Netball — a non-contact sport?

Many beginners, spectators and indeed experienced players, often wonder about the official status on netball and basketball as ‘non contact’ sports.

The number of collisions between opponents, team mates and sometimes officials, gives rise to these doubts. However, it is clearly the combination of many important and relevant fitness components in a fast-moving and highly tactical competitive environment that leads to so many unavoidable clashes. The article in figure 5.24 examines the impor-tance of agility in netball.


and definitions


analysis



exercises.


The netball shuffle

Read the article in figure 5.24 opposite. Write a report based on the following tasks.a Describe the actual movements performed when ‘shuffling

in a sideways direction at full pace and effort’.b Name the muscles used in these movements.c Name the types of muscle contractions used in each of these

movements.d Calculate the work–rest ratio of just the shuffles performed

during the playing time of an elite international netball game.e Examine the differences between ‘reactive’ and ‘planned’ agility.f Provide various examples of each of these types of agility from

different sports.g For an average team coach, without the AIS resources, design a

test for reactive agility.

1_61_02472_LIUch5.indd 170 2/12/05 9:23:28 AM


A hallmark of elite team sport is the

frenetic pace at which the games are

played. Over the past week, this pace

has been evident in the Australia–

New Zealand netball Test series.

Locked at one game apiece, with

the decider played at the Vodafone

Arena today, there is no better chance

to see the likely combatants of the

2006 Commonwealth Games fi nal at

full speed.

Analysis of the volume, intensity

and variety of movement netball

demands reinforces that it’s a game

played at high speed with many

sudden changes of direction.

Players can spend up to 13 per cent

of a match shuffl ing in a sideways

direction at full pace and effort.

The time spent shuffl ing ranges

from 1.3 to 1.9 seconds, depending on

the position played, with an average of

300 shuffl e movements performed each

game.

The ability to change direction

at speed is called agility. Incredibly,

players may change direction more

than 2000 times a game. Add to this

equation the responsive movements

of a player’s opponent and it is little

wonder that many novice fans forget

netball is meant to be a non-contact

sport.

Amid the high-speed chaos that

such movements create are the ‘good

drivers in heavy traffi c’. Those players

are so elusive that they always seem to

get free of their opponent to receive a

ball in space.

For those watching today’s Test

match, watch Natalino Avelino fi nd

space and feed the ball to shooter

Cath Cox.

One of the common methods of

measuring the agility qualities of

athletes is to require them to run

around a series of cones in a pre-

determined movement pattern as

quickly as possible.

This type of test refl ects the move-

ments of attackers who know where

they want to run. Usually, when the

elite are compared to lesser-skilled

players, elite players are found to be

faster in completing the movement

pattern.

However, one only has to watch

team sport to realise that it’s more

common to see situations where an

agility pattern is not pre-planned but

rather a player’s agility relies on react-

ing to the movements of the opposition

and calls of teammates.

In recent times, sports scientists

have tried to replicate this type of

agility to better refl ect the qualities of

those ‘good drivers in heavy traffi c’.

Through the use of near life-size

video projections of the movements

of a virtual opponent, netballers at the

Australian Institute of Sport have had

their reactive agility examined.

The players are required to com-

plete a shuffl ing pattern as if defending

an opponent. While completing this

movement, the players watch the

virtual opponent on the life-size projec-

tion receive a ball and prepare to pass

it off to a teammate. The player being

tested is required to intercept the ball

by changing direction and then spring-

ing in the anticipated pass direction.

Results of such testing have revealed

that the more agile players really stand

out on the reactive test relative to a

planned agility test.

The reason for the clearer dif-

ferences between the skill levels on

the reactive test can be attributed to

the anticipatory ability of the players.

While lesser-skilled players waited for

the virtual opponent to release the ball

before changing direction, elite players

anticipated the pass direction based

on the posture of the player and hence

changed direction before the ball had

been released.

This quick decision allowed the

player to get the jump on their oppo-

nent. Hopefully, the same will happen

today when Australia takes on New

Zealand.

Source:

The Age, 20 November, 2004

Netball, where agility is king and a shuffl e is always on the cards

By Damian Farrow and Justin Kemp

Figure 5.24:

The importance of agility

in netball

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and definitions


analysis



exercises.

Chapter summary

• Fitness components are those aspects of fitness that should be performed to a reasonable level in any sport or activity.

• Physiological fitness components form the basis of all fitness training programs and create a player’s physical ability in a competitive situation.

• Neuromuscular fitness components are central to skill drills in a training program, and are the more obvious differentiating factors in players’ abilities.

• The divisions of energy production into aerobic and anaerobic directly affect an individual’s ability to perform a physical activity.

• Flexibility is the common link between all physical activities.• Other physiological fitness components are more or less important

to particular pursuits.• Balance, reaction time and coordination are fitness components that are

determined by the individual’s innate mental/muscular teamwork.• Activity analysis is a key technique that coaches use to determine the

physiological requirements of a sport. It investigates energy systems, components of fitness and movement patterns.

• Observations can involve simple visual observation or the use of heart- rate monitors and video recordings. Skills analysis can provide valuable information about individual players. A player’s training methods and activities should always be based on the findings of such analysis.

Review questions

1. Define in your own words the key terms listed below, all of which appear in this chapter. When you have finished, check your definitions with those in the glossary on page 435.

Activity analysis Aerobic power

Agility (planned and reactive) Anaerobic power

Balance Bench coach

Coordination Factors affecting flexibility

Factors affecting MS Flexibility

Key performance indicators Local muscular endurance

Muscular power Muscular strength (MS)

PNF stretching Reaction time

Shuffling Skill analysis

Speed Sports performance indicators

Static stretching Work–rest ratios

2. (a) Select one of the sports below (or an alternative, in consultation with your teacher). List the eight physiological fitness components and discuss how each is relevant to your chosen sport.netball basketball hockeyAustralian Football tennis volleyball

(b) Create a table in which you can list the fitness components relevant to your sport. Rate each component out of 10 for its relative importance, explaining your choice.

3. Why do team games have more physiological fitness components than those of some individual sports such as golf, cycling and lawn bowls?

1_61_02472_LIUch5.indd 172 2/12/05 9:23:30 AM

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173

4. Why is flexibility central to every fitness training session?5. Study the factors that affect strength (table 5.1, page 141). Create a

table in which you can record a personal profile that examines:(a) each of the factors(b) a rating out of 10 for how each factor is relevant to you(c) some reasons that could explain their influence on your strength

potential. 6. Study the factors that affect flexibility (table 5.2, page 146). Select your

favourite sport and examine how each of the factors influences the level of achievement of an elite performer in this sport.

7. People employed by Australia Post to deliver mail often cycle up to 50 kilometres per day. Which two fitness components are these people likely to have developed to a high degree so as to perform their task efficiently each day? Give reasons for your answer.

8. What is the main requirement for the three types of flexibility training? 9. What procedures need to be followed to undertake:

(a) static flexibility training? (b) PNF flexibility training?

10. What are three different examples from three different sports where ballistic flexibility movements would be useful during the warm-up?

11. What are the differences between muscular strength, muscular power and local muscular endurance? Use sporting examples to supplement your definitions.

12. Which other fitness components would have a direct influence on a performer’s agility?

13. What are five different sporting examples that demonstrate: (a) whole-body speed? (b) part-body speed?

14. Referring to figure 5.10 (page 146), answer the following questions:(a) Which of the athlete’s muscle groups is primarily being stretched in

the diagram?(b) What method of stretching is being used?(c) What method of stretching is considered to be inappropriate for a

flexibility program? Give reasons.(d) Some elite performers use the ‘dangerous’ method of stretching that

you nominated in part (c). Why do you think they prefer this method for improving their flexibility?

15. Why is the Illinois agility test more suitable for footballers, while the Semo agility test is better for tennis players (see chapter 6)? Base your answer on the fitness components of each sport.

16. A recent analysis of a game of grass-court tennis played between two competitors found the following data:

• average rally time = 5.3 seconds • average rest between rallies = 17.5 seconds • work–rest ratio = 1:3.5 • length of the match in total = 3.5 hours • length of time the ball was in play = 19 minutes, 20 seconds • time spent changing ends and between games = 73 minutes.

(a) Why is it important to undertake an analysis before developing a fitness program for an athlete or player?

(b) What do the data listed above indicate about: • energy system(s) used in tennis? • the type of training required to undertake a fitness program?17. Refer to figure 5.25 on the following page and answer the following

questions:(a) What information can you find about the game of tennis?

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Figure 5.25:

Changes in heart rate during

a game of tennis

(b) What are two ways in which you can find information about heart rate in the graph?

(c) What is most likely to have occurred between 6 minutes 30 seconds and 7 minutes 30 seconds?

190

180

170

160

150

140

130

120

Hea

rt r

ate

(b

eats

pe

r m

inu

te)

Activity time (minutes)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 100

18. In groups of four to six, copy and complete the following table for each of the performers listed below. You have to rely on group discussion and the knowledge of your group members to guess or predict some of the categories. Remember, when analysing an activity it is important to determine both the time span of the activity and the intensity with which it is performed. This information enables you to determine the energy-system requirements and the required components of fitness.

• gymnast (beam routine)• centre player in netball• full forward in Australian

Football • you (playing your chosen

sport)

• woman gardening (aged 70) • English Channel swimmer• netball goalie• 400-metre runner• marathon runner• 1500-metre swimmer

Sport or activity

Duration of activity

Intensity of effort (high,

medium or low)

Continuous or intermittent

effort

Typical locomotion

pattern

Most likelyenergy system

Main fitness components

required

19. To design a training program, you should perform a detailed activity analysis. However, you can gain a rough idea about fitness components by completing a grid similar to the one opposite. For a sport or activity of your choice, complete the grid by ticking the appropriate columns.

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Importance Level

Fitness component Very little Little Average High Very high

Muscular strength

Upper body

Trunk

Legs

Local muscular endurance

Upper body

Trunk

Legs

Flexibility

Upper body

Trunk

Legs

Speed

Muscular power

Agility

Balance

Reaction time

Motor coordination

Aerobic power

Websites

www.anatomy.usyd.edu.au/mru/lectures/lecture2.pdf Anatomy 2001 Muscle/Mobility Structure

www.ausport.gov.au/search.asp Australian Sports Commission

www.championdata.com.au Champion Data

www.e-muscles.net e.Muscles.net

gssiweb.com Gatorade Sports Science Institute

www.gpsports.com/Articles.asp GPSports

web.indstate.edu/thcme/mwking/muscle.html ‘Muscle Biochemistry’, Medical Biochemistry Page

members.tripod.com/Dramo13/Muscles/structure.html Muscle Structure and Function

web.nmsu.edu/~johtaylo/index.html New Mexico State Performance Training

www.peworld.org PE World (Fitness Testing)

www.rugby.com.au Rugby (Australian Rugby Union)

www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/siteindx.htm Sports Coach Site Index A–Z

www.exploratorium.edu/sports/sports_faq.html Sport Science Q & A

www.anatomy.usyd.edu.au/mru/lectures/lecture1.pdf Skeletal Muscle Structure

muscle.ucsd.edu/musintro/struct.shtml ‘Skeletal Muscle Structure’, Muscle Physiology

members.aol.com/naginata/riley4.html South California Naginata Federation

irish1999.tripod.com/SPORTS-SCIENCE-STUFF.html Tripod (Sports/Science Links)

www.pineapplehead.com.au Virtual Spectator

1_61_02472_LIUch5.indd 175 2/12/05 9:23:31 AM

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