Enhancing Learning Through the Use of Graphic Organizers ... · reading level and lack explicit...

Graphic Organizers 1

Enhancing Learning Through the Use of Graphic Organizers:

A Review of the Literature

Jacqueline Lubin

Marcelline Sewak

SPED 644, Section A

Dr. Edward Polloway

December 3, 2007


Anne Ford (2007) once said that “learning disabilities cannot be cured, but they

can be treated successfully” (p. 1). Can teachers actually treat students with learning

disabilities successfully? Is there a tactic that teachers can employ to aid students

understand and grasp content? Years and years of research have indicated that students

with learning disabilities (LD) face significant challenges in comprehending and

organizing information from text. Students encounter greater difficulty at the advanced

reading stage (reading to learn) because there is an increase in the amount of information

in the content areas that they are expected to master (Gajria, Jitendra, Sood and Sacks,

2007).

One of the problematic areas for children with learning disabilities is the

manner in which textbooks are written. Very often textbooks are written above student’s

reading level and lack explicit organization of concepts. As a result, students are unable

to make sense of vocabulary, text patterns and structure. They are faced with the ultimate

challenge of extracting meaning from text/content. This is where graphic organizers come

to the rescue. Gajria et al. (2007) elaborated that graphic organizers make material that

are difficult to understand more accessible to students with learning disabilities. This

technique “helps students understand where they have been, where they are and where

they are going to on their journey through content” (Boudah, Lenz, Bulgren, Schumaker

& Deshler, 2000, p. 2). In short, graphic organizers present concepts in a memorable way

that can significantly enhance student’s comprehension of information as well as

acquisition of content in subject areas such as Social Studies and Science.

According to Meyen, Vergason andWhelan (1996) graphic organizers are “visual

displays teachers use to organize information in a manner that makes information easier


to understand and learn” (p.132). There are several types of graphic organizers. Some

examples include semantic maps, cognitive maps, story maps, concept maps, Venn

diagrams and unit organizers. Researchers agree that graphic organizers are effective

tools that can improve student’s performance in content areas. Therefore, this paper will

delve into answering the following questions:

1. How do graphic organizers enhance comprehension?

2. How can graphic organizers enhance the acquisition of content in Social Studies?

3. Why use graphic organizers in Science?

The paper ends with a discussion on the implications of findings, a brief summary and the

reviewers’ assessment of usefulness and benefits of graphic organizers in enhancing

comprehension and acquisition of content.

How Do Graphic Organizers Enhance Comprehension?

Over the past thirty years, reading comprehension has been one of the major foci of

research. Williams (2005) acknowledged that “children with learning disabilities often

experience severe problems in comprehending … texts despite decoding skills” (p. 8). To

ameliorate this problem, teachers can provide comprehension interventions through the

use of semantic maps, concept diagrams and story maps.

Semantic maps are visual devices that students can use to derive implicit and

explicit meaning from ideas, concepts and details in text (Boyle & Weishaar, 1997).This

strategy increases students’ understanding by helping them acquire, maintain and

organize information. One way that this strategy can be used, is by presenting students

with a completed semantic map depicting the key words and concepts of a passage. They

should then read each paragraph. After finding the main ideas in the passage, students


should link these key ideas to those on the map. This modus operandi provides the

scaffolding that students with LD require. Research indicates that “semantic maps …

outperformed conventional reading techniques on comprehension tests” (Kim, Vaughn,

Wanzek and Wei, 2004, p. 112).

In addition, the use of semantic maps enables students to focus on key vocabulary

and concepts that will enhance reading comprehension. When using this strategy,

teachers should activate student’s prior knowledge. For instance, in teaching the concept

“whales”, teachers can trigger background knowledge by showing a video on whales and

then allowing students to suggest key words that relate to the topic (See Appendix I).

Students can actively participate in creating a semantic map that depicts major concepts

being studied. A research synthesis conducted by Kim et al. (2004) illustrated that

semantic organizers when compared to other instructional strategies (e.g., dictionary

instruction) significantly improved comprehension skills of students with learning

disabilities.

Another effective graphic organizer that can be used to improve comprehension skills

is concept diagrams. Concept diagrams visually present the relationship among concepts.

According to Cesarone (2007), concept diagrams are “chart-like graphic that describes a

concept and its various relationships, with general concepts at the top, supporting

concepts at the bottom, and lines showing the connections between the concepts” (p.

191). This method enables students to add new information to existing schema. Cesarone

(2007) recommended that concept diagrams be used with students with LD, as these

students encounter tremendous difficulty in expressing and linking ideas. Moreover, this

technique can be used to evaluate students understanding of information, by asking


students to create their own concept diagrams. This would enable the teacher to see

“misdirected links or wrong connections” (Helfgott, 2007, p. 1). Helfgott (2007)

elaborated that concept diagrams provide an “accurate, objective way to evaluate areas

students have not grasped” (p. 1). The multiple ways that this strategy can be used to

increase comprehension makes it a necessary tool in all classrooms.

Furthermore, concept diagrams allow students to focus on pivotal concepts

necessary to enhance comprehension. It facilitates understanding of definitions,

characteristics and uses of concepts (Vaughn & Edmonds, 2006). The following

procedures can be used when implementing concept diagrams. After reading a passage,

students are presented with a blank concept diagram. The teacher explains the various

parts of the diagram; and together (both teacher and students) highlights the principal

concepts in the passage. This can be done through overt modeling. Students can be

prompted to furnish instances and non-instances of the concept. This will facilitate active

involvement as they write the concepts on the diagrams (Vaughn & Edmonds, 2006). An

example of a concept diagram can be seen in Appendix II.

Finally, the use of story maps has been proven effective in improving reading

comprehension with students with learning disabilities. This strategy allows students to

systematically identify important story elements such as characters, plot and setting.

DiCecco and Gleason (2002) stated that story maps improve students’ literal,

interpretative and applied comprehension skills. They elaborated that this method assists

in learning new vocabulary as well as recall information from a story. In fact, it helps

students pay attention to important parts of a story. One way to use this approach is by

the teacher reading a story and stopping at strategic points. Each stop contains questions


that will aid students in identifying the relevant parts of the story. Students should be

provided with immediate feedback as to help them understand new information correctly.

Story maps activate prior knowledge before reading, help student monitor comprehension

during reading and summarize key ideas after reading. It is an instructional device that

reconstructs and builds schema. An example is provided in Appendix III.

In addition, story maps assist students in integrating previous knowledge with

existing knowledge (Keel, Dangel &Owens, 1999). This method connects the elements so

that students can better understand the beginning, middle and end of a story. Sorrel

(1990) stated that story maps help students clarify concepts, make predictions and

summarize key points. As a result, students are better able to give more comprehensive

explanations of the setting, characters, plot, problem and resolution of a story. A study

conducted by Idol (1987) reported that poor readers were able to successfully use story

maps in identifying the elements of a story. This suggests that story maps are effective

tools that can enhance students’ comprehension skills.

Studies show that graphic organizers, such as semantic maps, story maps and concept

diagrams, are effective tools in improving comprehension of students with LD

(Boulineau, Fore, Hagan-Burke and Burke, 2004; Kim et al., 2004). These graphic

organizers go beyond assisting in the acquisition of information but also help students to

develop, maintain and generalize skills (Boulineau et al, 2004). Research has shown that

teachers who use graphic organizers can significantly improve comprehension skills of

students with LD (Bulgren, Deshler & Lenz, 2007). Therefore, educators must consider

the use of graphic organizers as a means of aiding students derive meaning from text

(Duke & Pearson, 2002).


How Can Graphic Organizers Enhance the

Acquisition of Content in Social Studies?

There is considerable evidence that graphic organizers are ideal methods for

presenting large amount of data in a simplified manner (Gallavan and Kottler, 2007).

Because of the magnitude of concepts in Social Studies, many educators struggle with

presenting ideas in the specified period of time. Research shows that limited time equates

to limited achievement. Therefore, graphic organizers are efficient ways to maximize

engage time and thus increase learning in Social Studies. Gallavan and Kottler (2007)

noted that “students become more motivated, demonstrate faster short term recall and

greater long-term achievement when [graphic] organizers are used effectively in Social

Studies” (p. 117). Social Studies lessons become more authentic and practical as students

make relationship among concepts. This empowers them to be strategic learners and

independent thinkers. They are able to make reasoned and informed decisions, share

ideas and thus achieve the goal of Social Studies; which is, to become competent

members of society.

According to Gallavan and Kottler (2007), there are several graphic organizers

that can be used to enhance Social Studies content (p. 118-119). They include:

Assume and Anticipate- This triggers background knowledge and interest and

thus gets students involved in the learning process. (Appendix IV- A)

Position and Pattern- It assists students in seeing connection between ideas and

hence identify cause and effect relationships. (Appendix IV- B)

Group and Organize- It uses smaller ideas to generate big ideas as students

analyze and synthesize concepts. (Appendix IV-C)


Compare and Contrast- It relates concepts, highlighting the similarities and

differences among ideas. (Appendix IV-D)

Relate and Reason- This helps students develop deductive and inductive

reasoning skills. (Appendix IV-E)

Identify and Imagine- It encompasses students naming as well as using cognitive

skills (from all levels) to understand concepts. (Appendix IV-F)

Estimate and Evaluate- This assists students in extrapolating, explaining,

differentiating as well as giving different perspective on issues. (Appendix IV-G)

Combine and Create- Students develop creative skills by actively engaging with

material and creating their own concept maps for key ideas discussed in the class.

(Appendix IV-H)

Graphic organizers make learning Social Studies content manageable. This technique

teaches students how to focus on the critical concepts by organizing and summarizing

key ideas.

During Social Studies lessons, graphic organizers can be used in an unlimited

number of ways. They can be used across the learning stages as well as individually and

in large groups. Ellis (2004) highlighted several steps that educators can employ when

using graphic organizers. They must first explain how the organizer is used. In this way,

students will learn about both how content is organized and how the graphics work in

these visual strategies. Then, there must be modeling on how to use the method, followed

by guided practice. Guided practice can be done in several phases. First, students practice

as an entire class. Here the teacher and all students give ideas on how to complete graphic

organizer. Second, there can be small group practice, where students learn from their


peers. Lastly, students work with the organizer on their own but get assistance when

needed.

After using the graphic organizers, students will be ready to engage in

independent practice. Here, students have mastered the skill, and can complete and/or

create graphic organizers on their own. Teacher must follow this sequence for each

format introduced. However, it must be noted that graphic organizers must not be

overused as they can create boredom. Alternative formats must be used to keep students

interested in the Social Studies lesson. Ellis (2004) claimed that graphic organizers are

powerful ways to evaluate student’s understanding of content. Therefore, if this visual

technique is used sparingly and effectively, Social Studies teachers should expect to see

positive gains in students’ acquisition of content and thus, in school achievement.

Why Use Graphic Organizers in Science?

The teaching of Science is a rather challenging task for many teachers (Sorgo,

2006). This is so for many reasons. First, Science is a subject pregnant with abstract

concepts, units of measurements, graphs, experiments, application of ideas and practical

activities. Learning isolated facts do not equip students with the skills necessary to be

successful at the Science lesson. Because concepts are interrelated, content may seem

overwhelming to students with learning disabilities. Second, many students enter the

Science classroom with preconceived notions of what things are and how they work.

Science is all around us and so this frequent encounter of concepts leads to the

development of many misconceptions. These misconceptions are based on cultural

beliefs, commercials, personal interpretations and religious beliefs. Third, science

textbooks contain difficult vocabulary and puzzling explanations of concepts that make


them problematic to comprehend (Kinniburg & Shaw, 2007). One way teachers can

combat these problems is through the use of graphic organizers.

Shmaefsky (2007) explained that graphic organizers such as concept maps

enhance the acquisition and application of scientific skills. A concept map gives a visual

picture of the relationship among concepts (See Appendix V). It stimulates students’

prior knowledge and thus leads to authentic, meaningful learning. This approach assists

students in conceptualizing and remembering factual information. Moreover, it can be

used as a learning strategy where students solve problems inductively and deductively,

actively think through task, and apply information to everyday situation. Because this

visual strategy can accomplish all those science goals in a relatively short period of time,

it should be implemented in Science classrooms.

Mautone and Mayer (2007) agree that concrete graphic organizers can assist

students in organizing and making relationships among ideas. This strategy makes the

information less vague and ambiguous. It helps students focus on relevant details. As

Ellis (2004) noted it “reduces the cognitive demand on the learner” (p. 1). Thus, the use

of graphic organizers increases the likelihood that students will retain the information

presented. The ripple effect is that there is more time for learning. As students are

bombarded with less data, more time is available to process new concepts. Consequently,

students can become more reflective and goal directed learners. The probability of being

successful at the learning task is enhanced. Success breeds confidence, and confidence

leads to increase attempts at difficult tasks. Science lessons include perseverance and

inquiry skills. It can be concluded that graphic organizers help develop skills that may

create tomorrow’s scientists.


Ellis (2004) explained that graphic organizers help students become strategic

learners. This is the ultimate goal of teaching. As students learn new concepts and try to

make connections, they develop higher order thinking skills. In Science classes, these

skills are critical in planning and conducting experiments as well as in investigating

issues. Additionally, graphic organizers present content in a combination of ways-

visually, orally and aurally. This multiple presentation mode engages more students in the

Science lesson. Science class is filled with authentic experiences such as how home

appliances work, how the body functions, and the phases of the moon. Hence, graphic

organizers equip students with ways to understand and use resources in their environment

efficiently. Students will be better equipped to tackle today’s challenges as well as those

that await them in the future. The use of graphic organizers helps students access Science

information and maybe create a greater love for the world we live in.

Hutchison and Padgett (2007) noted that “great teaching is artful when students

get information into their memory in an organized fashion to facilitate later retrieval” (p.

69). Graphic organizers help achieve just that. Moreover, it assists students in dispelling

misconceptions; discovering meanings from difficult scientific words and formulating

connections between ideas. Science education is complex but graphic organizers simplify

it. The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) act requires that science skills and knowledge be

tested (Kinniburgh & Shaw, 2007). Therefore, teachers should make use of graphic

organizers because of its multiple benefits. This strategy motivates students to want to

learn Science and thus create a love for the subject. Graphic organizers follow on

Ausubel’s (1960) theory of how learning takes place. However, educators must use this


strategy with caution as Hutchison and Padgett (2007) warned “a graphic organizer is

only as powerful as its creators is capable of making it clearly capture the facts” (p. 72).

Discussion

The literature review supports the assertion that graphic organizers are

scientifically based and empirically validated tools that “facilitate(s) learning for most

students in … reading comprehension and content areas across a wide range of ages,

grades and learning abilities” (Ellis & Howard, 2007, p.1). Graphic organizers are

valuable instructional instruments that improve learning no matter the cognitive maturity,

learning style or experience of the learner. The literature showed that when students are

using graphic organizers, they tend to be motivated and thus better assimilate novel

information and complete complex tasks (Ellis, 2004). Therefore, educators should make

a concerted effort to use this priceless method as to cater for individual differences,

abilities and preferences. However, the effectiveness of instruction will depend on

teachers’ skills and knowledge in the development and use of graphic organizers

(Hutchison & Padgett, 2007). Maximum gains can only be derived if teachers are

equipped with the ability to use the strategy.

Another implication for teaching is that graphic organizers cater to learning

taking place across modalities. This strategy lends itself to students creating,

manipulating, visualizing, recording, recalling, and expressing understanding of concepts.

It activates the learner’s cognitive skills, while at the same time triggers the use of tactile

and visual abilities to make sense of information (Ellis & Howard, 2007). Graphic

organizers not only improve comprehension but allow students to connect diverse and

comprehensive text in a stratified and simplified manner. Upper grade level teachers


serve to benefit greatly from the implementation of this technique because it provides

them with a way to teach lots of content in a fun and productive way (Gallavan & Kottler,

2007). The literature revealed that teachers of both Social Studies and Science have used

graphic organizers to condense content to produce great improvement in the acquisition

as well as the maintenance and generalization of concepts.

Additionally, graphic organizers cater to the multi-faceted classroom as it enhances

teacher instruction plus student performance. This strategy provides instant feedback

(DiCecco & Gleason, 2002). As a result, teaching can be modified to suit learner’s needs

and so allows educators to be reflective. Also, many studies on the use graphic organizer

in the classroom have shown that it can lead to positive gains for students (Boulineau et

al., 2004; Gallavan & Kottler, 2007). It moves instruction from teacher-directed to

student-directed. Students learn how to derive meaning from text, how to focus on key

points and how to connect ideas. In short, it can help to teach children metacognitive

skills that can be applied to various situations. Consequently, it is incumbent on educators

to use such a strategy that will not only maximize engaged time but also develop

independent learners.

The literature on graphic organizers has been very encouraging in improving

students’ comprehension, acquisition and maintenance of information in content areas.

Studies continue to reveal remarkable improvement in students’ performance when

graphic organizers are used (Boulineau et al, 2004, Gajria et al, 2007). Thus, the

reviewers strongly believe that graphic organizers are effective instructional methods that

should be implemented in the classroom. The reviewers hold this belief because of the

key points highlighted in literature. This technique is a motivational tool that gets


students actively involve in the learning process. Even when content seem difficult, this

technique captivates students’ attention and interest, thus motivating them to remain on

task (Gajria et al, 2007).

In addition, graphic organizers help students to maintain content even after

instruction has ended (Boulineau et al., 2004). One of the key components of effective

instruction is that students are able to acquire, become proficient, maintain and generalize

what is learned. Graphic organizers meet these criteria perfectly. Boulineau et al. (2004)

acknowledged that graphic organizers teach across the learning stages. Because of the

numerous benefits, educators should use this strategy especially with students with

learning disabilities as they encounter great difficulties at the latter part of the learning

stages.

Another implication is that graphic organizers are instructional methods that are

very flexible and cost effective. They can be computer-generated or teacher-made or

student-made (Boyle & Weishaar, 1997). However, teacher and student-made organizers

are not only fun but fosters creativity in both teachers and students. Everyday materials

can be used during the creation process. Students not only learn concepts but other skills,

such as recycling and maximizing resources. Hence, graphic organizers develop the

whole child. This would comply with Heward’s (2003) definition of creativity in which

teachers develop materials and activities that will lead to learning. The creation of

graphic organizers allows educators to strategically monitor and analyze student’s

interaction with text (Helfgoft, 2007). As a result, enables them to intervene before the

development of misconceptions.


The researchers believe that graphic organizers are great tools for remembering

information and an excellent technique that can assist students with learning disabilities,

especially secondary school students. Gajria et al. (2007) agree that students with LD can

benefit from graphic organizers as many, often are unprepared to access information

independently. Teachers must therefore use effective strategies to improve performance

of all students. As Engelmann (1992) correctly stated:

teachers are in the classrooms as professionals to do a job; children are not in the

schools to be pawns for educators who want to try one unproven method after

another because of fad, fashion or creative whim (as cited in Heward, 2003, p.197).

Therefore, graphic organizers consistently have been proven to be effective. It has

highlighted that quantity of content is no deterrent to learning. Research studies have

proven this method is effective, teachers have proven that it works and students have

proven that they learn from it. Thus, the question lies with the reader- What else must be

said? What more do teachers need? Graphic organizers can unlock many doors.


References

Ausubel, D. (1960). The use of advance organizers in the learning and retention of

meaningful verbal materials. Journal of Educational Psychology, 66, 213-244.

Boulineau, T., Fore III, C., Hagan-Burke. S., & Burke, M. D. (2004). Use of story-

mapping to increase the story-grammar text comprehension of elementary students

with learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 27, 105-121.

Boudah, D. J., Lenz, B. K., Bulgren, J.A., Schumaker J. B., & Deshler, D. D. (2000).

Don’t water down! Enhance content learning through the unit organizer routine.

Teaching Exceptional Children, 3, 48-56.

Boyle, J. R., & Weishaar, M. (1997). The effects of expert-generated versus student-

generated cognitive organizers on the reading comprehension of students with

learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 12, 228-235.

Bulgren, J., Deshler, D.D. and Lenz, B.K. (2007). Engaging adolescents with LD in

higher order thinking about history concepts using integrated content enhancement

routines. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 40, 121-123.

Cesarone, B. (2007). Concept mapping in early childhood and primary education.

Childhood Education, 83, 191-192.

DiCecco, V.M., & Gleason, M.M. (2002). Using graphic organizers to attain relational

knowledge from expository text. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35, 306-321.

Duke, N.K., & Pearson, P.D. (2002). Effective practices for developing reading

comprehension. In A. Farstrup & S. Samuels (Eds.), What research has to say

about reading instruction (p. 205-242). Newark, DE: International Reading

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Dye, G. A. (2000). Graphic organizers to the rescue! Helping students link and remember

information. Teaching Exceptional Children, 32, 72-76.

Ellis, E., & Howard (2007). Graphic organizers: Power tools for teaching students with

leaning Disabilities. Current Practice Alerts, 13, 1-4.

Ellis, E. (2004). Q&A: What’s the big deal with graphic organizers? Retrieved October

22, 2007 from

http://www.graphicorganizers.com/Sara/ArticlesAbout/Q&A%20Graphic%20Orga

nizers.pdf.

Ford, A. (2007). Brainy quote. Retrieved October 18, 2007 from

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Gajria, M., Jitendra, A. K., Sood, S. & Sacks, G. (2007). Improving comprehension of

expository text in students with LD: A research synthesis. Journal of Learning

Disabilities, 40, 210-225.

Gallavan, N. P., & Kottler, E. (2007). Eight types of graphic organizers for empowering

social studies students and teachers. The Social Studies, 98, 117-23.

Gao, H. (2007). A review of studies on collaborative concept mapping: What have we

learned about the technique and what is next? Journal of Interactive Learning

Research, 18, 479-483.

Helfgott, D. (2007). Concept maps. Retrieved November 10, 2007 from

http://www.inspiration.com/vlearning/index.cfm?fuseaction=concept_maps.

Hutchinson, C.B., & Padgett II, B. L. (2007). How to create and use analogies effectively

in teaching science concepts. Science Activities 44, 69-72.

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http://www.graphicorganizers.com/Sara/ArticlesAbout/Q&A%20Graphic%20Organizers.pdf

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Heward, W.L. (2003). Ten faulty notions about teaching and learning that hinder the

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Idol, L. (1987). Group story mapping: A comprehensive strategy for both skilled and

unskilled readers. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 20, 196-205.

Keel, M. C., Dangel, H. L., & Owens, S. H.(1999). Selecting instructional intervention

for students with mild disabilities in inclusive classrooms: Focus on Exceptional

Children, 31, 1-16.

Kim, A., Vaughn, S., Wanzek, J., &Wei, S. (2004). Graphic organizers and their effects

on reading comprehension of students with LD: A synthesis of research. Journal of

Learning Disabilities, 37, 105-118.

Kinniburg, L. & Shaw, E. (2007). Building fluency in elementary science through

reader’s theatre. Science Activities 44, 16-22.

Mautone, P.D., & Mayer R.E. (2007). Cognitive aids for guiding graph comprehension.

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Meyen E. L., Vergason, G.A. & Whelan. R. J. (1996). Strategies for teaching exceptional

children in inclusive settings. Denver, CO: Love.

Shmaefsky, B. (2007). E-concept mapping. Journal of College Science Teaching 36 (4),

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Sorgo, A. (2006). Dichotomous identification keys: A ladder to higher order knowledge

about the human body. Science Activities 43, 17-20.

Sorrel, A.L. (1990). Three reading comprehension strategies: TELLS, story mapping, and

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Vaughn, S. & Edmonds, M. (2006). Reading comprehension for older readers.

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APPENDIX I

Source: Vaughn, S. & Edmonds, M. (2006). Reading comprehension for older readers. Intervention in

School and Clinic, 41, 135.


APPENDIX II

Source: Vaughn, S. & Edmonds, M. (2006). Reading comprehension for older readers. Intervention in

School and Clinic, 41, 136.


APPENDIX III

Source: Boulineau, T., Fore III, C., Hagan-Burke. S., & Burke, M. D. (2004). Use of story- mapping to

increase the story-grammar text comprehension of elementary students with learning disabilities. Learning

Disabilities Quarterly, 27, 108.


APPENDIX IV

Source: Gallavan, N. P., & Kottler, E. (2007). Eight types of graphic organizers for empowering social

studies students and teachers. The Social Studies, 98(3), 120.


APPENDIX IV




APPENDIX V

Source: Helfgott, D. (2007). Concept maps. Retrieved November 10, 2007 from

http://www.inspiration.com/vlearning/index.cfm?fuseaction=concept_maps.

http://www.inspiration.com/vlearning/index.cfm?fuseaction=concept_maps

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