ENGLISH READING LITERACY OF MALAYSIAN LOWER …

ENGLISH READING LITERACY OF MALAYSIAN

LOWER SECONDARY STUDENTS USING

RASCH MEASUREMENT MODEL

BY

KAMAL JAMIL IBRAHIM BADRASAWI

A dissertation submitted in fulfillment of the

requirement for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Institute of Education

International Islamic University

Malaysia

APRIL 2012

ii

ABSTRACT

English is an important second language in Malaysia. It is a compulsory school

subject taught to all children in the national primary and secondary schools, to be used

in their personal studies and future workplace/life. Given the importance of English,

the development of English literacy needs to be monitored over time. However, this is

currently done based on their results in national standardized examinations. The input

from these national examinations, though useful, is insufficient to give a complete

picture about the level of students’ performance in English literacy as there are no

national benchmarks at the different levels of schooling. This limitation is especially

critical for students in the lower secondary stage as this level of schooling is

considered as the foundation level in which the development of English literacy is

necessary for their performance in the future at the upper levels of schooling, tertiary

education, and their future career. Thus, this study seeks to examine the performance

of these school children and attempts to answer questions related to their performance

in this skill. Among them are these two major questions: What is the performance

level of Malaysian lower secondary school children in English reading literacy? And

which groups of Malaysian lower secondary school children are at risk of

underachieving in English reading literacy? A sample of 944 Form 1, 2, and 3 students

was selected from 11 national-type schools in two states in Malaysia using the

multistage cluster random sampling procedure. A test of English reading, comprising

60 items, was used. Both RMM and MFRM analyses, in addition to descriptive

analyses, were used to answer the research questions. The results indicated that, in

general, male students slightly outperformed female students, and Form 1 and 2

students outperformed Form 3 students. Closer examination of other demographic

variables including race, school location, parents’ education and SES indicated that

gender does not exclusively influence student performance. The results also showed

that items within the same reading skill categories did not have the same difficulty

level. The most difficult skill category was interpreting information and the easiest

one was finding out word meanings. To conclude, not all males performed better and

not all females were underachieving. The findings show a need for monitoring of

students’ progress over time and the use of a robust measurement model to do so.

Furthermore, the use of the Rasch Measurement Model for test equating and in item

analysis demonstrates the robustness and utility of the model in ensuring fair

measurement. Implications and recommendations are stated for stakeholders.

iii

خلاصة البحث

ينُظر إلى اللغة الإنجليزية كلغة ثانية ىامة في ماليزيا، وتعُتبر من الدوضوعات الدراسية الإجبارية التي تدَُرّسُ لطلبة الدرحلة الأساسية والثانوية، ليتمكن الطلبة من استخدامها في إكمال تحصيلهم الأكاديمي،

ونظرا لأهمية اللغة الإنجليزية، توجد حاجة إلى متابعة تحصيل الطلبة فيها . واستخدامها في مهنة الدستقبلوتَكْمُن الدشكلة في أن معطيات . حيث تتَمُّ ىذه الدتابعة استناداً إلى نتائج الامتحانات الوطنية الدوحدة

ىذه الامتحانات الوطنية، رغم فائدتها، ليست كافية لإعطاء صورة كاملة عن مستوى أداء الطلبة في ىذا القيد أمر . اللغة الإنجليزية؛ بسبب عدم وجود معايير وطنية لذذه الدادة في مختلف مستويات التعليم

بالغ الأهمية وخاصة بالنسبة للطلبة في الدرحلة الثانوية الدنيا، حيث تُ عَدُّ ىذه الدرحلة مرحلة التأسيس، ويعُتبر أداء الطلبة فيها باللغة الانجليزية ضروريا لأدائهم في الدستقبل في مستويات دراسية أعلى، كما في

لذلك يهدف ىذا البحث إلى دراسة أداء . الدرحلة الجامعية والدراسات العليا، وفي وظيفة الدستقبل كذلكما : ومن بين ىذه الأسئلة. الطلبة في الدرحلة الثانوية الدنيا وتحاول الإجابة عن أسئلة متعلقة بهذا الأداء

مستوى أداء طلبة الددارس الثانوية الدنيا في مهارة القراءة في اللغة الإنجليزية؟ وما لرموعات الطلبة التي طالبٍ (944)تعاني من التحصيل الدتدني في مهارة القراءة في اللغة الإنجليزية؟ ىذا وقد تم اختيارُ عيّنةٍ

وتم . مدرسة من ولايتين في ماليزيا باستخدام الطريقة العنقودية العشوائية متعددة الدراحل11وطالبةٍ من وللإجابة على أسئلة البحث تم . سسالاً 60استخدامُ اختبارِ قراءةٍ في اللغة الإنجليزية يحتوي على

استخدام كلٍّ من نموذج راش الخاص بالبيانات الثنائية ونموذج راش متعدد الأوجو، إضافة إلى التحليل وبشكل عام، فقد أشارت النتائج إلى أن الطلاب الذكور تفوقوا قليلاً على الطالبات، وأن طلبة . الوصفي

وبتحليلٍ أعمق للمتغيرات . الصف الأول والثاني الثانوي تفوقوا على طلبة الصف الثالث الثانويتبين أن الجنس (العِرق وموقع الددرسة و الدستوى التعليمي والوضع الاقتصادي للآباء)الديمغرافية الأخرى

وكانت مهارة تفسير الدعلومات الأكثر صعوبة ومهارة إيجاد معنى . حصراً لا يسثر على أداء الطلبةىذا ولم يحصل جميع الطلاب على مستوى أفضل من جميع الطالبات، وليس . الكلمات الأكثر سهولة

وأخيراً، تُظهِرُ النتائج الحاجة إلى متابعة أداء الطلبة مع مرور الوقت . كل الطالبات كان أدااىن متدنياً وعلاوة على ذلك، دلَّ إستخدام نموذج راش للقياس في طريقة التكافس . باستخدام نموذج قياس مناسب

. الرأسي بين الإختبارات وفي تحليل الأسئلة على قوة وفائدة ىذا النموذج في ضمان تحقيق مقياس عادل . واختُتِمت الدراسةُ بالدعاني الدستفادة منها والتوصيات لذوي الاختصاص

iv

APPROVAL PAGE

The dissertation of Kamal J I Badrasawi has been approved by the following:

______________________________

Noor Lide Abu Kassim

Supervisor

_______________________________

Mohamad Sahari Nordin

Supervisor

_______________________________

Ssekamanya Siraje Abdullah

Supervisor

______________________________

Ainol Zubairi

Internal Examiner

______________________________

Arshad Abd Samad

External Examiner

______________________________

Fatimah Daud

Chairman

v

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this thesis is the result of my own investigations, except where

otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently

submitted as a whole for any other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.

Kamal J I Badrasawi

Signature .................................................. Date ………………………………

vi

INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY

MALAYSIA

DECLARATION OF COPYRIGH AND

AFFIRMATION OF FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED

RESEARCH

Copyright@2012 by International Islamic University Malaysia. All rights

reserved.

ENGLISH READING LITERACY OF MALAYSIAN LOWER

SECONDARY STUDNETS USING RASCH MEASUREMENT MODEL

I hereby affirm that The International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) hold

all rights in the copyright of this work and henceforth and reproduction or use in

any form or by means whatsoever is prohibited without the written consent of

IIUM. No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form of by means, electronic, mechanical,

photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the

copyright holder.

Affirmed by Kaml J I Badrasawi

………………………….. …………………………

Signature Date

vii

This study is dedicated to:

My beloved prophet Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him),

the first and best role model teacher, and the source of

knowledge, wisdom, purification and mercy,

“Allah did confer a great favour on the believers when He sent among them an

apostle from among themselves, rehearsing unto them the Signs of Allah,

sanctifying them, and instructing them in Scripture and Wisdom,

while, before that, they had been in manifest error” ( Qur’an 3:164)

all who have contributed directly and indirectly

to the success of this work:

parents, teachers, brothers, sisters, wife, daughters, friends, and

my late father in law, Abu Mohammad

viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, all praise belongs to Allah, the Lord of the Universe, whose mercy,

guidance and blessings have enabled me to complete this study successfully.

I would like to express my everlasting and heartfelt gratitude to my

supervisor, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Noor Lide Abu Kassim for all her highly appreciated

guidance, invaluable comments and constant encouragement. Her approaches and

character will influence my future career.

My deepest and heartfelt gratitude are also extended to my supervisory

committee members Prof. Dr. Mohamad Sahari Nordin and Assoc. Prof. Dr.

Ssekamanya Siraje Abdullah for their constructive comments, distinguished support

and encouragement. Special thanks go to Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ainol Zubairi for her

insightful feedback, and Prof. Mike Linacre for the great clarification throughout the

course of this study.

My sincere thanks go to the International Islamic University Malaysia,

particularly the Institute of Education (INSTED), for giving me a partial scholarship

and the opportunity to pursue my PhD study, and I would like to thank all the lecturers

and staff for their great efforts, help and sincerity. I cannot forget to send my best

Doa’ and prayers to the soul of Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ahmad Marzouki, for his

commitment, encouragement, support and gentleness.

I would always be grateful to all principals, teachers and students, who

accepted to participate in the study, for their kind cooperation.

Many thanks are extended to my colleagues, friends and lecturers from several

countries for their moral support, and Dr. Ahmad Asa’d, Dr. Kaseh Abu Bakar, Dr.

Enas AbdAllah, Dr. Sharifah Sariyah, Dr. Mohammad HajHamad, Ustaz Ismail

Abdullah, Mr. Nassir Abu Saa’, Mohammad Muslim, Mohammed Borhandden,

Muhajir Bin Taslikhan, Omran Musleh, Noor Sharifah Kamaruddin, Huda Skaik,

Sheila Lallmamode, Hafsah Mwita, Harith Zyood and Marwan Badran in particular.

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my family: parents, Jamil and

Nemah, sisters and brothers, who have always wished me success in my entire life. I

would never forget my parents’ in law continuous prayers for my success. My wife,

Manal, deserves all my great acknowledgement and thanks for her support and

patience. My eternal love goes to my two daughters Nematullah and Menatullah.

Finally, I would also like to thank many other people who have contributed in

the completion of this work. Their names are deeply rooted in my heart.

May Allah SWT bless you all.

ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract .............................................................................................................. ii

Abstract in Arabic .............................................................................................. iii

Approval Page ..................................................................................................... iv

Declaration Page ................................................................................................ v

Copyright Page .................................................................................................... vi

Dedication .......................................................................................................... vii

Acknowledgements ............................................................................................ viii

List of Tables ...................................................................................................... xiii

List of Figures .................................................................................................... xv

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ............................................................ 1

1.1 Background of the Study .................................................................. 1

1.1.1 Benchmarks in Literacy and Numeracy ............................. 5

1.2 Statement of the Problem .................................................................. 8

1.3 Purpose of the Study ......................................................................... 11

1.4 Objectives of the Study ..................................................................... 12

1.5 Research Questions ........................................................................... 13

1.6 Rationale of the Study ....................................................................... 13

1.7 Significance of the Study .................................................................. 14

1.8 Delimitations of the Study ................................................................ 15

1.9 Theoretical Framework ..................................................................... 16

1.10 Definitions of Terms ....................................................................... 23

1.11 Organization of the Study ............................................................... 25

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................... 27

2.1. Literacy Skill .................................................................................... 27

2.1.1 Defining Literacy ................................................................... 28

2.1.2 Historical Background of Literacy ........................................ 33

2.1.2.1 Simple Literacy ............................................................ 33

2.1.2.2 Concept of Functional Literacy ................................... 34

2.1.2.3 Analytical Perspective ................................................. 34

2.1.2.4 Literacy and Lifelong Learning ................................... 34

2.1.3 English Literacy ..................................................................... 35

2.1.3.1 English as a Global Language ..................................... 35

2.1.3.2 English Language in the Malaysian Context ............... 39

x

2.1.3.2.1 English Language in the Malaysian Curriculum 41

2.1.3.2.1.1 Secondary Education Structure in

Malaysia ....................................................

41

2.1.3.2.1.2 English Language Syllabus for Secondary

Level .........................................................

42

2.1.4 English Literacy in the Current Study ................................... 43

2.2 Reading Literacy Skill ...................................................................... 44

2.2.1 Nature of Reading Skill ......................................................... 45

2.2.2 Divisibility of Reading Skill .................................................. 47

2.2.2.1 Reading as a Unitary Skill ........................................... 47

2.2.2.2 Reading as a Multi-divisible Skill ............................... 49

2.2.3 Reading Taxonomies ............................................................. 54

2.2.3.1 Munby’s Taxonomy .................................................... 55

2.2.3.2 Grabe’s Taxonomy ...................................................... 58

2.2.3.3 Barrett’s Comprehension Taxonomy ........................... 59

2.2.3.4 Vacca and Vacca Levels of Comprehension ............... 63

2.2.4 How Reading is Tested .......................................................... 65

2.2.4.1 ACTFL ......................................................................... 65

2.2.4.2 Masters and Forster Scales .......................................... 66

2.2.4.3. KET ............................................................................ 66

2.3 Monitoring Educational Performance ............................................... 67

2.3.1 Monitoring Learners’ Development ...................................... 68

2.3.1.1 International Studies .................................................... 70

2.3.1.1.1 IEA .................................................................... 70

2.3.1.1.2 TIMSS ............................................................... 71

2.3.1.1.3 PISA .................................................................. 72

2.3.1.1.4 PIRLS ................................................................ 73

2.3.1.1.5 IEA studies and Rasch Model ........................... 74

2.3.1.2. National Assessment ................................................... 75

2.3.1.2.1 NAEP ................................................................. 75

2.3.1.2.2 NCLB ................................................................ 75

2.3.1.2.3 NAPLAN ........................................................... 76

2.3.1.2.4 Progress /Achievement Map .............................. 77

2.3.1.2.5 ‘Can-do’, ‘Checklist’ or ‘Outcomes-Based’

Model ..................................................................

78

2.3.2 Monitoring of Educational Performance in the Malaysian

Context ..................................................................................

79

2.3.3 Boys’ and Girls’ Underachievement ..................................... 80

2.4 Rasch Measurement Model (RMM) ................................................. 81

2.4.1 Introduction ............................................................................ 81

2.4.2 Limitations of the Classical Test Theory ............................... 83

2.4.3 The Rasch Measurement Model ............................................ 85

2.4.4 Properties of the Rasch Measurement Model ........................ 86

2.4.4.1 Separation and Reliability ........................................... 86

2.4.4.2 Specific Objectivity ..................................................... 87

2.4.4.3 Conjoint Additivity ...................................................... 88

2.4.4.4 Unidimensionality ....................................................... 89

2.4.4.5 Identifying Misfitting items and Misfitting Persons .... 89

2.4.4.6 Local Independence ..................................................... 91

xi

2.4.5 The Many-Facets Rasch Model (MFRM) for Measurement . 91

2.5 Literacy from Islamic Perspective .................................................... 93

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................... 98

3.1. Introduction ...................................................................................... 98

3.2 Research Design ............................................................................... 98

3.3 Population of the Study ..................................................................... 100

3.3.1 Sample of the Study ............................................................... 100

3.3.2 Sampling Procedure and Characteristics of Respondents ..... 102

3.4 Instrument of the Study ..................................................................... 105

3.4.1 Selection of Items .................................................................. 105

3.4.2 Pilot study .............................................................................. 106

3.4.2.1 Analysis of Data from Pilot Study ............................... 107

3.4.2.1.1 Categorizing Items According to Skill Areas .... 107

3.4.2.1.2 Investigating Item Distribution and Item

Difficulty Levels .................................................

109

3.4.2.1.3 Performance of Students According to Forms ... 120

3.4.2.2 Conclusions ................................................................. 121

3.4.3 Instrument for Final Study ..................................................... 122

3.4.3.1 Reading Test Rationale and Description ..................... 122

3.4.3.2 What Was Assessed? ................................................... 122

3.4.3.3 How Was Reading Assessed? ...................................... 126

3.5 Data Collection ................................................................................. 127

3.6. Data Analysis ................................................................................... 128

3.6.1 Screening and Cleaning Data ................................................. 128

3.6.2 Rasch Measurement Model Analysis .................................... 129

3.6.3 Multifaceted Rasch Model Analysis ...................................... 129

3.6.4 SPSS Analysis ....................................................................... 130

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS OF THE STUDY ......................................... 131

4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 131

4.2 Adequacy of Reading Test ................................................................ 131

4.2.1 Summary of Item Difficulty and Students Ability Measures 132

4.2.2 Validity of Item Test .............................................................. 132

4.2.2.1 Validity of MCQ Test: Item polarity, Fit, and

Unidimensionality ........................................................

132

4.2.2.1.1 Item Polarity ...................................................... 132

4.2.2.1.2 Item Fit .............................................................. 135

4.2.2.1.3 Unidimensionality ............................................. 137

4.2.3 Construct Validity .................................................................. 137

4.2.3.1 Continuum of Increasing Intensity .............................. 137

4.2.3.2 Empirical Scaling of Reading Test .............................. 139

4.2.4 Consistency of Results with Purpose of Measurement .......... 145

4.2.4.1 Reliability and Separation ........................................... 145

4.2.4.2 Precision of Measures .................................................. 146

4.2.4.3 Test Targeting .............................................................. 146

4.2.5 Validity of Students’ Responses ............................................ 147

xii

4.2.6 Conclusion of Adequacy of Reading Test .............................. 149

4.3 Students’ English Reading Literacy Performance ............................ 150

4.3.1 Students’ Performance in Reading Skill Areas ..................... 150

4.3.2 Male and Female Students’ Reading Performance Levels .... 157

4.3.2.1 Distribution of Reading Performance Measures for

Male and Female Students ...........................................

157

4.3.2.2. Reading Performance Levels for Male and Female

Students ........................................................................

160

4.3.2.2.1 Reading Performance levels .............................. 161

4.3.2.2.2 Grammar Performance levels ............................ 165

4.3.3 Form1, 2 and 3 Students’ Reading Literacy Performance ..... 172

4.3.4 Underachievers in English Reading Literacy Skill ................ 177

4.3.4.1 Comparison between Male and Female Subgroups’

Reading Performance ...................................................

177

4.3.4.1.1 School Location ................................................. 177

4.3.4.1.2 Students’ Form .................................................. 178

4.3.4.1.3 Students’ Race ................................................... 179

4.3.4.1.4 Father’s Job ....................................................... 181

4.3.4.1.5 Mother’s Job ...................................................... 182

4.3.4.1.6 Father’s Education ............................................. 183

4.3.4.1.7 Mother’s Education ........................................... 185

4.3.4.1.8 Schools .............................................................. 187

4.3.5 Summary of Reading Skill Categories Location/ Order

Using Facets ..........................................................................

190

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND

RECOMMENDTAIONS OF THE STUDY ..................................................

194

5.1 Adequacy of Reading Test ................................................................ 194

5.2 Item Difficulty: Rasch Model and Judgmental Analysis .................. 196

5.3 Equating Tests Using Rasch Measurement Model ........................... 197

5.4 Students’ Performance on English Reading Literacy Areas ............. 200

5.5 Male and Female Students’ Performance Level in English Reading

Literacy .............................................................................................

205

5. 6 Students’ Performance across Different Grade Forms .................... 206

5.7 Students Subgroups’ Performance in English Literacy Skill ............ 207

5.8 Conclusions of the Study .................................................................. 213

5.9 Implications of the Study .................................................................. 215

5.9.1 Implications for Language Teachers and Test Developers .... 215

5.9.2 Implications for Policy Makers ............................................. 216

5.10 Recommendations of the Study ...................................................... 218

5.10.1 Recommendations for Further Research ............................. 219

BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................. 222

APPENDICES ................................................................................................... 238

xiii

LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Page No.

2.1 Reading skills/ Sub skills in Munby’s Taxonomy (1978) 56

2.2 Barret’s Taxonomy and Bloom’s Taxonomy 62

3.1 Sample-size Range for Calibration 101

3.2 Summary of Study Sample in KL and Selangor 104

3.3 Distribution of Sample for the Pilot Study 106

3.4 Item and Person Reliability 109

3.5 Item Fit and Fit Statistics 110

3.6 Means and Medians of 2004, 2005 and 2007 Sets 112

3.7 Distribution of Reading Skills /Sub skills with Text Type

and Context Type

124

4.1. Item Polarity Statistics: Correlation Order 134

4. 2 Item Statistics: Misfit Order 136

4.3 Item Difficulty: Rasch Model and Experts Judgment 142

4.4 Reliability of the Item Difficulty Estimates 145

4.5 Reliability of the Person Ability Estimates 146

4.6 Frequency of Students within Intended Measure-Square

Ranges

147

4.7 Means and Medians of Reading Skill Areas 153

4.8 Means and Medians of Item Context Types 156

4. 9 Means and Medians of Males’ and Females’ Reading

Performance

157

xiv

4.10 Description of Reading Performance Levels 166

4.11 Means and Medians of Reading Performance of Form 1,

Form 2 and Form3 Students

172

4.12 Summary of Students’ Reading Performance: Means and

Median Estimates

176

4.13 Means and Medians of Urban and Rural Students’ Estimated

Reading Performance

177

4.14 Means and Medians of Form 1, Form 2 and Form 3

Students’ Estimated Reading Performance

179

4.15 Means and Medians of Chinese, Malay and Indian Students’

Estimated Reading Performance

180

4.16 Means and Medians of Low, Medium, and High SES

Students’ Estimated Reading Performance (Father’s Job)

181

4.17 Means and Medians of Low, Medium, and High SES

Students’ Estimated Reading Performance (Mother’s Job)

183

4.18 Means and Medians of Students’ Estimated Reading

Performance in Terms of Father’s Education

184


Performance in Terms of Mother’s Education

186


Performance in Terms of School Performance

188

4.21 Reading Skill Categories’ Measurement Report 192

xv

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Page No.

1.1 Relationship between Reading Theory, Measurement

Theory and Reading Test

19

2.1 Kachru’s Three Circles’ of English with Estimates Speaker

Numbers in Millions

37

2.2 Garddol’s Three Overlapping Circles of English 38

2.3 Characteristics of Performance Assessment 92

3.1 Research Procedure 99

3.2 Reading Test : Wright Map 111

3.3 Wright Item Map: Distribution of Items for all Three Sets

2004, 2005 and 2007

113

3.4 Reading skills/ Sub skills : Wright Map 115

3.5 Students Performance According to Forms 120

4.1. Results of the PCA of Standardized Residuals 137

4. 2 Wright Map for Reading Test 138

4.3 Stacks of Items 139

4.4 Empirical Scaling of Items According to Catagories

for Reading Skills/Subskills

141

4.5 Wright Map: Skills Associated to Test Items 144

4.6 Most Misfitting Response Strings 148

4.7 Most Unexpected Responses 149

xvi

4.8 Wright Item-Ability Map: Performance of Lower

Secondary Students on Test of English Reading Skill

151

4.9 Wright Skill – Ability Map: Performance of Lower

Secondary Students on Test of English Reading Skill

152

4. 10 Means of Person Ability and Difficulty Level of Skill

Areas

154

4.11 Means of Person Ability and Difficulty Level of Skill

Areas with Item Contexts

155

4.12 Distribution of Items Measures in Terms of Context Type 156

4.13 Distribution of Males’ and Females’ Reading Performance

Measures

158

4.14 Wright Person Map (Males and Females) 159

4.15 Males and Females Reading Performance in All Skill

Areas

160

4.16 Wright Map: Skills Assciated to Reading Test Items 161

4.17 Reading Skill Performance Levels 162

4.18 Grammar Performance Levels 163

4.19 Distribution of Male and Female Estimated Reading

Performance

171

4.20 Distribution of Male and Female Students’ Estimated

Grammar Performance

171

4.21 Distribution of Reading Performance of Form 1, Form 2,

and Form 3 Students

173

4.22 Distribution of Form 1, Form 2, and Form 3 Estimated

Reading Performance

173

4.23 Distribution of Grammar Performance of Form 1, Form 2,

and Form 3

174

4.24 Wright Person Map for Form1, Form2 and Form 3

Students

175

4.25 Distribution of Urban and Rural Students’ Estimated

Reading Performance

178

xvii

4.26 Distribution of Form 1, 2 and 3 Students’ Estimated

Reading Performance

179

4.27 Distribution of Chinese, Malay and Indian Students’

Estimated Reading Performance

180

4.28 Distribution of Low, Medium, and High SES Students’

Estimated Reading Performance (Father’s Job)

182

4.29 Distribution of Low, Medium, and High SES Students’

Estimated Reading Performance (Mother’s Job)

183

4.30 Distribution of Students’ Estimated Reading Performance

in Terms of Father’s Education

185


in Terms of Mother’s Education

187


in Terms of Their Schools

189

4.33 Location of Reading Skills Associated with Items in

Reading Test

191

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Literacy and numeracy skills have been defined as the ability to read, write and use

numbers. Over time, these definitions have changed because of social, cultural,

economic and political factors. Depending on the context in which they are used,

literacy and numeracy mean different things to different people. For instance, the

Adult Literacy and Numeracy in Scotland (ALNIS) (2001) uses the following

definition for both literacy and numeracy.

The ability to read, write and use numbers, to handle information,

express ideas and opinions, make decisions and solve problems, as

family members, workers, citizens and lifelong learners (Scottish

Executive, 2002, p. 20).

This definition includes the knowledge and the skills to be used in different situations

and contexts. There are many other definitions, and as each presents different

implications in its use, it is difficult to have one single universal definition for these

skills that could be agreed upon and used by all researchers or scholars (Blake &

Blake 2002; Kirsch, 2001; Lonsdale & McCurry, 2004).

In many countries all over the world, there is much concern with literacy and

numeracy skills. That is because of the vital roles that these two skills play in the

development of the individual and the country. They have been found to contribute to

the achievement and improvement of the economic growth and the social cohesion of

a country (Allowy, Freebody, Gilbert, Muspratt, 2002; Australian Council for

Educational Research (ACER), 2000; Department for Education and Skills, 2004;

Lankshear & Knoble, 2006). In the Commonwealth Department of Education, Science

2

and Training report, Allowy et al. (2002) stressed that literacy is an important element

for people to function in their life. They maintained that literacy is essential not only

for the individual but also the society;

Most theorists and researchers stress the social effects of literacy,

variously crediting it with levering up economies, building social

cohesion, establishing democracy, and establishing and maintaining

levels of civic well-being (p. 24).

According to Bhola (cited in Blunch, 2001), literacy and numeracy have a

strong relationship with economic and social developments of countries in the world.

Blake and Blake (2002) pointed out that the relation between literacy and economic

progress is clear and most of the countries, if not all, have come to the conclusion that

developing skilful and literate citizens is instrumental to their prosperity. This view is

reiterated in a recent report in Australia which stresses the need for learners to have

higher levels of literacy and numeracy in the globalized world.

As the global marketplace becomes increasingly skilled, workers are

required to have higher levels of education built on strong literacy and

numeracy skills. High-quality schooling is, therefore, fundamental if

Australia is to have increased productivity and participation in the

workforce in the future (Council of Australian Governments National

Reform Agenda, 2007, p. 5).

Kirsch (2001) assured that literacy and numeracy are essential for improving

living standards and competing in the global market place. They are deemed as

equally imperative for individual participation in a knowledge based society,

technological advancements across various institutions, sophisticated legal systems

and gigantic public programmes. A report written in the UK showed that a low level

of literacy and numeracy reduces economic competitiveness because people with poor

literacy and numeracy skills are less productive at work, and exhibit low ability to

cope effectively in the community. On the other hand, the promise of a bright future,

3

high earning, and quality life are most likely to be granted for those with brilliant

levels of literacy and numeracy skills (Department for Education and Skills, 2004).

In the American context, reports written on literacy and numeracy have

indicated that in order to help youth to meet the challenges in their present and future

life, literacy and numeracy levels should be improved. The National Centre on

Educational and the Economy Workforce Development Strategies Group (2004)

showed that having low levels of literacy and numeracy is problematic for the states

and the cities as these skills are necessary for youth to become productive members of

society and workforce. High levels in these two skills would ascertain the effective

participation of the individuals in further heightening the productivity in their

countries. This is further supported by the Council of Australian Governments

National Reform Agenda (2007, p. 5) which states that ―literacy and numeracy skills

are strongly correlated with increased participation in the workforce and are the

foundation of building higher skills, which is a central determinant of productivity in

the long run.‖

Furthermore, these two skills are necessary for students to perform successfully

at schools (Council of Australian Governments, 2007; Henry, 2001; Holme, 2004;

Literacy Development Council of Newfoundland and Labrador, 2000). A report by the

Council of Australian Governments (2007) suggested that school teachers‘ first

concern should be on the development of literacy and numeracy skills owing to the

fact that all learning spheres require these two skills, and partly because they are the

principal indicators/ determinants of learners‘ academic success in the future. The

same argument is mooted by Chriswick (cited in Council of Australia Governments,

2007) who asserted that the two skills are considered as the solid bases for the success

in both the academic and work affairs.

4

...the core of literacy and numeracy skills are fundamental requirements

for earning and are essential for work and life opportunities beyond

school. Low levels of literacy and numeracy impact negatively on

educational attainment and employment prospects, resulting in

economic costs that are borne by the whole community (Council of

Australia Governments, 2007, p. 5).

The Literacy Development Council of Newfoundland and Labrador (2000) elucidated

that school children with low levels of literacy and numeracy are unable to learn

school subjects. Consequently, they are predestined to academic failure. Students with

high levels of literacy and numeracy skills, on the other hand, will be more confident

and committed to their academic and work tasks; more likely to stay at school, have

confidence in dealing with their everyday tasks, as well as with lifelong learning and

health (Council of Australian Governments National Reform Agenda, 2007).

It is also found that learners‘ achievement in literacy and numeracy indicates

their participation and engagement in school in future. For instance, the Australian

Council for Educational Research (ACER) (2000) have found poor school

engagement, poor enrolment in grade 12, poor post-secondary entrance scores and

below average successful transitions from schools as being the result of poor literacy

and numeracy attainment in the ninth grade.

...A key finding was that low school achievement in the literacy and

numeracy substantially increased the likelihood that student would leave

school early regardless of other factors (Australian Council for

Educational Research, 2000, p. 14).

At present, as the world is witnessing the existence of increasingly advanced

technologies, there is a dire need for improving school children‘s performance in

literacy and numeracy skills. Routman (1996) recommends that in USA there is a need

to improve the literacy of students to enable them to function well in the present

technological era. He points out that educational policymakers in USA have to work

to increase the number of school children who can "read, analyze, and use

5

complexities, including those available on computers and electronic Media‖

(Routman, 1996, p. 6).

Finally, it is important to add that in most countries such as Australia, United

States of America, Canada, United Kingdom and others, billions of dollars have been

invested in projects in relation to literacy and numeracy. The common goal of these

projects is to ensure that school children achieve the skills which would enable them

to work effectively in their future daily life. Moreover, given the importance of

literacy and numeracy skills for the development of individuals and their countries,

improving school children literacy and numeracy performance has become the priority

of educational systems and policies, curriculum development, and everyday tasks

related to educational practice (Lankshear & Knobel, 2006; Rowe, 2006). For

example, the Australian National Literacy and Numeracy Plan (1998) explicitly

requires that educational systems set ―priorities for resources which place the

acquisition of effective literacy and numeracy of the whole enterprise of schooling on

top of others‖ (Henry, 2001, p. 27).

1.1.1 Benchmarks in Literacy and Numeracy

Individuals as well as organizations, are continuously seeking to improve their

performance or achievement. One way of doing so is by analyzing what they have

achieved and what they have yet to achieve in accordance to certain indicators or

benchmarks. The essence of the benchmarking exercise, therefore, is to improve their

performance and thereby their effectiveness. Kelly (2001) argues that benchmarking

at schools and colleges is a necessity, not a luxury.

Benchmarking in schools and colleges is particularly apt today, with

curriculum development and public expectations changing quickly.

6

Schools and colleges need to be sensitive and responsive to these

changes... (p. 10).

Broadly, benchmarking can be divided into two categories. One of which

depends on an evaluation of outcomes against an average of statistical achievement,

and the other relies on a comparison of critical process against those in other

organizations, which are recognized to be more effective (Kelly, 2001). In educational

settings, the former has been widely used because schools, for example, are more

concerned with what has been achieved, rather than with how it has been achieved.

According to the Cambridge Dictionary, a benchmark is defined as ―a level of

quality which can be used as a standard when comparing with other things‖

(Cambridge Dictionary Online, 2009). The Australian Council of State School

Organization (2005) explains that benchmarks are used to ensure whether students are

making adequate progress pertinent to learning outcomes specified at a given level,

and to identify those students who are not achieving basic knowledge and skills. It

defines benchmarks as ―standards against which performance can be measured. In

Australia education, they are often ‗minimum‘ standards. They focus on what every

child of a given age can reasonably be expected to achieve in particular learning

areas‖ (p.1).

The Australian Department of Education, Employment and Workforce

Relations (2005) stated that benchmarks are useful as they ―indicate minimum

national standards and help education authorities to ensure that all students achieve at

least the skill levels necessary to access the learning and continue to make further

progress at school‖ (p. 5). In other words, benchmarks provide information on

educational changes including students‘ performance over time. With this

7

information, schools are able to plan, evaluate and develop education programmes that

can enhance the school children's performance of literacy and numeracy.

It is noteworthy to stress that benchmarks commonly focus on certain core

components in literacy and numeracy, and they present the least levels of nationally

acceptable standards of literacy and numeracy in ‗pre-defined‘ areas. In other words,

benchmarks only describe the essential elements of literacy and numeracy that

students are to achieve at the minimum acceptable level (Curriculum Corporation,

2006). It is also important to emphasize that benchmarks are not tests; therefore, the

information gained from them should not be used as such. Nonetheless, benchmark

data are more often than not obtained from standardized tests conducted either at the

national or international levels.

Though limited to some extent, benchmarks are important for nation

development. For example, the Council of Australia Governments National Reform

Agenda (2007) has made it clear that although Australia approximately performs well

in relation to other countries, there still remains a group of 10-15 percent of children

who are not reading even to the minimum level of achievement needed for progress at

school.

At the international level, benchmarks also play a significant role. Martin,

Mullis and Kelly (2000) discussed the importance of profiling students‘ achievement

in mathematics at the TIMSS international benchmarks in the USA. They argued that

the TIMSS results help identify which areas that the national benchmarks have and

have not achieved and on which areas students should focus more.

ENGLISH READING LITERACY OF MALAYSIAN LOWER …

Documents

Transcript of ENGLISH READING LITERACY OF MALAYSIAN LOWER …