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Cambridge University Press978-1-107-46562-6 – A/AS Level English Language for AQA Student BookMarcello Giovanelli Gary Ives John Keen Raj Rana and Rachel Rudman Edited by Marcello GiovanelliFrontmatterMore information

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ENGLISH LANGUAGEA /AS Level for AQAStudent BookMarcello Giovanelli, Gary Ives, John Keen, Raj Rana and Rachel RudmanSeries editor: Marcello Giovanelli

http://www.cambridge.org/9781107465626

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This textbook has been approved by AQA for use with our qualification. This means that we have checked that it broadly covers the specification and we are satisfied with the overall quality. Full details of our approval process can be found on our website.

We approve textbooks because we know how important it is for teachers and students to have the right resources to support their teaching and learning. However, the publisher is ultimately responsible for the editorial control and quality of this book.

Please note that when teaching the AS and A Level English Language (7701, 7702) course, you must refer to AQA’s specification as your definitive source of information. While this book has been written to match the specification, it cannot provide complete coverage of every aspect of the course.

A wide range of other useful resources can be found on the relevant subject pages of our website: aqa.org.uk

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Introduction p.4

Enriching19 Textual variations and representations p.280

20 Language development p.286

21 Language diversity p.294

22 Language change p.300

23 Language investigation p.306

24 Original writing p.312

Developing13 Textual variations and representations p.61

13.1 Textual variations p.61

13.2 Language analysis: methods and approaches p.64

13.3 Language analysis: genre and mode p.67

13.4 Language analysis: audience and purpose p.73

13.5 Introduction to representations p.76

13.6 Language and representations: people, social groups and gender

p.82

13.7 Language and representations: events, places and issues

p.85

13.8 Exploring similarities and differences between texts

p.89

13.9 Bringing it all together p.93

14 Child language development p.97

14.1 Learning to talk p.97

14.1.1 The process of spoken acquisition p.97

14.1.2 A historical overview of acquisition theory

p.103

14.1.3 Environmental factors p.107

14.1.4 Pragmatics p.109

14.1.5 Discourse p.111

14.1.6 Lexis and semantics p.112

14.1.7 Grammar p.114

14.2 Learning to write p.117

14.2.1 Early exposure to printed language p.117

14.2.2 Learning to read p.118

14.2.3 The process of writing development p.123

14.2.4 Attitudes and theories about learning to write

p.126

14.2.5 Environmental factors p.129

14.2.6 Handwriting and orthography p.133

14.2.7 Lexical and grammatical development p.137


15 Language diversity p.145

15.1 Varieties and diversity – an overview p.145

15.2 Geographical varieties of English p.148

15.3 Grammatical variations p.157

15.4 Phonological variations: our accent p.159

15.5 Personal and social varieties of English p.165


16 Language change p.192

16.1 Studying language change p.192

16.2 The origins of English p.193

16.3 Lexical change p.195

16.4 Semantic change p.199

16.5 Orthography p.203

16.6 Grammatical change p.209

16.7 Standardisation p.216

16.8 Why does change happen? p.219

16.9 How does change spread? p.221


17 Language in action: a language investigation p.236

17.1 What is a language investigation? p.236

17.2 Choosing an area to investigate p.236

17.3 What approach could you take? p.237

17.4 Data collection p.241

17.5 Data selection p.248

17.6 Writing your investigation p.253


18 Original writing p.259

18.1 The writing process p.259

18.2 The style model p.262

18.3 The power of persuasion p.265

18.4 The power of storytelling p.268

18.5 The power of information p.273

18.6 The drafting process p.276

18.7 Writing a commentary p.276

18.8 Referencing your work p.278


Contents

Beginning1 What does language study mean at A Level? p.8

2 Text producers and receivers p.12

3 Mode and genre p.16

4 Language use and language users p.20

5 Language level 1: Lexis and semantics p.24

6 Language level 2: Grammar p.31

7 Language level 3: Phonetics, phonology and prosodics p.37

8 Language level 4: Graphology p.42

9 Language level 5: Pragmatics p.46

10 Language level 6: Discourse p.51

11 Introduction to analysing texts p.56

12 Becoming a language investigator p.59

References p.317

Index p.318

Acknowledgements p.320

3

Contents






IntroductionWelcome to this student book for your AQA AS/A Level English Language course!

The AQA English Language AS/A Level specifications introduce the study of English in a variety of forms and contexts as well as the concepts and methods necessary to analyse language. You will be assessed in a number of ways, including data analysis, essay writing, investigative writing and your own original writing. This student book supports the specifications, prepares you for these assessments and helps you to develop the different skills you will be assessed on – skills which will stand you in good stead beyond AS or A Level, whatever you go on to do.

About the specificationsThe AS Level specification has two components:

Paper 1: Language and the individualWhat it is: an introduction to language analysis and textual variety, exploring concepts related to audience, purpose, genre, mode and representation. How it is assessed: 1½ hour exam worth 50% of your AS Level.

Paper 2: Language varietiesWhat it is: an exploration of varieties of English, including attitudes to language diversity and exploring language in its social and geographical contexts. How it is assessed: 1½ hour exam worth 50% of your AS Level.

The A Level specification has three components:

Paper 1: Language, the individual and societyWhat it is: this area of study explores textual variety and how to analyse texts via concepts such as audience, purpose, genre, representation and mode. It also explores how children learn language – both understanding and self-expression. How it is assessed: 2½ hour exam worth 40% of your A Level.

Beginning unit

morphology: the study of word formation

syntax: the study of how words form larger structures such as phrases, clauses and sentences

descriptive: taking an approach to language study that focuses on how language is actually used

prescriptive: taking an approach to language study that focuses on rules and notions of correctness

Key terms

6.2 MorphologyMorphology is the study of how words are formed. For example, a noun in its plural form such as apples, is made up of two morphemes, a base or root apple, and an ending or suffi x -s. In some words, the root has an element added before it, for example unhealthy has a prefi x un- added to its root healthy. Together prefi xes and suffi xes are known as affi xes.

Some affi xes have an infl ectional function as they show the tense of verbs and the plural form of nouns (for example -s. Others have a derivational function as they help to form a new word by being added to a root (for example un-).

In this unit, you will:• learn about the ways that words form larger structures

within utterances and texts• examine and explore the constituent elements of

phrases, clauses and sentences.

6.1 The rank scaleThe rank scale offers a neat way of explaining how language is systematic. Broadly speaking, it provides a model for explaining how larger language units are built up from smaller ones. Figure 6A shows this relationship.

Figure 6A: the linguistic rank scale

morpheme word phrase clause sentence text

smaller units larger units

In this unit, we will be concerned with two elements of grammar: the study of the morpheme (morphology) and the study of phrases, clauses and sentences (syntax).

During this unit (and indeed throughout the rest of this book), we will also be stressing the importance of taking a descriptive approach to language study that draws attention to how language is actually used. The term ‘grammar’ can often be associated with more prescriptive approaches that emphasise rules and notions of correctness, and that view language as defi cient if it doesn’t follow these rules.

Language level 2: Grammar

6 BEGINNING

31

Developing unit

Textual variations and representations

13DEVELOPING

Genre: Texts can be grouped according to their types or genres. They can often belong to more than one genre.

Mode: This refers to whether a text is spoken or written, with ordinary spontaneous conversation at one extreme and formal written documents at the other.

Tone or level of formality: Texts can often be placed somewhere on a scale from informal to formal tone. The American linguist Martin Joos (1962) distinguished between five different levels of formality. This framework was designed to apply to spoken English, but it can be relevant to writing as well. The levels Joos suggests are:• Frozen level: This is characterised by the use of set

phrases in ceremonial, ritual or very conventional situations.

• Formal level: This level is normally used by a speaker addressing an audience where interaction and interruption are not normally permitted.

• Consultative level: This is the level of formality normally used in exchanges between people who are not family, friends or acquaintances but where interaction between and among speakers is the norm.

• Casual level: This is used between people who know each other reasonably well in informal settings. Features can include the use of colloquial forms, with interruptions being permitted and even expected.

In this unit you will:• explore ways in which texts can vary according to

audience, purpose, genre, mode, tone, context and register

• explore how language can be used to represent concepts and to create stereotypes and hegemony (domination through ideas)

• analyse how language can be used to represent people and social groups as well as events, places and issues

• explore ways of comparing texts.

This relates to ‘Language, the Individual and Society’ in the specification for A Level and ‘Language and the Individual’ for AS Level.

13.1 Textual variations13.1.1 Factors in textual variation

Texts can vary according to the larger-scale linguistic concepts of audience, purpose, genre, mode, tone, context and register.

Audience: This can be defined by values and interests as well as by demographic factors such as age, gender, education, social class, occupation, national origin.

Purpose: Some texts are exclusively informational while others are entirely social. Most will have elements of both.

61

Enriching unit

ENRICHING

22Language change

• Crystal states that English as a lingua franca might be the language of the future. What might be some of the advantages of this?

• Crystal lists some of the different Englishes he uses, including Welsh English. Do you think that some varieties of English, such as Welsh English and Scots English, are examples of Englishes or would you describe them as regional dialects?

• How many different types of English do you use or understand? Think about the different ways that you have access to different Englishes, such as through direct interaction with people that you know, or through media such as music or the Internet.

Watch ‘Will English Always be a Global Language?’ via Cambridge Elevate

ACTIVITY 2

World EnglishesTo develop your understanding of the status of World Englishes further, you could listen to the British Library podcast ‘English – the world’s language?’ which was recorded to coincide with the ‘Evolving English’ exhibition. In this panel discussion, Robert McCrum, author of Globish: How the English Language became the World’s Language, and Nicholas Ostler, author of The Last Lingua Franca, explore the current status and usage of English as a global language.

22.1 Extension activities 22.1.1 English as a global language

In Unit 16 we looked at one of the most significant aspects of language change today: the role and status of English on the global stage. As we have seen, English has developed at an incredible rate since its origins in the fifth century and it is now one of the most used and most prestigious languages worldwide.

In this unit, you will examine some issues linked to World Englishes in more detail.

ACTIVITY 1

Exploring the status of EnglishProfessor David Crystal is a leading figure in many aspects of language study. Available online as part of British Council Learning, you can find a video of him talking on ‘Will English always be a global language?’ Watch this clip and answer the following questions.• Crystal states that power is one of the main driving

forces of language. What factors does he state have contributed to English’s status in the world today?

• When the first settlers arrived in America they aimed to create a distinct variety of American English that was different from British English. Why might they have wanted to create a separate English?

• What impact has American English had on British English usage? Think about phonological, lexical, spelling and grammatical examples.

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A/AS Level English Language for AQA






Paper 2: Language diversity and changeWhat it is: this area of study looks at language diversity and change over time. Language is explored in social, geographical and time-related contexts (from 1600 to the present day). How it is assessed: 2½ hour exam worth 40% of your A Level.

Non-exam Assessment: Language in actionWhat it is: this part of the specification allows you to explore and analyse language data, and carry out two different pieces of individual research – a language investigation and a piece of original writing with a commentary. How it is assessed: two pieces of coursework worth 20% of your A Level.

There are more details about the specifications in the relevant Developing units, including the assessment objectives you will be measured against in the exam papers and – at A Level – in the non-exam assessment.

About this student bookThis book follows an innovative three-part structure.

Part 1: Beginning units These set out the key principles, issues and concepts that underpin the course and support you as move from GCSE to AS and A Level work. Each Beginning unit contains activities to check understanding and progress, and provide a strong foundation from which to build upwards. The Beginning units can also be used as a stand-alone reference point to which you’ll return when studying content in subsequent Developing units, and for revision purposes as you prepare for your exams.

Research point

A key study that would seem to challenge nativist theory is that of Genie. Between the ages of 20 months and 13 years, this young girl was locked up by her father and exposed to no social interaction or talk. When she was discovered in 1970, she was found to have no speech. Despite numerous interventions, she was not then able to acquire language beyond a very basic level. This is an extreme case that seems to reinforce another concept, of a critical period. Genie was not exposed to language or interaction at a young age and, by the time such support was offered, she was no longer able to learn language with the same fluency. Eric Lenneburg coined the term ‘critical period’ and believed that in the first few years of life, sufficient social interaction and exposure to language was essential in order that a child might gain full mastery of the language. A less emphatic description of this period would be as ‘sensitive’ or ‘optimal’, which reinforces that early childhood is the best possible time for a child to acquire language.

Research point

For more information about Genie, see the article ‘The Development of Language in Genie: A case of language acquisition beyond the critical period’ via Cambridge Elevate

critical period: the age at which a child will be most receptive to learn language (suggested by Lenneburg to be up to the age of 5)

Key terms

Piaget’s stages of development

Jean Piaget (1896–1980) was a highly influential developmental psychologist and a key figure in twentieth-century thinking surrounding child development. He published The Language and Thought of a Child in 1926 and proposed stages through which children progress as their language and thought mature. He focused more generally on

programmed ability to learn language, an ability to work out the systems in terms of grammar and syntax. The term universal grammar is used in relation to Chomsky’s theory to describe this global capacity for children to learn languages at similar rates and in similar ways. The similarities between world languages and their grammatical structures have also been used as evidence for this innate system.

Often, the idea of virtuous errors is used as a justification for the LAD: a child makes errors in their grammar, inflections and syntax because they are attempting to apply the rules that they recognise from the language around them. For example, when a child says ‘I swimmed’ they are actually being quite logical in their formation of the past tense and using the regular ending. The child is unlikely to have heard this construction from a caregiver so it will not, therefore, be imitated.

One of the main reasons why the LAD has been rejected as a theory is because it does not place sufficient importance on the role of caregivers to influence language acquisition. Evidence suggests that children who lack sufficient exposure to language and interaction will never really catch up with their language acquisition.

LAD (Language Acquisition Device): as proposed by Chomsky (the idea that all humans are born with an innate language learning capacity)

tabula rasa: Latin for ‘blank slate’ and the term used to describe the idea that children are born with undeveloped, fresh brains

universal grammar: term coined by Chomsky – the notion that all human languages possess similar grammatical properties which the brain is ‘hard wired’ to be able to decode and use

virtuous errors: grammatical errors that are understandable and logical through an incorrect assumption being made about grammar rules

Key terms

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A/AS Level English Language

Key terms box

hegemony: how one social group can use language to get other people to accept its way of seeing the world as natural

pejorative term: a judgemental term that usually implies disapproval or criticism

Key terms

13.5.6 Ideology

An ideology is a set or system of related ideas. These ideas can consist of ideals, values, beliefs, attitudes, doctrines, myths. Sometimes they can be articulated explicitly, as in the case of political ideologies, such as socialism, liberalism and conservatism. But some ideologies are understood tacitly; that is, people who believe in them just assume that the ideas behind them are valid.

A simplified example of two different social ideologies, ‘Social Ideology A’ and ‘Social Ideology B’, is:

Social Ideology A Social Ideology B

Hostile to outsiders, including immigrants

More welcoming to outsiders, including immigrants

Supports a strong military

Supports diplomacy over military solutions

Opposes welfare benefits for the poor.

Supports welfare benefits for the poor.

Both of these social ideologies consist of three different ideas or beliefs. Each issue is logically separate from the others: you can be welcoming to outsiders but still support a strong military; you can oppose welfare benefits but still support diplomacy over war. However, in reality there is a tendency for these ideas and values to go together. This may be because there is an underlying principle involved; a person holding Social Ideology A might want to keep things as they are and defend the status quo, whereas someone with Social Ideology B might want to treat other people as human beings and try to keep everyone happy.

Ideologies themselves are often represented linguistically as terms that refer to theories, often ending in the suffix ‘–ism’. But the people who hold ideologies may also be represented more

13.5.5 Stereotypes and hegemony

It is important to understand how representations can turn into stereotypes and how these can be used by powerful groups to manipulate us into accepting attitudes and points of view that are convenient for them. This is a process called hegemony.

One example of a powerful group using language to influence people’s ideas and opinions is the way in which disabled people have been represented in the media, and particularly in some newspapers. A report entitled Bad News for Disabled People: How the Newspapers are Reporting Disability claimed that the way articles in five popular national newspapers described disabled people had shifted from a tendency to focus on triumph over adversity in the early twenty-first century to characterising disabled people as benefit cheats and scroungers some years later. The researchers drew this conclusion by noting that there has been a significantly increased use of terms such as ‘burden’, ‘handout’, ‘workshy’, ‘scrounger’, ‘cheat’ and ‘skiver’ in the later newspaper articles compared to those published in earlier years:

‘These changes reinforced the idea of disabled claimants as “undeserving” (p. 5)’.

Source: Briant, E., Watson, N. and Philo, G. (2011) Bad News for Disabled People:

How the Newspapers are Reporting Disability.

This example shows how words differ from symbols such as the Olympic flag in the way they represent people and social groups. While the coloured circles of the Olympic flag stand for different regions of the world and their interlinking suggests the idea of friendship, that is as far as it can go in conveying its meaning. ‘Scrounger’ by contrast has many connotations, so its power comes from the way it connects to other expressions in English. It suggests someone who begs, not just for money but for other items; it brings to mind other pejorative terms like ‘skiver’ – a word that can be placed alongside ‘striver’ for a contrived contrast. It implies someone who doesn’t earn their money through honest hard work so it contrasts with expressions like ‘hardworking taxpayer’.

80


Exploring research possibilities

See The Daily Telegraph article via Cambridge Elevate about how babies listen to their mothers while in the womb

From birth onwards, the progress of spoken language acquisition is rapid. The stages that a child will move through are as follows:

pre-verbal (crying cooing babbling)

holophrastic

two word

telegraphic

post-telegraphic

Pre-verbal stageAfter birth, a child’s pre-verbal stage can be broken down into sub-sections. The first noise that a baby will make is crying. There is often a physical reason for the crying, like hunger, wind or tiredness. Parents might suggest they are attuned to the different cries for different reasons but it has been suggested that parents actually just recognise when crying changes in intensity. Through crying, a baby is beginning to exercise its vocal cords/folds and even to understand that making a noise will gain the attention of people around them. This is the first stage in understanding the nature of discourse and interaction with others.

Cooing begins from about 2 months old. A baby experiments with the noises that can be made when the tongue and back of the mouth come into contact. These noises are distinct from crying and more experimental. This is a forerunner to babbling, which appears from about 6 months. This resembles the vowel and consonant sounds with which we are familiar in spoken language.

There are two different kinds of babbling – reduplicated babbling and variegated babbling. Reduplicated babbling is simpler, appears first and involves a child repeatedly creating the same sounds (e.g., bababababa). Variegated babbling emerges slightly later and involves variation in the consonant and vowel sounds being produced. This variegated babbling still doesn’t resemble recognisable words, on the whole (e.g., daba, manamoo).

a fluent speaker. Ages have been added to the stages below but every child is unique, which means they will reach stages at different points. There will often be times when a child will exhibit characteristics of more than one stage as they start to move on to the next stage.

Pre-birthYou may have heard about research that suggests that even before a baby is born it will recognise its mother’s voice. It is thought that nearly six months before a baby is born the ear bones have already formed and hearing goes on. There have been trends to play classical music to the unborn baby in the hope that it will have a positive impact on intelligence. More compelling is the research that explores the child’s ability to recognise its mother’s voice and to differentiate between its native language and other languages even before it is born. This has been explained by the different rhythms and intonations of every language that a baby is attuned to from a very early age.

communicative competence: the ability to form accurate and understandable utterances, using the grammar system, and to understand social context for using them

proto words: ‘made up’ words that a child will use to represent a word they might not yet be able to pronounce, for example, ‘ray rays’ for ‘raisins’

Key terms

Undertake some research to find out about some of the projects that have investigated the way in which babies hear and respond to voices and music before birth.

Exploring

Watch tutorial video, Stages of Language Development, via Cambridge Elevate

See the article on sciencemag.com via Cambridge Elevate discussing how babies learn to recognise words while in the womb

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5

Introduction






Part 2: Developing units These longer units are based around the main content in the AS and A Level specifications. They are designed to build on the ideas introduced in the Beginning units, extending knowledge and understanding where appropriate. These units follow the order of topics in the AQA specifications and contain a wider range of activities to develop skills and encourage independence. The start of each Developing unit tells you whether the content is suitable for AS, A Level or both.

Each Developing unit is built on the most up-to-date content and research, which is presented in an accessible and engaging way. Many of the activities in these units are enhanced by commentaries that will support your learning and help you to develop an analytical framework, with which you can consider topic areas more critically and broadly.

These units also contain a ‘Bringing it all together’ section, designed to support you in preparing for your exams, and to allow you to review key learning for a particular topic and to plan your revision priorities. In addition, practice questions and discussion of the assessment objectives allow you to apply your learning and to think about the demands of individual sections within the exam papers.

Part 3: Enriching units Designed specifically for A Level students but with content that AS Level students will also find useful, these units support your work on the specification and extend your thinking beyond the topics covered in the Developing units in Part 2. These Enriching units contain extension activities on Developing unit topics, as well as ideas for extended independent study, details of wider reading that you will find useful and summaries of recent and relevant research from higher education.

The Enriching units also feature short articles exclusively written for this series by leading academics and professionals, with follow-up questions that offer an expert insight into certain aspects of the subject.

Bringing it all together

Explaining the assessment objectives

The following sections are designed only for AS students answering questions on Language Diversity and Language Discourses on AS Level Paper 2.

A Level students should read section 16.10 in Unit 16, which covers preparation for Diversity and Change and Language Discourses for A Level Paper 2.

15.6.2 Explaining the assessment objectives

Section A

For Section A, you will focus on AO1 and AO2.

AO1: Apply appropriate methods of language analysis, using associated terminology and coherent written expression

A short extract of data is provided for you together with a question. For this assessment objective you need to use language terms and concepts as appropriate, identifying patterns in and making comments about the data and wider issues using clear expression and a sustained line of argument.

AO2: Demonstrate critical understanding of the concepts and issues relevant to language use

You will be expected to demonstrate clear understanding of some of the different issues, processes, ideas and attitudes linked to the data and

the question. Stronger responses will demonstrate an ability to critically evaluate the issues. This means that you may be required to consider different opinions or ideas and consider which apply most successfully to a particular aspect of the data and the topic. This can involve challenging particular perspectives or offering alternative ideas.

Exploring possible questions

The question you will be presented with will ask you to consider one aspect of Language Diversity.

You will need to focus your answer on the specific topic that has been presented, but you will be able to develop your response to consider a range of issues about the topic. You should use both the data that you are provided with and your own examples to help you answer the question.

Example Question: Language DiversityDiscuss the idea that women and men use language differently.

In your answer you should discuss concepts and issues from language study. You should use your own supporting examples and the data in Table 1, below.

Table 1 gives details of the turns, speaking time and interruptions at a staff meeting.

Table 1

SpeakerAverage turns per meeting

Average no. of seconds per turn

Average ‘did interrupt’ per meeting

Average ‘was interrupted’ per meeting

Woman A 5.5 7.8 0.5 3.0

Woman B 5.8 10.0 0.0 3.0

Woman C 8.0 3.0 1.0 3.2

Woman D 20.5 8.5 2.0 7.5

Man E 11.3 16.5 2.0 2.6

Man F 32.3 17.1 8.0 6.7

Man G 32.6 13.2 6.6 6.3

Man H 30.2 10.7 4.3 5.0

Man I 17.0 15.8 4.5 2.5

Source: Dubois, B., and Crouch, I. ‘The question of tag questions in women’s speech: they don’t really use more of them, do they?’ Language in Society, 4 (3), pp.289-294.

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End-of-unit summary

Section 4 draws an overall conclusion about audience values and interests and audience positioning. This is an important part of AO1 ‘methods of language analysis’ and also fulfils the AO3 requirement to ‘evaluate’ as well as to analyse.

Section 4 also gives coherence to the answer, as required by AO1 ‘coherent written expression’ because it draws together ideas and suggestions from the previous three sections of the answer.

This unit should have helped you to see that different texts are often produced according to similar principles. Working through the activities should have given you the confidence and the expertise to read, understand and analyse a wide range of texts from different sources.

The main ideas in this unit, especially audience and purpose, genre and mode and representation, provide the foundations for your own reading and analysis of texts. You will also have learnt how to relate your observations about language features at different levels, including lexis and grammar, to these larger-scale linguistic concepts.

Finding links between linguistic concepts and language features is key to analysing texts, but your own response is crucial too. The text you analyse is the one you have made your own by giving it your own interpretation. If you do this then your analysis will often help you to enrich your understanding of the texts you engage with.

Summary

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About Cambridge ElevateCambridge Elevate is the platform that hosts a digital version of this student book. If you have access to this digital version you can annotate different parts of the book, send and receive messages to and from your teacher and insert weblinks, among other things. You will also find video content on Cambridge Elevate, specifically: • tutorial-style videos, designed to complement material

covered in the Developing units and to refresh your knowledge while broadening your understanding of certain tricky concepts

• interviews with leading thinkers and researchers in their fields, which provide a unique resource for stimulating discussion.

Icons used in the book

Cross reference Check your responses

Key Terms Explore

Glossary Set text focus

Critical Lens Research point

A Level English Language and Literature transcription key Throughout this book the following transcription key is applied:

(.) indicates a pause of less than a second

(2) indicates a longer pause (number of seconds indicated)

Bold indicates stressed syllables or words

: : indicates elongation of a word

((italics)) indicates contextual or additional information

[ ] indicates the start and end points of simultaneous speech

I hope you enjoy your AS or A Level Language course, as well as this book, and wish you well for the journey ahead.

Marcello Giovanelli Series editor

Tutorial Video available on Cambridge Elevate

Enriching Interview Video available on Cambridge Elevate

Links to Cambridge Elevate

Check your responses in the Ideas section on Cambridge Elevate

For more information about Genie, see the article ‘The Development of Language in Genie: A case of language acquisition beyond the critical period’ via Cambridge Elevate

7

Introduction




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