ENGLISH GRAMMATICS Grammatics: the study on the theory of grammar. No grammar is value-free. Any...
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Transcript of ENGLISH GRAMMATICS Grammatics: the study on the theory of grammar. No grammar is value-free. Any...
ENGLISH GRAMMATICS
Grammatics: the study on the theory of grammar. No grammar is value-free. Any study or discipline is based on a certain theory or value.
The Object The StudyLanguage LinguisticsEconomy EconomicsPolicy PoliticsBehaviour PsychologySociety SociologyCulture AnthropologyEthnic EthnographyEvents HistoryGrammar Grammatics
Why is grammatical theory like that? What is the value or assumption or philosophy behind or underlying a grammar or grammatical description?
ENGLISH GRAMMATICS
Various Types of Grammar
1. Traditional Grammar
2. Structural Grammar
3. Transformational (Generative) Grammar
4. Stratificational Grammar
5. Tagmemics
6. Relational Grammar
7. Word Grammar
8. Universal Grammar
9. Lexicofunctional Grammar
10. Functional Grammar
11. Systemic Functional Gramma
12. …
Logical-Philosophical and Ethnographic-Descriptive
Aspect Logical-Philosophical(FORMAL)
Ethnographic-Descriptive(FUNCTIONAL)
1. Approah form—meaning, formalphonology, morphology, syntax—meaning
meaning—form functional meaning– phonology, morphology, syntax
2. Assumption language as rules language as resources
3. Closely related to thought (neurology, psychology)
social phenomenon and context (sociology, anthropology, social context)
4. Linguistic studies closely related to logic
sentence
idealization of data
closely related to social aspect, culture and anthropology
text
natural data
5. Method science, almost no consideration to social context of langauge use
semiotics, emphasizing the social context use of language
6. Proponent Modistae, Bloomfield, Chomsky, Pike, …
Hjelmslev, Matesius, Firth, Halliday, Martin, …
7. Tradition USA Europe
ENGLISH GRAMMATICS
Two types of analysis
1. Immediate Constituent Analysis
2. Ranked Constituent Analysis
The criteria used:
1. formal, where every unit is described in its relation to immediate element (maximal bracketing)
2. functional, where elements of the same rank or function is described as one (minimal bracketing)
The young secretary wrote the letter neatly
The tough boy ran very quickly
IC and RC Analysis
the young secretary wrote the letter neatly
ENGLISH GRAMMATICSENGLISH GRAMMATICS
Four possible types of analysisFour possible types of analysis1.1. The manThe man wrote the letter wrote the letter (What did he do?)(What did he do?)
2.2. The man wrote the letter The man wrote the letter (What happened?)(What happened?)
3.3. The man wroteThe man wrote the letter (Who wrote the letter?)the letter (Who wrote the letter?)
4.4. The man The man wrotewrote the letter (What did he do to the letter?) the letter (What did he do to the letter?)
Definition of SemioticsDefinition of Semiotics
the study of sign systems and their usethe study of sign systems and their use (Fawcett, Halli(Fawcett, Hallidayday, Lamb dan Makkai 1984: xiii, Lamb dan Makkai 1984: xiii
tthheoreory of code and formation of signsy of code and formation of signs
Sign: something that stands for something else Sign: something that stands for something else
Semiotics is constituted by two elements: the Semiotics is constituted by two elements: the content and expression plane or ‘ meaning’ content and expression plane or ‘ meaning’ and expression and expression
‘‘meaningmeaning’’
expressionexpression
SemiotiSemiotics of the Traffic Lightscs of the Traffic Lights
‘‘stopstop’’
‘‘cautioncaution’’
‘‘pass onpass on’’
red lightred light
amber lightamber light
green lightgreen light
Branches of SemioticsBranches of Semiotics1. Zoosemiotics
2. Olfactory signs (code of scents, odors)
3. Tactile communication (blind and proxemic behaviour)
4. Codes of taste (culinary practice, traditional foods)
5. Paralinguistics (voice qualities, vocalization, sobbing, whispering, yawning, belching)
6. Medical semiotics
7. Kinesics and proxemics (gestures and distance)
8. Musical codes
9. Formalized languages (algebraic and chemical symbols)
10. Written language, unknown alphabets, secret codes
Branches of SemioticsBranches of Semiotics11. Natural languages12. Visual communication (colour systems)13. Systems of objects (architecture)14. Plot structures (mythology, games, tales)15. Cultural codes16. Aesthetic texts17. Mass communication18. Rhetoric
Almost all aspects of life are related to semiotics: - overthrown of Saddam’s statue- burning of jalur gumilang by Indonesians- receiving a letter in green paper- Do you know how they call it Kisaran?
Relation between ‘meaning’ and Relation between ‘meaning’ and expressionexpression
1.1. Iconic: ‘meaning’ is almost identical with Iconic: ‘meaning’ is almost identical with expressionexpression
2.2. Indexical: some elements of the expression Indexical: some elements of the expression point to the meaning point to the meaning
3.3. Symbolic: no reason as to why the ‘meaning’ is Symbolic: no reason as to why the ‘meaning’ is coded the way it is coded the way it is
Iconic Indexical Symbolic
photograph of a cat mewing <cat>[kæt]
statue crescent, cross, fork and spoon
house, tree
NONNONBIUNIQUE RELATIONBIUNIQUE RELATION
One ‘meaning’ is potentially coded by more than one One ‘meaning’ is potentially coded by more than one expression and an expression can code more than one expression and an expression can code more than one meaningmeaningThere is no one-to-one relation between ‘meaning’ and There is no one-to-one relation between ‘meaning’ and expressionexpression
‘‘happy’happy’1.1. smilesmile
2.2. laughlaugh
3.3. crycry
4.4. ……
1.1. ‘‘happy’happy’
2.2. ‘‘cynical’cynical’
3.3. ‘‘crazy’crazy’
4.4. ……
smilesmile
UNMARKED AND MARKED UNMARKED AND MARKED REALIZATIONREALIZATION
‘‘happy’happy’ 1. smile1. smile
2. laugh2. laugh
3. 3. whistlewhistle
4. cry4. cry
5….5….
40% …U40% …U
35%35%
20%20%
5%.....M5%.....M
Coding ‘meaning’ in U and M expressionCoding ‘meaning’ in U and M expression
‘‘prohibitioprohibition to bring n to bring a dirty a dirty can ’can ’
1.1. Do not bring the dirty can into the Do not bring the dirty can into the room!room!
2.2. The dirty can will litter the floor.The dirty can will litter the floor.
3.3. The floor has been cleaned by The floor has been cleaned by MumMum
4.4. A good boy will not bring a dirty A good boy will not bring a dirty can into the room.can into the room.
5.5. I’ll slap you if you bring the dirty I’ll slap you if you bring the dirty can into the room.can into the room.
6.6. If I were you I would not bring the If I were you I would not bring the dirty can into the room. dirty can into the room.
7.7. ……
An Expression with many ‘meaning’An Expression with many ‘meaning’
1.1. ‘‘medical medical operation’operation’
2.2. ‘‘military military campaign’campaign’
3.3. ‘‘price checkprice check’’
4.4. ‘‘robbery'robbery'
5.5. ‘‘seeking for seeking for matchermatcher’’
6.6. ......
We will do an We will do an operation operation tomorrowtomorrow..
Language and Social ContextLanguage and Social Context
SOCIAL CONTEXT
LANGUAGE
Language and Its Social ContextLanguage and Its Social Context
CULTURE
SITUATION
LANGUAGE
IDEOLOGY
DENOTATIVE AND CONNOTATIVE SEMIOTICSDENOTATIVE AND CONNOTATIVE SEMIOTICS
Denotative Semiotics: having ‘meaning’ and Denotative Semiotics: having ‘meaning’ and expressionexpression
Connotative: having ‘meaning’ with no means Connotative: having ‘meaning’ with no means of expressionof expression
It is analogous to a parasite plant stuck in the It is analogous to a parasite plant stuck in the denotative one. To realize the meaning it denotative one. To realize the meaning it borrows another semiotics, typically below it. borrows another semiotics, typically below it.
Language as a denotative and connotative Language as a denotative and connotative semioticssemiotics
Being different from the Being different from the general semioticsgeneral semiotics, the , the semiotics of language is constituted by three levels or semiotics of language is constituted by three levels or strata: strata: ‘meaning’, form‘meaning’, form and and expressionexpression or or technically constituted by semantics, lexicogrammar technically constituted by semantics, lexicogrammar and phonology/graphology/signand phonology/graphology/sign
Social context forms a connotative semiotics stuck up Social context forms a connotative semiotics stuck up above language. above language.
SEMANTICS LEXICOGRAMMAR PHONOLOGY/GRAPHOLOGY
Multi-stratified semiotics of languageMulti-stratified semiotics of language
SEMANTICS LEXICOGRAMMAR PHONOLOGY/GRAPHOLOGY/SIGN
SITUATION
CULTURE
IDEOLOGY
Text with its Meanings Text with its Meanings
- We will hold a operation tomorrowWe will hold a operation tomorrow
1.1. medical operationmedical operation
2.2. military campaignmilitary campaign
3.3. price inspectionprice inspection
4.4. robbery, theft, blackmail, lootingrobbery, theft, blackmail, looting
5.5. seeking matchersseeking matchers
6.6. asking (potential) passengersasking (potential) passengers
Text and SemioticsText and SemioticsA text is a semantic unit not grammatical one.A text is a semantic unit not grammatical one.A text forms in context therefore it construes with the contexts.A text forms in context therefore it construes with the contexts.The philosophy underlying SFL is constructivism.The philosophy underlying SFL is constructivism.1.1. A serpent searching its way on to the sea, the winding path of A serpent searching its way on to the sea, the winding path of
serpent, the winding (Kisaran)serpent, the winding (Kisaran)2.2. The clitic of –nya in IndonesianThe clitic of –nya in Indonesian3.3. When is the New Year?When is the New Year?4.4. Why do they call it Borneo, Malvinas?Why do they call it Borneo, Malvinas?5.5. No two words of different realization expressions have No two words of different realization expressions have
identical meaningsidentical meanings6.6. The case of Indonesian and Brazilian studentsThe case of Indonesian and Brazilian students7.7. Banana Republic, my people can do no wrong, surga di Banana Republic, my people can do no wrong, surga di
telapak kaki ibu, kalau guru …berdiri, berjuang sampai titik telapak kaki ibu, kalau guru …berdiri, berjuang sampai titik …, terpesona melihat wajahnya, pop songs (sungai Musi……, terpesona melihat wajahnya, pop songs (sungai Musi…
8.8. advertisementadvertisement9.9. Life is a semiotic struggle for a settled meaning. Life is a semiotic struggle for a settled meaning.
Semiotik BahasaSemiotik Bahasa
Behavioral Potential‘can do’
Meaning Potential‘can mean’
Lexicogrammar Potential‘can say
sound
Social Contextideology, genre, register
SemanticsLexicogrammar
Phonology
Paradigmatic and Syntagmatic RelationParadigmatic and Syntagmatic RelationParadigmatic: vertical relation of inter-taxonomic elements in a Paradigmatic: vertical relation of inter-taxonomic elements in a network of system (system network) on the basis of choice.network of system (system network) on the basis of choice.Sintagmatig: Sintagmatig: horizontal horizontal relation of elements of different kinds relation of elements of different kinds constituiting a unit on the basis of structure or order.constituiting a unit on the basis of structure or order.
memakanmemakanmakan Ali memakan sate di warung.makan Ali memakan sate di warung.makanan Makanan itu enak.makanan Makanan itu enak.dimakandimakantermakantermakanpemakan pemakan ......
MetafunctionsMetafunctions
No.No. FunctionFunction DescriptionDescription RealizationsRealizations
1a.1a. ExperientialExperiential RepresentingRepresenting
Representation Representation
ElementalElemental
Part/wholePart/whole
Constituency Constituency (multivariate)(multivariate)
1b1b LogicalLogical RelatingRelating
Relation/logic Relation/logic
RecursiveRecursive
Part/wholePart/whole
Interdependency Interdependency (univariate)(univariate)
2.2. InterpersonalInterpersonal ExchangingExchanging
Interaction Interaction
ProsodicProsodic
Prosody Prosody
3.3. TextualTextual Organizing Organizing
Message Message
PeriodicPeriodic
Wave Wave
Nature of RealizationNature of Realization
1a. Elemental 1a. Elemental
1b. Recursive1b. Recursive
2. Prosodic2. Prosodic
3. Culminative Periodic3. Culminative Periodic
Realizations of Social Context in Realizations of Social Context in Linguistic RepresentationLinguistic Representation
Field
Tenor
Mode
Ideational
Interpersonal
Textual
TRANSITIVITY
Mood/Residue
Theme/Rheme
Sound
Paradigmatic RepresentationParadigmatic Representation(Field)(Field)
Paradigmatic representation in network system Paradigmatic representation in network system
Process
Primary
Secondary
Material
Mental
Relational
Behavioural
Verbal
Existential
go, walk, write…
know, like, love…
BE, sound, look…
sleep, smile, cough …
say, tell, ask…
There is a book ..
Paradigmatic Representation (cont)Paradigmatic Representation (cont)
SPEECHFUNCTION
ROLES
COMMODITY
Giving
Demanding
Information
Goods & Services
Statement
Question
Offer
Command
Suggestion
Interstratified RealizationInterstratified Realization
Realisasi antarstrata Konteks Situasi, Semantik, Realisasi antarstrata Konteks Situasi, Semantik, dan Lexicogrammar dinyatakan dalam bentuk dan Lexicogrammar dinyatakan dalam bentuk sistem networksistem network
IPTEK
IDEATIONAL
TRANSITIVITY
Interstratified Realization (cont)Interstratified Realization (cont)
IPTEK
Objektif
Nirpersona
Praktikal
Teknikal
Tulisan
EXPERIENTIAL
Proses
Pratisipan
SikumstanPROSES
Material
Mental
Relasional
Tingkahlaku
Verbal
Eksistensial
Realisasi Pengalaman IPTEKRealisasi Pengalaman IPTEK
Intensitas merokok berasosiasi dengan tingkat Intensitas merokok berasosiasi dengan tingkat mortalitas. (Carrier, Process: Relational, mortalitas. (Carrier, Process: Relational, Attribut).Attribut).
Seseorang merokok. Semakin banyak dia Seseorang merokok. Semakin banyak dia merokok, semakin banyak dia mengkonsumsi merokok, semakin banyak dia mengkonsumsi nikotin yang merusak kesehatannya. Dengan nikotin yang merusak kesehatannya. Dengan demikian umurnya akan berkurang. demikian umurnya akan berkurang.
TenseTense
Experiential StructureExperiential Structure
1. ate 1. ate
did did ΛΛ eat eat
Finite Finite ΛΛ EvenEven
couldcould notnot havehave beenbeen going togoing to bebe beingbeing eateneaten
FiniteFinite polaritypolarity Auxiliary Auxiliary 11
Auxiliary Auxiliary 22
AuxiliaryAuxiliary
33
AuxiliaryAuxiliary
44
AuxiliaryAuxiliary
55
EventEvent
Primary and Secondary Tense
time primary secondary
past V-ed
was/were, took, walked
V-en
have been, have taken, have walked
present V-s
Ii, am, are, tale, walked
be + V-ing
be being, be taking, be walking
future will + V (infinite)
will be, will take, will work
be going to + V (infinite)
be going to, be going to take
Naming of Tense
was going to have been working
Finite(past)
be going to…(inf.)
have…(-en) be…-ing (work)
past future past present
‘present in past in future in past’
Occurrences of Tense
PrimarySecondary
Verbal Group
- 0 + - 0 + - 0 + - 0 +
√ use
√ √ are using
√ √ √ are going to be using
√ √ √ is going to be being tested
√ √ √ √ has been going to be being tested
√ √ √ √ will have been going to have been being tested (fourth pres. √)
first second third