English Grammar - Verbs

7/29/2019 English Grammar - Verbs

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Definitions

Verbs carry the idea of being or action in the sentence.

I am a student.

The studentspassedall their courses.

As we will see on this page, verbs are classified in many ways. First, some verbs require

anobject to complete their meaning: "She gave _____ ?" Gave what? She gave money to the

church. These verbs are calledtransitive. Verbs that are intransitive do not require objects: "The

building collapsed." In English, you cannot tell the difference between a transitive and

intransitive verb by its form; you have to see how the verb is functioning within the sentence. In

fact, a verb can be both transitive and intransitive: "The monster collapsed the building by sitting

on it."

Although you will seldom hear the term, a ditransitive verb such as cause or give isone that can take a direct object and an indirect object at the same time: "That horrid music

gave me a headache." Ditransitive verbs are slightly different, then, from factitive verbs (see

below), in that the latter take two objects.

Verbs are also classified as either finite or non-finite. A finite verb makes an assertion or

expresses a state of being and can stand by itself as the main verb of a sentence.

The truck demolished the restaurant.

The leaves were yellow and sickly.

Non-finite verbs (think "unfinished") cannot, by themselves, be main verbs:

The broken window . . .

The wheezing gentleman . . .

Another, more useful term for non-finite verb is verbal. In this section, we discuss various verbal

forms: infinitives, gerunds, and participles.

For WebCT UsersThe "-s" Problem Icon means that the verb requires an -sending

because it's a third-person (he/she/it) verb in the present tense.

See the Table of Verb Tensesfor help in identifying present tenses

requiring the -s.
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/objects.htm#objectshttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/objects.htm#objectshttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/verbs.htm#factitivehttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/tenses.htmhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/tenses.htmhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/objects.htm#objectshttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/verbs.htm#factitivehttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/tenses.htm


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The "-ed" Problem Icon probably means that the verb requires

an -edending because it's in the past tense or that an -

edending has been used inappropriately. The -edending is

particularly problematic when it occurs just before a "d" or "t" sound

as in "We are used to doing things the way we're supposed to: like in

the old-fashioned days." See theTable of Verb Tenses for help in

identifying past tenses requiring the -ed.

The "Verb" Problem Icon probably means that the verb

tenses in this sentence are inconsistent or incorrect. See the

section onSequencing for help in using the correct sequence of verb

tenses. See the section on Consistencyfor help in maintaining a

proper consistency in verb tense.

Four Verb Forms

The inflections (endings) of English verb forms are not difficult to remember. There are

only four basic forms. Instead of forming complex tense forms with endings, English uses

auxiliary verb forms. English does not even have a proper ending for future forms; instead, we

use auxiliaries such as "I am going to read this afternoon." or "I will read." or even "I am reading

this book tomorrow." It would be useful, however, to learn these four basic forms of verb

construction.

Name of

verb

Base

form

Past

form

Present

participle

Past

participle

to work

I

can wor

k.

I work.

I worke

d.I am working.

I

have worked

.

to write

I

can write.

I write.

I wrote.

I am writing.

I

have written

.

Linking Verbs
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A linking verb connects a subject and its complement. Sometimes called copulas, linking

verbs are often forms of the verb to be, but are sometimes verbs related to the five senses (look,

sound, smell, feel, taste) and sometimes verbs that somehow reflect a state of being (appear,

seem, become, grow, turn, prove, remain). What follows the linking verb will be either a noun

complement or an adjective complement:

Those people are all professors.

Those professors are brilliant.

This room smells bad.

I feel great.

A victory today seems unlikely.

A handful of verbs that reflect a change in state of being are sometimes called resulting copulas.

They, too, link a subject to a predicate adjective:

His face turned purple.

She became older.

The dogs ran wild.

The milk has gone sour.

The crowd grew ugly.

"This is he."

A Frequently Asked Question about linking verbs concerns the correct

response when you pick up the phone and someone asks for you. One correct

response would be "This is he [she]." The predicate following the linking verb

should be in the nominative (subject) form definitely not"This is him." If "This is he"

sounds stuffy to you, try using "Speaking," instead, or "This is Fred," substituting your

own name for Fred's unless it's a bill collector or telemarketer calling, in which case

"This is Fred" is a good response for everyone except people named Fred.

Active and Passive Voice

There is now a separate section dealing with issues raised by a

verb's VOICE (active/passive).
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MoodMood in verbs refers to one of three attitudes that a writer or speaker has to what is being

written or spoken. The indicative mood, which describes most sentences on this page, is used to

make a statement or ask a question. The imperative mood is used when we're feeling sort of

bossish and want to give a directive, strong suggestion, or order:

Get your homework done before you watch television tonight.

Please include cash payment with your order form.

Get out of town!

Notice that there is no subject in these imperative sentences. The pronoun you (singular or

plural, depending on context) is the "understood subject" in imperative sentences. Virtually all

imperative sentences, then, have a second person (singular or plural) subject. The sole exception

is the first person construction, which includes an objective form as subject: "Let's (or Let us)

work on these things together."

The subjunctive mood is used in dependent clauses that do the following: 1) express a

wish; 2) begin with ifand express a condition that does not exist (is contrary to fact); 3) begin

with as ifand as though when such clauses describe a speculation or condition contrary to fact;

and 4) begin with thatand express a demand, requirement, request, or suggestion. A new section

on the uses of the Conditional should help you understand the subjunctive.

She wishes her boyfriend were here.

If Juan were more aggressive, he'd be a better hockey player.

We would have passed if we had studied harder.

He acted as if he were guilty.

Click on the "Verb Guy" to

read and hear Bob

Dorough's "Verb: That's

What's Happening!" (fromScholastic Rock, 1974).

Schoolhouse Rock and its

characters and other

elements are trademarks

and service marks of

American Broadcasting

Companies, Inc. Used with

permission.
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/conditional.htmhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/grammarrock.htm#verbshttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/conditional.htm


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I requested that he be present at the hearing.

The subjunctive is not as important a mood in English as it is in other languages, like

French and Spanish, which happen to be more subtle and discriminating in hypothetical,

doubtful, or wishful expressions. Many situations which would require the subjunctive in other

languages are satisfied by using one of several auxiliary verbs in English.

The New York Public Library's Writer's Guide to Style and

Usage has this important note on the subjunctive: "The words if,

as if, oras though do not always signal the subjunctive mood. If

the information in such a clause points out a condition that is or

was probable or likely, the verb should be in the indicative mood.

The indicative tells the reader that the information in the

dependent clause could possibly be true" (155). Cited with

permission.

The present tense of the subjunctive uses only the base form of the verb.

He demanded that his students use two-inch margins.

She suggested that we be on time tomorrow.

The past tense of the subjunctive has the same forms as the indicative except (unfortunately)

for the verb to be, which uses were regardless of the number of the subject.

If I were seven feet tall, I'd be a great basketball player. He wishes he were a better student.

If you were rich, we wouldn't be in this mess.

If they were faster, we could have won that race.

An excellent resource for learning more about the subjunctive is available in the onlineAmerican Heritage Book of

English Usage.

Quiz on Uses of the Subjunctive
http://www.bartleby.com/64/C001/061.htmlhttp://www.bartleby.com/64/C001/061.htmlhttp://www.bartleby.com/64/C001/061.htmlhttp://www.bartleby.com/64/C001/061.htmlhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/cgi-shl/quiz.pl/subjunctive_quiz.htmhttp://www.bartleby.com/64/C001/061.htmlhttp://www.bartleby.com/64/C001/061.htmlhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/cgi-shl/quiz.pl/subjunctive_quiz.htm


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Auxiliary or Helping Verbs

The issues raised by Helping or Auxiliary Verbs and Modal Auxiliaries are covered in a

separate section. Click here for help with Auxiliary Verbs and Modal Auxiliaries.

Phrasal Verbs

Phrasal verbs consist of a verb and another word or phrase,

usually a preposition. The resulting combination creates what

amounts to a new verb, whose meaning can sometimes be puzzling

to non-native speakers. Phrasal verbs often arise from casual uses of

the language and eventually work themselves into the mainstream of

language use. Phrasal verbs can be both intransitive (The children

were sitting around, doing nothing. The witness finally broke

down on the stand.) and transitive in meaning (Our boss calledoff the meeting. She looked up her old boyfriend.) The word that is

joined with a verb in this construction (often a preposition) is called

a particle.

The problem with phrasal verbs is that their meaning is often, at first, obscure, and they

often mean several different things. To make out, for instance, can mean to perceive or to see

something; it can also mean to engage in light sexual play. If someone chooses to turn up the

street that is a combination of a verb and a preposition, but it is not a phrasal verb. On the other

hand, if your neighbors unexpectedly turn up (appear) at a party or your brother turns up his

radio, those are phrasal verbs. To come out, we are told, has eighteen different meanings.

Verbs can be combined with different prepositions and other words, sometimes with

dizzying effect: stand out, stand up, stand in, stand off, stand by, stand fast, stand pat, stand

down, stand against, stand for. Further, the verb and the word or phrase it connects to are not

always contiguous: "Fill this out," we would say, but then we would say, "Fill out this form."

You can clickHERE for an extensive list ofphrasal verbs, broken down into categories of

transitive and intransitive, separable and inseparable. The list of verbs is accompanied with brief

definitions and examples. Printed out, the list will be five or six pages long, depending on the

size font you are using, the width of your browser window, etc. Understand, however, that the

list is a mere sampling of the hundreds of phrasal verb combinations. For beginning languagelearners, the challenge of mastering phrasal verbs is so great that only intensive instruction and

practice in an ESL program and a great deal of time spent listening and reading carefully can

address the problem. Having a good dictionary at hand is also helpful.
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/auxiliary.htmhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/prepositions.htmhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/phrasals.htmhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/phrasals.htmhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/auxiliary.htmhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/prepositions.htmhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/phrasals.htmhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/phrasals.htm


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Quiz on Phrasal Verbs

Second Quiz on Phrasal Verbs

Causative Verbs

Causative verbs designate the action necessary to cause another action to happen. In "The

devil made me do it." the verb "made" causes the "do" to happen. Here is a brief list of causative

verbs, in no particular order: let, help, allow, have, require, allow, motivate, get, make, convince,

hire, assist, encourage, permit, employ, force. Most of them are followed by an object (noun or

pronoun) followed by an infinitive: "She allows her pet cockatiel to perch on the windowsill.

She hired a carpenter to build a new birdcage."

Three causative verbs are exceptions to the pattern described above. Instead of being

followed by a noun/pronoun and an infinitive, the causative verbs have, make and letare

followed by a noun/pronoun and thebase form of the verb (which is actually an infinitive with

the "to" left off).

Professor Villa had her students read four short novels in one week.

She also made them read five plays in one week.

However, she let them skip the final exam.

Factitive Verbs

Verbs like make, choose, judge, elect, select, name. are called factitive verbs. These

transitive verbs can take two objects, or seem to:

They judged Philbert's dog Best of Show. (where "dog" is the direct object and "Best of

Show" is the second complement).

The faculty elected Dogsbreath the new Academic Dean. (where Dogsbreath is the direct

object and "Academic Dean" is the second complement).
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U.S. News and World Reportnamed our college the best in the northeast. (where "our

college" is the direct object and "the best" is the second complement).

Tenses

Tense shows the time of a verb's action or being. There are

three inflected forms reflected by changes in the endings of verbs.

The present tense indicates that something is happening or being

now: "She is a student. She drives a new car." The simple past

tense indicates that something happened in the past: "She was a

student. She drove a new car." And the past participle form is

combined with auxiliary verbs to indicate that something

happened in the past prior to another action: "She has been a

student. She had driven a new car."

Unlike most other languages, English does not haveinflected forms for the future tense. Instead, English future forms

are created with the use of auxiliaries: "She will be a student. She

is going to drive a new car." English can even create the future by

using the present tense, "The bus arrives later this afternoon," or

the present progressive, "He is relocating to Portland later next

month."

For an extensive discussion of the future tense in English, clickHERE.

Progressive Verbs

The progressive tenses, which indicate something being or

happening, are formed with the present participle form (ending

in -ing) along with various auxiliaries. "She is driving. She was

driving. She will be driving. She has been driving. She had been

driving. She will have been driving." ClickHERE for more on the

progressive forms. Some verbs, called stative verbs, (including,

sometimes, the verb to be) do not normally create the progressive.

Click here for a discussion of the difference betweenstative and

dynamic verbs.

For help with the

verb "to be," click

the enter button

below.

If you have a frames-capable browser, we recommend the
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/future.htmhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/future.htmhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/progressive.htmhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/progressive.htm#stativehttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/progressive.htm#stativehttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/to_be.htmhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/future.htmhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/progressive.htmhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/progressive.htm#stativehttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/progressive.htm#stative


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DIRECTORY OF ENGLISH TENSES

The Directory contains descriptions, conjugations (for both regular andirregularverbs), and

sample sentences for the twelve tenses of active voice verbs. For a greatly simplified one-page

summary of these tenses, clickHERE.

Colin Mahoney, a teacher of English as a

foreign language, has a considerable pagedevoted to the Present Perfect Tense (and related

issues), which we recommend. For ESL learners

and students wanting a thorough review of

verbs, we also recommend the tutorial on

English tenses at Englishpage.com(expect ads).

Quiz on Identifying Tenses

Irregular Verbs

Most verbs in English form their various tenses consistently: add -edto the base of a verb to

create the simple past and past participle: he walked; he has walked. There are, however, a

number of so-calledirregular verbs, (including, unfortunately, some very common verbs suchas to be and to have) whose various forms must be memorized. An alphabetized list ofCommon

Irregular Verbs is available in the Guide that you can copy or print out and then try to

memorize or at least use in practice sentences. You should take the quizzes on irregular verbs,

below, after you've looked at this list.
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/tenses/tense_frames.htmhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/tenses/tense_frames.htmhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/tenses/tense_frames.htmhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/verbs.htm#irregularhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/verbs.htm#irregularhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/verbs.htm#irregularhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/tenses.htmhttp://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/2527/presentperfect.htmlhttp://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/2527/presentperfect.htmlhttp://www.englishpage.com/verbpage/verbtenseintro.htmlhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/quizzes/tenses/tenses_frame.htmlhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/irregulars.htmhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/irregulars.htmhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/irregulars.htmhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/tenses/tense_frames.htmhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/verbs.htm#irregularhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/tenses.htmhttp://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/2527/presentperfect.htmlhttp://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/2527/presentperfect.htmlhttp://www.englishpage.com/verbpage/verbtenseintro.htmlhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/quizzes/tenses/tenses_frame.htmlhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/irregulars.htmhttp://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/irregulars.htm


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Recognizing Verbs: Verbmaster

Recognizing Verbs: Verbmaster 2

Irregular Verbs

Irregular Verbs II

Irregular Verbs III

Irregular Verbs Crossword Puzzle

Sequence of Tenses
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Sequence of Tenses: The relationship between verbs in a main clause and verbs in

dependent clauses is important. These verb tenses don't have to be identical as long as they

reflect, logically, shifts in time and meaning: "My brother had graduatedbefore

I startedcollege." "My brother will have graduatedbefore I start." ClickHERE for a chart

describing various time relationships and how those relationships determine the appropriate

sequence of verb tenses.

Verbals

Verbals are words that seem to carry the idea of action or being but do not function as a

true verb. The are sometimes called "nonfinite" (unfinished or incomplete) verbs. Because time

is involved with all verb forms, whether finite or nonfinite, however, following a logical Tense

Sequence is important. ClickHERE for a chart describing the time elements involved in

choosing the correct verbal form. Verbals are frequently accompanied by other, related words in

what is called a verbal phrase.

There is a whole section on how verbals connect with other

words to form phrases. Be sure to visit the always

pleasant GARDEN OF PHRASES.

Participle: a verb form acting as an adjective. The running dog chased thefluttering moth.

A present participle (like running orfluttering) describes a present condition; a past participle

describes something that has happened: "The completely rottedtooth finally fell out of his

mouth." The distinction can be important to the meaning of a sentence; there is a huge differencebetween a confusing student and a confusedstudent. See the section onAdjectives for further

help on this issue.

Infinitive: the root of a verb plus the word to. To sleep, perchance to dream. A present

infinitive describes a present condition: "I like to sleep." The perfect infinitive describes a time

earlier than that of the verb: "I would like to have won that game." See the section

on Sequence below for other forms as well.

The Split Infinitive

If there is one error in writing that your boss or history prof can and will pick up on, it's

the notorious split infinitive. An infinitive is said to be "split" when a word (often an

adverb) or phrase sneaks between the to of the infinitive and the root of the verb: "to

boldly go," being the most famous of its kind. The argument against split infinitives

(based on rather shaky historical grounds) is that the infinitive is a single unit and,
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therefore, should not be divided. Because it raises so many readers' hackles and is so

easy to spot, good writers, at least in academic prose, avoid the split infinitive. Instead

of writing "She expected her grandparents to not stay," then, we could write "She

expected her grandparents not to stay." Sometimes, though, avoiding the split infinitive

simply isn't worth the bother. There is nothing wrong, really, with a sentence such as

the following:

He thinks he'll be able to more than double his salary this year.

The Oxford American Desk Dictionary, which came out in October of 1998, says that

the rule against the split infinitive can generally be ignored, that the rule "is not firmly

grounded, and treating two English words as one can lead to awkward, stilted

sentences." ("To Boldly Go," The Hartford Courant. 15 Oct 1998.) Opinion among

English instructors and others who feel strongly about the language remains divided,

however. Today's dictionaries allow us to split the infinitive, but it should never be done

at the expense of grace. Students would be wise to know their instructor's feelings on

the matter, workers their boss's.

Both gerunds and infinitive phrases can function as nouns, in a variety of

ways. Noun uses are covered in a separate document, a

section that should be helpful to students who want to

understand why some verbs take gerunds, others takeinfinitives, some take either. (In addition, there is a section on

the use of the infinitive as adjective complement free at no extra

charge.) Click the button to enter.

Gerund: a verb form, ending in -ing, which acts as a noun. Running in the park after dark

can be dangerous. Gerunds are frequently accompanied by other associated words making up

agerund phrase ("running in the park after dark").

Because gerunds and gerund phrases are nouns, they can be used in any way that a noun can be

used:

as subject: Being king can be dangerous for your health.

as object of the verb: He didn't particularly like being king.

as object of a preposition: He wrote a book about being king.
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Infinitives and Gerunds and Sequence

Although they are not, strictly speaking, verbs, infinitives and gerunds carry within them the

idea of action. Combined with auxiliary verb forms, like verbs, they also express various shades

of time.

SimpleForms

We had planned to watch all the

events of the Olympics

Seeing those athletes perform is

always a great thrill.

PerfectiveForms

The women's hockey team hopedto

have won a gold medal before they

were done.

We were thrilled about theirhaving

been in contention in the world

championships before.

PassiveForms

To be chosen as an olympian must be

the biggest thrill in any athlete's life.

Being chosen, however, is probably

not enough.

PerfectivePassiveForms

The women did not seem satisfied

simply to have been selected asplayers.

Having been honored this way, they

went out and earned it by winning the

gold.

PerfectiveProgressiveInfinitive

To have been competing at that level,

at their age already, was quite an

accomplishment.


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Actual and Potential Meanings

Although a gerund and an infinitive will often have practically the same meaning ("Running

in the park after dark can be dangerous" and "To run in the park after dark can be dangerous"),

there can be a difference in meaning. Gerunds are used to describe an "actual, vivid, or fulfilled

action" whereas infinitives are better used to describe "potential, hypothetical, or future events"

(Frodesen & Eyring 297). This is especially true with three kinds of verbs: verbs of emotion,

verbs of completion/incompletion, and verbs of remembering.

EMOTION

Actual Event Potential Event

I hated practicing my violin

while the other kids wereplaying outside.

I prefer to work during the

day.

COMPLETION/INCOMPLETION

Actual Event Potential Event

We began working on this

project two years ago.

We finished working on this

project a month ago.(Finish always takes a

gerund.)

We will continue to work on

this project for the next four

months. I wonder when we

will start to wrap up thisproject.

REMEMBERING

(such as remember, forget, regret)

Juanita forgot to do her

homework. (meaning that

Juanita failed to do her

homework because shedidn't remember to do it)

Juanita forgot doing her

homework. (meaning that

Juanita did her homework but

that she forgot she had doneso)


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For the various noun functions of both

gerunds and infinitives, click on the

button.

These distinctions for the various kinds of verbs (above) are based on those found in Grammar Dimensions: Form,Meaning, and Use. 2nd Ed. Jan Frodesen and Janet Eyring. Heinle & Heinle: Boston, 1997. Examples our own.

HELPINGANDMODAL AUXILIARYVERBS

Helping verbs or auxiliary verbs such as will, shall, may, might, can, could, must, ought

to, should, would, used to, needare used in conjunction with main verbs to express shades of

time and mood. The combination of helping verbs with main verbs creates what are called verb

phrases or verb strings. In the following sentence, "will have been" are helping or auxiliary

verbs and "studying" is the main verb; the whole verb string is underlined:

As of next August, I will have been studying chemistry for ten years.

Students should remember that adverbs and contracted forms are not, technically, part of the

verb. In the sentence, "He has already started." the adverb already modifies the verb, but it is not

really part of the verb. The same is true of the 'ntin "He hasn't started yet" (the adverb not,

represented by the contracted n't, is not part of the verb, has started).

Shall, will and forms ofhave, do and be combine with main verbs to indicate time and

voice. As auxiliaries, the verbs be, have and do can change form to indicate changes in subject

and time.

I shall go now.

He had won the election.

They did write that novel together.

I am going now.

He was winning the election.

They have been writing that novel for a long time.
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Uses ofShalland Willand Should

In England, shall is used to express the simple future for first

personIandwe, as in "Shall we meet by the river?" Will would be used in thesimple future for all other persons. Using will in the first person would express

determination on the part of the speaker, as in "We will finish this project by

tonight, by golly!" Usingshall in second and third persons would indicate some

kind of promise about the subject, as in "This shall be revealed to you in good

time." This usage is certainly acceptable in the U.S., although shall is used far

less frequently. The distinction between the two is often obscured by the

contraction 'll, which is the same for both verbs.

In the United States, we seldom use shall for anything other than polite

questions (suggesting an element of permission) in the first-person:

"Shall we go now?"

"Shall I call a doctor for you?"

(In the second sentence, many writers would use shouldinstead,

although shouldis somewhat more tentative than shall.) In the U.S., to express

the future tense, the verb will is used in all other cases.

Shall is often used in formal situations (legal or legalistic documents, minutes

to meetings, etc.) to express obligation, even with third-person and second-

person constructions:

The board of directors shall be responsible for payment to stockholders.

The college president shall report financial shortfalls to the executive

director each semester."

Shouldis usually replaced, nowadays, by would. It is still used, however, to

mean "ought to" as in

You really shouldn't do that.

If you think that was amazing, you should have seen it last night.

In British English and very formal American English, one is apt to hear or

readshouldwith the first-person pronouns in expressions of liking such as "I

should prefer iced tea" and in tentative expressions of opinion such as

I should imagine they'll vote Conservative.

I should have thought so.

(The New Fowler's Modern English Usage edited by R.W. Burchfield. Clarendon Press: Oxford,


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Uses ofDo, Does and Did

In the simple present tense, do will function as an auxiliary to express the

negative and to ask questions. (Does, however, is substituted for third-person,singular subjects in the present tense. The past tense didworks with all persons,

singular and plural.)

I don't study at night.

She doesn't work here anymore.

Do you attend this school?

Does he work here?

These verbs also work as "short answers," with the main verb omitted.

Does she work here? No, she doesn't work here.

With "yes-no" questions, the form ofdo goes in front of the subject and the

main verb comes after the subject:

Did your grandmother know Truman?

Do wildflowers grow in your back yard?

Forms ofdo are useful in expressing similarity and differences in conjunction

with so and neither.

My wife hates spinach and so does my son.

My wife doesn't like spinach; neither do I.

Do is also helpful because it means you don't have to repeat the verb:

Larry excelled in language studies; so did his brother.

Raoul studies as hard as his sister does.

The so-called emphatic do has many uses in English.

a. To add emphasis to an entire sentence: "He does like spinach. He really

does!"

b. To add emphasis to an imperative: "Do come in." (actually softens the

command)

c. To add emphasis to a frequency adverb: "He never did understand his

father." "She always does manage to hurt her mother's feelings."

d. To contradict a negative statement: "You didn't do your homework, did


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Uses ofHave, Has and Had

Forms of the verb to have are used to create tenses known as the present

perfect and past perfect. The perfect tenses indicate that something hashappened in the past; the present perfect indicating that something happened

and might be continuing to happen, the past perfect indicating that something

happened prior to something else happening. (That sounds worse than it really

is!) See the section onVerb Tenses in the Active Voicefor further

explanation; also review material in the Directory of English Tenses.

To have is also in combination with other modal verbs to express probability

and possibility in the past.

As an affirmative statement, to have can express how certain you are

that something happened (when combined with an appropriate modal

+ have + a past participle): "Georgia must have left already." "Clinton

might have known about the gifts." "They may have voted already."

As a negative statement, a modal is combined with not+ have + a past

participle to express how certain you are that something did not happen:

"Clinton might not have known about the gifts." "I may not have been

there at the time of the crime."

To ask about possibility or probability in the past, a modal is combined

with the subject + have + past participle: "Could Clinton have known

about the gifts?"

For short answers, a modal is combined with have: "Did Clinton know

about this?" "I don't know. He may have." "The evidence is pretty

positive. He must have."

To have (sometimes combined with to get) is used to express a logical

inference:

It's been raining all week; the basement has to be flooded by now.

He hit his head on the doorway. He has got to be over seven feet tall!

Have is often combined with an infinitive to form an auxiliary whose meaningis similar to "must."

I have to have a car like that!

She has to pay her own tuition at college.

He has to have been the first student to try that.

Based on the analysis in Grammar Dimensions: Form, Meaning, and Use 2nd Ed. by JanFrodesen and Janet Eyring. Heinle & Heinle: Boston. 1997. Examples our own.
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Modal Auxiliaries

Other helping verbs, called modal auxiliaries or modals, such as can, could, may, might,

must, ought to, shall, should, will, and would, do not change form for different subjects. For

instance, try substituting any of these modal auxiliaries for can with any of the subjects listed

below.

I

you

(singular)

he

we

you (plural)

they

can write

well.

There is also a separate section on theModal Auxiliaries, which divides these verbs into

their various meanings of necessity, advice, ability, expectation, permission, possibility, etc., and

provides sample sentences in various tenses. See the section on Conditional Verb Formsfor

help with the modal auxiliary would. The shades of meaning among modal auxiliaries are

multifarious and complex. Most English-as-a-Second-Language textbooks will contain at least

one chapter on their usage. For more advanced students, A University Grammar of English, by

Randolph Quirk and Sidney Greenbaum, contains an excellent, extensive analysis of modalauxiliaries.

The analysis ofModal Auxiliariesis based on a similar analysis in The Scott, Foresman Handbook for Writers by

Maxine Hairston and John J. Ruszkiewicz. 4th ed. HarperCollins: New York. 1996. The description of helping verbson this page is based on The Little, Brown Handbookby H. Ramsay Fowler and Jane E. Aaron, & Kay Limburg. 6thed. HarperCollins: New York. 1995. By permission of Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc. Examples in allcases are our own.
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Uses ofCan and Could

The modal auxiliary can is used

to express ability (in the sense of being able to do something or knowing

how to do something):

He can speak Spanish but he can't write it very well.

to expression permission (in the sense of being allowed or permitted to

do something):

Can I talk to my friends in the library waiting room? (Note that can is

less formal than may. Also, some writers will object to the use ofcanin

this context.)

to express theoretical possibility:

American automobile makers can make better cars if they think there's a

profit in it.

The modal auxiliary couldis used

to express an ability in the past:

I could always beat you at tennis when we were kids.

to express past or future permission:

Could I bury my cat in your back yard?

to express present possibility:

We could always spend the afternoon just sitting around talking.

to express possibility or ability in contingent circumstances:

If he studied harder, he could pass this course.

In expressing ability, can and couldfrequently also imply willingness: Can you

help me with my homework?


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Can versus May

Whether the auxiliary verb can can be used to express permission or not

"Can I leave the room now?" ["I don't know if you can, but you may."] depends on the level of formality of your text or situation. As Theodore

Bernstein puts it in The Careful Writer, "a writer who is attentive to the

proprieties will preserve the traditional distinction: can for ability or power to

do something, mayfor permission to do it.

The question is at what level can you safely ignore the "proprieties."

Merriam-Webster's Dictionary, tenth edition, says the battle is over and can can

be used in virtually any situation to express or ask for permission. Most

authorities, however, recommend a stricter adherence to the distinction, at least

in formal situations.

Authority: The Careful Writer by Theodore Bernstein. The Free Press: New York. 1998. p. 87.


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Uses ofMayand Might

Two of the more troublesome modal auxiliaries are may and might. When

used in the context of granting or seeking permission, mightis the past tenseofmay.Mightis considerably more tentative than may.

May I leave class early?

If I've finished all my work and I'm really quiet, might I leave early?

In the context of expressing possibility, may and mightare interchangeable

present and future forms and might+ have + past participle is the past form:

She might be my advisor next semester.

She may be my advisor next semester.

She might have advised me not to take biology.

Avoid confusing the sense of possibility in may with the implication

ofmight,that a hypothetical situation has not in fact occurred. For instance, let's

say there's been a helicopter crash at the airport. In his initial report, before all

the facts are gathered, a newscaster could say that the pilot "may have been

injured." After we discover that the pilot is in fact all right, the newscaster can

now say that the pilot "might have been injured" because it is a hypothetical

situation that has not occurred. Another example: a body had been identified

after much work by a detective. It was reported that "without this painstaking

work, the body may have remained unidentified." Since the body was, in fact,identified, mightis clearly called for.


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Uses ofWilland Would

In certain contexts, will and wouldare virtually interchangeable, but there

are differences. Notice that the contracted form 'll is very frequently usedfor will.

Will can be used to express willingness:

I'll wash the dishes if you dry.

We're going to the movies. Will you join us?

It can also express intention (especially in the first person):

I'll do my exercises later on.

and prediction:

specific: The meeting will be over soon.

timeless: Humidity will ruin my hairdo.

habitual: The river will overflow its banks every spring.

Wouldcan also be used to express willingness:

Would you please take off your hat?

It can also express insistence (rather rare, and with a strong stress on the word

"would"):

Now you've ruined everything. You wouldact that way.

and characteristic activity:

customary: After work, he would walk to his home in West Hartford.

typical (casual): She would cause the whole family to be late, every

time.

In a main clause, wouldcan express a hypothetical meaning:

My cocker spaniel would weigh a ton if I let her eat what she wants.

Finally, wouldcan express a sense of probability:

I hear a whistle. That would be the five o'clock train.


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Uses ofUsed to

The auxiliary verb construction used to is used to express an action that

took place in the past, perhaps customarily, but now that action no longer

customarily takes place:

We used to take long vacation trips with the whole family.

The spelling of this verb is a problem for some people because the "-ed" ending

quite naturally disappears in speaking: "We yoostoo take long trips." But it

ought not to disappear in writing. There are exceptions, though. When the

auxiliary is combined with another auxiliary, did, the past tense is carried by

the new auxiliary and the "-ed" ending is dropped. This will often happen in theinterrogative:

Didn't you use to go jogging every morning before breakfast?

It didn't use to be that way.

Used to can also be used to convey the sense of being accustomed to or

familiar with something:

The tire factory down the road really stinks, but we're used to it by now.

I like these old sneakers; I'm used to them.

Used to is best reserved for colloquial usage; it has no place in formal or

academic text.

THE VERB TO BE

The Forms of To Be

The Greek sea god, Proteus, was (like the sea) capable of changing form in an instant. In

order to get any decent information out of him, you had to grab him and hold on tight while he

went through his various forms lion, wild boar, snake, tree, running stream it wasn't easy.

The verb To be is said to be the most protean of the English language, constantly changing

form, sometimes without much of a discernible pattern. Considering that we use it so often, it is

really too bad that the verb To be has to be the most irregular, slippery verb in the language.


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Present Tense

I am We are

You are You are

He/She/It is They are

Past Tense

I was We were

You were You were

He/She/It was They were

Perfect Form (past participle)

I have been, etc.

Progressive Form (present participle)

I am being, etc.

We must choose carefully among these various forms when selecting the proper verb to go

with our subject. Singular subjects require singular verbs; plural subjects require plural verbs.

That's usually an easy matter. We wouldn't write The troops was moving to the border. But

some sentences require closer attention. Do we write The majority of students is (or are) voting

against the referendum"? Review carefully the material in our section on Subject-Verb

Agreement, and notice how often the choices we make require a familiarity with these forms of

the To be verb.

Simple Questions

We create simple yes/no questions by inverting the order of subject and the To be verb.

Is your brother taller than you?

Am I bothering you?

Were they embarrassed by the comedian?

The same inversion takes place when To be is combined with verbs in the

progressive: Am I working with you today?
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Is it snowing in the mountains?

Were your children driving home this weekend?

The Linking and Existential 'To Be'

The verb To be most frequently works in conjunction with another verb: He is playing

the piano, She will be arriving this afternoon. Occasionally, though, the verb will stand by

itself, alone, in a sentence. This is especially true in simple, brief answers to questions.

Who's going to the movies with me?I am

Who's responsible for this mess in the bathroom?She is.

In sentences such as these, the subject usually receives the intonation stress and the voicefalls off on the verb.

An auxiliary can be combined with the base form of To be to provide simple answers to

questions that use forms of to be.

Is Heitor in class this morning?Well, he might be.

Is anyone helping Heitor with his homework?I'm not sure. Suzanne could be.

The verb To be also acts as a linking verb, joining the sentence subject with asubject

complement or adjective complement. A linking verb provides no action to a sentence: the

subject complement re-identifies the subject; the adjective complement modifies it. (For further

information and additional vocabulary in dealing with linking verbs, visit the hyperlinks in this

paragraph.)

Professor Moriber is the Director of Online Learning.

Our trip to Yellowstone was fantastic!

In Passive ConstructionsA form of the verb To be is combined with a past participle to form the passive.Passive

verb constructions are useful when the subject of an action is not as important as what the

subject did (the action of the sentence) or when the subject is unknown. For instance, the police

might report that The professor was assaulted in the hallways because they do not know the

perpetrator of this heinous crime. In technical writing, where the process is more important than
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who is doing the activity, we might report that Three liters of fluid is filtered through porous

glass beads. Regardless of the verb's purpose, only the auxiliary form of To be changes; the

participle stays the same. The To be will change form to indicate whether the subject is

singular or plural:

The foundation is supported by enormous floating caissons that keep it from sinkinginto the swamp.

They were constructed by workers half submerged in the murky waters.

Notice how the information about who did the action is frequently found in a prepositional

phrase beginning with by. Passive constructions do not always include this information:

Wooden caissons were used until fiberglass structures were developed in the 1950s.

Caissons were also designed to function under water in the construction of bridges.

The To be will also change to indicate the time of the action and the aspect of the verb

(simple, progressive, perfect).

Water is pumped out of the caisson to create an underwater work chamber. (simple

present)

Some caissons were moved to other construction sites. (simple past)

While the water was being pumped out, workers would enter the top of the

waterproof chamber. (past progressive)

Many other uses of caisson construction have been explored. (present perfect)

Caissons had been used by the ancient Romans. (past perfect)

Other uses will be found. (future)

The To be verb can be combined with other modal forms (along with the past participle of

the main verb) to convey other kinds of information. See the section on modals for the various

kinds of information conveyed by modals (advisability, predictability, guessing, necessity,

possibility, etc.).

The wall joints may be weakened if the caissons can't be rebuilt.

Perhaps the caissons should be replaced; I think they ought to be.

These ancient, sturdy structures might have been rotted by constant exposure to

water.

Visit our section on the passive for advice on when to use the passive and when to

substitute more active verb forms.
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When To be verbs are combined with modal forms in this manner, the construction is

called a phrasal modal. Here are some more examples:

Rosario was able to finish her degree by taking online courses.

She wasn't supposed to graduate until next year.

She will be allowed to participate in commencement, though.

She is about to apply to several graduate programs.

She is going to attend the state university next fall.

Sometimes it is difficult to say whether a To be verb is linking a subject to a participle or

if the verb and participle are part of a passive construction. In Certain behaviors are allowed, is

"are linking behaviors to "allowed" (a participle acting as a predicate adjective) or is are

allowed a passive verb? In the final analysis, it probably doesn't matter, but the distinction leads

to some interesting variations. Consider the difference between

The jurists were welcomed.

and

The jurists were welcome.

In the first sentence, the participle welcomed (in this passive construction) emphasizes the

action of welcoming: the smiles, the hearty greetings, the slaps on the back. In the second

sentence, the predicate adjective welcome describes the feeling that the jurists must have had

upon being so welcomed.

Progressive Forms

ClickHERE for a thorough discussion of the progressive verb forms. Progressive forms

include a form of To be plus a present participle (an -ing ending). Frodesen and Eyring**

categorize progressive verbs according to the following functions:

to describe actions already in progress at the moment "in focus" within the sentence,

as in I was doing my homework when my brother broke into my room, crying. or

I will be graduating from college about the same time that you enter high school.

to describe actions at the moment of focus in contrast to habitual actions, as in We

usually buy the most inexpensive car we can find, but this time we're buying aluxury sedan.

to express repeated actions, as in My grandfather is forever retelling the same story

about his adventures in Rangoon.
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to describe temporary situations in contrast to permanent states, as in Jeffrey goes

to the University of Connecticut, but this summer he is taking courses at the

community college.

to express uncompleted actions, as in Harvey and Mark are working on their

deck.

Tag Questions with To Be

ClickHERE for a description of tag questions, a device by which a statement is turned into

a question. When we use To be verbs in a tag question, the basic formula follows: the verb is

combined with a pronoun and sometimes with not(usually in a contracted form). Positive

statements are followed by negative tags; negative statements by positive tags.

Robert Frost was America's favorite poet, wasn't he?

He wasn't widely accepted in this country at first, was he?

You were going to skip this poem, weren't you?

There were several typographical errors in this anthology, weren't there? (Be careful

here. It's not weren't they.)

I am not a very good reader, am I?

I'm a better reader than you, aren't I?

(Don't try to make sense of this last construction. It is acceptable. In very formal text, you

might write am I not instead. Ain't is not regarded as acceptable except in text attempting toduplicate substandard speech.)

Order with Adverbs

Notice that adverbs of frequency normally appear after forms of the verb To be:

As a student, he was seldom happy.

Arturo is always first in line.

They were never on time.

Notice that the adverb still appears after To be verbs but before other main verbs:

My brother-in-law still works for the bank.

He is still a teller after twenty years.
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An adverb can be interposed between the infinitive To be and a participle, as in the following

sentences. The fear of splitting an infinitive is without grounds in this construction.

This medicine has to be carefully administered .

She turned out to be secretly married to her childhood sweetheart.

Unnecessary Uses of To Be

Even a casual review of your writing can reveal uses of the verb To be that are

unnecessary and that can be removed to good effect. In a way, the To be verb doesn't do much

for you it just sits there and text that is too heavily sprinkled with To be verbs can feel

sodden, static. This is especially true of To be verbs tucked into dependent clauses

(particularly dependent clauses using a passive construction) and expletive constructions (There

is, There were, it is, etc.). Note that the relative pronoun frequently disappears as well when

we revise these sentences.

He wanted a medication that was prescribed by a physician.

She recognized the officer who was chasing the crook.

Anyone who is willing to work hard will succeed in this program.

It was Alberto who told the principal about the students' prank. (Notice that the it

was brought special emphasis to Alberto, an emphasis that is somewhat lost by

this change.)

A customer who is pleased is sure to return. A pleased customer is sure to return.

(When we eliminate the To be and the relative pronoun, we will also have to

reposition the predicate adjective to a pre-noun position.)

An expletive construction, along with its attendant To be verb, can often be eliminated to

good effect. Simply omit the construction, find the real subject of the sentence, and allow it to do

some real work with a real verb.

There were some excellent results to this experiment in social work. (Change

to . . . .) This experiment in social work resulted in . . . .

There is one explanation for this story's ending in Faulkner's diary. (Change to . . . .)

Faulkner's diary gives us one explanation for this story's ending.

On the other hand, expletive constructions do give us an interesting means of setting out or

organizing the work of a subsequent paragraph:

There were four underlying causes of World War I. First, . . . .

Fuzzy Verb Phrases with "Be"


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The following information is taken, with permission, from Garner's ModernAmerican Usage by Bryan Garner. Copyright 2003. Published by OxfordUniversity Press.

Verb phrases containing "be" verbs are often merely roundabout ways of saying something

better said with a simple verb. Thus "be supportive of" for "support" is verbose.

The following circumlocutory uses of "be" verbs are common in stuffy writing. The simple

verb (in parentheses) is usually better:

be abusive of (abuse)be applicable to (apply to)

be benefited by (benefit from)

be derived from (derive from)

be desirous of (desire or want)

be determinative of (determine)be in agreement (agree)

be in attendance (attend)be indicative of (indicate)

be in error (err)

be in existence (exist)be influential on (influence)

be in possession of (possess)

be in receipt of (have received)

be in violation of (violate)

be operative (operate)be productive of (produce)

be promotive of (promote)be supportive of (support)

Many such wordy constructions are more naturally phrased in the present-tense singular: "is

able to" ("can"), "is authorized to" ("may"), "is binding upon" ("binds"), "is empowered to"

("may"), "is unable to" ("cannot").

Stative and Dynamic Forms

Martha Kolln* suggests that we think of the difference between stative and dynamic in

terms of willed and nonwilled qualities. Consider the difference between a so-called

dynamic adjective (or subject complement) and a stative adjective (or subject complement): I

am silly OR I am being silly versus I am tall. I have chosen to be silly; I have no choice

about being tall. Thus Tall is said to be a stative (or an inert) quality, and we cannot say I

am being tall; silly, on the other hand, is dynamic so we can use progressive verb forms in

conjunction with that quality.

Two plus two equals four.Equals is inert, stative, and cannot take the progressive; there isno choice, no volition in the matter. (We would not say, Two plus two is equaling four.) In the

same way, nouns and pronouns can be said to exhibit willed and unwilled characteristics. Thus,

She is being a good worker (because she chooses to be so), but we would say She is (not is

being) an Olympic athlete (because once she becomes an athlete she no longer wills it). For

further definition of this interesting distinction, clickHERE.
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Passive and Active Voices

Verbs are also said to be either active (The executive committee approved the new policy)

orpassive (The new policy was approved by the executive committee) in voice. In the active

voice, the subject and verb relationship is straightforward: the subject is a be-er or a do-er and

the verb moves the sentence along. In the passive voice, the subject of the sentence is neither a

do-er or a be-er, but is acted upon by some otheragent or by something unnamed (The new

policy was approved). Computerized grammar checkers can pick out a passive voice

construction from miles away and ask you to revise it to a more active construction. There is

nothing inherently wrong with the passive voice, but if you can say the same thing in the active

mode, do so (see exceptions below). Your text will have more pizzazz as a result, since passive

verb constructions tend to lie about in their pajamas and avoid actual work.

We find an overabundance of the passive voice in sentences created by self-protective

business interests, magniloquent educators, and bombastic military writers (who must get weary

of this accusation), who use the passive voice to avoid responsibility for actions taken.

Thus "Cigarette ads were designed to appeal especially to children" places the burden

on the ads as opposed to "We designed the cigarette ads to appeal especially to

children," in which "we" accepts responsibility. At a White House press briefing we might hear

that "The President was advised that certain members of Congress were being audited" rather

than "The Head of the Internal Revenue service advised the President that her agency was

auditing certain members of Congress" because the passive construction avoids responsibility for

advising and for auditing. One further caution about the passive voice: we should not mix active

and passive constructions in the same sentence: "The executive committee approved the new

policy, and the calendar for next year's meetings was revised" should be recast as "The executive

committee approved the new policy and revised the calendar for next year's meeting."

Take the quiz (below) as an exercise in recognizing and changing passive verbs.

The passive voice does exist for a reason, however, and its presence is not

always to be despised. The passive is particularly useful (even recommended) in

two situations:

When it is more important to draw our attention to the person or thing

acted upon: The unidentified victim was apparently struck during the early morning

hours. When the actor in the situation is not important: The aurora borealis can be

observed in the early morning hours.

The passive voice is especially helpful (and even regarded as mandatory) in scientific or

technical writing or lab reports, where the actor is not really important but the process or

principle being described is of ultimate importance. Instead of writing "I poured 20 cc of acid

into the beaker," we would write "Twenty cc of acid is/was poured into the beaker." The passive
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voice is also useful when describing, say, a mechanical process in which the details of process

are much more important than anyone's taking responsibility for the action: "The first coat of

primer paint is applied immediately after the acid rinse."

We use the passive voice to good effect in a paragraph in which we wish to shift emphasis

from what was the object in a first sentence to what becomes the subject in subsequent sentences.

The executive committee approved an entirely new policy for dealing with academic suspensionand withdrawal. The policy had been written by a subcommittee on student behavior. If studentswithdraw from course work before suspension can take effect, the policy states, a mark of "IW" .. . .

The paragraph is clearly about this new policy so it is appropriate that policy move from being

the object in the first sentence to being the subject of the second sentence. The passive voice

allows for this transition.

Passive Verb Formation

The passive forms of a verb are created by combining a form of the "to be verb" with the

past participle of the main verb. Other helping verbs are also sometimes present: "The

measure could have been killed in committee." The passive can be used, also, in various tenses.

Let's take a look at the passive forms of "design."

Tense SubjectAuxiliary Past

ParticipleSingular Plural

Present The car/cars is are designed.

Present perfect The car/cars has been have been designed.

Past The car/cars was were designed.

Past perfect The car/cars had been had been designed.

Future The car/cars will be will be designed.

Future perfect The car/cars will have been will have been designed.

Present progressive The car/cars is being are being designed.

Past progressive The car/cars was being were being designed.

A sentence cast in the passive voice will not always include an agent of the action. For

instance if a gorilla crushes a tin can, we could say "The tin can was crushed by the gorilla." But
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a perfectly good sentence would leave out the gorilla: "The tin can was crushed." Also, when an

active sentence with an indirect object is recast in the passive, the indirect object can take on the

role of subject in the passive sentence:

Active Professor Villa gave Jorge an A.

Passive An A was given to Jorge by Professor Villa.

Passive Jorge was given an A.

Only transitive verbs (those that take objects) can be transformed into passive constructions.

Furthermore, active sentences containing certain verbs cannot be transformed into passive

structures. To have is the most important of these verbs. We can say "He has a new car," but we

cannot say "A new car is had by him." We can say "Josefina lacked finesse," but we cannot say

"Finesse was lacked." Here is a brief list of such verbs*:

resemble look like equal agree with

mean contain hold comprise

lack suit fit become

Verbals in Passive Structures

Verbals or verb forms can also take on features of the passive voice. An infinitive phrase

in the passive voice, for instance, can perform various functions within a sentence (just like the

active forms of the infinitive).

Subject: To be elected by my peers is a great honor.

Object: That child really likes to be read to by her mother.

Modifier: Grasso was the first woman to be elected governor in her own right.

The same is true ofpassive gerunds.

Subject: Being elected by my peers was a great thrill.

Object: I really don't like being lectured to by my boss.

Object of preposition: I am so tired ofbeing lectured to by my boss.
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With passive participles, part of the passive construction is often omitted, the result being a

simple modifying participial phrase.

[Having been] designed for off-road performance, the Pathseeker does not always

behave well on paved highways.

PROGRESSIVE, STATIVEAND DYNAMIC VERBS

THEPROGRESSIVEFORMSOFAVERBINDICATETHATSOMETHINGISHAPPENING or was

happening or will be happening. When used with the past, the progressive form shows the

limited duration of an event: "While I was doing my homework, my brother came into my

room." The past progressive also suggests that an action in the past was not entirely finished.

(Compare "I did my homework." to "I was doing my homework.") This is even more evident in

the passive progressive construction: "He was being strangled in the alley" suggests an action

that was not finished, perhaps because the act was interrupted by a good citizen, whereas the

simple past "He was strangled in the alley" suggests an action that was finished, unfortunately.

A neat categorization of the uses of the progressive can be found on the page describing

the "To Be" Verb.

The progressive forms occur only with dynamic verbs, that is, with verbs that show

qualities capable of change as opposed to stative verbs, which show qualities not capable of

change.* For instance, we do not say, "He is being tall" or "He is resembling his mother" or "I

am wanting spaghetti for dinner" or "It is belonging to me." (We would say, instead: "He is tall,"

"He resembles his mother," "I want spaghetti," and "It belongs to me.") The best way to

understand the difference between stative and dynamic verbs is to look at a table that lists them

and breaks them into categories and then to build some sentences with them, trying out the

progressive forms to see if they work or not.

These categories and lists are derived from Randolph Quirk and Sidney Greenbaum's A

University Grammar of English (used with the publisher's permission). The examples are our

own. The lists are not meant to be complete.

DYNAMIC VERBS

Activity Verbs

I am begging you. I was learning French. They will be playing
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upstairs..Virtually identical in meaning to simple tense forms:

I beg you. I learned French. They will play upstairs.

abandon

askbeg

calldrink

eat

helplearn

listenlook at

play

rainread

sayslice

throw

whisperwork

write

Process Verbs

The corn is growing rapidly. Traffic is slowing down.

Virtually identical in meaning to simple present tense forms:

The corn grows rapidly. Traffic slows down.

change

deteriorate

grow

mature

slow down widen

Verbs of Bodily Sensation

"I feel bad" and "I am feeling bad" are virtually identical inmeaning.

ache feel hurt itch

Transitional Events Verbs

Progressive forms indicate the beginning of an event,

as opposed to the simple present tense."She was falling out of bed [when I caught her]" as opposed to

"She falls out of bed every night."

arrive

die

fall

land

leave lose

Momentary Verbs

Progressive forms indicate little duration and suggest repetition.

She is hitting her brother.He is jumping around the house.

hit

jump

kick

knock

nod tap

STATIVE VERBS

Verbs of Inert Perception and Cognition*

I detest rudabaga, but notI am detesting rudabaga.I prefer cinnamon toast, but notI am preferring cinnamon toast.

abhor guess mind satisfy


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adore

astonish

believe

desire

detest

dislike

doubt

feel

forgive

hate

hear

imagine

impress

intend

know

like

love

mean

perceive

please

prefer

presuppose

realize

recall

recognize

regard

remember

see

smell

suppose

taste

think

understand

want

wish

Relational Verbs

I am sick, but notI am being sick.

I own ten acres of land, but notI am owning ten acres.My brother owes me ten dollars" but not

My brother is owing me ten dollars.

be*belong to

concern

consist of

contain

cost

depend ondeserve

equal

fit

have

include

involvelack

matter

need

owe

own

possessrequire

require

resemble

seem

sound

*Kolln suggests that we think of the difference between stative and dynamic in terms of

"willed" and "nonwilled" qualities. Consider the difference between a so-called dynamic

adjective (or subject complement) and a stative adjective (or subject complement): "I am silly"

OR "I am being silly" versus "I am tall." I have chosen to be silly; I have no choice about being

tall. Thus "tall" is said to be a stative (or an "inert") quality, and we cannot say "I am being tall";

"silly," on the other hand, is dynamic so we can use progressive verb forms in conjunction with

that quality.

The same applies to verbs. Two plus two equals four.Equals is inert, stative, and cannot

take the progressive; there is no choice, no volition in the matter. (We would not say, "Two plus

two is equalling four.") In the same way, nouns and pronouns can be said to exhibit willed and

unwilled characteristics. Thus, "She is being a good worker" (because she chooses to be so), but

we would say "She is (not is being) an Olympic athlete" (because once she becomes an athlete

she no longer "wills it").

CONDITIONALVERB FORMS


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If I had a hammer, I'd hammer in the morning,

I'd hammer in the evening, all over this land.

I'd hammer out danger, I'd hammer out warning,

I'd hammer out love between my brothers and my sisters

Oh, oh, all over this land.

If I had a bell, I'd ring it in the morning,

I'd ring it in the evening, all over this land.

I'd ring out danger, I'd ring out warning,

I'd ring out love between my brothers and my sisters

Oh, oh, all over this land.

So go the first two stanzas of Lee Hays and Pete Seeger's folk tune, "If I had a hammer,"

one of the most famous tunes and lyrics in the history of American song. The grammar of the

lyrics uses what is called the conditional. The writer expresses an action or an idea (hammeringout danger and warning and love) that is dependent on a condition, on something that is only

imagined (having a hammer or a bell or, in the next stanza, a song). In this situation, the

lyricist imagines what he would do if he "had a hammer" now, in the present. He might also

have imagined what he would have done if he "had had a hammer," in the past, prior to

something else happening:

"If I had had a hammer, I would have hammered a warning."

The conditional is possible also in the future tense:

"If I have a hammer tomorrow, I might hammer out warning.OR

. . . I will hammer out warning."

OR

"If I were to have a hammer tomorrow, I would hammer out warning."

And, finally, he could imagine what is called the habitual present conditional:

"If/when I have a hammer, I hammer out warning." [I do it all the time, whenever I have a

hammer.]

The Factual versus the Unreal or Hypothetical


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In expressing a conditional situation, we must be able to distinguish

between what is a factual statement and what is a hypothetical statement.

(Other terms for hypothetical could be unreal, imagined, wished for, only

possible, etc.) For instance, if we say

"The dog is always happy when Dad stays home,"

that's a simple statement of present habitual fact. A general truth is expressed in the same way:

"If the sun shines all day, it gets hot."

Statements of habitual fact can also be made in the past:

"If we ate out at all, it was always in a cheap restaurant."

And conditional or hypothetical statements can be made about the future:

"I will give you a call, if I fly to Phoenix tomorrow.

(In the future, we could combine the base form of the verb ("give," in this case) with other modal

verbs: may, might, could.)

HYPOTHETICAL STATEMENTS

When we express the hypothetical in English in the present tense, we end up using the past

tense in an interesting way.

If you liked tennis, we could go play on the new courts.

(Instead ofcould, we could have used wouldor mightin that sentence.) The speaker of that

sentence is not talking about something in the past tense, even though he uses the past tense

"liked." The speaker implies, in fact, that you don't like to play tennis (in the present), so there's

no point, now, in going to the new tennis courts.

When we use the hypothetical in this conditional mode, we accommodate our need

to speculate on how things could have been different, how we wish things were

different, how we imagine that things could be different in the future, etc. In order to

express the unreal, the hypothetical, the speculative, or imagined (all those being the

same in this case), English has adopted an interesting habit of moving time one step backward.

Two verbs are involved: one in the clause stating the condition (the "if" clause) and one in the

result clause. Watch how the verbs change.

Click

for yet another

explanation of

the conditional in

English.
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/conditional2.htm


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If the hypothetical result is in the future, we put the verb in the condition clause one step

back into the present:

If the Bulls win the game tomorrow, they will be champs again.

For present unreal events, we put the verb in the condition clause one step back into the past:

If the Bulls won another championship, Roberto would drive into Chicago for the

celebration.

I wish I had tickets.

If they were available anywhere, I would pay any price for them.

If he were a good friend, he would buy them for me.

Note that wishing is always an unreal condition. Note, too, that the verb to be uses the

form were in an unreal condition. More about this in a moment.

For past unreal events things that didn't happen, but we can imagine we put the verb

in the condition clause a further step back into the past perfect:

If the Pacers had won, Aunt Glad would have been rich.

If she had bet that much money on the Bulls, she and Uncle Chester could have retired.

I wish I had lived in Los Angeles when the Lakers had Magic Johnson.

If I had known you were coming, I would have baked a cake.

In this last sentence, note the conditional clause in the past perfect (had known) and the resultclause that uses the conditional modal + have + the past participle of the main verb (would have

baked).

Some writers seem to think that the subjunctive mood is disappearing from English, but

that's probably not true. We use the subjunctive all the time to accommodate this human urge to

express possibility, the hypothetical, the imagined. (You can review the Verbs and Verbals

section for further help understanding the Subjunctive Mood.) Frequently, conditional

expressions require that we use were where we would otherwise have used another form ofto

be. The switch to were is not the only manifestation of the subjunctive in expressing the

conditional, but it is the most common.

If my brother were my boss, I wouldn't have a job today.

If I were to lose my job, I wouldn't be able to pay my bills. [Notice how this is more

uncertain, more "iffey," than "If I lose my job, I won't be able to pay my bills."]

If I were eight feet tall, I'd be one heck of a basketball player. [The subjunctive is

sometimes to express purely imaginary situation.]
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If I should grow to be eight feet tall, I'd be a great basketball player. [This statement seems

even more imaginary and unlikely.]

Using Wouldand Could

When expressing the unreal, the result clauses need would, couldor will. The conditionclauses do not use those verbs; the condition clauses, instead, use verbs moved one step back in

time from the result (as we will see in the tables below).

Future Conditionals versus Hypothetical Conditionals

When we want to predict something conditional about the future (what we think might

happen), we can use the present tense in the ifclause and will or be going + the base form of the

verb in the result clause.

If Jeffrey grows any taller, the basketball coach is going to recruit him for the team. If he doesn't grow more, the coach will ignore him.

On the other hand, the hypothetical conditional allows us to express quite unlikely situations

or situations that are downright impossible.

If I boxed against Evander Holyfield, he would kill me.

If my dad had been seven feet tall instead of less than six feet tall, he would have been a

great athlete.

Other Forms of Conditional StatementsThe conditional can also be signaled by means of a subject-verb inversion. This inversion

replaces the word "if"; it is inappropriate to use both the word "if" and the subject-verb inversion

in the same sentence.

Were Judita a better student, she would have a better relationship with her instructors.

Had Judita studied harder last fall, she would not have to take so many courses this spring.

Various Tenses in the Conditional

The following tables divide the uses of the conditional into three types, according to the

time expressed in the if clause: (1) true in the present or future or possibly true in the future; (2)

untrue or contrary to fact in the present; or (3) untrue or contrary to fact in the past. Notice the

one step backward in time in the condition clause.

True in the Present


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If clause Independent clause

True as habit or fact

If + subject + presenttense

subject + present tense

If Judita works hard, she gets good grades.

True as one-time future event

If + subject + present

tense

subject + future tense

If Judita hands in herpaper early tomorrow,

she'll probably get an A.

Possibly true in the future

If + subject + present

tense

subject + modal + base

form

If Judita hands in her

paper early tomorrow,she

may/might/could/shouldget an A.

Untrue in the Present


If + subject + past tense subject +

would/could/might +

simple form of verb

If Judita worked this hard

in all her courses,

she would/could/might

get on the Dean's List.


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If + subject + to be verb subject +

would/could/might +

simple form of verb

If Judita were president of

her class,

she could work to reform

the grading policy.

Untrue in the Past


If + subject + past

perfect tense

subject + modal + have

+ past participle

If Judita had worked this

hard in all her courses,

she would not have failed

this semester.

English Grammar - Verbs

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