ENGLISH AS AN ENGLISH AS AN INTERNATIONAL INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE LANGUAGE Part 1Part 1

Sandra Lee McKay: Teaching English as an Sandra Lee McKay: Teaching English as an International LanguageInternational Language

INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONENGLISH AS AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE ENGLISH AS AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE

To be considered an international To be considered an international language, a language cannot be language, a language cannot be linked TO ANY ONE COUNTRY linked TO ANY ONE COUNTRY OR CULTURE; rather, it must OR CULTURE; rather, it must belong to those who use it. belong to those who use it. Hence, the typical relationship that Hence, the typical relationship that exists btw culture and language exists btw culture and language needs to be re-examinedneeds to be re-examined..

This relationship needs to be This relationship needs to be examined with reference examined with reference

- to the teaching of discourse to the teaching of discourse competencecompetence

- The use of cultural materials in the The use of cultural materials in the classroomclassroom

- The cultural assumptions that The cultural assumptions that inform teaching methodsinform teaching methods

The question of whose discourse The question of whose discourse rules to apply in the use of EIL will be rules to apply in the use of EIL will be problematic. Some of the central problematic. Some of the central issues are: issues are:

-SHOULD THOSE WHO USE EIL BE -SHOULD THOSE WHO USE EIL BE ASKED TO ACQUIRE NATIVE ASKED TO ACQUIRE NATIVE SPEAKERS’ STANDARDS IN BOTH SPEAKERS’ STANDARDS IN BOTH SPOKEN AND WRITTEN SPOKEN AND WRITTEN INTERACTIONS?INTERACTIONS?

- SHOULD THEY EMPLOY SHOULD THEY EMPLOY STANDARDS CONSISTENT WITH STANDARDS CONSISTENT WITH THEIR OWN CULTURE?THEIR OWN CULTURE?

- IF ENGLISH IS APPROACHED AS AN - IF ENGLISH IS APPROACHED AS AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE, INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE, WHOSE CULTURE OF LEARNING WHOSE CULTURE OF LEARNING SHOULD BE USED?SHOULD BE USED?

Cultural topicsCultural topics

Currently, many ELT materials use cultural Currently, many ELT materials use cultural topics related to native English-speaking topics related to native English-speaking countires on the grounds that learning countires on the grounds that learning English should entail knowledge of native English should entail knowledge of native English-speaking cultures. English-speaking cultures.

Is such an approach appropriate in the Is such an approach appropriate in the teaching of an international language? teaching of an international language?

What do you think?What do you think?

1. ENGLISH AS AN 1. ENGLISH AS AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGEINTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE

DEFINING AN INTERNATIONAL DEFINING AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGELANGUAGE

For some, an international language is For some, an international language is equated with a language that has a equated with a language that has a large number of native speakers.large number of native speakers.

In this senseIn this sense Mandarin, Mandarin, English,English, Spanish, Spanish, Hindi, and Hindi, and Arabic, Arabic, the 5the 5 most widely spoken mother tongues most widely spoken mother tongues

in the world today, might be in the world today, might be considered international languages. considered international languages.

However, only if spoken by a large However, only if spoken by a large number of native speakers of other number of native speakers of other languages, the language can serve languages, the language can serve as a language of wider as a language of wider communication. communication.

English is, in this sense, the English is, in this sense, the international language international language par par excellenceexcellence..

A language achieves global status A language achieves global status when it develops a “when it develops a “special role special role that is recognized in every that is recognized in every country”country” and this special status and this special status can be achieved either by :can be achieved either by :

a)making it an official language of a)making it an official language of the country orthe country or

b) by a country giving special b) by a country giving special priority to English by requiring its priority to English by requiring its study as a foreign language. study as a foreign language.

Crystal (1997): Some countries that give Crystal (1997): Some countries that give special statusspecial status to English:to English:

American SamoaAmerican SamoaAntigua and BarbudaAntigua and BarbudaAustraliaAustraliaBahamasBahamasBangladeshBangladeshBarbadosBarbadosBelizeBelizeBermudaBermudaBhutanBhutanBotswanaBotswanaBritish Virgin IslandsBritish Virgin IslandsBruneiBruneiCanadaCanadaDominicaDominicaFijiFijiGhanaGhanaGibraltarGibraltar

GrenadaGrenada Hong KongHong Kong IndiaIndia IrelandIreland JamaicaJamaica KenyaKenya LiberiaLiberia MalawiMalawi MalaysiaMalaysia MaltaMalta Marshall IslandsMarshall Islands MauritiusMauritius MicronesiaMicronesia NamibiaNamibia NepalNepal New zealandNew zealand PakistanPakistan PhilippinesPhilippines Puerto RicoPuerto Rico

……and more:and more:

RwandaRwanda St LucaSt Luca SeychellesSeychelles Sierra LeoneSierra Leone SingaporeSingapore Solomon islandsSolomon islands South AfricaSouth Africa Sri LankaSri Lanka TanzaniaTanzania TongaTonga Trinidad and TobagoTrinidad and Tobago Tuvalu Tuvalu

UgandaUganda United KingdomUnited Kingdom Uk island (Channel Is, Man)Uk island (Channel Is, Man) United StatesUnited States US Virgin IslandsUS Virgin Islands Western Samoa (now Western Samoa (now

Samoa)Samoa) ZambiaZambia ZimbabweZimbabwe

Total population: 2,024,614,00Total population: 2,024,614,00Usage estimate:Usage estimate:L1 337,407,300L1 337,407,300L2 235,351,300L2 235,351,300

Categorisationa of countires in which English is Categorisationa of countires in which English is used: used: (Kachru)(Kachru)

INNER CIRCLEINNER CIRCLE

L1L1

L2L2

OUTER CIRCLEOUTER CIRCLE

Studied as a foreign languageStudied as a foreign language

EXPANDING CIRCLEEXPANDING CIRCLE

Inner, Outer and Expanding CirclesInner, Outer and Expanding Circles

Inner Circle: e.g. USA, UK, Austarlia Inner Circle: e.g. USA, UK, Austarlia (320-380 million)(320-380 million)

Outer Circle: e.g. India, the Philippines, Outer Circle: e.g. India, the Philippines, SingaporeSingapore

(150-300 million)(150-300 million)Expanding Circle: e.g. China, Japan, Expanding Circle: e.g. China, Japan,

GermanyGermany (100-1000 million)(100-1000 million)

The roles English servesThe roles English serves

The various roles English serves in different countries The various roles English serves in different countries of the world are best conceived of in terms of three of the world are best conceived of in terms of three concentric circles:concentric circles:

A) the Inner Circle, where E is the primary language of A) the Inner Circle, where E is the primary language of the countrythe country

B) the Outer Circle, where E serves as a second B) the Outer Circle, where E serves as a second language in a multilingual country, andlanguage in a multilingual country, and

C) the Expanding Circle where E is widely studied as a C) the Expanding Circle where E is widely studied as a foreign language.foreign language.

Features of an international languageFeatures of an international language

““International language” – the language which is used by people International language” – the language which is used by people of different nations to communicate with one another. of different nations to communicate with one another.

Important assertions regarding THE RELATIONSHIP OF AN Important assertions regarding THE RELATIONSHIP OF AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND CULTURE:INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE AND CULTURE:

- Its learners do not need to internalize the culutral norms of native Its learners do not need to internalize the culutral norms of native speakers of that languagespeakers of that language

- The ownership of an international language becomesThe ownership of an international language becomes

““de-nationalizedde-nationalized””

- The educational goal of learning it is to enable learners to The educational goal of learning it is to enable learners to

communicate their ideas and culture to otherscommunicate their ideas and culture to others

English as an international languageEnglish as an international language

As an international language, E is used both in a global sense for As an international language, E is used both in a global sense for international communication btw countries and in a local sense as international communication btw countries and in a local sense as a languge of wider communication within multilingual societies.a languge of wider communication within multilingual societies.

The use of E is no longer connected to the culture of Inner Circle The use of E is no longer connected to the culture of Inner Circle countires.countires.

In a local senseIn a local sense, E becomes embedded in the culture of the country , E becomes embedded in the culture of the country in which it is used.in which it is used.

In a global senseIn a global sense, one of tis primaary functions is to enable , one of tis primaary functions is to enable speakers to share with others their ideas and culture. speakers to share with others their ideas and culture.

FINALLY…FINALLY…

……an international language an international language spreads not by speakers of that spreads not by speakers of that language migrating to other language migrating to other areas but rather by many areas but rather by many individuals acquiring the individuals acquiring the language. language.

Reasons for the spread of English Reasons for the spread of English

1 MACROACQUISITION1 MACROACQUISITION

(Brutt-Griffler’s model): (Brutt-Griffler’s model): MACROACQUISITIONMACROACQUISITION

International language spreads not through speaker migration but International language spreads not through speaker migration but rahter by many individuals in a speech community acquiring the rahter by many individuals in a speech community acquiring the language. language.

Language spread by speakers migrationLanguage spread by speakers migration results typically in the results typically in the development of largely monolingual English-speaking development of largely monolingual English-speaking communities (US, New Zealand, Australia). communities (US, New Zealand, Australia).

Macroacquisition, inMacroacquisition, in reference to Englsih, has occurred largely in reference to Englsih, has occurred largely in Outer Circle countries but even in some Expanding Circles Outer Circle countries but even in some Expanding Circles countires. The result is not monolingualism but rather large-scale countires. The result is not monolingualism but rather large-scale bilingualism. bilingualism.

Microacquisition and its implicationsMicroacquisition and its implications

First, it means that the study of E as an First, it means that the study of E as an international language must involve an international language must involve an investigation of bilingualism in both Outer and investigation of bilingualism in both Outer and Expanding Circle countires, rather than onExpanding Circle countires, rather than on

LANGUAGE SHIFTLANGUAGE SHIFT (moving to the Inner Circle (moving to the Inner Circle countries);countries);

Second, because the current spread of E entails Second, because the current spread of E entails macroacquisition, the focus of investigation macroacquisition, the focus of investigation must be on bilingual E speech communities must be on bilingual E speech communities rather than on individual language learners. rather than on individual language learners.

2. URBAN MIGRATION2. URBAN MIGRATION

There is one type of migratin today that may be a significant factor in the There is one type of migratin today that may be a significant factor in the continued growth of E today – urban migration. continued growth of E today – urban migration.

The most rapid urbanization today is taking place in the developing world The most rapid urbanization today is taking place in the developing world where in Asia alone bw 1994 and 2025 there is likely to be an increase of where in Asia alone bw 1994 and 2025 there is likely to be an increase of more tha 20% in the urban population. more tha 20% in the urban population.

Urban areas are typically the focus for linguistic change. Urban areas are typically the focus for linguistic change.

They are also important points for language contact and diversity, and they They are also important points for language contact and diversity, and they encourage the growth of a middle class who become consumers of the encourage the growth of a middle class who become consumers of the global material culture. global material culture.

URBANISATION has importan effects on language demography. New URBANISATION has importan effects on language demography. New languages emerge, others change, some are lost; new patterns of English languages emerge, others change, some are lost; new patterns of English uses will arise among second-language speakers. uses will arise among second-language speakers.

3 MORE REASONS FOR THE SPREAD OF 3 MORE REASONS FOR THE SPREAD OF ENGLISH – past and present ENGLISH – past and present

a) IN THE PASTa) IN THE PAST

Colonialism, speaker migration, and new technologyColonialism, speaker migration, and new technology

- 19th and 20th century British and American coloialism and the 19th and 20th century British and American coloialism and the migration of English-speaking individuals to other areasmigration of English-speaking individuals to other areas

- Briatin becoming the world’s leading industrial and trading nation Briatin becoming the world’s leading industrial and trading nation (beginning of the 19th century)(beginning of the 19th century)

b) CURRENT SPREAD AND THE MICROACQUISITION OF b) CURRENT SPREAD AND THE MICROACQUISITION OF THE LANGUAGE WITHIN EXISTING SPEECH COMMUNITIESTHE LANGUAGE WITHIN EXISTING SPEECH COMMUNITIES

The current uses of Englsih in various intellectual, economic, and cultural The current uses of Englsih in various intellectual, economic, and cultural arenas:arenas:

- International organizationsInternational organizations: of 12 500 international organizations listed : of 12 500 international organizations listed in the Union of International Associations’ Yearbook, 85% make official in the Union of International Associations’ Yearbook, 85% make official use of E.use of E.

- Motion picturesMotion pictures: in the mid 1990s, the US controlled about 85% of the : in the mid 1990s, the US controlled about 85% of the world film market.world film market.

- Popular musicPopular music: of the pop groups listed in : of the pop groups listed in The Penguin Encyclopedia of The Penguin Encyclopedia of Popular MusicPopular Music, 99% of the gropus work entirely or predominantly in E., 99% of the gropus work entirely or predominantly in E.

- Publications:Publications: more books are published in E than in any other language. more books are published in E than in any other language.- CommunicationsCommunications: about 80% of the world’s electronically stored : about 80% of the world’s electronically stored

information is in E.information is in E.- EducationEducation: in many countries E plays a significant role in higher : in many countries E plays a significant role in higher

education. education.

NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF THE SPREAD OF ENGLISH NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF THE SPREAD OF ENGLISH

The threat to existing languagesThe threat to existing languages The influence on cultural identityThe influence on cultural identity The association of the language with and The association of the language with and

economic eliteeconomic elite

CONCERNS: CONCERNS:

The dominance of E:The dominance of E:

many individuals learn E because they want access to such things many individuals learn E because they want access to such things as scientific and technological information global economic trade, as scientific and technological information global economic trade, and higher education. and higher education.

Many concerns are raised in relation to the negative economic Many concerns are raised in relation to the negative economic repercussions of the spread of English. One of the primry repercussions of the spread of English. One of the primry concerns in this regard is the strong relationship btw economic concerns in this regard is the strong relationship btw economic wealth and proficiency in the language, and the role that language wealth and proficiency in the language, and the role that language education policy and practices play in promoting this. education policy and practices play in promoting this.

Tollefson (1991)…Tollefson (1991)…

……notes that, because E is typically acquired in school context, this notes that, because E is typically acquired in school context, this situation can lead to significant social inequalities. As he puts it, situation can lead to significant social inequalities. As he puts it,

Those people who cannot afford schooling, who do not have time to Those people who cannot afford schooling, who do not have time to attend school, who attend substandard programmes, or who attend school, who attend substandard programmes, or who otherwise do not have access to effective formal education may otherwise do not have access to effective formal education may be unable to learn E well enough to obtain jobs and to participate be unable to learn E well enough to obtain jobs and to participate in decision-making systems that use E. in decision-making systems that use E.

Because education is a major concern of the state, this fundamental Because education is a major concern of the state, this fundamental shift in the manner of acquisition means that state policies play a shift in the manner of acquisition means that state policies play a decisive role in determining who has acess to the institutions of decisive role in determining who has acess to the institutions of the modern market and therefore to political power. This shif to the modern market and therefore to political power. This shif to school-based language learning is a worldwide phenomenon, and school-based language learning is a worldwide phenomenon, and so language policy plays an important role in the structure of so language policy plays an important role in the structure of power and inequality in countries through the world. power and inequality in countries through the world.

Kachru…Kachru…

…“…“Knowing English is like possessing the fabled Knowing English is like possessing the fabled Aladdin’s lamp, which permits one to open, as it Aladdin’s lamp, which permits one to open, as it were, the linguistic gates to international were, the linguistic gates to international business, technology, science and travel. In business, technology, science and travel. In short, E provides lingustic power.” short, E provides lingustic power.”

Check your Check your understandingunderstanding

What is necessary for a language to be an international language?What is necessary for a language to be an international language? Who does an international language belong to?Who does an international language belong to? When does a language achieve a global status and how is it achieved?When does a language achieve a global status and how is it achieved? The categorisation of the countries where E is spoken is…(Kachru)?The categorisation of the countries where E is spoken is…(Kachru)? What is the role of E in those countires?What is the role of E in those countires? What are the features of an international language?What are the features of an international language? What is the educational goal of learning it?What is the educational goal of learning it? What is EIL in a local and global sense?What is EIL in a local and global sense? What is a What is a language spread by migrationlanguage spread by migration?? What is a What is a microacquisitiomicroacquisition?n? What is a What is a language shiftlanguage shift?? What is What is urban migrationurban migration?? What are historical and current reasons for the spread of English?What are historical and current reasons for the spread of English? What are the negative effects?What are the negative effects? What are the concerns raised in relation to the negative economic What are the concerns raised in relation to the negative economic

repercussions of the spread of English (Tollefson) – explain!? repercussions of the spread of English (Tollefson) – explain!?