The American Dialect Society

Englaol: More Language Contact in Puerto RicoAuthor(s): Rose NashSource: American Speech, Vol. 46, No. 1/2 (Spring - Summer, 1971), pp. 106-122Published by: Duke University PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3087992 .Accessed: 07/03/2014 07:59

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ENGLANOL: MORE LANGUAGE CONTACT IN PUERTO RICO

ROSE NASH Inter American University

T HE LANGUAGE CONTACT that began in Puerto Rico at the turn of the century and has greatly intensified during the past several decades has produced

a number of hybrid varieties of Puerto Rican Spanish and American English, widely used in metropolitan areas of the island. The best known of these is Spanglish, a name that I did not invent but have adopted to refer to a type of English-influenced Spanish.l

Here I shall deal with an equally interesting and important manifestion of the contact situation, Spanish-influenced English. This language variety is no less vital than Spanglish in the economic and cultural life of the island, and its users run well into the hundreds of thousands. However, it is as yet unrecognized as an independent dialect, different from Standard English, and I have therefore exercised my prerogative as a linguist to give it an appropriate name. This new variety of English, which I shall call Englanol, contrasts in significant ways with Spanglish in the sources of its creations. Unlike Spanglish, Englainol exhibits very little direct lexical borrowing. There is, however, a great deal of syntactic transfer from Spanish, use of deceptive cognates in their non-English senses, false translational analogies, and hypercorrections in the areas of phonology and orthography, all of which combine to give Englafiol a special flavor that bears little resemblance to Miss Fidditch's brand of English, but is nevertheless completely intelligible to its users and perfectly adequate as a linguistic system for communication in Puerto Rico.

The typical speaker of Englaniol is a well-educated adult bilingual whose first language is Spanish and who has spent most or all of his life on the island. He has studied English in the schools for at least twelve years and uses it frequently in his daily affairs. He considers himself, and is considered by others, to be fluent. Educated Puerto Ricans differ widely in the way they use English, but I would say that all who fit into this group exhibit at least some evidences of Englafiol.

I

Before describing what Englafiol is, I would like to clarify what it is not. Because it is still in the emerging state, describing the dialect is not an easy

ENGLANOL: MORE LANGUAGE CONTACT IN PUERTO RICO

ROSE NASH Inter American University

T HE LANGUAGE CONTACT that began in Puerto Rico at the turn of the century and has greatly intensified during the past several decades has produced

a number of hybrid varieties of Puerto Rican Spanish and American English, widely used in metropolitan areas of the island. The best known of these is Spanglish, a name that I did not invent but have adopted to refer to a type of English-influenced Spanish.l

Here I shall deal with an equally interesting and important manifestion of the contact situation, Spanish-influenced English. This language variety is no less vital than Spanglish in the economic and cultural life of the island, and its users run well into the hundreds of thousands. However, it is as yet unrecognized as an independent dialect, different from Standard English, and I have therefore exercised my prerogative as a linguist to give it an appropriate name. This new variety of English, which I shall call Englanol, contrasts in significant ways with Spanglish in the sources of its creations. Unlike Spanglish, Englainol exhibits very little direct lexical borrowing. There is, however, a great deal of syntactic transfer from Spanish, use of deceptive cognates in their non-English senses, false translational analogies, and hypercorrections in the areas of phonology and orthography, all of which combine to give Englafiol a special flavor that bears little resemblance to Miss Fidditch's brand of English, but is nevertheless completely intelligible to its users and perfectly adequate as a linguistic system for communication in Puerto Rico.

The typical speaker of Englaniol is a well-educated adult bilingual whose first language is Spanish and who has spent most or all of his life on the island. He has studied English in the schools for at least twelve years and uses it frequently in his daily affairs. He considers himself, and is considered by others, to be fluent. Educated Puerto Ricans differ widely in the way they use English, but I would say that all who fit into this group exhibit at least some evidences of Englafiol.

I

Before describing what Englafiol is, I would like to clarify what it is not. Because it is still in the emerging state, describing the dialect is not an easy

ENGLANOL: MORE LANGUAGE CONTACT IN PUERTO RICO

ROSE NASH Inter American University

T HE LANGUAGE CONTACT that began in Puerto Rico at the turn of the century and has greatly intensified during the past several decades has produced

a number of hybrid varieties of Puerto Rican Spanish and American English, widely used in metropolitan areas of the island. The best known of these is Spanglish, a name that I did not invent but have adopted to refer to a type of English-influenced Spanish.l

Here I shall deal with an equally interesting and important manifestion of the contact situation, Spanish-influenced English. This language variety is no less vital than Spanglish in the economic and cultural life of the island, and its users run well into the hundreds of thousands. However, it is as yet unrecognized as an independent dialect, different from Standard English, and I have therefore exercised my prerogative as a linguist to give it an appropriate name. This new variety of English, which I shall call Englanol, contrasts in significant ways with Spanglish in the sources of its creations. Unlike Spanglish, Englainol exhibits very little direct lexical borrowing. There is, however, a great deal of syntactic transfer from Spanish, use of deceptive cognates in their non-English senses, false translational analogies, and hypercorrections in the areas of phonology and orthography, all of which combine to give Englafiol a special flavor that bears little resemblance to Miss Fidditch's brand of English, but is nevertheless completely intelligible to its users and perfectly adequate as a linguistic system for communication in Puerto Rico.

The typical speaker of Englaniol is a well-educated adult bilingual whose first language is Spanish and who has spent most or all of his life on the island. He has studied English in the schools for at least twelve years and uses it frequently in his daily affairs. He considers himself, and is considered by others, to be fluent. Educated Puerto Ricans differ widely in the way they use English, but I would say that all who fit into this group exhibit at least some evidences of Englafiol.

I

Before describing what Englafiol is, I would like to clarify what it is not. Because it is still in the emerging state, describing the dialect is not an easy

ENGLANOL: MORE LANGUAGE CONTACT IN PUERTO RICO

ROSE NASH Inter American University

T HE LANGUAGE CONTACT that began in Puerto Rico at the turn of the century and has greatly intensified during the past several decades has produced

a number of hybrid varieties of Puerto Rican Spanish and American English, widely used in metropolitan areas of the island. The best known of these is Spanglish, a name that I did not invent but have adopted to refer to a type of English-influenced Spanish.l

Here I shall deal with an equally interesting and important manifestion of the contact situation, Spanish-influenced English. This language variety is no less vital than Spanglish in the economic and cultural life of the island, and its users run well into the hundreds of thousands. However, it is as yet unrecognized as an independent dialect, different from Standard English, and I have therefore exercised my prerogative as a linguist to give it an appropriate name. This new variety of English, which I shall call Englanol, contrasts in significant ways with Spanglish in the sources of its creations. Unlike Spanglish, Englainol exhibits very little direct lexical borrowing. There is, however, a great deal of syntactic transfer from Spanish, use of deceptive cognates in their non-English senses, false translational analogies, and hypercorrections in the areas of phonology and orthography, all of which combine to give Englafiol a special flavor that bears little resemblance to Miss Fidditch's brand of English, but is nevertheless completely intelligible to its users and perfectly adequate as a linguistic system for communication in Puerto Rico.

The typical speaker of Englaniol is a well-educated adult bilingual whose first language is Spanish and who has spent most or all of his life on the island. He has studied English in the schools for at least twelve years and uses it frequently in his daily affairs. He considers himself, and is considered by others, to be fluent. Educated Puerto Ricans differ widely in the way they use English, but I would say that all who fit into this group exhibit at least some evidences of Englafiol.

I

Before describing what Englafiol is, I would like to clarify what it is not. Because it is still in the emerging state, describing the dialect is not an easy

ENGLANOL: MORE LANGUAGE CONTACT IN PUERTO RICO

ROSE NASH Inter American University

T HE LANGUAGE CONTACT that began in Puerto Rico at the turn of the century and has greatly intensified during the past several decades has produced

a number of hybrid varieties of Puerto Rican Spanish and American English, widely used in metropolitan areas of the island. The best known of these is Spanglish, a name that I did not invent but have adopted to refer to a type of English-influenced Spanish.l

Here I shall deal with an equally interesting and important manifestion of the contact situation, Spanish-influenced English. This language variety is no less vital than Spanglish in the economic and cultural life of the island, and its users run well into the hundreds of thousands. However, it is as yet unrecognized as an independent dialect, different from Standard English, and I have therefore exercised my prerogative as a linguist to give it an appropriate name. This new variety of English, which I shall call Englanol, contrasts in significant ways with Spanglish in the sources of its creations. Unlike Spanglish, Englainol exhibits very little direct lexical borrowing. There is, however, a great deal of syntactic transfer from Spanish, use of deceptive cognates in their non-English senses, false translational analogies, and hypercorrections in the areas of phonology and orthography, all of which combine to give Englafiol a special flavor that bears little resemblance to Miss Fidditch's brand of English, but is nevertheless completely intelligible to its users and perfectly adequate as a linguistic system for communication in Puerto Rico.

The typical speaker of Englaniol is a well-educated adult bilingual whose first language is Spanish and who has spent most or all of his life on the island. He has studied English in the schools for at least twelve years and uses it frequently in his daily affairs. He considers himself, and is considered by others, to be fluent. Educated Puerto Ricans differ widely in the way they use English, but I would say that all who fit into this group exhibit at least some evidences of Englafiol.

I

Before describing what Englafiol is, I would like to clarify what it is not. Because it is still in the emerging state, describing the dialect is not an easy

1. Rose Nash, "Spanglish: Language Contact in Puerto Rico," American Speech 45 (1970) 223-33.

1. Rose Nash, "Spanglish: Language Contact in Puerto Rico," American Speech 45 (1970) 223-33.

1. Rose Nash, "Spanglish: Language Contact in Puerto Rico," American Speech 45 (1970) 223-33.

1. Rose Nash, "Spanglish: Language Contact in Puerto Rico," American Speech 45 (1970) 223-33.

1. Rose Nash, "Spanglish: Language Contact in Puerto Rico," American Speech 45 (1970) 223-33.

This content downloaded from 157.181.112.0 on Fri, 7 Mar 2014 07:59:56 AMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

task, and at present I am seeking formal criteria for some intuitive classi- fications that involve two borderline areas.

The first borderline area is between Spanglish and Englafiol, where a great deal of vocabulary switching takes place. Very close to the Spanglish end of the continuum are mixed up messages that start out as Spanish but include more familiar English words (italics have been added):

Se solicitan 2 clerk typists. (classified advertisement) 2 huevos plain. (menu listing) Abierto 24 hours. (sign on a coffee shop)

English sentences that switch into Spanish, usually for special effect, also occur:

Make big dinero. He has that special manera de ser. Are you a bilingual secretary escribiendo 40 palabras o mds por minuto?

Moving closer to Englafiol is the more or less conscious use of Spanish words in otherwise English contexts. Many of these words have no satis- factory English equivalent:

Have you tried our new improved sofrito? Eastern Air Lines aims for Puertorriquenismo. Golfers-Ram Super D is muy macho. The most macho golf ball ever made. The

macho golf ball makes the macho golfer. Other high-frequency Spanish vocabulary items replace their English

equivalents only in informal speech:

What a tapon [traffic jam; lit., bottleneck]! The winner got a big abrazo [hug]. Is this elevator going arriba [up] or abajo [down] ?

All of the foregoing are borderline cases because Englaiiol users, as I define them, do not typically make such simple vocabulary switches.

The second borderline area is between "bad" English and good Englafiol, which overlap. Compare the following sentences: (a) No have money. (b) I do no have money. 'No tengo dinero.' Although both sentences con- tain grammatical errors in Standard English, traceable to Spanish, and both might occur in a language class, (a) is definitely NOT Englafiol, whereas (b) may be. This seemingly arbitrary judgment is based, again, on my knowledge of the people who speak Englafiol and the kinds of errors they do not make in English, such as the omission of the subject pronoun and the auxiliary. Englafiol is not the language of the student in the classroom, but the language of the bilingual adult who uses it confidently in his daily affairs. Englafiol cannot be equated with institutionalized grammatical errors, because the equation would not account for innovations that arise and are adopted by

task, and at present I am seeking formal criteria for some intuitive classi- fications that involve two borderline areas.

The first borderline area is between Spanglish and Englafiol, where a great deal of vocabulary switching takes place. Very close to the Spanglish end of the continuum are mixed up messages that start out as Spanish but include more familiar English words (italics have been added):

Se solicitan 2 clerk typists. (classified advertisement) 2 huevos plain. (menu listing) Abierto 24 hours. (sign on a coffee shop)

English sentences that switch into Spanish, usually for special effect, also occur:

Make big dinero. He has that special manera de ser. Are you a bilingual secretary escribiendo 40 palabras o mds por minuto?

Moving closer to Englafiol is the more or less conscious use of Spanish words in otherwise English contexts. Many of these words have no satis- factory English equivalent:

Have you tried our new improved sofrito? Eastern Air Lines aims for Puertorriquenismo. Golfers-Ram Super D is muy macho. The most macho golf ball ever made. The

macho golf ball makes the macho golfer. Other high-frequency Spanish vocabulary items replace their English

equivalents only in informal speech:

What a tapon [traffic jam; lit., bottleneck]! The winner got a big abrazo [hug]. Is this elevator going arriba [up] or abajo [down] ?

All of the foregoing are borderline cases because Englaiiol users, as I define them, do not typically make such simple vocabulary switches.

The second borderline area is between "bad" English and good Englafiol, which overlap. Compare the following sentences: (a) No have money. (b) I do no have money. 'No tengo dinero.' Although both sentences con- tain grammatical errors in Standard English, traceable to Spanish, and both might occur in a language class, (a) is definitely NOT Englafiol, whereas (b) may be. This seemingly arbitrary judgment is based, again, on my knowledge of the people who speak Englafiol and the kinds of errors they do not make in English, such as the omission of the subject pronoun and the auxiliary. Englafiol is not the language of the student in the classroom, but the language of the bilingual adult who uses it confidently in his daily affairs. Englafiol cannot be equated with institutionalized grammatical errors, because the equation would not account for innovations that arise and are adopted by

task, and at present I am seeking formal criteria for some intuitive classi- fications that involve two borderline areas.

The first borderline area is between Spanglish and Englafiol, where a great deal of vocabulary switching takes place. Very close to the Spanglish end of the continuum are mixed up messages that start out as Spanish but include more familiar English words (italics have been added):

Se solicitan 2 clerk typists. (classified advertisement) 2 huevos plain. (menu listing) Abierto 24 hours. (sign on a coffee shop)

English sentences that switch into Spanish, usually for special effect, also occur:

Make big dinero. He has that special manera de ser. Are you a bilingual secretary escribiendo 40 palabras o mds por minuto?

Moving closer to Englafiol is the more or less conscious use of Spanish words in otherwise English contexts. Many of these words have no satis- factory English equivalent:

Have you tried our new improved sofrito? Eastern Air Lines aims for Puertorriquenismo. Golfers-Ram Super D is muy macho. The most macho golf ball ever made. The

macho golf ball makes the macho golfer. Other high-frequency Spanish vocabulary items replace their English

equivalents only in informal speech:

What a tapon [traffic jam; lit., bottleneck]! The winner got a big abrazo [hug]. Is this elevator going arriba [up] or abajo [down] ?

All of the foregoing are borderline cases because Englaiiol users, as I define them, do not typically make such simple vocabulary switches.

The second borderline area is between "bad" English and good Englafiol, which overlap. Compare the following sentences: (a) No have money. (b) I do no have money. 'No tengo dinero.' Although both sentences con- tain grammatical errors in Standard English, traceable to Spanish, and both might occur in a language class, (a) is definitely NOT Englafiol, whereas (b) may be. This seemingly arbitrary judgment is based, again, on my knowledge of the people who speak Englafiol and the kinds of errors they do not make in English, such as the omission of the subject pronoun and the auxiliary. Englafiol is not the language of the student in the classroom, but the language of the bilingual adult who uses it confidently in his daily affairs. Englafiol cannot be equated with institutionalized grammatical errors, because the equation would not account for innovations that arise and are adopted by

task, and at present I am seeking formal criteria for some intuitive classi- fications that involve two borderline areas.

The first borderline area is between Spanglish and Englafiol, where a great deal of vocabulary switching takes place. Very close to the Spanglish end of the continuum are mixed up messages that start out as Spanish but include more familiar English words (italics have been added):

Se solicitan 2 clerk typists. (classified advertisement) 2 huevos plain. (menu listing) Abierto 24 hours. (sign on a coffee shop)

English sentences that switch into Spanish, usually for special effect, also occur:

Make big dinero. He has that special manera de ser. Are you a bilingual secretary escribiendo 40 palabras o mds por minuto?

Moving closer to Englafiol is the more or less conscious use of Spanish words in otherwise English contexts. Many of these words have no satis- factory English equivalent:

Have you tried our new improved sofrito? Eastern Air Lines aims for Puertorriquenismo. Golfers-Ram Super D is muy macho. The most macho golf ball ever made. The

macho golf ball makes the macho golfer. Other high-frequency Spanish vocabulary items replace their English

equivalents only in informal speech:

What a tapon [traffic jam; lit., bottleneck]! The winner got a big abrazo [hug]. Is this elevator going arriba [up] or abajo [down] ?

All of the foregoing are borderline cases because Englaiiol users, as I define them, do not typically make such simple vocabulary switches.

The second borderline area is between "bad" English and good Englafiol, which overlap. Compare the following sentences: (a) No have money. (b) I do no have money. 'No tengo dinero.' Although both sentences con- tain grammatical errors in Standard English, traceable to Spanish, and both might occur in a language class, (a) is definitely NOT Englafiol, whereas (b) may be. This seemingly arbitrary judgment is based, again, on my knowledge of the people who speak Englafiol and the kinds of errors they do not make in English, such as the omission of the subject pronoun and the auxiliary. Englafiol is not the language of the student in the classroom, but the language of the bilingual adult who uses it confidently in his daily affairs. Englafiol cannot be equated with institutionalized grammatical errors, because the equation would not account for innovations that arise and are adopted by

task, and at present I am seeking formal criteria for some intuitive classi- fications that involve two borderline areas.

The first borderline area is between Spanglish and Englafiol, where a great deal of vocabulary switching takes place. Very close to the Spanglish end of the continuum are mixed up messages that start out as Spanish but include more familiar English words (italics have been added):

Se solicitan 2 clerk typists. (classified advertisement) 2 huevos plain. (menu listing) Abierto 24 hours. (sign on a coffee shop)

English sentences that switch into Spanish, usually for special effect, also occur:

Make big dinero. He has that special manera de ser. Are you a bilingual secretary escribiendo 40 palabras o mds por minuto?

Moving closer to Englafiol is the more or less conscious use of Spanish words in otherwise English contexts. Many of these words have no satis- factory English equivalent:

Have you tried our new improved sofrito? Eastern Air Lines aims for Puertorriquenismo. Golfers-Ram Super D is muy macho. The most macho golf ball ever made. The

macho golf ball makes the macho golfer. Other high-frequency Spanish vocabulary items replace their English

equivalents only in informal speech:

What a tapon [traffic jam; lit., bottleneck]! The winner got a big abrazo [hug]. Is this elevator going arriba [up] or abajo [down] ?

All of the foregoing are borderline cases because Englaiiol users, as I define them, do not typically make such simple vocabulary switches.

The second borderline area is between "bad" English and good Englafiol, which overlap. Compare the following sentences: (a) No have money. (b) I do no have money. 'No tengo dinero.' Although both sentences con- tain grammatical errors in Standard English, traceable to Spanish, and both might occur in a language class, (a) is definitely NOT Englafiol, whereas (b) may be. This seemingly arbitrary judgment is based, again, on my knowledge of the people who speak Englafiol and the kinds of errors they do not make in English, such as the omission of the subject pronoun and the auxiliary. Englafiol is not the language of the student in the classroom, but the language of the bilingual adult who uses it confidently in his daily affairs. Englafiol cannot be equated with institutionalized grammatical errors, because the equation would not account for innovations that arise and are adopted by

ENGLAi~OL ENGLAi~OL ENGLAi~OL ENGLAi~OL ENGLAi~OL 107 107 107 107 107

This content downloaded from 157.181.112.0 on Fri, 7 Mar 2014 07:59:56 AMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

AMERICAN SPEECH AMERICAN SPEECH AMERICAN SPEECH AMERICAN SPEECH AMERICAN SPEECH

other speakers as a consequence of normal language use rather than the classroom situation.

Also within this borderline area is a type of linguistic activity that is practiced for fun by Puerto Rican bilinguals highly fluent in both languages and that bears a surface resemblance to Englafiol. It is produced by literally and consciously translating colloquial Spanish into English, with ludicrous results. This art was carried to its high point by the late journalist Eddie Lopez, who created a character called Candid Flores. The following is an excerpt from one of his literary efforts, with the reconstructed Spanish:

"I don't see the toast to marriage," Candid said. "I see all you marrieds making of guts heart to pay the counts. Like you, for example, you're the brassiere of your family. Don't you have to sweat the fat drop to make enough money ? Me marry ? Forget it and sing a tango. Well, until the sight." ["Candid Flowers Rides Again," San Juan Star, 7 November 1969, p. 37]

"Yo no le veo la tostada al matrimonia," dijo Candido. "Yo los veo a todos ustedes los casados haciendo de tripas coraz6n para pagar las cuentas. Como ti, por ejemplo, tfi eres el sost6n de la familia. e Td no tienes que sudar la gota gorda para hacer dinero suficiente? e Casarme yo? Olvidalo y canta un tango. Bueno, hasta la vista."

II

After the preliminaries on borderline Englafiol, I shall now turn to some of the linguistic characteristics of Englaniol proper. These characteristics are the manifestation of three kinds of analogical processes operating simul- taneously in the mind of the Englanfol creator. The first and most important process is DIRECT CARRY-OVER. The guiding principle here is: "Since Spanish does it this way, English must do it this way too."

Direct carry-over affects all levels of language structure, but not with equal force. Phonology and orthography, the most superficial levels, are affected the least. Englaniol speakers pronounce English words carefully, making the necessary distinctions between such pairs as ship and sheep. Many have near native command of English phonology; others may produce minor phonetic distortions of English sounds and sound patterns with no loss of intelligibility. Just as a person may speak otherwise Standard English with a Spanish accent, a person may speak Englaiol with little or no Spanish accent.

The most noticeable difference between Englafiol and Standard English is the pronunciation and spelling of cognates in which direct carry-over affects one or the other, or both.

A Spanish vowel phoneme replaces an English vowel phoneme: We must know our Puerto Rican culture /kulcur/. That is a beautiful color /kolor/. He is afamous /famos/ writer.

other speakers as a consequence of normal language use rather than the classroom situation.

Also within this borderline area is a type of linguistic activity that is practiced for fun by Puerto Rican bilinguals highly fluent in both languages and that bears a surface resemblance to Englafiol. It is produced by literally and consciously translating colloquial Spanish into English, with ludicrous results. This art was carried to its high point by the late journalist Eddie Lopez, who created a character called Candid Flores. The following is an excerpt from one of his literary efforts, with the reconstructed Spanish:

"I don't see the toast to marriage," Candid said. "I see all you marrieds making of guts heart to pay the counts. Like you, for example, you're the brassiere of your family. Don't you have to sweat the fat drop to make enough money ? Me marry ? Forget it and sing a tango. Well, until the sight." ["Candid Flowers Rides Again," San Juan Star, 7 November 1969, p. 37]

"Yo no le veo la tostada al matrimonia," dijo Candido. "Yo los veo a todos ustedes los casados haciendo de tripas coraz6n para pagar las cuentas. Como ti, por ejemplo, tfi eres el sost6n de la familia. e Td no tienes que sudar la gota gorda para hacer dinero suficiente? e Casarme yo? Olvidalo y canta un tango. Bueno, hasta la vista."

II

After the preliminaries on borderline Englafiol, I shall now turn to some of the linguistic characteristics of Englaniol proper. These characteristics are the manifestation of three kinds of analogical processes operating simul- taneously in the mind of the Englanfol creator. The first and most important process is DIRECT CARRY-OVER. The guiding principle here is: "Since Spanish does it this way, English must do it this way too."

Direct carry-over affects all levels of language structure, but not with equal force. Phonology and orthography, the most superficial levels, are affected the least. Englaniol speakers pronounce English words carefully, making the necessary distinctions between such pairs as ship and sheep. Many have near native command of English phonology; others may produce minor phonetic distortions of English sounds and sound patterns with no loss of intelligibility. Just as a person may speak otherwise Standard English with a Spanish accent, a person may speak Englaiol with little or no Spanish accent.

The most noticeable difference between Englafiol and Standard English is the pronunciation and spelling of cognates in which direct carry-over affects one or the other, or both.

A Spanish vowel phoneme replaces an English vowel phoneme: We must know our Puerto Rican culture /kulcur/. That is a beautiful color /kolor/. He is afamous /famos/ writer.

other speakers as a consequence of normal language use rather than the classroom situation.

Also within this borderline area is a type of linguistic activity that is practiced for fun by Puerto Rican bilinguals highly fluent in both languages and that bears a surface resemblance to Englafiol. It is produced by literally and consciously translating colloquial Spanish into English, with ludicrous results. This art was carried to its high point by the late journalist Eddie Lopez, who created a character called Candid Flores. The following is an excerpt from one of his literary efforts, with the reconstructed Spanish:

"I don't see the toast to marriage," Candid said. "I see all you marrieds making of guts heart to pay the counts. Like you, for example, you're the brassiere of your family. Don't you have to sweat the fat drop to make enough money ? Me marry ? Forget it and sing a tango. Well, until the sight." ["Candid Flowers Rides Again," San Juan Star, 7 November 1969, p. 37]

"Yo no le veo la tostada al matrimonia," dijo Candido. "Yo los veo a todos ustedes los casados haciendo de tripas coraz6n para pagar las cuentas. Como ti, por ejemplo, tfi eres el sost6n de la familia. e Td no tienes que sudar la gota gorda para hacer dinero suficiente? e Casarme yo? Olvidalo y canta un tango. Bueno, hasta la vista."

II

After the preliminaries on borderline Englafiol, I shall now turn to some of the linguistic characteristics of Englaniol proper. These characteristics are the manifestation of three kinds of analogical processes operating simul- taneously in the mind of the Englanfol creator. The first and most important process is DIRECT CARRY-OVER. The guiding principle here is: "Since Spanish does it this way, English must do it this way too."

Direct carry-over affects all levels of language structure, but not with equal force. Phonology and orthography, the most superficial levels, are affected the least. Englaniol speakers pronounce English words carefully, making the necessary distinctions between such pairs as ship and sheep. Many have near native command of English phonology; others may produce minor phonetic distortions of English sounds and sound patterns with no loss of intelligibility. Just as a person may speak otherwise Standard English with a Spanish accent, a person may speak Englaiol with little or no Spanish accent.

The most noticeable difference between Englafiol and Standard English is the pronunciation and spelling of cognates in which direct carry-over affects one or the other, or both.

A Spanish vowel phoneme replaces an English vowel phoneme: We must know our Puerto Rican culture /kulcur/. That is a beautiful color /kolor/. He is afamous /famos/ writer.

other speakers as a consequence of normal language use rather than the classroom situation.

Also within this borderline area is a type of linguistic activity that is practiced for fun by Puerto Rican bilinguals highly fluent in both languages and that bears a surface resemblance to Englafiol. It is produced by literally and consciously translating colloquial Spanish into English, with ludicrous results. This art was carried to its high point by the late journalist Eddie Lopez, who created a character called Candid Flores. The following is an excerpt from one of his literary efforts, with the reconstructed Spanish:

"I don't see the toast to marriage," Candid said. "I see all you marrieds making of guts heart to pay the counts. Like you, for example, you're the brassiere of your family. Don't you have to sweat the fat drop to make enough money ? Me marry ? Forget it and sing a tango. Well, until the sight." ["Candid Flowers Rides Again," San Juan Star, 7 November 1969, p. 37]

"Yo no le veo la tostada al matrimonia," dijo Candido. "Yo los veo a todos ustedes los casados haciendo de tripas coraz6n para pagar las cuentas. Como ti, por ejemplo, tfi eres el sost6n de la familia. e Td no tienes que sudar la gota gorda para hacer dinero suficiente? e Casarme yo? Olvidalo y canta un tango. Bueno, hasta la vista."

II

After the preliminaries on borderline Englafiol, I shall now turn to some of the linguistic characteristics of Englaniol proper. These characteristics are the manifestation of three kinds of analogical processes operating simul- taneously in the mind of the Englanfol creator. The first and most important process is DIRECT CARRY-OVER. The guiding principle here is: "Since Spanish does it this way, English must do it this way too."

Direct carry-over affects all levels of language structure, but not with equal force. Phonology and orthography, the most superficial levels, are affected the least. Englaniol speakers pronounce English words carefully, making the necessary distinctions between such pairs as ship and sheep. Many have near native command of English phonology; others may produce minor phonetic distortions of English sounds and sound patterns with no loss of intelligibility. Just as a person may speak otherwise Standard English with a Spanish accent, a person may speak Englaiol with little or no Spanish accent.

The most noticeable difference between Englafiol and Standard English is the pronunciation and spelling of cognates in which direct carry-over affects one or the other, or both.

A Spanish vowel phoneme replaces an English vowel phoneme: We must know our Puerto Rican culture /kulcur/. That is a beautiful color /kolor/. He is afamous /famos/ writer.

other speakers as a consequence of normal language use rather than the classroom situation.

Also within this borderline area is a type of linguistic activity that is practiced for fun by Puerto Rican bilinguals highly fluent in both languages and that bears a surface resemblance to Englafiol. It is produced by literally and consciously translating colloquial Spanish into English, with ludicrous results. This art was carried to its high point by the late journalist Eddie Lopez, who created a character called Candid Flores. The following is an excerpt from one of his literary efforts, with the reconstructed Spanish:

"I don't see the toast to marriage," Candid said. "I see all you marrieds making of guts heart to pay the counts. Like you, for example, you're the brassiere of your family. Don't you have to sweat the fat drop to make enough money ? Me marry ? Forget it and sing a tango. Well, until the sight." ["Candid Flowers Rides Again," San Juan Star, 7 November 1969, p. 37]

"Yo no le veo la tostada al matrimonia," dijo Candido. "Yo los veo a todos ustedes los casados haciendo de tripas coraz6n para pagar las cuentas. Como ti, por ejemplo, tfi eres el sost6n de la familia. e Td no tienes que sudar la gota gorda para hacer dinero suficiente? e Casarme yo? Olvidalo y canta un tango. Bueno, hasta la vista."

II

After the preliminaries on borderline Englafiol, I shall now turn to some of the linguistic characteristics of Englaniol proper. These characteristics are the manifestation of three kinds of analogical processes operating simul- taneously in the mind of the Englanfol creator. The first and most important process is DIRECT CARRY-OVER. The guiding principle here is: "Since Spanish does it this way, English must do it this way too."

Direct carry-over affects all levels of language structure, but not with equal force. Phonology and orthography, the most superficial levels, are affected the least. Englaniol speakers pronounce English words carefully, making the necessary distinctions between such pairs as ship and sheep. Many have near native command of English phonology; others may produce minor phonetic distortions of English sounds and sound patterns with no loss of intelligibility. Just as a person may speak otherwise Standard English with a Spanish accent, a person may speak Englaiol with little or no Spanish accent.

The most noticeable difference between Englafiol and Standard English is the pronunciation and spelling of cognates in which direct carry-over affects one or the other, or both.

A Spanish vowel phoneme replaces an English vowel phoneme: We must know our Puerto Rican culture /kulcur/. That is a beautiful color /kolor/. He is afamous /famos/ writer.

108 108 108 108 108

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A medial consonant is deleted or added:

The demostration ended in violence. He interrumpted our conversation. In which cementary is he buried?

Spanishy replaces Englishj (y = [j]): The proyect will be completed by next year. Women feel that "housewife" is a peyorative word. My mayor [major] is English.

Spanish i replaces Englishy: The pickets sang himns and waved placards. He is a tipical politician. Cristal chandeliers are very expensive.

Double consonants are reduced to single consonants:

I read your interesting comentary. Life is just an ilusion. My daughter asists to the university.2

Final m becomes n:

Minimun size 8 x 11. Maximun size 18 x 24. We sell aluminun awnings.

A more subtle kind of direct carry-over is seen in sequences of words that do not conform to English rhythm:3

We need an agressive and bright girl for a secretarial position. We guarantee you the most reliable and complete auto service in Puerto Rico. We appreciate your thoughtful and kind wishes.

On the morphosyntactic level, there is direct carry-over from Spanish of inflectional categories, word order, and usage patterns. One of the most obvious inflectional differences between Standard English and Englaiiol occurs in compound nouns derived from constructions containing a plural noun that is shifted in the compound to the noun-modifier position other- wise filled by an adjective, as in a pie made of cherries -+ cherry pie, which, in the logic of Spanish, implies a pie made of only one cherry. In Englaiiol the plural inflection is retained, producing constructions such as cherries pie

2. See section on deceptive cognates; Englaiiol asist or assist means 'attend.' 3. See D. L. Bolinger, Forms of English: Accent, Morpheme, Order (Cambridge: Harvard

Univ. Press, 1965), pp. 129-38. Such binomials are always arranged by native speakers so that, if possible, there will be an alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables rather than two stressed syllables back to back: bright and a-gr6ss-ive girl, com-plete and re-li-a-ble au-to service, kind and th6ught-ful wish-es.

A medial consonant is deleted or added:

The demostration ended in violence. He interrumpted our conversation. In which cementary is he buried?

Spanishy replaces Englishj (y = [j]): The proyect will be completed by next year. Women feel that "housewife" is a peyorative word. My mayor [major] is English.

Spanish i replaces Englishy: The pickets sang himns and waved placards. He is a tipical politician. Cristal chandeliers are very expensive.

Double consonants are reduced to single consonants:

I read your interesting comentary. Life is just an ilusion. My daughter asists to the university.2

Final m becomes n:

Minimun size 8 x 11. Maximun size 18 x 24. We sell aluminun awnings.

A more subtle kind of direct carry-over is seen in sequences of words that do not conform to English rhythm:3

We need an agressive and bright girl for a secretarial position. We guarantee you the most reliable and complete auto service in Puerto Rico. We appreciate your thoughtful and kind wishes.

On the morphosyntactic level, there is direct carry-over from Spanish of inflectional categories, word order, and usage patterns. One of the most obvious inflectional differences between Standard English and Englaiiol occurs in compound nouns derived from constructions containing a plural noun that is shifted in the compound to the noun-modifier position other- wise filled by an adjective, as in a pie made of cherries -+ cherry pie, which, in the logic of Spanish, implies a pie made of only one cherry. In Englaiiol the plural inflection is retained, producing constructions such as cherries pie

2. See section on deceptive cognates; Englaiiol asist or assist means 'attend.' 3. See D. L. Bolinger, Forms of English: Accent, Morpheme, Order (Cambridge: Harvard

Univ. Press, 1965), pp. 129-38. Such binomials are always arranged by native speakers so that, if possible, there will be an alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables rather than two stressed syllables back to back: bright and a-gr6ss-ive girl, com-plete and re-li-a-ble au-to service, kind and th6ught-ful wish-es.

A medial consonant is deleted or added:

The demostration ended in violence. He interrumpted our conversation. In which cementary is he buried?

Spanishy replaces Englishj (y = [j]): The proyect will be completed by next year. Women feel that "housewife" is a peyorative word. My mayor [major] is English.

Spanish i replaces Englishy: The pickets sang himns and waved placards. He is a tipical politician. Cristal chandeliers are very expensive.

Double consonants are reduced to single consonants:

I read your interesting comentary. Life is just an ilusion. My daughter asists to the university.2

Final m becomes n:

Minimun size 8 x 11. Maximun size 18 x 24. We sell aluminun awnings.

A more subtle kind of direct carry-over is seen in sequences of words that do not conform to English rhythm:3

We need an agressive and bright girl for a secretarial position. We guarantee you the most reliable and complete auto service in Puerto Rico. We appreciate your thoughtful and kind wishes.

On the morphosyntactic level, there is direct carry-over from Spanish of inflectional categories, word order, and usage patterns. One of the most obvious inflectional differences between Standard English and Englaiiol occurs in compound nouns derived from constructions containing a plural noun that is shifted in the compound to the noun-modifier position other- wise filled by an adjective, as in a pie made of cherries -+ cherry pie, which, in the logic of Spanish, implies a pie made of only one cherry. In Englaiiol the plural inflection is retained, producing constructions such as cherries pie

2. See section on deceptive cognates; Englaiiol asist or assist means 'attend.' 3. See D. L. Bolinger, Forms of English: Accent, Morpheme, Order (Cambridge: Harvard

Univ. Press, 1965), pp. 129-38. Such binomials are always arranged by native speakers so that, if possible, there will be an alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables rather than two stressed syllables back to back: bright and a-gr6ss-ive girl, com-plete and re-li-a-ble au-to service, kind and th6ught-ful wish-es.

A medial consonant is deleted or added:

The demostration ended in violence. He interrumpted our conversation. In which cementary is he buried?

Spanishy replaces Englishj (y = [j]): The proyect will be completed by next year. Women feel that "housewife" is a peyorative word. My mayor [major] is English.

Spanish i replaces Englishy: The pickets sang himns and waved placards. He is a tipical politician. Cristal chandeliers are very expensive.

Double consonants are reduced to single consonants:

I read your interesting comentary. Life is just an ilusion. My daughter asists to the university.2

Final m becomes n:

Minimun size 8 x 11. Maximun size 18 x 24. We sell aluminun awnings.

A more subtle kind of direct carry-over is seen in sequences of words that do not conform to English rhythm:3

We need an agressive and bright girl for a secretarial position. We guarantee you the most reliable and complete auto service in Puerto Rico. We appreciate your thoughtful and kind wishes.

On the morphosyntactic level, there is direct carry-over from Spanish of inflectional categories, word order, and usage patterns. One of the most obvious inflectional differences between Standard English and Englaiiol occurs in compound nouns derived from constructions containing a plural noun that is shifted in the compound to the noun-modifier position other- wise filled by an adjective, as in a pie made of cherries -+ cherry pie, which, in the logic of Spanish, implies a pie made of only one cherry. In Englaiiol the plural inflection is retained, producing constructions such as cherries pie

2. See section on deceptive cognates; Englaiiol asist or assist means 'attend.' 3. See D. L. Bolinger, Forms of English: Accent, Morpheme, Order (Cambridge: Harvard

Univ. Press, 1965), pp. 129-38. Such binomials are always arranged by native speakers so that, if possible, there will be an alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables rather than two stressed syllables back to back: bright and a-gr6ss-ive girl, com-plete and re-li-a-ble au-to service, kind and th6ught-ful wish-es.

A medial consonant is deleted or added:

The demostration ended in violence. He interrumpted our conversation. In which cementary is he buried?

Spanishy replaces Englishj (y = [j]): The proyect will be completed by next year. Women feel that "housewife" is a peyorative word. My mayor [major] is English.

Spanish i replaces Englishy: The pickets sang himns and waved placards. He is a tipical politician. Cristal chandeliers are very expensive.

Double consonants are reduced to single consonants:

I read your interesting comentary. Life is just an ilusion. My daughter asists to the university.2

Final m becomes n:

Minimun size 8 x 11. Maximun size 18 x 24. We sell aluminun awnings.

A more subtle kind of direct carry-over is seen in sequences of words that do not conform to English rhythm:3

We need an agressive and bright girl for a secretarial position. We guarantee you the most reliable and complete auto service in Puerto Rico. We appreciate your thoughtful and kind wishes.

On the morphosyntactic level, there is direct carry-over from Spanish of inflectional categories, word order, and usage patterns. One of the most obvious inflectional differences between Standard English and Englaiiol occurs in compound nouns derived from constructions containing a plural noun that is shifted in the compound to the noun-modifier position other- wise filled by an adjective, as in a pie made of cherries -+ cherry pie, which, in the logic of Spanish, implies a pie made of only one cherry. In Englaiiol the plural inflection is retained, producing constructions such as cherries pie

2. See section on deceptive cognates; Englaiiol asist or assist means 'attend.' 3. See D. L. Bolinger, Forms of English: Accent, Morpheme, Order (Cambridge: Harvard

Univ. Press, 1965), pp. 129-38. Such binomials are always arranged by native speakers so that, if possible, there will be an alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables rather than two stressed syllables back to back: bright and a-gr6ss-ive girl, com-plete and re-li-a-ble au-to service, kind and th6ught-ful wish-es.

ENGLAJfOL ENGLAJfOL ENGLAJfOL ENGLAJfOL ENGLAJfOL 109 109 109 109 109

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AMERICAN SPEECH AMERICAN SPEECH AMERICAN SPEECH AMERICAN SPEECH AMERICAN SPEECH

(pastel de cerezas), salads dressing (salsa para ensaladas), mushrooms gravy (salsa de hongos), customers parking (parking para clientes), garbages area (area de desperdicios), and children discipline (disciplina de los niitos). Other examples:

Cocktails Lounge. For Sale: Soft Drinks Factory. For Rent: 14,000 Square Feet Lot. Wanted: Female Sales Groups Director. Monarch Carpet Fibers are Spots Resistant. It's 12 noon by Rado's Watches Time. Artistic Signs Center.

It should be mentioned here that such constructions are not unknown in Standard English, which has systems analysis, earnings history, operations manager, sales department, innovations committee. Some Standard English compounds are acceptable either way: complaint(s) department, Medical Science(s) Building.

Another case of inflectional carry-over is the use of a plural count noun where Standard English uses a singular noun, usually a mass noun:

At your services [a sus 6rdenes]. Swimming instructions [instrucciones]. Thanks for all your attentions [atenciones]. These are usedfurnitures [muebles]. I am taking my vacations [vacaciones] the first week in June.

English mass nouns that correspond to Spanish count nouns are also treated as count nouns in the singular through the influence of Spanish:

I will give you a good advice [un consejo]. We have made a big progress [un progreso]. This is a nonsense [una tonteria].

The definite article is used much more frequently in Englaiiol than in Standard English, following Spanish usage:

I hope this has the acceptance [la aceptaci6n] from all of you. The French [el frances] is a beautiful language. Is money so necessary in the life [la vida] ?

Direct carry-over from Spanish to Englafiol plays a major role also in word order. It is particularly evident in the position of adverbs and adverbial phrases in sentences containing transitive verbs and direct objects. In Spanish, verb modifiers usually come between verbs and their direct objects; in English, they come before the verb or after the direct object. In Englafiol, the Spanish order is used: This affects directly my work, like Spanish Esto afecta directamente mi trabajo, and unlike English This directly affects my work or This

(pastel de cerezas), salads dressing (salsa para ensaladas), mushrooms gravy (salsa de hongos), customers parking (parking para clientes), garbages area (area de desperdicios), and children discipline (disciplina de los niitos). Other examples:

Cocktails Lounge. For Sale: Soft Drinks Factory. For Rent: 14,000 Square Feet Lot. Wanted: Female Sales Groups Director. Monarch Carpet Fibers are Spots Resistant. It's 12 noon by Rado's Watches Time. Artistic Signs Center.

It should be mentioned here that such constructions are not unknown in Standard English, which has systems analysis, earnings history, operations manager, sales department, innovations committee. Some Standard English compounds are acceptable either way: complaint(s) department, Medical Science(s) Building.

Another case of inflectional carry-over is the use of a plural count noun where Standard English uses a singular noun, usually a mass noun:

At your services [a sus 6rdenes]. Swimming instructions [instrucciones]. Thanks for all your attentions [atenciones]. These are usedfurnitures [muebles]. I am taking my vacations [vacaciones] the first week in June.

English mass nouns that correspond to Spanish count nouns are also treated as count nouns in the singular through the influence of Spanish:

I will give you a good advice [un consejo]. We have made a big progress [un progreso]. This is a nonsense [una tonteria].

The definite article is used much more frequently in Englaiiol than in Standard English, following Spanish usage:

I hope this has the acceptance [la aceptaci6n] from all of you. The French [el frances] is a beautiful language. Is money so necessary in the life [la vida] ?

Direct carry-over from Spanish to Englafiol plays a major role also in word order. It is particularly evident in the position of adverbs and adverbial phrases in sentences containing transitive verbs and direct objects. In Spanish, verb modifiers usually come between verbs and their direct objects; in English, they come before the verb or after the direct object. In Englafiol, the Spanish order is used: This affects directly my work, like Spanish Esto afecta directamente mi trabajo, and unlike English This directly affects my work or This

(pastel de cerezas), salads dressing (salsa para ensaladas), mushrooms gravy (salsa de hongos), customers parking (parking para clientes), garbages area (area de desperdicios), and children discipline (disciplina de los niitos). Other examples:

Cocktails Lounge. For Sale: Soft Drinks Factory. For Rent: 14,000 Square Feet Lot. Wanted: Female Sales Groups Director. Monarch Carpet Fibers are Spots Resistant. It's 12 noon by Rado's Watches Time. Artistic Signs Center.

It should be mentioned here that such constructions are not unknown in Standard English, which has systems analysis, earnings history, operations manager, sales department, innovations committee. Some Standard English compounds are acceptable either way: complaint(s) department, Medical Science(s) Building.

Another case of inflectional carry-over is the use of a plural count noun where Standard English uses a singular noun, usually a mass noun:

At your services [a sus 6rdenes]. Swimming instructions [instrucciones]. Thanks for all your attentions [atenciones]. These are usedfurnitures [muebles]. I am taking my vacations [vacaciones] the first week in June.

English mass nouns that correspond to Spanish count nouns are also treated as count nouns in the singular through the influence of Spanish:

I will give you a good advice [un consejo]. We have made a big progress [un progreso]. This is a nonsense [una tonteria].

The definite article is used much more frequently in Englaiiol than in Standard English, following Spanish usage:

I hope this has the acceptance [la aceptaci6n] from all of you. The French [el frances] is a beautiful language. Is money so necessary in the life [la vida] ?

Direct carry-over from Spanish to Englafiol plays a major role also in word order. It is particularly evident in the position of adverbs and adverbial phrases in sentences containing transitive verbs and direct objects. In Spanish, verb modifiers usually come between verbs and their direct objects; in English, they come before the verb or after the direct object. In Englafiol, the Spanish order is used: This affects directly my work, like Spanish Esto afecta directamente mi trabajo, and unlike English This directly affects my work or This

(pastel de cerezas), salads dressing (salsa para ensaladas), mushrooms gravy (salsa de hongos), customers parking (parking para clientes), garbages area (area de desperdicios), and children discipline (disciplina de los niitos). Other examples:

Cocktails Lounge. For Sale: Soft Drinks Factory. For Rent: 14,000 Square Feet Lot. Wanted: Female Sales Groups Director. Monarch Carpet Fibers are Spots Resistant. It's 12 noon by Rado's Watches Time. Artistic Signs Center.

It should be mentioned here that such constructions are not unknown in Standard English, which has systems analysis, earnings history, operations manager, sales department, innovations committee. Some Standard English compounds are acceptable either way: complaint(s) department, Medical Science(s) Building.

Another case of inflectional carry-over is the use of a plural count noun where Standard English uses a singular noun, usually a mass noun:

At your services [a sus 6rdenes]. Swimming instructions [instrucciones]. Thanks for all your attentions [atenciones]. These are usedfurnitures [muebles]. I am taking my vacations [vacaciones] the first week in June.

English mass nouns that correspond to Spanish count nouns are also treated as count nouns in the singular through the influence of Spanish:

I will give you a good advice [un consejo]. We have made a big progress [un progreso]. This is a nonsense [una tonteria].

The definite article is used much more frequently in Englaiiol than in Standard English, following Spanish usage:

I hope this has the acceptance [la aceptaci6n] from all of you. The French [el frances] is a beautiful language. Is money so necessary in the life [la vida] ?

Direct carry-over from Spanish to Englafiol plays a major role also in word order. It is particularly evident in the position of adverbs and adverbial phrases in sentences containing transitive verbs and direct objects. In Spanish, verb modifiers usually come between verbs and their direct objects; in English, they come before the verb or after the direct object. In Englafiol, the Spanish order is used: This affects directly my work, like Spanish Esto afecta directamente mi trabajo, and unlike English This directly affects my work or This

(pastel de cerezas), salads dressing (salsa para ensaladas), mushrooms gravy (salsa de hongos), customers parking (parking para clientes), garbages area (area de desperdicios), and children discipline (disciplina de los niitos). Other examples:

Cocktails Lounge. For Sale: Soft Drinks Factory. For Rent: 14,000 Square Feet Lot. Wanted: Female Sales Groups Director. Monarch Carpet Fibers are Spots Resistant. It's 12 noon by Rado's Watches Time. Artistic Signs Center.

It should be mentioned here that such constructions are not unknown in Standard English, which has systems analysis, earnings history, operations manager, sales department, innovations committee. Some Standard English compounds are acceptable either way: complaint(s) department, Medical Science(s) Building.

Another case of inflectional carry-over is the use of a plural count noun where Standard English uses a singular noun, usually a mass noun:

At your services [a sus 6rdenes]. Swimming instructions [instrucciones]. Thanks for all your attentions [atenciones]. These are usedfurnitures [muebles]. I am taking my vacations [vacaciones] the first week in June.

English mass nouns that correspond to Spanish count nouns are also treated as count nouns in the singular through the influence of Spanish:

I will give you a good advice [un consejo]. We have made a big progress [un progreso]. This is a nonsense [una tonteria].

The definite article is used much more frequently in Englaiiol than in Standard English, following Spanish usage:

I hope this has the acceptance [la aceptaci6n] from all of you. The French [el frances] is a beautiful language. Is money so necessary in the life [la vida] ?

Direct carry-over from Spanish to Englafiol plays a major role also in word order. It is particularly evident in the position of adverbs and adverbial phrases in sentences containing transitive verbs and direct objects. In Spanish, verb modifiers usually come between verbs and their direct objects; in English, they come before the verb or after the direct object. In Englafiol, the Spanish order is used: This affects directly my work, like Spanish Esto afecta directamente mi trabajo, and unlike English This directly affects my work or This

110 110 110 110 110

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afects my work directly. Other examples:

I wish to congratulate wholeheartedly Fernando Pico. It is necessary to establish immediately the program. Buy today your luxurious apartment. You can have there a wonderful time. The tendency was to accept with open arms the white invader.

Another less frequent type of order carry-over is subject-predicate in- version in statements, of a kind permitted in Spanish but not English, as in:

It is of the utmost importance your actual presence at the meeting. Opens soon here a new legitimate theater. It did not arrive at all today the mail.

It is on the lexical level that we find some of the richest sources of Englafiol resulting from direct carry-over. These include deceptive cognates, coinage of English-like words, and literal translation of idiomatic expressions. Spanish and English have hundreds of cognate words. Although only a relatively small proportion of them have divergent meanings in the contemporary languages, the semantic differences may in some cases be quite startling. Some examples of commonly used deceptive cognates are the following:

She was molested [molesta 'annoyed']. Please prove [probar 'test'] the lamp. We should pretend [pretender 'try'] to work carefully. I assisted [asistir 'attend'] to the reunion [reuni6n 'meeting']. What is Julio's note [nota 'grade'] on the test ? My skin is very sensible [sensible 'sensitive']. Separate [separar 'reserve'] your apartment now. You have to approve [aprobar 'pass'] this course to graduate. He compromised [hacer compromiso 'promise'] me. To illustrate [ilustrar 'enlighten'] your readers. He guards [guardar 'keep'] his things here. The discovery of America was a great success [suceso 'event']. We recollected [recolectar 'collect'] a hundred dollars. That's very gracious [gracioso 'amusing']. Don't preoccupy [preocupar 'worry'] yourself. Pass by [pasar por 'stop by'] the office. There are many marginal [marginal 'fringe'] benefits. We are conscientious [consciente 'conscious'] of the need. The door must be maintained [mantener 'keep'] closed. My typewriter doesn't serve [servir 'function']. I'm up for permanence [permanencia 'tenure']. The government has helped other entities [entidad 'organization']. The New York Times is finished [finito 'sold out']. I like to use [usar 'wear'] pants. The university will present a cycle [ciclo 'series'] of lectures. I bought that book at the library [libreria 'bookstore'].

afects my work directly. Other examples:

I wish to congratulate wholeheartedly Fernando Pico. It is necessary to establish immediately the program. Buy today your luxurious apartment. You can have there a wonderful time. The tendency was to accept with open arms the white invader.

Another less frequent type of order carry-over is subject-predicate in- version in statements, of a kind permitted in Spanish but not English, as in:

It is of the utmost importance your actual presence at the meeting. Opens soon here a new legitimate theater. It did not arrive at all today the mail.

It is on the lexical level that we find some of the richest sources of Englafiol resulting from direct carry-over. These include deceptive cognates, coinage of English-like words, and literal translation of idiomatic expressions. Spanish and English have hundreds of cognate words. Although only a relatively small proportion of them have divergent meanings in the contemporary languages, the semantic differences may in some cases be quite startling. Some examples of commonly used deceptive cognates are the following:

She was molested [molesta 'annoyed']. Please prove [probar 'test'] the lamp. We should pretend [pretender 'try'] to work carefully. I assisted [asistir 'attend'] to the reunion [reuni6n 'meeting']. What is Julio's note [nota 'grade'] on the test ? My skin is very sensible [sensible 'sensitive']. Separate [separar 'reserve'] your apartment now. You have to approve [aprobar 'pass'] this course to graduate. He compromised [hacer compromiso 'promise'] me. To illustrate [ilustrar 'enlighten'] your readers. He guards [guardar 'keep'] his things here. The discovery of America was a great success [suceso 'event']. We recollected [recolectar 'collect'] a hundred dollars. That's very gracious [gracioso 'amusing']. Don't preoccupy [preocupar 'worry'] yourself. Pass by [pasar por 'stop by'] the office. There are many marginal [marginal 'fringe'] benefits. We are conscientious [consciente 'conscious'] of the need. The door must be maintained [mantener 'keep'] closed. My typewriter doesn't serve [servir 'function']. I'm up for permanence [permanencia 'tenure']. The government has helped other entities [entidad 'organization']. The New York Times is finished [finito 'sold out']. I like to use [usar 'wear'] pants. The university will present a cycle [ciclo 'series'] of lectures. I bought that book at the library [libreria 'bookstore'].

afects my work directly. Other examples:

I wish to congratulate wholeheartedly Fernando Pico. It is necessary to establish immediately the program. Buy today your luxurious apartment. You can have there a wonderful time. The tendency was to accept with open arms the white invader.

Another less frequent type of order carry-over is subject-predicate in- version in statements, of a kind permitted in Spanish but not English, as in:

It is of the utmost importance your actual presence at the meeting. Opens soon here a new legitimate theater. It did not arrive at all today the mail.

It is on the lexical level that we find some of the richest sources of Englafiol resulting from direct carry-over. These include deceptive cognates, coinage of English-like words, and literal translation of idiomatic expressions. Spanish and English have hundreds of cognate words. Although only a relatively small proportion of them have divergent meanings in the contemporary languages, the semantic differences may in some cases be quite startling. Some examples of commonly used deceptive cognates are the following:

She was molested [molesta 'annoyed']. Please prove [probar 'test'] the lamp. We should pretend [pretender 'try'] to work carefully. I assisted [asistir 'attend'] to the reunion [reuni6n 'meeting']. What is Julio's note [nota 'grade'] on the test ? My skin is very sensible [sensible 'sensitive']. Separate [separar 'reserve'] your apartment now. You have to approve [aprobar 'pass'] this course to graduate. He compromised [hacer compromiso 'promise'] me. To illustrate [ilustrar 'enlighten'] your readers. He guards [guardar 'keep'] his things here. The discovery of America was a great success [suceso 'event']. We recollected [recolectar 'collect'] a hundred dollars. That's very gracious [gracioso 'amusing']. Don't preoccupy [preocupar 'worry'] yourself. Pass by [pasar por 'stop by'] the office. There are many marginal [marginal 'fringe'] benefits. We are conscientious [consciente 'conscious'] of the need. The door must be maintained [mantener 'keep'] closed. My typewriter doesn't serve [servir 'function']. I'm up for permanence [permanencia 'tenure']. The government has helped other entities [entidad 'organization']. The New York Times is finished [finito 'sold out']. I like to use [usar 'wear'] pants. The university will present a cycle [ciclo 'series'] of lectures. I bought that book at the library [libreria 'bookstore'].

afects my work directly. Other examples:

I wish to congratulate wholeheartedly Fernando Pico. It is necessary to establish immediately the program. Buy today your luxurious apartment. You can have there a wonderful time. The tendency was to accept with open arms the white invader.

Another less frequent type of order carry-over is subject-predicate in- version in statements, of a kind permitted in Spanish but not English, as in:

It is of the utmost importance your actual presence at the meeting. Opens soon here a new legitimate theater. It did not arrive at all today the mail.

It is on the lexical level that we find some of the richest sources of Englafiol resulting from direct carry-over. These include deceptive cognates, coinage of English-like words, and literal translation of idiomatic expressions. Spanish and English have hundreds of cognate words. Although only a relatively small proportion of them have divergent meanings in the contemporary languages, the semantic differences may in some cases be quite startling. Some examples of commonly used deceptive cognates are the following:

She was molested [molesta 'annoyed']. Please prove [probar 'test'] the lamp. We should pretend [pretender 'try'] to work carefully. I assisted [asistir 'attend'] to the reunion [reuni6n 'meeting']. What is Julio's note [nota 'grade'] on the test ? My skin is very sensible [sensible 'sensitive']. Separate [separar 'reserve'] your apartment now. You have to approve [aprobar 'pass'] this course to graduate. He compromised [hacer compromiso 'promise'] me. To illustrate [ilustrar 'enlighten'] your readers. He guards [guardar 'keep'] his things here. The discovery of America was a great success [suceso 'event']. We recollected [recolectar 'collect'] a hundred dollars. That's very gracious [gracioso 'amusing']. Don't preoccupy [preocupar 'worry'] yourself. Pass by [pasar por 'stop by'] the office. There are many marginal [marginal 'fringe'] benefits. We are conscientious [consciente 'conscious'] of the need. The door must be maintained [mantener 'keep'] closed. My typewriter doesn't serve [servir 'function']. I'm up for permanence [permanencia 'tenure']. The government has helped other entities [entidad 'organization']. The New York Times is finished [finito 'sold out']. I like to use [usar 'wear'] pants. The university will present a cycle [ciclo 'series'] of lectures. I bought that book at the library [libreria 'bookstore'].

afects my work directly. Other examples:

I wish to congratulate wholeheartedly Fernando Pico. It is necessary to establish immediately the program. Buy today your luxurious apartment. You can have there a wonderful time. The tendency was to accept with open arms the white invader.

Another less frequent type of order carry-over is subject-predicate in- version in statements, of a kind permitted in Spanish but not English, as in:

It is of the utmost importance your actual presence at the meeting. Opens soon here a new legitimate theater. It did not arrive at all today the mail.

It is on the lexical level that we find some of the richest sources of Englafiol resulting from direct carry-over. These include deceptive cognates, coinage of English-like words, and literal translation of idiomatic expressions. Spanish and English have hundreds of cognate words. Although only a relatively small proportion of them have divergent meanings in the contemporary languages, the semantic differences may in some cases be quite startling. Some examples of commonly used deceptive cognates are the following:

She was molested [molesta 'annoyed']. Please prove [probar 'test'] the lamp. We should pretend [pretender 'try'] to work carefully. I assisted [asistir 'attend'] to the reunion [reuni6n 'meeting']. What is Julio's note [nota 'grade'] on the test ? My skin is very sensible [sensible 'sensitive']. Separate [separar 'reserve'] your apartment now. You have to approve [aprobar 'pass'] this course to graduate. He compromised [hacer compromiso 'promise'] me. To illustrate [ilustrar 'enlighten'] your readers. He guards [guardar 'keep'] his things here. The discovery of America was a great success [suceso 'event']. We recollected [recolectar 'collect'] a hundred dollars. That's very gracious [gracioso 'amusing']. Don't preoccupy [preocupar 'worry'] yourself. Pass by [pasar por 'stop by'] the office. There are many marginal [marginal 'fringe'] benefits. We are conscientious [consciente 'conscious'] of the need. The door must be maintained [mantener 'keep'] closed. My typewriter doesn't serve [servir 'function']. I'm up for permanence [permanencia 'tenure']. The government has helped other entities [entidad 'organization']. The New York Times is finished [finito 'sold out']. I like to use [usar 'wear'] pants. The university will present a cycle [ciclo 'series'] of lectures. I bought that book at the library [libreria 'bookstore'].

ENGLAROL ENGLAROL ENGLAROL ENGLAROL ENGLAROL 111 111 111 111 111

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AMERICAN SPEECH AMERICAN SPEECH AMERICAN SPEECH AMERICAN SPEECH AMERICAN SPEECH

Sorry, but actually [actualmente 'right now'] I have no money. We need a bilingual with capacity [capacidad 'ability'] to translate. The novel didn't have an interesting argument [argumento 'plot']. There is too much competence [competencia 'competition'] between nations. It's a disgrace [desgracia 'pity'] you lost it. Everyone admires her sympathy [simpatia 'friendliness']. Please be more educated [educado 'polite'] to me. The conference [conferencia 'lecture'] had a large concurrence [concurrencia

'audience']. Spanish is an easy idiom [idioma 'language'] to learn. I have many parents [parientes 'relatives'] in New York. Smoking is not convenient [conveniente 'beneficial'] for you. We must foment [fomentar 'promote'] better relations. There are serious lagoons [laguna 'gap'] in our education.

Deceptive cognates operate in both directions, occurring in Spanglish as well as Englafiol. Some cognates show a tendency to switch places, each hybrid variety claiming for itself the borrowed sense of the word:

English: Give me the application for the job. Spanish: Dame la solicitud para el puesto. Englafiol: Give me the solicitude for the job. Spanglish: Dame la aplicacion para el puesto.

Englaiiol coins words on a Spanish model. Because of the large number of cognates in Spanish and English, the Englafiol speaker expects close cognates where none exist and innocently supplies the lack:

He adverted [advertir 'warn'] us of the danger. Can you traduce [traducir 'translate'] this? Your actitude [actitud 'attitude'] is very negative. I object to this intromission [intromisi6n 'meddling'] in our affairs. The scene was very pintoresque [pintoresco 'picturesque']. There are always voluntaries [voluntario 'volunteer'] for that job.

Literal translations fall into several groups. Most prepositions have more than one translational equivalent, and some will be treated later. The preposition con, however, is one of the fairly reliable ones, corresponding to with in nonidiomatic English. This translation is carried over into Englafiol in idiomatic expressions such as the following:

He married with [se cas6 con 'married'] Elena. One dollar with [un peso con 'a dollar and'] 32 cents. What I mean with this [significo con 'mean by'] is... Can we count with [contar con 'count on'] you?

Formal similarity between English and Spanish prepositions accounts for some cases of carry-over:

I lived there during [durante 'for'] three years. I know thisfor [por 'from'] experience.

Sorry, but actually [actualmente 'right now'] I have no money. We need a bilingual with capacity [capacidad 'ability'] to translate. The novel didn't have an interesting argument [argumento 'plot']. There is too much competence [competencia 'competition'] between nations. It's a disgrace [desgracia 'pity'] you lost it. Everyone admires her sympathy [simpatia 'friendliness']. Please be more educated [educado 'polite'] to me. The conference [conferencia 'lecture'] had a large concurrence [concurrencia

'audience']. Spanish is an easy idiom [idioma 'language'] to learn. I have many parents [parientes 'relatives'] in New York. Smoking is not convenient [conveniente 'beneficial'] for you. We must foment [fomentar 'promote'] better relations. There are serious lagoons [laguna 'gap'] in our education.

Deceptive cognates operate in both directions, occurring in Spanglish as well as Englafiol. Some cognates show a tendency to switch places, each hybrid variety claiming for itself the borrowed sense of the word:

English: Give me the application for the job. Spanish: Dame la solicitud para el puesto. Englafiol: Give me the solicitude for the job. Spanglish: Dame la aplicacion para el puesto.

Englaiiol coins words on a Spanish model. Because of the large number of cognates in Spanish and English, the Englafiol speaker expects close cognates where none exist and innocently supplies the lack:

He adverted [advertir 'warn'] us of the danger. Can you traduce [traducir 'translate'] this? Your actitude [actitud 'attitude'] is very negative. I object to this intromission [intromisi6n 'meddling'] in our affairs. The scene was very pintoresque [pintoresco 'picturesque']. There are always voluntaries [voluntario 'volunteer'] for that job.

Literal translations fall into several groups. Most prepositions have more than one translational equivalent, and some will be treated later. The preposition con, however, is one of the fairly reliable ones, corresponding to with in nonidiomatic English. This translation is carried over into Englafiol in idiomatic expressions such as the following:

He married with [se cas6 con 'married'] Elena. One dollar with [un peso con 'a dollar and'] 32 cents. What I mean with this [significo con 'mean by'] is... Can we count with [contar con 'count on'] you?

Formal similarity between English and Spanish prepositions accounts for some cases of carry-over:

I lived there during [durante 'for'] three years. I know thisfor [por 'from'] experience.

Sorry, but actually [actualmente 'right now'] I have no money. We need a bilingual with capacity [capacidad 'ability'] to translate. The novel didn't have an interesting argument [argumento 'plot']. There is too much competence [competencia 'competition'] between nations. It's a disgrace [desgracia 'pity'] you lost it. Everyone admires her sympathy [simpatia 'friendliness']. Please be more educated [educado 'polite'] to me. The conference [conferencia 'lecture'] had a large concurrence [concurrencia

'audience']. Spanish is an easy idiom [idioma 'language'] to learn. I have many parents [parientes 'relatives'] in New York. Smoking is not convenient [conveniente 'beneficial'] for you. We must foment [fomentar 'promote'] better relations. There are serious lagoons [laguna 'gap'] in our education.

Deceptive cognates operate in both directions, occurring in Spanglish as well as Englafiol. Some cognates show a tendency to switch places, each hybrid variety claiming for itself the borrowed sense of the word:

English: Give me the application for the job. Spanish: Dame la solicitud para el puesto. Englafiol: Give me the solicitude for the job. Spanglish: Dame la aplicacion para el puesto.

Englaiiol coins words on a Spanish model. Because of the large number of cognates in Spanish and English, the Englafiol speaker expects close cognates where none exist and innocently supplies the lack:

He adverted [advertir 'warn'] us of the danger. Can you traduce [traducir 'translate'] this? Your actitude [actitud 'attitude'] is very negative. I object to this intromission [intromisi6n 'meddling'] in our affairs. The scene was very pintoresque [pintoresco 'picturesque']. There are always voluntaries [voluntario 'volunteer'] for that job.

Literal translations fall into several groups. Most prepositions have more than one translational equivalent, and some will be treated later. The preposition con, however, is one of the fairly reliable ones, corresponding to with in nonidiomatic English. This translation is carried over into Englafiol in idiomatic expressions such as the following:

He married with [se cas6 con 'married'] Elena. One dollar with [un peso con 'a dollar and'] 32 cents. What I mean with this [significo con 'mean by'] is... Can we count with [contar con 'count on'] you?

Formal similarity between English and Spanish prepositions accounts for some cases of carry-over:

I lived there during [durante 'for'] three years. I know thisfor [por 'from'] experience.

Sorry, but actually [actualmente 'right now'] I have no money. We need a bilingual with capacity [capacidad 'ability'] to translate. The novel didn't have an interesting argument [argumento 'plot']. There is too much competence [competencia 'competition'] between nations. It's a disgrace [desgracia 'pity'] you lost it. Everyone admires her sympathy [simpatia 'friendliness']. Please be more educated [educado 'polite'] to me. The conference [conferencia 'lecture'] had a large concurrence [concurrencia

'audience']. Spanish is an easy idiom [idioma 'language'] to learn. I have many parents [parientes 'relatives'] in New York. Smoking is not convenient [conveniente 'beneficial'] for you. We must foment [fomentar 'promote'] better relations. There are serious lagoons [laguna 'gap'] in our education.

Deceptive cognates operate in both directions, occurring in Spanglish as well as Englafiol. Some cognates show a tendency to switch places, each hybrid variety claiming for itself the borrowed sense of the word:

English: Give me the application for the job. Spanish: Dame la solicitud para el puesto. Englafiol: Give me the solicitude for the job. Spanglish: Dame la aplicacion para el puesto.

Englaiiol coins words on a Spanish model. Because of the large number of cognates in Spanish and English, the Englafiol speaker expects close cognates where none exist and innocently supplies the lack:

He adverted [advertir 'warn'] us of the danger. Can you traduce [traducir 'translate'] this? Your actitude [actitud 'attitude'] is very negative. I object to this intromission [intromisi6n 'meddling'] in our affairs. The scene was very pintoresque [pintoresco 'picturesque']. There are always voluntaries [voluntario 'volunteer'] for that job.

Literal translations fall into several groups. Most prepositions have more than one translational equivalent, and some will be treated later. The preposition con, however, is one of the fairly reliable ones, corresponding to with in nonidiomatic English. This translation is carried over into Englafiol in idiomatic expressions such as the following:

He married with [se cas6 con 'married'] Elena. One dollar with [un peso con 'a dollar and'] 32 cents. What I mean with this [significo con 'mean by'] is... Can we count with [contar con 'count on'] you?

Formal similarity between English and Spanish prepositions accounts for some cases of carry-over:

I lived there during [durante 'for'] three years. I know thisfor [por 'from'] experience.

Sorry, but actually [actualmente 'right now'] I have no money. We need a bilingual with capacity [capacidad 'ability'] to translate. The novel didn't have an interesting argument [argumento 'plot']. There is too much competence [competencia 'competition'] between nations. It's a disgrace [desgracia 'pity'] you lost it. Everyone admires her sympathy [simpatia 'friendliness']. Please be more educated [educado 'polite'] to me. The conference [conferencia 'lecture'] had a large concurrence [concurrencia

'audience']. Spanish is an easy idiom [idioma 'language'] to learn. I have many parents [parientes 'relatives'] in New York. Smoking is not convenient [conveniente 'beneficial'] for you. We must foment [fomentar 'promote'] better relations. There are serious lagoons [laguna 'gap'] in our education.

Deceptive cognates operate in both directions, occurring in Spanglish as well as Englafiol. Some cognates show a tendency to switch places, each hybrid variety claiming for itself the borrowed sense of the word:

English: Give me the application for the job. Spanish: Dame la solicitud para el puesto. Englafiol: Give me the solicitude for the job. Spanglish: Dame la aplicacion para el puesto.

Englaiiol coins words on a Spanish model. Because of the large number of cognates in Spanish and English, the Englafiol speaker expects close cognates where none exist and innocently supplies the lack:

He adverted [advertir 'warn'] us of the danger. Can you traduce [traducir 'translate'] this? Your actitude [actitud 'attitude'] is very negative. I object to this intromission [intromisi6n 'meddling'] in our affairs. The scene was very pintoresque [pintoresco 'picturesque']. There are always voluntaries [voluntario 'volunteer'] for that job.

Literal translations fall into several groups. Most prepositions have more than one translational equivalent, and some will be treated later. The preposition con, however, is one of the fairly reliable ones, corresponding to with in nonidiomatic English. This translation is carried over into Englafiol in idiomatic expressions such as the following:

He married with [se cas6 con 'married'] Elena. One dollar with [un peso con 'a dollar and'] 32 cents. What I mean with this [significo con 'mean by'] is... Can we count with [contar con 'count on'] you?

Formal similarity between English and Spanish prepositions accounts for some cases of carry-over:

I lived there during [durante 'for'] three years. I know thisfor [por 'from'] experience.

112 112 112 112 112

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One mistranslation that is serious from the point of view of Standard English involves both formal similarity and different word order. For is used for por to express exchanges in expressions in which Englanol substitute . .for has the sense 'replace ... with':

English: Substitute saladfor potatoes, please. Spanish: Cambieme las papas por ensalada, por favor. Englafiol: Substitute potatoesfor salad, please.

When two-word English verbs correspond to one-word Spanish verbs, the preposition may be dropped altogether:

I have to pick [cojer 'pick up'] my husband at five. The meeting was presided [presidir 'preside over'] by Dean Piiiero. This report should be handed [entregar 'hand in'] not later than noon. Rosario Ferre grew [madurarse 'grow up'] in a castle. A burglar broke [allanar 'break into'] my house last night.

Other kinds of literal translations use the most frequent English equivalent: How is it called? [~ C6mo se llama? 'What do you call it?'] Can I stay with it? [~ Puedo quedarme con esto? 'Can I keep it?'] You are closed-minded. [Tiene una mente cerrada. 'You are narrow-minded.' Open the water. [Abre el agua. 'Turn on the water.'] The elevator is out. Use the ladder. [Use la escalera. 'Use the stairs.']

Word-for-word renderings may add, subtract, or change some item in Standard English:

Unt