England The evolution of a country & its language.
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England
The evolution of a country & its language
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Influences on Early Britain
Celts: the indigenous peoples (ancestors of the Irish, Scots, Welsh, Cornish, and Bretons
The Romans Anglo Saxons The Norse
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Celts
Halstatt culture—7-6th century B.C.
La Tiene culture—5th century B.C.
(55 & 54 B.C. = Caeasar’s invasion
AND, there were people there before them!
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Migration of the Celts
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Celtic Art
VERY ancient Celts (@500 B.C.)
Swirling designs
Heavy signifigance on the number three
Detail of armor implies a warrior aristocracy.
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The Celts
Used make-up to look more warlike.
Oral culture
Loose society (many small tribes)
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Celts vs. Picts
The original “naked white people”
Often painted themselves with chalk before going into battle
Sometimes fought naked
The original “naked blue people”
Often painted themselves with woad
Sometimes fought naked
Savage people of lower Scotland
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The Celts
Loved feasts: mead drinking, lots of meat (esp. pork)—often noisy and sometimes dangerous!
Built forts on strategic high grounds surrounded by ditches (Motte and Bailey castles)
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Ancient Celtic Religion
Druids:wise men, healers, teachers, musicians
Keepers of knowledge who memorized all teachings—ORAL CULTURE
Believed that their souls did not die, but passed to another body.
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Cultural Note
Some believe that a druidic figure may be the inspiration for MERLIN in the Arthur legends.
Merlin dictating his poems, as illustrated in a French book from the 13th century
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Human Sacrifice
Tacitus, the Roman author, writes about burning people alive in man-shaped wicker figures
Cautionary note: Writing horrible things about one’s enemies helps one’s cause.
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Stone Circles & Chalk Hills
Found all over Britain
Used in religious ceremonies
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Stonehenge—Used but not built by the Celts
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Avebury Stone Circle
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Silbury Hill
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Celtic Art and Music
Motifs of nature, human figures are symbolic and abstract
Heavily laden with circles, squares, and triangles.
Celtic art survives in decorated MSS, metalwork, and stone crosses.
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Celtic Language
Survives in Irish, Gaelic, Welsh languages(Where the Saxons did not conquer)
Very few words survive except in place names Others mostly topographic
EX. avon-river, combe=valley, torr=rock outcropping
Ancor=anchorite=hermit
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Welsh Language
Roman alphabet with different sound values & consonant doubling (ll, ff, ww, dd)
Gwynnedd = Guyneth
Siobhan = Shevan
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Queen Boudicca (Boadicea) c. 61 A. D.
Celtic warrior queen
Led fight against Romans after they flogged & raped her and her daughters
Tacitus & other Romans write about her
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A description from the Romans:
Their aspect is terrifying...They are very tall in stature, with rippling muscles under clear white skin. Their hair is blond, but not naturally so: they bleach it, to this day, artificially, washing it in lime and combing it back from their foreheads. They look like wood-demons, their hair thick and shaggy like a horse's mane. . . . [M]ost content themselves with the weapons nature gave them: they go naked into battle...Weird, discordant horns were sounded, [they shouted in chorus with their] deep and harsh voices, they beat their swords rythmically against their shields.
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Arturius
Legendary Celtic war chieftain who led his people to a victory over the Saxons at the Battle of Badon Hill (early 500’s A.D.)
May be start of King Arthur legends
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Celtic Religion--Pantheism
Pagans who worshiped gods of nature—over 400 different gods! They believed the spirits were everywhere and in everything.
Believed that natural disasters, disease, famine, etc. were caused because the gods were angry.
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Celtic Religion--Pantheism
Worshiped in nature—woods, bogs, mouths of rivers, stone circles, chalk mounds.
Main gods: earth mother (fertility), horned gods, tribal father
Annual sacrifice of a human in the stead of the horned god to shed his blood on the land to ensure fertility.
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The Romans
The Greek author Pytheas called them the "Pretanic Isles" which derived from the inhabitants name for them, Pritani.
RomansCalled the Celts BritonsCalled the island “Brittania”@45 B.C. through 449 A.D.
THIS IS LONGER THAN THE UNITED STATES HAS BEEN SETTLED BY EUROPEANS!
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The Romans
The Romans never made it to the Northern part of the island – the Picts and Scots were too fierce.
They built Hadrian’s wall to keep these warrior tribes out. It still stands today.
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Roman Amphitheater--Chester
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Roman Lighthouse, Dover Castle
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The Romans
The Romans integrated their own culture with Celtic culture.
They often intermarried with the Celts and Celts could become citizens.
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Bath
Originally a shrine to Aquae Sulis, a water goddess
Considered a Holy Place by the Celts
Became a popular resort in the 17th & 18th century
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Bath
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Romano-Celtic Religion
Mithras was the sun god.
On December 25th, the Romanized Celts celebrated Mithras’s victory in the battle against the night.
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The Romans
The Romans left to defend the homeland from invading Germanic tribes.
This left the Celts defenseless against the Picts and Scots attacking from the North and West.
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Vortigern’s Invitation @449 A.D.
King Vortigern sent for help from the Anglo-Saxon tribes across the sea.
They came to help, liked the climate, and stayed.
The Anglo-Saxons subjugated the native Celts.
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The Saxons
Angles
Saxons
Jutes
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Anglo-Saxons
Land became known as Angla-land
Which, of course, became England
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Anglo-Saxons
½ of all English words have AS origins
Responsible for the British traits of MelancholyNostalgiaLove of RitualStoicism
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Anglo-Saxons
Known for—
Feasts
Telling long-heroic tales
Fascination with the sea
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The Germania – Cultural Connections
Baritus:
Battle chant to kindle courage by terrifying their foes.
“a unison of valour”
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Anglo-Saxon belief system:
Importance of physical and moral courage
Loyalty above all
Power of fate—”wyrd”Believed that you could not control what happened to you. The measure of a man was HOW he responded to his destiny.
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Anglo-Saxon Culture
Warrior society
Thane and his followersBond between them was paramountCOMITATUS PRINCIPLE
Consequences of deserting your lord on battlefield—exile.
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The Boar-Ferocious fighter
Symbol of hospitality, protective symbol on shields,
charging boar=royalty or extreme military prowess, put on graves of nobles for
strength in the afterlife.
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The Germania, Tacitus, A.D. 98
Polemic to raise moral standards of Rome
Idealized Germanic culture
Where modern Germans got their ideas of purity of blood, superiority of their culture
Of course, Tacitus relied entirely on second-hand accounts!
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The Germania – Cultural Connections
Baritus:
Battle chant to kindle courage by terrifying their foes.
“a unison of valour”
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The Germania
“They bring back the bodies of the fallen even when a battle hangs in the balance.”
“To throw away one’s shield is the supreme disgrace, and the man [who does this] is debarred from attendance at sacrifice or assembly.”
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The Germania
Kings chosen for noble birth—power not absolute or arbitrary.
Leaders chosen for valour—lead by example rather than authority of rank.
Followers usually men of one clan—united by blood as well as battle.
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The Germania
Retainers expect things in return
“They are always making demands on the generosity of their chief, asking for a coveted war-horse or a spear stained with the blood of a defeated enemy.”
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Uncle/Nephew Relationship
“The sons of sisters are as highly honoured by their uncles as by their own fathers. Some tribes even consider the former tie the closer and more sacred of the two.”
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Wergild – The “Man price”
“Heirs are under the obligation to take up both the feuds and the friendship of a father or kinsman. But feuds do not continue forever unreconciled. Even homicide can be atoned for by a fixed number of cattle or sheep.”
The price was determined by rank in society.
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The Germania
“Traitors and deserters are hanged on trees; cowards, shirkers. . . are pressed down under a wicker hurdle into the slimy mud of a bog.”
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Tollund Man
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The Germania -- Women
“Close by [the battle] are “their nearest and dearest . . . whose praise he most desires . . . . It is their mothers and wives that they go to have their wounds treated, and the women are not afraid to compare and count the gashes.”
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The Germania – Women
“[A]rmies already wavering on the point of collapse have been rallied by the women, pleading heroically with their men, thrusting forward their bared bosoms, and making them realize the imminent prospect of enslavement.”
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The Germania -- Women
“[T]here resides in women an element of holiness and a gift of prophecy; and so they do not scorn to ask their advice, or lightly disregard their replies.”
Their reverence is “untainted by servile flattery or any pretence of turning women into goddesses.”
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Anglo-Saxon Women
Cupbearers: served at banquets
Could own and inherit property
Women kept the status and wealth they were born with, not just that of husband
Jewelry was valued as a way of showing status.
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The Germania--Marriage Code
“both in peace and suffering, she is to share in his sufferings and adventures.”
Woman’s adultury severely punished:“cuts off her hair, strips her naked nad in the presence of her kinsman . . .flogs her all through the village. Neither beauty nor wealth can find her another husband.”
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Marriage Code—Other sources
Adultery treated more casually
*½ goods if take children to raise.*Share of goods if husband keeps children.
Why would Tacitus emphasize the most extreme cases?
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Structure of Anglo-Saxon Society
Witan—king’s advisor
Scop—professional bard, held in high esteem(Monks later recorded poetry that had been passed down orally)
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Moot
Courts on local, district, & regional levels
Rulings based on tradition, past decisions
FYI: a moot point is one that could be argued as before a court, but everybody already knows the answer, so there’s no point in debating.
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The Moot Hall, Keswick
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Witanagemot or Witan
The king’s council of wise men, including earls, major landholders, and high religious authorities
Spoofed in Harry Potter books as the Wizengamot tribunal
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The Germania–Religious Practices
“do not think it in keeping with the divine majesty to confine gods within walls”
“Their holy places are woods and groves”
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Gods similar to Norse Gods
Thunor=God of Thunder
Freya=fertility
Tew=war
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The Germania–Religious Practices
Seek information from the cries and flights of birds.
Try to obtain omens and warnings from horses.
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Anglo-Saxon Funereal Customs
Buried with weapons, wealth for the afterlife
The wealthy got a full set of armor
Sometimes, great thanes were buried with fully equipped boats.
Other times, the boats were burned at sea.
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The Sutton Hoo burial
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Sutton Hoo Treasure
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Sutton HooTreasure
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Sutton HooTreasure
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Other Germanic values:
Hospitality is paramount—always hospitable to strangers and visitors.
The more family connections and allegiances a man can command, the higher his status.(Epithets: Hygelac’s thane, or Hrothgar’s son)
Better to die in battle than to grow old and weak.
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By the end of the 6th Century
Augustine and his followers begin to convert England to Christianity.
King Ethelbert baptized by Augustine c. 597 A.D.
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Conversion of the Saxons
Fate and religion are intertwined in the literature as it is written down (often by monks).
Architecture represents the Saxon aesthetic
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Blend of Pagan and Christian in AS Literature
Tension “between faith in an omnipotent Christian God and a
trust in blind, inexorable fate.”
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Saxon Church at Dover Castle
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Two Religious Centers Arose
York—Northern England
Canterbury—Southern England
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The Norse
Viking Invasions – Beginning @ 900 A.D.
10th Century defeated English in the Battle of Maldon
Wanted British technology, raw goods
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Norse Mythology
Adumla (cow)|
Buri|
Bor—Bestla (frost giant’s daughter)
|(w)odin—----Vili—----Ve
(spirit of life) (wits & heart) (hearing & sight)
Kill all the frost giants but one—all the blood flooded the world
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Norse Mythology
Ymir – Frost Giant that survived
1) skull=sky2) flesh=Earth3) bones=Mountains4) blood=Oceans, lakes, rivers
Dwarves: North, South, East, West
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Norse Mythology
Midgard (Ymir’s eyebrows)Middle earth, enclosure away from stone giants
Asgard (Settled by Odin, Vili, Ve – Aesir, guardians of men)linked to midgard by the flaming rainbow bridge, Bifrost
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Norse Mythology
Ygdrasil –The living tree, the suffering tree, the life-giver--Regenerates itself, eternal (was, and is, and will be)
Odin hung on a tree for nine days to gain boons for mankind – Runes (magical alphabet) and Skaldic Mead (poetic inspiration)
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Runes-”FUTHORK”
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The Population of Midgard
Heimdall was the guard at the gate of Midgard
Fathered three generations for the three classes of people.
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Three classes of people
Jarl (fair, sharp, skilled, strong)Heimdall teaches him the runes of OdinClass of kings (koniger) and warriors
Karl (ruddy, bright-eyed, well formed)farmers, skilled laborers, peasants
Thrall (ugly, twisted, dull)race of unskilled laborersi.e. to “hold in thrall”
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The Days of the Week
Sunday Monday Teusday (Tiu—warrior god, symbol=boar) Wednesday (Wodin) Thursday (Thor—thunder god, very
popular) Friday (Freya—fertility god)
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Other important influences
Eostre (estrogen, estrus cycles)(--goddess of the dawn, spring, and new life, feast day in Spring--Symbols are the hare and the egg!
Winter feasts (used to served boar’s head), New Year’s resolution
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Gotterdammerung & Ragnarok
Unlike Greek gods, gods were not invincible
Living in the Gotterdamerung, or “Twilight of the gods”
Would eventually be defeated at Ragnarok, the “day of doom”
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The Wild Hunt
Souls of dead warriors who joined Odin in Valhalla waiting to join against the forces of destruction at Ragnarok
Brought to Valhalla by the Valkyrie
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Gotterdammerung & Ragnarok
Winter will reign for three years with no summer. All the earth will be at war, father against son,
brother against brother. Wolves Skoll and Hati Hrodvitnisson will swallow
the sun & moon, plunging the earth into darkness.
Monsters will break free, and the WILD HUNT will begin for real!
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Gotterdammerung & Ragnarok
Fenrir/Fenris wolf—at the end of the world, will run loose, consuming the earth and heavens. He will swallow Odin.
Slain by Odin’s son who tears off his jaw
Odin and the Fenris Wolf, 1909, Dorothy Hardy
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Gotterdammerung & Ragnarok
Midgard serpent—will flood the world by overflowing the ocean & spew deadly venom.
Killed by Thor before he succumbs to death from the poison.
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Gotterdammerung & Ragnarok
Horns of Heimdall will ring to warn other gods of the danger.
By the end, Yggdrasill and all the worlds become a blazing inferno and the gods of the Aesir & Vanir die as well as all the inhabitants of Middle Earth.
The sky falls into a pit of flame and the earth sinks into the sea.
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The Vikings & Saxons
Constantly battled for control of England
Languages in England merged to become Old English
Battle of Maldon—recorded in poem
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Battle of Maldon, Anglo-Saxon Chronicles c. 991 A.D.
Extant in a fragment (beginning & end missing)
Byrhtnoth (Saxon) fights the Vikings
Byrhtnoth is 6’6” to 6’9” in a world where people are on average 5’ tall.
He is also 65 in a time when people lived to @ 40. Awesome despay of wealth—owned land in Essex
& 8 other counties
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Battle of Maldon, Anglo-Saxon Chronicles c. 991 A.D.
When he falls, poet reproaches the cowardice of the thane Godric who gallops away
Aelfwine, in contrast, upholds comitatus
He boasts (beot) that no one can “reproach him with fleeing whil his lord lies dead”
“Heart must be hardier courage the keenerMood must be the bolder as our band lessens.”
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Battle of Maldon, Anglo-Saxon Chronicles c. 991 A.D.
Glorious defeat
BUT moral victory, affirmation of comitatus
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Book of Kells
Early Englishtranslation of the Christianbible
Illuminated pages
Monastery kept learning alive inthe “Dark Ages”Of Viking invasion
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King Alfred the Great
“Great” because he kept united tribes to repel the Danes
King when Vikings sacked the monastery at Lindesfarne
He kept London & Wessex; Vikings kept the Danelaw(North and East England)
Commissioned the Anglo-Saxon chronicles of Britain from the time of Caesar’s invasion
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Alfred Jewel
"AELFRED MEC HEHT GEWYRCAN", "Alfred ordered me to be made"
In the Ashmolean in Oxford
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Old English/Anglo-Saxon
The emergence of a written language.
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Anglo-Saxon/Old English
Language spoken and written from about the 5th to 11th centuries around the time of the Battle of Hastings (1066).
Standardized in 10th century through influence of dominant kingdom of Wessex.
Based on runic script.
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Old English Words & Modern Equivalents
Old English Wicu Cyning (c-k) Scort (sc=sh) Gærs Eorþ (þ & ð= th) deor cniht
Modern English Week King Short Grass Earth Deer (orig. wild beast) Knight (orig. youth)
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Book of Kells
Early English bible
Illuminated
Lindesfarne Monastery
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The Vikings Win, sort of . . .
Ethelred the Unready-weak king-took throne at age 11
King Canute crowned King of England, 1016
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Structure of Anglo-Saxon society
Eorls--noble classes(warriors, kings)
Cheorls--farmers, craftsmen