Engineering Geological Properties of Coastal Plain …...Akure, P.M.B 704, Akure, Ondo State,...

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( Received 26 August 2018; Accepted 11 September 2018; Date of Publication 12 September 2018 )

WSN 110 (2018) 23-41 EISSN 2392-219

Engineering Geological Properties of Coastal Plain Sands in Selected Areas in Ikoyi Area, a typical

Coastal Sedimentary Terrain

Abdulquadri O. Alaberea and Olaoluwa E. Emmanuelb

Department of Applied Geology, Federal University of Technology, Akure, P.M.B 704, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria

a,bE-mail address: [email protected] , [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Coastal plain sands in some selected areas of Ikoyi, in Lagos, Dahomey basin southwestern

Nigeria have been investigated with respect to their geotechnical properties to determine their

suitability as construction materials and to recommend suitable foundation type for the proposed

developments. Representative samples collected from each sites were subjected to standard

engineering tests and CPT method was used for calculating the bearing capacity of the soil. The cone

resistance values (Qc) ranges from 8-158 kg/cm3, 20-160 kg/cm

3, 32-166 kg/cm

3 for Sokoto street site,

Parkview estate site, and Delta street site respectively. Correlating this result with standard penetration

test values, it shows dense soil at 3m, 10m and 45m for Delta Street site, medium dense soil at 2m and

30m for Parkview estate site, and medium dense soil at 3m, 29m and 30m for Sokoto Street site. The

undrained triaxial test revealed that undrained cohesion ranges from 47-70 KNm-2

, 44-95 KNm-2

, and

15-30 KNm-2

with no angle of internal friction for Sokoto Street, Delta Street and Parkview estate site

respectively. These values show that the soils have low bearing capacity due to low undrained cohesion

and angle of internal friction. The geotechnical analysis result show that for the proposed building

(tower) on the three sites, shallow foundation cannot be supported because the foundation pressure

exceeds the bearing capacities of the soil across the three sites at shallow depth and the loads needs to

be transferred to more competent soil layer at deeper depth via a non- displacement (or replacement)

pile.

Keyword: Bearing capacity, Displacement Piles, standard penetration test, cone penetrometer

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World Scientific News 110 (2018) 23-41

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1. INTRODUCTION

Engineering properties of soils play a significant role in stability of civil engineering

construction works particularly in road construction, foundation, embankments, bridges and

dams to mention a few. This made imperative, the testing of soils on which foundation or

superstructure would be laid. The testing would determine their geotechnical suitability as a

construction material (Tomlinson, M.J. 1980). The increasing rate of building collapse, tilting

and development of huge cracks in structures requires a thoughtful solution. This could be

provided by detailed study of the geotechnical properties of the subsoil layers, calculation of

the bearing capacity of soil, and careful examination and recommendation of foundation

parameters (Robert, M. 1996).

Geotechnical properties studied includes: grain size, moisture content, specific gravity,

undrained cohesion, angle of internal friction, plastic limit, liquid limit, plasticity index, SPT

N-value and the CPT Qc values. Interest in stability of structures and protection of lives and

properties have driven several researchers to work on soils and foundation designs in different

parts of the country. Oyedele et al (2012) used resistivity tomography to evaluate the

corrosivity of coastal plain sand in Lekki area and the effect of ocean water on the rate of

corrosivity.

Oyedele et al (2011) using a combination of geotechnical and geophysical methods in

characterizing a construction site in Ikoyi area of Lagos found that the subsurface layers up to

the depth of 16 m are mechanically unstable with low penetration resistance value which may

not serve as good foundation materials. Hence, he recommended that structures in the area be

founded on stable and mechanically competent coarse sand through a displacement pile.

Oladele et al., 2012 and Alao 1983 investigated the suitability of lateritic soils in Ilorin as

construction materials. He discovered from his investigation that that the soils has high

bearing capacity with little or no volume change and therefore can be used as construction

materials in engineering works especially in dam construction, shallow foundation,

homogeneous embankments, slope stability and as sub-grade materials in road constructions.

Alao et al. (2014) investigated the geotechnical properties of several beach sands along the

coastal areas of Lagos for their foundation suitability. He found that at a depth of two metres,

ultimate bearing capacity of Beecroft beach sand is the highest followed by Suntan beach,

Bar-beach and Banana-Island in decreasing order and this soils are suitable for shallow

foundations such as strip and square footing.

Ogundalu and Oyekan (2014) used X-Ray diffraction (XRD), X-Ray photoelectron

(XPS) and scanning electron microscope (SEM) to evaluate mineralogical and geotechnical

characteristics of black cotton soils in Maiduguri and their suitability for road pavement and

construction purposes. They found that the soil strength characteristics of the black cotton

soils fall below the minimum requirement of sub base and base course and thus inimical to

foundation and road pavements in the area. Also, several authors have worked on means of

stabilizing soil layers especially the clay zones to improve on their geotechnical properties.

Fusheng et al. (2008) investigated the use of fly ash in stabilizing expansive clays.

The test results show that the plasticity index, activity, free swell, swell potential,

swelling pressure, and axial shrinkage percent decreased with an increase in fly ash or fly ash-

lime content. He also found that soils treated with fly ash show no significant change in

unconfined confined compressive strength in the first seven days, then after curing for this

period the compressive strength increases.


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2. LOCATION AND GEOLOGY OF THE STUDY AREA

Figure 1. Map showing location of the study area.


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The field test and soil sampling were carried out in boreholes drilled in Lagos within

latitude 6°27’ 11” N and longitude 3°26’8”E. Ikoyi area of Lagos is located near the eastern

margin of the Nigerian sector of the Benin basin, within the Western Nigeria coastal zone

which consists largely of coastal creeks and lagoons developed by barrier beaches associated

with sand deposition underlain by recent deposits which vary from the littoral and lagoon

sediments to the coastal belt and alluvial deposits of the major rivers (Pugh, 1954). It forms

part of the Lagos lagoon system known to be the largest of the four Lagoon system of the Gulf

of Guinea Coast (Adepelumi and Olorunfemi, 2000). Geologically, the study area is a

sedimentary basin which falls within the coastal plain sands of the Benin formation which was

latter overlain by alluvial deposits. Stratigraphy of the eastern Benin Basin has been discussed

by various workers and several classification schemes have been proposed. These notably

include those of Jones and Hockey (1964); Omatsola and Adegoke (1981) and Billman

(1992). Deposition of Cretaceous sequence in the eastern Dahomey basin began with the

Abeokuta Group, consisting of the Ise, Afowo and Araromi Formations. Tertiary sequence

include the ewekoro, akinbo, oshosun, ilaro and coastal plain sands (Benin) Formations

(Omatsola and Adegoke, 1981). The Quaternary sequence in the eastern Dahomey basin is the

Coastal Plain Sands and recent littoral alluvium which consists of poorly sorted sands with

lenses of clays. The sands are in parts cross bedded and display continental characteristics

(Durotoye, 1975). However, lithostratigraphic information from boreholes in and around

Lekki-Ikoyi area reveals that typical section of the stratigraphy consists of unconsolidated dry

and wet sand, and organic clay deposit. The deposits are sometimes inter-bedded in places

with sandy-clay or clayey-sand and mud with occasional varying proportion of vegetable

remains and peat. The environment of deposition of these sediments was suggested to be near-

shore littoral and lagoonal (Longe et al, 1987).

3. MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

3. 1. Sampling Methods

Soil samples was collected at three different location including sokoto, delta and

parkview site. Disturbed samples was collected at every 0.75m interval in a borehole drilled

using a percussion drilling rig till a depth of 30 m in each location. The disturbed samples was

taken to the laboratory to determine index properties of the soil such as the grain size, specific

gravity, moisture content etc. Undisturbed samples were acquired with a 100 mm internal

diameter open tube (U4 tube) fitted in a U4 bomber and lowered down the hole by means of

winch of the percussion drill rig to the depth of the soil layers to the sampled (i.e. cohesive

soil). The undisturbed samples was taken to the laboratory for the determination of shear

strength, atterberg limit, and triaxial compression test.

3. 2. Field Test

Two field test was done across the three sites and this include the cone penetrometer test

and the standard penetration test.

3. 2. 1. Standard Penetrometer Test

Standard penetration test is an in-situ field test done in a borehole using SPT hammer

and rod. The rod was lowered to the required depth in an already drilled hole and hit with the


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hammer until it fully penetrates 450 mm into the soil layer to be tested. The number of blows

required for the hammer to penetrate the soil is recorded and it is a measure of the relative

density of sand and consistency of clays. The first 150 mm reading was neglected due to

disturbance arising from the drilling the last 150 mm of the previous layer and the last 300mm

reading was averaged to get the SPT N-value.

3. 2. 2. Cone Penetrometer Test

This test was carried out using a 2.5 ton Dutch cone penetrometer equipment. It is an in-

situ test done on the study area to depths of 9.0 m, 9.5 m, and 9.5 m respectively. It involves

forcing a 600 mm CPT cone through the soil in a small diameter hole dug using a shovel by

the application of pressure from a mechanically rolled turner which passes through the 1.5m

CPT rod to the cone. The resistance to the penetration of the cone (QC) was recorded at

intervals of 0.25 m and plotted against depth to form a resistance profile. The profile was

correlated with borehole data to provide information on variation of strata with depth and

material strength across each site.

3. 3. Laboratory Test

Laboratory test carried out include tests to determine the particle size, atterberg limit,

natural moisture content, and also undrained triaxial compression test.

4. RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION

4. 1. Grain Size Distribution

The test is performed to know the percentage of different grain sizes contained within

the soil. The distribution of different grain sizes affect the engineering properties of soil which

in turn their usability as construction material. The grain size distribution shows that samples

from sokoto site is clayey-silty SAND having 78% sand, 14% silt, and 8% clay composition.

Similarly, samples from delta site could be described as gravelly silty-clayey SAND having

71% sand, 12% cay, 11% silt, and 6% gravel compositions. Whereas, samples from Parkview

site could be described as gravelly silty-clayey SAND having 75% sand, 12% silt, 8% clay,

and 5% gravel compositions.

4. 2. Specific Gravity

Table 1. Typical values of specific gravity of soil particles (after Bowles, 1979).

Soil type Specific gravity

Sand 2.65 – 2.68

Gravel 2.65 – 2.66

Clay (inorganic) 2.52 – 2.66

Clay (organic) 2.68 -2.72

Silt 2.65 – 2.66


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The result of specific gravity of the three soil samples, sokoto sit, delta site and

Parkview site are 2.69, 2.67, and 2.65. Comparing this results with some standard results or

values, the three samples could be referred to as SAND. Table 1 present the typical values of

specific gravity of soil particles.

4. 3. Atterberg Limit

The atterberg limit consistency test carried out on the soil samples show that Sokoto site

has liquid limit of 52 to 70%, plastic limit of 8 to 15%, plasticity index of 37 to 59%, while

delta site has liquid limit of 43 to 57%, plastic limit of 10 to 23%, plasticity index of 23 to

44%, and Park view site shows liquid limit of 45 to 54%, plastic limit of 6 to 13%, and

plasticity index of 35 to 44%.The plasticity index indicate inorganic clays of medium to high

plasticity for Sokoto site, gravely clay, sandy clay and silty clay.

4. 4. Natural Moisture Content

Natural moisture content of 40 to 59% was obtained for Sokoto site, 39 to 48% for Delta

site and 55 to 78% for Parkview site.

4. 5. Undrained Triaxial Compression Test

The undrained triaxial compression test is used to determine angle of internal friction

and undrained cohesion of the soil. The test shows that the soil sample from Sokoto site has an

undrained cohesion of 47 and 70 KNm-2

and angle of internal friction of 6 and 9, delta site has

an undrained cohesion of 44 and 95 KNm-2

with angle of internal friction of 5 and 8 while

Parkview site has an undrained cohesion of 15 and 30 KNm-2

with angle of internal friction of

3. These values show that the soils have low bearing capacity due to low undrained cohesion

and angle of internal friction values.

Table 2. Sokoto quick undrained triaxial test.

Table 3. Delta site quick undrained compression triaxial test

BH No Sample No Depth

(m)

Soil

Type

Moisture

content

%

Specific

gravity Cu Ø

1 21 15.00 C 59 1.56 38 1

2 25 18.00 C 52 1.63 77 3

3 30 24.00 C 40 1.69 70 2

BH No Sample No Depth

(m)

Soil

Type

Moisture

content

%

Specific

gravity Cu Ø

1 21 15.00 C 44 1.56 44 4

2 25 18.00 C 48 1.63 55 2

3 30 21.00 C 46 1.69 72 1


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Table 4. Parkview quick undrained compression triaxial test

BH

No Sample No

Depth

(m)

Soil

Type

Moisture

content

%

Specific

gravity Cu Ø

1 21 15.00 C 55 1.56 15 0

2 25 18.00 C 78 1.63 30 0

Figure 2. Borehole log for Delta Street site


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Figure 3. Borehole log for Parkview Estate site


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Figure 4. Borehole log for Sokoto Street site


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Figure 5. Penetrometer log for Sokoto Street site

(2½ ton penetrometer test log)

Cone reading (kgf/cm2)

De

pth

(m

)


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Figure 6. Penetrometer log for Delta Street site

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-12

-11

-10

-9

-8

-7

-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

0

0 50 100 150 200 250

Dep

th (

m)




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-13

-12

-11

-10

-9

-8

-7

-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

0

0 50 100 150 200 250

Dep

th (

m)



Figure 7. Penetrometer log for Parkview Street site


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Figure 8. Undrained Cohesion and angle of internal friction for Delta site

Figure 9. Undrained Cohesion and angle of internal friction for Delta site


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Figure 10. Undrained cohesion and angle of internal friction for Sokoto Street

Figure 11. Undrained Cohesion and angle of internal friction for Sokoto Street.


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Figure 12. Undrained cohesion and angle of internal friction for Parkview Site

Figure 13. Undrained cohesion and angle of internal friction for Parkview site


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4. 6. Standard Penetration Test

The result of standard penetration test for delta site shows high SPT value of N42 at 3m,

high SPT value of N44 at 10m and a high SPT value of N31 at a depth of 45m. Similarly, the

test shows moderate SPT value of N18 at 2 m and 30 m respectively for park view site.

Meanwhile, the test shows high SPT value of N30 at shallow depth of 3 m, N29 at 29 m and

N22 at 45 m for Sokoto site. Correlating this result with standard penetration test values, it

shows dense soil at 3 m, 10 m and 45 m for delta site, medium dense soil at 2 m and 30 m for

park view site, and medium dense soil at 3 m, 29 m and 30 m for Sokoto site.

Table 5. Soil properties correlated with standard penetration test values

(after peck et al, 1974).

4. 7. Cone Penetrometer Test

The CPT test was carried out and terminated at a depth of 13m, 10.0m and 10.0m below

the ground surface respectively. The cone resistance value (Qc) ranges from 8-158 kg/cm3, 20-

160 kg/cm3, 32-166 kg/cm

3 for sokoto site, park view site, and delta site respectively. The

result of the cone penetrometer is used to calculate ultimate bearing capacity of the soil at

specific depths. The bearing capacity is calculated using the CPT method of calculating

allowable bearing capacity:

qa = 2.7qc . Rw2 (Meyerhof method) ……. Eq. 1

Correlation between qc and SPT (N – Values) in Cohesionless Soil.

N = qC / 4 and qa = 10N, or 5.0N (If Submerged) ……… … Eq. 2

Table 6. Ultimate bearing capacity and allowable bearing capacity for square footing at depths

SITE I.D Depth

(m)

qu

(KNm-2

)

qa

(KNm-2

)

Delta street site 0.00 – 2.00 165 55

SPT VALUE Relative Density

0 – 4 Very loose

5 – 10 Loose

11 – 30 Medium Dense

31 – 50 Dense

Above 50 Very Dense


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Banana street site 0.00 – 3.00 156 52

Parkview estate site 0.00 -- 2.00 90 30

5. CONCLUSIONS

Based on the two field test (CPT and SPT) carried out on the three sites and several

laboratory experiment done, the allowable bearing capacity was calculated and then

foundation recommendations was made. The proposed structures across the three sites cannot

be supported on shallow foundation; however shallow foundation can only support other

ancillary facilities on the site with foundation pressure not exceeding the allowable bearing

pressure stated above. For shallow foundation utilization, it must be restricted to use of Raft

foundation; this helps to minimize differential settlement. Should the foundation pressure

exceed the allowable bearing pressure stated above, deep foundation should be considered.

The deep foundation should be a non-displacement pile (or Replacement Piles) and the depth

should be 10m for light loads or 45m for heavy load on Delta site, 9m for light loads or 45m

for heavy load on sokoto site, and 30m for park view site (the type of load depends on the

proposed use of the building and the live load).

Acknowledgement

The author is grateful to Prof. Y.A. Asiwaju-Bello for taking his time in vetting the research. I am also deeply

indebted to Mr. Seun Olabode, of the department of Applied Geology, Futa. We are also grateful to Mr. Kayode

Olalulu of KDF Konsult Ltd for providing the data and field support for this research.

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Engineering Geological Properties of Coastal Plain …...Akure, P.M.B 704, Akure, Ondo State,...

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