Engine Tech

8/8/2019 Engine Tech

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machining, one of the most important material removal methods, is a collection of material-working

processes in which power-driven machine tools, such as lathes, milling machines, and drill presses, are usedwith a sharp cutting tool to mechanically cut the material to achieve the desired geometry. Machining is a

part of the manufacture of almost all metal products, and it is common for other materials, such as wood andplastic, to be machined. A person who specializes in machining is called a machinist. A room, building, orcompany where machining is done is called a machine shop. Much of modern day machining is controlled

by computers using computer numerical control (CNC) machining. Machining can be a business, a hobby,

or both.

THE CENTRE LATHE

The Centre Lathe is used to manufacture cylindrical shapes from a range of materials including; steels andplastics. Many of the components that go together to make an engine work have been manufactured usinglathes. These may be lathes operated directly by people (manual lathes) or computer controlled lathes (CNC

machines) that have been programmed to carry out a particular task. A basic manual centre lathe is shown

below. This type of lathe is controlled by a person turning the various handles on the top slide and crossslide in order to make a product / part.

Sensitive Drilling Machine

This is a small manually operated drill press designed for drilling small holes, usually lessthan 1/2 inch in diameter. The name 'sensitive' is used because the machinist can 'feel' the


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action of the drill point as it goes into the work. This drill operates at much higher speeds

then the upright drilling machine and should only be used with small drills. The travel of thespindle is also limited so the table must be adjusted so parts are relatively close to the drill.

Bench Drill

The most common form of drilling machine is the bench drill. As the name implies this machine is normally

bolted down to a bench. The workpiece can be clamped onto the worktable or onto the base. Tee slots arenormally provided for this function. The worktable can be moved up and down the vertical column. Theworktable can be clamped at the selected height. The drill is normally located in a three jaw chuck which is

rotated by the drive system. The figure below shows a belt drive. Modern bench drills are driven by moresophisticated arrangements. The chuck is moved up and down by a feed handle which drives rotating

spindle via a rack and pinion mechanism.

A Radial Drilling machine is a large gear headed drill press in which the head moves along the arm that

radiates from the column of the machine. The arm of the machine can swing in relation to the base of themachine. This swing operation helps the drill head to move out of the way so a large crane can place theheavy work piece on the base of the radial drilling machine. Also this helps in drilling holes at different

locations of the work piece without actually moving the work piece.

Radial drilling machines can drill holes with diameter upto 100 mm and also radial drilling machines withmuch larger capacity than this are available today.

The radial drilling machine is the most versatile drilling machine in the machine shop. One of the reasons is


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that this machine is so versatile and has the ability to move its drill head to the work using the radial arm.

The physical size of the machine also adds to its versatility. The size of the radial arm drill press isdetermined by the size of the column and the distance from the center of the spindle to the edge of the

column. Use Figure 1 below to acquaint yourself with the main parts of the radial drilling machine.


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The pillar drill has the same features as the bench drill. This drill is however free standing and is of a farheavier construction able to take larger drills. The larger drills normally have taper shanks which arelocated within a taper bore in the spindle end. These tapers are standardised as morse tapers.


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Types of Drills Bits

SLOTTING MACHINE

Introduction: The slotting machine is a reciprocating machine tool in which, the ram holding the tool

reciprocates in a vertical axis and the cutting action of the tool is only during the downward stroke.


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Angles can be machined by removing the headstock alignment key and rotating the milling head to the

appropriate angle to the work or by holding the work at an angle to the spindle. (Note: Lighter than normalcuts should be taken when the alignment key is not in place.) The latter method must be used for drilling to

keep the drill movement parallel with the machine slide. All machine slides have an adjustable gib tocompensate for any "play" that may develop. (See section on adjusting gibs in the "Adjustments" section ofthe setup instructions.)


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Hydraulic Braking System (Automobile)

28.8.

Hydraulic Braking System

A hydraulic braking system transmits brake-pedal force to the wheel brakes through pressurized fluid,

converting the fluid pressure into useful work of braking at the wheels. A simple, single-line hydraulic

layout used to operate a drum and disc brake system is illustrated in Fig. 28.36. The brake pedal relays thedriver's foot effort to the master-cylinder piston, which compresses the brake fluid. This fluid pressure is

equally transmitted throughout the fluid to the front disc-caliper pistons and to the rear wheel-cylinderpistons. As per the regulations a separate mechanical parking brake must be incorporated with at least twowheels. This provision also allows the driver to stop the vehicle in the event of failure of the hydraulic brake

system


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Fig. 28.36. Hydraulic single-line braking system.

In a hydraulic braking system the braking force is directly proportional to the ratio of the master-cylinder

cross-sectional area to the disc or drum-brake wheel-cylinder cross-sectional areas. Therefore thesecylinder diameters are appropriately chosen to produce the desired braking effect. The wheel-cylinder

cross-sectional areas of the front and rear disc-and drum-brakes respectively may be chosen to produce the

best front-to-rear braking ratio. Hydraulic fluid is incompressible provided there is no trapped air in thesystem. If air is present in the braking circuit, the foot-brake movement becomes spongy. In a hydraulic

system the internal

friction exists only between the cylinder pistons and seals. The friction is caused by the fluid pressuresqueezing the seal lips against the cylinder walls as the piston moves along its stroke. A hydraulic braking

system is suitable only for intermittent braking applications, and a separate mechanical linkage must beincorporated for parking brakes.

The hydraulic system offers the following advantages over the mechanical layout, (a) This provides equalbraking effort on all wheels. (6) This requires relatively less braking effort to deliver the same output.

(c) This is a fully compensated system so that each brake receives its full share of the pedal effort.

(d) The efficiency of the hydraulic system is greater than that of the mechanical layout.(e) This system is suitable for vehicles having independent suspension.(/) It is easy to alter thrust on shoe because the force exerted on a piston depends on the piston area. The

larger the area, the greater the thrust on the trailing shoe, so a larger piston can be used.

28.8.1.

Various Components

Various components and their functions in a hydraulic braking system are as follows.

Brake Pipes.

These are steel pipes which form part of the fluid circuit between the master-cylinder and thewheel-cylinders. These pipes transfer the fluid along the body structure and rigid axle members. Flexiblehoses connect the sprung body pipes to the unsprung axle wheel-brake units, to allow for movement (Fig.

28.36).


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Master-cylinder.

This converts foot-pedal force to hydraulic pressure within the fluid system by means of the cylinder andpiston (Fig. 28.36).

Disc-brake.

This comprises of a disc bolted to the wheel hub. This is sandwiched between two pistons and friction pads.

The friction pads are supported in a caliper fixed to the stub-axle (Fig. 28.36). When the brakes are applied,the pistons clamp the friction pads against the two side faces to the disc.

Drum-brake.

This uses two brake-shoes and linings supported on a back-plate. The back-plate is bolted to the

axle-casing. These shoes pivot at one end on anchor pins or abutments attached to the back-plate (Fig.28.36). The other free ends of the both shoes are forced apart when the brakes are applied. The shoes expand

radially against a brake-drum positioned concentrically on the wheel hub.

Wheel-cylinders.

As the hydraulic line pressure acts on the cross-sectional area of the disc and drum cylinder pistons (Fig.

28.36) in wheel cylinders, the hydraulic pressure is converted into braking effort. This braking effort either

presses the friction pads against the side faces of the disc or forces the shoe friction linings against the insideof the drum.


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Components of a Hot Water BoilerThe boiler is more complex than a forced air furnace in that it has more parts, valves and controls. However

gas-fired boilers are fairly reliable and most problems, when they do occur, usually relate to the expansion

tank or water circulator pump(s).

Let's take a quick look at the major components of the boiler for a forced-water (hydronic) system:

Hot Water Supply Side:Aquastat - The thermostat that regulates the boiler's temperature Gas Valve andBurners - Combustion assembly that heats the water chamberCombination Pressure / TemperatureGage (Tridicator) - Monitors water temperature and pressure Water Feed Valve - Controls water flow to

boilerPressure Reducing Valve - Automatically maintains correct water pressure at about 12-15 psi Air

Vent - Automatically purges unwanted air from hydronic system Expansion Tank- Critical componentthat allows expansion of water as it heats. There are two types of expansion tanks, the older larger stylehorizontal steel expansion tank and the newer smaller style diaphragm expansion tank. Flow Control

Valve - Regulates flow of hot water to system Pressure Relief Valve - Relieves high water pressure

Hot Water Return Side:

Circulator - Electric pump that circulates water through the system Drain Valve - Valve that opens to

allow draining the boiler.

How Do Solar Panels Work?

Shannon Bell

Using the Sun for energy is a concept that has been in existence for a long time. The first successful, modernday experiments in creating solar electricity were conducted during the 1950s. Your own calculator may


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have a small solar cell that enables the machine to work without batteries. As conventional energy prices

continue to rise and resources dwindle, more people are looking into harnessing solar energy by installingsolar panels in their homes.

http://www.truthistreason.net/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/article_how_solar_panels_work.jpgHow

do solar panels work? Basically, they convert energy from the sun into electricity. On any bright,cloud-free day, the sun projects some 1,000 watts of energy on a square meter basis onto the earths surface.

Although converting sunlight into electricity sounds like a simple concept, solar panels work in a specificand rather complex way.

The solar cells that are installed in devices ranging from calculators to street lamps and even your garden

lights are called photovoltaic (PV) cells. They are composed of semiconductors like silicon. Silicon plates

are composed of millions of atoms. However, they cannot generate electricity on their own, because they do

not carry positive or negative charges. To initiate the process of electricity, both positive and negative solarplates must be created. The chemical combination of silicon and phosphorus results in a negative charge.

Similarly, with the chemical addition of boron to a silicon plate, the plate will carry a positive charge. Whenlight hits a PV cell, the semiconductor absorbs a certain amount of that light. When negative solar plates areappropriately angled to the sun, the sun bombards the silicon and phosphorus atoms on the solar panel with

photons. When this happens, certain electrons are set loose, permitting them to flow.

The negative solar plate is sandwiched with the positive plate, and the plates are attached to wires that

then lead out and connect to a battery


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http://www.truthistreason.net/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/article_how_solar_works_2.jpgsystem or

appliance. The electrons released by the negative plate are attracted to the outer band of the positive plate.The electrons that are not used are essentially brought back to the silicon/boron negative plate, and the

process of generating electricity restarts.

When this activity is conducted on a large scale, with plates positioned to attract maximum sunlightthroughout the day, there can be sufficient electricity to run many types of electronic devices. Typically,

smaller scale projects will store that eletricity in a battery bank until needed. This is true for solar gardenlights and even the large panels mounted on residential rooftops.

Stay tuned for Part II of this solar series!

Solar Panels For Your Home

Are you considering installing solar panels for your home or business? Solar panels canbe a great investment that not only saves you money and increases the value of your

property, but also helps the environment while it's helping your wallet and bank account.Solar power is fast becoming price competitive with conventional energy sources, and in stateslike California, New Jersey, Arizona, Colorado, and more, there are great rebates and incentivesin place to compensate you for the power you produce and help offset your initial investment cost.There are also an expanding number of solar financing options and in many cases you can getsolar panels installed on your home and be cash flow positive on your investment within the firstyear!

As the solar industry has grown and matured over the last decade, the cost to put solar panels on

your home have decreased significantly, dropping over 40% in just the last few years. There'snever been a better time to make the move to solar for renewable clean energy for your home orbusiness. The section below describes what you need to consider as to determine whether solaris the right choice for you.

EnergyEfficiency of Your Home

Have you made the low cost, easy to implement changes that can reduce your energy bill beforeyou replace your utility company with a clean, renewable solar panel system? Taking simple stepslike switching to CFL light bulbs, energy star appliances, using smart power strips that turn off


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Solar heating panels, also known as collectors, are made up of either evacuated glasstubes or flat plate collectors encasing metal tubing. These panels look very different tophotovoltaic panels and can provide your household with the majority of its annual hotwater requirements.

Solar water heating is one of the major alternative energy resources for the

homeowner. It is a sustainable energy source, that is highly cost effective and willbenefit most homes.

It is not a traditional form of solar power since it does not generate electricity, but itis a solar energy source for heating the home.

A s olar water heating system uses solar heating panels (collectors), which are fittedto the roof of the house. These panels are then plumbed into the hot water system ofthe house. The solar panels collect heat from the sun during the day to heat water inthe panels. The heat is transferred to the water which is stored in the house in a hotwater cylinder.

There are two types of solar heating panels that can be attached to the roof. Firstly, a

flat plate collector, which looks similar to solar electric panels, and secondly,evacuated tube collectors in which copper tubing is enclosed in Perspex tubes.

Advantages of Solar Water Heating

Firstly, it will provide the household with hot water throughout the year. It is not acompletely independent system since it needs a boiler or immersion-heater as

back-up for the winter season to guarantee hot water all year round.

Having a solar heating panels installed will definitely reduce the cost of heating andreduce carbon emissions. Because sunlight is freely available the cost of running thesystem is minimal, with maintenance checks being the only significant cost after theprice of the panels and the cost of installation.

In some countries it is also possible get grants for the systems and installation workthat will help cover some of the costs. However there are considerations to examinebefore you decide to opt for solar heating panels.

Solar Heating Panels - Questos to Ask

Firstly, somewhere on the roof of the house must get a lot of sunlight. At least aboutfive metres square of flat roof space which faces south and is subject to direct sunlightfor the majority of the day is needed. If this is not available then an alternative is tohave two separate panels attached to the house, one facing east and one facing west.This would raise the price of installation. The panels do not necessarily have to befitted directly onto a roof they can be mounted on a frame.

Another factor to consider is the space requirements for a larger, or addtional, hotwater cylinder in the house. When installing a solar heating system it is necessary toreplace the existing cylinder for one with a solar heating coil or have an additionalcylinder just for the solar heating system.

As well as having to think about the hot water cylinder, you should also check to seeif your current boiler is compatible with solar water heating system. Combi boilers,which operate without a hot water tank, may not be compatible.


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Leaf-like solar panels garb houseplant gadget

Rob Beschizza at 6:43 AM Wednesday, Jun 4, 2008

A team of Japanese boffins has invented leaf-thin solar panels that turn the idea of a "power plant" into aliteral proposition. From Nikkei's Tech-On supplement:

A leaf-like module featuring bright green solar cells was developed by National Institute ofAdvanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Mitsubishi Corp and Tokki Corp. Theorganic thin-film solar cell consists of a plastic substrate, phthalocyanine layer, fullerene layer and

so forth. And eight 7.5cm2 solar cells connected in series constitute about 60cm2 solar cell module.

At some point in our lifetimes, we will witness the creation of a 1km high wind turbine in the shape of apalm tree.


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Making Cheap, Inexpensive DIY Solar Panels at Home Mike Davis is an astronomer. To practice his hobby

away from the light-pollution of cities, he bought some land in a remote part of Arizona. But there was aproblem: No electricity. But hes a resourceful fellow. He built some home-made solar panels usinginexpensive blemished and damaged solar cells from eBay! That might be even cooler, though less

romantic, than the couple who got their solar panels via their wedding registry.

Read on for more photos and some technical details to give you an idea of how he did it


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I bought a couple of bricks of 3 X 6 mono-crystalline solar cells. It takes a total of 36 of these type solar

cells wired in series to make a panel. Each cell produces about 1/2 Volt. 36 in series would give about 18volts which would be good for charging 12 volt batteries. (Yes, you really need that high a Voltage toeffectively charge 12 Volt batteries) This type of solar cell is as thin as paper and as brittle and fragile as

glass.


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A solar panel is really just a shallow box. So I started out by building myself a shallow box. I made the box

shallow so the sides wouldnt shade the solar cells when the sun comes at an angle from the sides.

Next I cut two pieces of masonite peg-board to fit inside the wells. These pieces of peg-board will be thesubstrates that each sub-panel will be built on. To protect the solar cells from the weather, the panel willhave a plexiglass front.


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I laid out the cells on that grid pattern upside-down so I could solder them together. All 18 cells on each half

panel need to be soldered together in series, then both half panels need to be connected in series to get thedesired voltage.

I used a low-Wattage soldering iron and fine rosen-core solder. I also used a rosen pen on the solder points

on the back of the cells before soldering. Use a real light touch with the soldering iron. The cells are thin and

delicate. If you push too hard, you will break the cells.


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Heres what it looks like from the front.


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Here I am testing first half panel outside in the sun. In weak sun through clouds the half panel is producing

9.31 Volts. YAHOO! It works! Now all I had to do is build another one just like it.


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I drilled a hole in the back of the panel near the top for the wires to exit. Each solar panel in a solar powersystem needs a blocking diode in series with it to prevent the panel from discharging your batteries at night

or during cloudy weather. I added a polarized two-pin jones plug to the end of the panel wires

Here is the finished product, producing 18.8 volts and 3.05 Amps in the sun.

How much did it cost?


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Not bad, though of course theres a lot of labor needed to actually build the thing, and you need the skills inthe first place. Not a project for everybody, but those with the courage will certainly have a lot of fun.

This is just a quick overview of the project. If you want more, please visit Marks website linked below.Theres a lot more details and more photos about how he built his inexpensive solar panels.

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