Biomass and Bioenergy Vol. 6, No. 112, 53-61, 1994. pp. Elsevier Science Ltd

Printed in Great Britain. 0961-9534(94)EOO12-H 0961-9534194 $7.00 + 0.00

ENERGY FOREST CULTIVATION AND THE LANDSCAPE

SIMON BELL

Chief Landscape Architect, Forestry Authority, Edinburgh, Scotland, U.K.

{Received 26 March 1993; revised I5 November 1993: accepted 8 December 1993)

ABSTRACT

The place of energy forestry in the landscape is discussed, principally with reference to Britain and Europe. The importance of design as a means of ensuring an attractive appearance, while meeting functional and economic requirements, is stressed. Simple design principles which help energy forests, mainly short rotation arable coppice, to fit into the landscape are suggested.

KEYWORDS

Landscape design; landscape character; agricultural landscapes; aesthetics; design process.

INTRODUCTION

The type of energy forest we are mainly concerned with here, that of short rotation willow and poplar coppice, is receiving much attention in Britain at the moment. The British Forestry Authority sets standards for the landscape design of all aspects of forestry. This is relatively easy when we are dealing with established types of forestry and traditional silvicultural systems. Energy forestry poses quite a few challenges, not least because we can only guess at the likely extent of it and thus its overall effect in the landscape.

In Britain as in much of the western World, environmental concerns are expressed by a wide range of people about almost every aspect of forestry. We have had to win a lot of credibility with the public over all aspects, especially how forests look in the landscape. This was because the early plantations established since 1919 were often planted with no thought for how well they fitted into the landscape. We have worked hard to establish principles, concepts and techniques for managing forests so that they blend into a wide range of landscapes while performing their functions cost effectively.

We have now turned our thoughts to short rotation energy coppice in the landscape. If large areas of it are planted then it will represent a significant land use change. People generally dislike change, especially dramatic change and prefer to see some degree of continuity in the landscape. There are also landscapes of special character which are highly regarded by the public and thus more sensitive to change than others.

The Forestry Authority gives guidance to woodland owners and other people who propose to plant trees on the range of environmental standards we expect. The specific guidance on energy forestry given here relates to the more general principles to be found in the Guidelines. 1-3

Although the guidelines relate to the character of the British landscape which is obviously different from that of other countries, a deeper understanding of the process of design will mean that the basic principles can be applied in most circumstances. The visual design objectives which are concerned with blending woodland of any sort into its landscape setting, relating it to the patterns to be found there, for example cultivation, vegetation, landform, while avoiding obvious inappropriate geometry and other features which detract from its inherent naturalness.

54 S. BELL

blending woodland of any sort into its landscape setting, relating it to the patterns to be found there, for example cultivation, vegetation, landform, while avoiding obvious inappropriate geometry and other features which detract from its inherent naturalness.

THE ROLE OF LANDSCAPE DESIGN

To many people landscape design is solely concerned with making a scene look attractive in a subjective sense. It is seen as a “bolt-on” extra or cosmetic effect to be carried out once the basic functional planning has been done. This strategy might be termed ‘mitigation of the bad effects” and tends to result in sub-optional solutions.

Landscape design has been defined as “the organisation of a place in a way which reconciles the conflicting requirements of use while ensuring an attractive appearance”.4 This definition implies that functional efficiency, economics, ecology and visual attractiveness should be considered together in an integrated fashion.

There is a distinction between “landscape” or “visual” objectives which should be stated at the outset of a project, alongside those for biomass volume, cost per unit of production etc, and the process of landscape or forest design. It is the role of a designer to take those objectives and fit them to the landscape under consideration. This implies that there must be some attempt to predict the eventual effect of the project on the landscape as it grows and changes over time. There must therefore be some “desired future condition” when the energy forest is into its full, sustained, cycle of production.

A key part of the design process is to set objectives. Those for the landscape need to be drawn from an understanding of people’s attitudes to the landscape. This is affected by our culture, among other things. Swedish or German people might view the landscape differently from British or Americans. In Britain we have backed up our concepts with research into people’s preferences. “Naturalness” and a contrast with urban patterns and forms is consistently preferred in all rural landscapes.5

Another key aspect is to understand the landscape, to analyse how it is put together as a visual composition. Since most of our perception is through our eyes then it makes sense to look at the landscape and describe what it looks like. For that we need a terminology, a design vocabulary in order that a rational analysis can be undertaken. We find that describing a landscape in terms of its shape and scale, the degree of diversity contained in it, its inherent unity and its genius loci or “spirit of place” is very important in this respect.6

COPPICE LOCATION IN THE LANDSCAPE

Having established the role of design the visual quality aspects will be considered, firstly the major large-scale decisions followed by the detail. The landscape pattern and character should be considered. What are the major influences? Is the landscape stable or changing? What is its scale and the inherent level of diversity?3 Then look at options for the location of the coppice areas. Soil and site factors, land availability and access will set some limitations. Often a well established landscape pattern is an expression of many factors including soil, slope, aspect, drainage and shelter. A deep understanding of this will lead to work with the pattern rather than against it. This is important for landscape unity, where the forest blends into rather than contrasts with its surroundings. It is worth bearing the following points in mind:

(1) Do not consider site level design and layout before looking at where in the landscape the coppice will best fit. Evaluate several options.

(2) Indicative forestry strategies, when available, will help to determine location, extent and shape of coppice areas in landscapes of varying character.

(3) Use panoramic photographs taken from salient viewpoints and sketch on photocopies or overlays the potential locations and site constraints.

(4) Look for the important characteristics in the landscape such as enclosure patterns or landform.

Energy forest cultivation and rbe landscape 55

COPPICE DESIGN

Design considerations depend very much on the effect of landform and the degree of enclosure. For example, an open hilly landscape is very visible. Landform is the dominant influence. This is characteristic of many areas of Britain or the unenclosed, hedgeless landscape of parts of Germany. In flat land where rows of trees have been planted for shelter such as on Jutland in Denmark, then their enclosing effect is most important. Different solutions should be adopted to suit different circumstances. The following sections break landscapes down into a number of typical varieties with some main design pointers related to each one. The illustrations give a more graphic idea of the various principles.

(la) Flat enclosed landscapes seen from level views. Landform is minimal so enclosure by trees and woods, or the lack of it, creates the structure of the landscape.

Plate 1. The enclosing effect of belts and clumps of trees restrict views and creates scale. It is easy to fit energy forests into such landscapes as long as a degree of openness is

maintained.

- views tend to be only a couple of fields deep so that if viewed from roads the feeling of openness can be maintained by keeping coppice well back from viewpoints:

- the strength of the pattern enables coppice to fit in at the scale of complete fields;

- edges may be a problem due to the fine texture of coppice which contrasts with that of hedges and mature broadleaved trees;

- use age variation, species and develop the edge shape to give diversity and a coarser texture;

- avoid large regular areas over several fields in order to maintain a balance between openness and enclosure and to maintain the scale of the landscape.

56 S.BELL

Fig. 1, Detail of the coppice edge in enclosed landscapes Fig. 2. Coppice layout in enclosed landscapes.

(b). Flat open landscapes with level views:

- landscape scale is usually large due to the lack of enclosure;

- there is low diversity within the landscape; - coppice areas should be large to fit the large scale;

Fig. 3. Coppice layout in flat open landscapes.

- edges and mass/space patterns are important;

- plan shapes should be irregular, in scale with the landscape, use sweeping curves and interlocking shapes. Geometric shapes should be avoided;

Energy forest cultivation and the landscape 57

- longer term edges such as shrubby areas or hedges should be set away from the coppice to allow machinery to turn. This will increase depth of views and help create the right scale of diversity;

- existing copses or small woods could be connected to coppice areas to tie them into the landscape;

- coppice coupes should not be to regular patterns but comprise partly interlocking masses, partly enclosing space;

-0 verlapping block heights (seen in perspective) will help the unity of the pattern over the felling cycle.

(2)

Lal

Fig. 4. Coppice coupe design in flat landscapes.

Plate 2. In low lying landscapes where scale is large, energy forests need to be large in scale, tied into whatever structure is present. Here there is some landform so obvious

geometry should be reduced.

Undulating landform with views of knolls and higher points.

ndform begins to assert itself; more extensive views are likely.

(a). Strong field patterns:

58 S.BELL

Plate 3. In rolling terrain with plenty of landscape structure energy forests ~111 fit m among the landform where the pattern is strongest. Care is needed on hill tops where

landscape scale increases, landforrn asserts itself and enclosure patterns are weak.

- if the extent of the coppice area is at a bigger scale than the field pattern, such as when several fields are to be planted, it should respond to landform in its external margin shape and the internal layout of coupes;

Coop sho& &U M&W, not old %b.

Fig. 5. Coppice layout in hilly landscapes.

- landform is likely to be simple, therefore shapes should be simple, curvilinear and flowing;

- scale increases from valley bottom to hill top and this should be reflected in the coupe size. Coupes on caps should occupy complete landforms. Avoid cutting across a knoll.

Fig. 6. Coppice coupe design on knolls

Energy forest cultivation and the landscape 59

(b). Open, rolling landscapes:

- there is flexibility over the shape, scale and position of coppice areas;

- use nearness, enclosure and visual coalescence of small areas in the view to achieve the appearance of larger scale;

4

= tzzJ

Fig. 7. The use of nearness and coalescence to unify coppice areas in open landscape.

- shapes should respond to landform, being as curvilinear as possible. Coupe size should be related to landscape scale;

- landscape texture or grain is likely to be fairly fine so edge details are less important.

Plate 4. In this large scale open landscape it can be seen that blocks of plantation conifer of small scale and high contrast fail to fit. Larger scale, better shape in response to

landform, and some variation wbithin the block would help. The came applies to coppice plantations.

60 S. BELL

(3). Long, even slopes or areas seen from elevated views:

- the overall plan shape is important, more so than the detail of edges;

- geometry is inappropriate even in strongly enclosed landscapes because the mass and extent of the coppice tends to create its own scale;

- blocks should interlock with field patterns along their lower edges. Coupes should be shaped to follow landform.

Fig. 8. Coppice layout on steep, even hillsides. (4). Internal spaces and edges.

If rights of way pass through the coppice area the design of the route is important.

- avoid long straight stretches;

- avoid parallel sided corridors;

- avoid strips planted on either side;

- vary direction and width;

- retain views over and out of the coppice;

- use height variation and allow views into well shaped coupes;

- incorporate permanent features (trees, groups of trees) into the design.

(5). Relating coppice to the wider landscape pattern.

If extensive areas are planned then incorporate more permanent elements, e.g. small woods inserted into the coppice layout and at its edges so that the coppice blends more into the wider landscape. Permanent or longer term features also help continuity as the coppice felling cycle progresses.

Energy forest cultivation and the landscape 61

Fig. 9. Small, permanent woodlands and roads can link the more transient coppice areas into the landscape

CONCLUSION

With attention to the landscape character and the adoption of a few principles there is no reason at all why short rotation arable coppice need be an intrusion into the landscape. With careful design screening is unnecessary and the layout can meet functional requirements, economic criteria, provide ecological benefits and add diversity to many landscapes. Change in any landscapes is often seen as undesirable so controlling change and predicting how the coppice will fit into the landscape helps to reduce public concern and make new or unusual elements more acceptable.

REFERENCES

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Forestry Commission, Forest Landscape Design Guidelines, HMSO, London (1989). Forestry Commission, Community Woodland Design Guidelines, HMSO, London (1991). Forestry Commission, Lowland Landscape Design Guidelines, HMSO, London (1992). 0. W. R. Lucas, The Design of Forest Landscape. Oxford University Press, Oxford (1991). T. R. Lee, What kind of woodlands do people prefer?, in People, Trees and Woods (CRRAG Conference Proceedings). CRRAG, Bristol (1989).

6. S. Bell, Elements of Visual Design in the Lundscape. E&FN Spon, London (1993).