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Encounters between theory and practice: Semiotic and pragmatic principles in advertising
FOSTER, Stuart
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FOSTER, Stuart (2017). Encounters between theory and practice: Semiotic and pragmatic principles in advertising. Doctoral, Sheffield Hallam University.
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SHEFFIELDHALLAMUNIVERSITY
FacultyofDevelopmentandSociety
EncountersbetweenTheoryandPractice:Semioticand
PragmaticPrinciplesinAdvertising
ADoctoralThesis
By
StuartFoster
Supervisors: DrPeterJones
DrJodieClark
Acknowledgments
IwouldliketoextendmythankstomysupervisorsandotherstaffatSheffield
HallamUniversityfortheirinvaluableassistanceandadvicethroughoutthe
process,andalsospecialthankstoDrBarbaraMcMahonwhohassincetakenup
anewpostanotherinstitution.
Iwishtothankthosewhocooperatedwithmyresearch,andespeciallytothose
whoworkintheadvertisingindustrywhogaveupsomeoftheirprecioustime
toanswermyquestionssocomprehensively.
Lastly,Iwouldliketothankmywife,Jill,forherwillingnesstoletmespend
countlesshoursinthelibraryandinmystudyworkingonthisthesisandfor
takingtheloadinrelievingmeofmanyofmyusualchores.
StuartFoster
Abstract
Advertisinghaslongbeenofinteresttosemiotic,linguisticsandpragmatic
theoristsincludingBarthes(1957;1977),Williamson(1978),Myers(1994),
Cook(2001)andTanaka(1994).Marketingscholars,includingBrierley(2002)
andBeaseley(inBeaseley&Danesi,2002)showareciprocalinterestinthe
potentialforsemioticstoadvancetheirdiscipline,butthereisnoapparent
awarenessoftheoriesofpragmaticsoritsrelevancetotheirfield.While
semioticsoffersatoolinunderstandinghowmeaningisconveyedthrough
linguisticandnon-linguisticsigns,pragmaticsfocusesuponlanguage,speaker
intentionsandtheinterpretationofutterancesincontext.Thisstudycompares
thesetwoapproachesinunderstandingthecreativeprocessesinvolvedinthe
designofadvertisements.Universitiesandprofessionalbodieswerecontacted
toascertainwhetherthesesubjectsweretaughttoprospectiveandpractising
advertisingprofessionalsand,ifso,whatwastheprecisecontent.Considerable
variationisfoundbetweeninstitutions,rangingfromnoinputtoamoderate
levelofinputinsemiotics;pragmaticsisabsentinthesyllabus.Wheresemiotics
istaught,itisconfinedtousingtheoriestodeconstructselectedadvertisements
ratherthanemployingsemioticprinciplesasadesigntechnique.Inaddition,five
copywritersareinterviewedtoascertaintheirawarenessofsemioticsand,more
generally,thecreativeprocessestheyadopt.Whileavagueknowledgeofthe
theoriesisreported,andsomeappreciationoftheirpossiblerelevancetothe
industry,practitionersmakenoattempttoapplysemioticssystematicallyin
theirdesignpractices.Thereisevidenceofanawarenessoftheeffectsof
significationandcontextwhichalignswiththetheoreticalframeworks,although
thisalignmentcanbeexplainedmorethroughintuitionandjobexperiencethan
aconsciousapplicationoftheories.Itisrecommendedthatfurtherresearch
shouldbeconductedintothevalueofteachingsemioticstomarketingstudents,
thatanappliedsemioticmethodisdevelopedspecificallyforstudentsof
advertisingandthatconsiderationisgiventoincorporatingaspectsof
pragmaticsintotheirtraining.
KeyWords:advertising,copywriter,linguistics,marketing,pragmatics,semiotic
TABLEOFCONTENTS pageCHAPTER1–THESISINTRODUCTION
1.1 CHAPTERINTRODUCTION 11.2 THECHARACTEROFADVERTISINGDISCOURSE 21.3 ADVERTISINGASANOBJECTOFSTUDY 41.4 ADVERTISINGASCOMMUNICATION 61.5 STATEMENTOFAIMSANDRESEARCHQUESTIONS 81.6 SCOPEANDSTRUCTURE 11
CHAPTER2-ADVERTISINGFROMASEMIOTICPERSPECTIVE
2.1 CHAPTERINTRODUCTION 152.2 OVERVIEWOFSEMIOTICS 162.3 SAUSSURE 172.4 PEIRCE 202.5 STRUCTURALISMANDFORMALISM 212.6 BARTHES 302.7 LÉVI-STRAUSS 382.8 INTERTEXTUALITY 412.9 ECO 442.10 MULTIMODALITY 472.11LIMITATIONSOFSEMIOTICANALYSISOFADVERTISING 532.12 METALANGUAGE 59
CHAPTER3-ADVERTISINGFROMAPRAGMATICPERSPECTIVE
3.1 CHAPTERINTRODUCTION 613.2 OVERVIEWOFTHEORIESOFIMPLICATURE 633.3 LIMITATIONSOFGRICE/RELEVANCETHEORY 723.4 DEIXISANDPRONOUNS 763.5 OSTENSIVEINFERENTIALANDCOVERTCOMMUNICATION863.6 LOOSETALKANDMETAPHORS 913.7 AMBIGUITY,PUNSANDPOLYSEMES 1003.8 REASON/TICKLEANDHARD/SOFTSELLDISTINCTIONS105
CHAPTER4–METHODOLOGY
4.1 CHAPTERINTRODUCTION 1094.2 RESEARCH-ADVERTISINGEDUCATION 1104.3 RESEARCH-ADVERTISINGPRACTICES 1124.4 ADDITIONALINTERVIEW 1134.5 ETHICALCONSIDERATIONS 1144.6 INTERVIEWS-DATAHANDLING 116
pageCHAPTER5-TEXTSFORSTUDENTSOFADVERTISING 5.1 CHAPTERINTRODUCTION 117
5.2 PROFESSIONALBODIES 117 5.3 UNIVERSITIES 119 5.4 SIGNIFICATION 122 5.5 DENOTATION,CONNOTATIONANDMYTHS 126
5.6 INTERTEXTUALITYANDCONNOTATIVECHAINS 129 5.7 PRODUCTANDBRANDNAMES 136 5.8 RHETORICALDEVICES 139
5.9 RATIONALANDNON-RATIONALADVERTISING 1415.10 BRANDBUILDINGANDBRANDRECOGNITION 142
CHAPTER6-INTERVIEWS,RESULTSANDANALYSIS 6.1 CHAPTERINTRODUCTION 147 6.2 ADVERTISERS–AGENCY 150
6.3 INTERVIEWEEBACKGROUND 155 6.4 FORMINGIDEAS 163 6.5 STRATEGY 182
6.6 COMMERCIALSEMIOTICIANINTERVIEW 209 CHAPTER7–DISCUSSION 7.1 CHAPTERINTRODUCTION 216 7.2 LINGUISTICCONTENTINADVERTISINGEDUCATION 217 7.3 THEBRIEF 221 7.4 APPLICATIONOFSEMIOTICPRINCIPLESINADVERTISING223 7.5 APPLICATIONOFPRAGMATICPRINCIPLESINADVERTISING239 7.6 PRODUCTVERSUSBRAND 258 7.7 FINDINGSASTHEYRELATETOTHESISQUESTIONS 261CHAPTER8–CONCLUSION 8.1 CHAPTERINTRODUCTION 272 8.2 REVIEWOFRESEARCHPROCESS 272 8.3 RESEARCHEVALUATION 273 8.4 RECOMMENDATIONSANDFUTURERESEARCH 277BIBLIOGRAPHY 281APPENDICES 291
1
CHAPTER1–THESISINTRODUCTION
1.1CHAPTERINTRODUCTION
Theprincipleaimofthisthesisistoestablishadialoguebetweenlinguisticand
semiotictheoryontheonehandandthepracticeofadvertisingdesignand
productionontheother.Advertisingmaybenaturallyassociatedwithbusiness-
orienteddisciplineslikemarketing,butitalsohasalsoattractedtheinterestof
scholarswithinotherdiversefields,rangingfrommodernart(e.g.Flood,2012;
Cairns,2010)toappliedpsychology(e.g.Fennisetal,1968;O'Shaughnessy&
O'Shaughnessy,2004).Thefocusofpreviousstudiesintoadvertisinghastodate
beenalmostentirelydirectedtowardsthefinishedproductofthecreators'
endeavours,i.e.advertisementsthathavebeenpublishedorbroadcast,orthe
cognitiveeffectsachievedbytheadvertisements,ratherthanontheprocesses
involvedinadvertisingcreation.
AsBrierley(2002:p.2)states:
“Thoughtherearethousandsofacademicstudiesofadvertising
textsandtheirinteractionwithaudiences,thereareveryfewthat
examinetheproductionofadvertisingfromtheadvertiser’s
perspective.”
Thefocusofresearchinthisthesiswasdirectedtowardsaddressingthis
deficiencythroughexaminingtherelationshipbetweenthecreative
processesinvolvedintheproductionofadvertisementsandthe
treatmentofadvertisingdiscoursewithinthetheoreticalframeworks
foundinsemioticsandpragmatics.Wherealignmentsbetweentheory
andpracticeareidentified,theauthorhasinvestigatedwhether
practitionersconsciouslyappiedmethodsandprinciplesfromtheir
knowledgeofthetheoriesintheiradvertisingdesign.Whereitwas
2
discoveredpractitionerswereneitherawareof,norconsciouslyapplying,
theprinciples,thestudyattemptedtoestablishwhetheranycorrelations
identifiedbetweentheoryandpracticecouldbeexplainedbyother
means,suchasthroughintuitionderivedfromexperience,and
consequentlywhethertheprincipleswereappliedunconsciously.To
illustratethispoint,inthecaseofsemiotics,anadvertisingdesigner
interviewedduringthecourseofthisresearchstated:
“Ibetifyoubrokedownourprocesses…ifyoucouldlookintoour
heads…we’dbeusingsemioticsinsomeway,butnotactively…not
explicitly”.(SubjectB)
Itwasfurtherintendedthatthisresearchwouldshedlightonwhetherthe
processesinvolvedinthecreationofadvertisementstendtosupportsemiotic
andpragmaticmodelsand,ifso,inwhatwaysandtowhatdegree.
1.2THECHARACTEROFADVERTISINGDISCOURSE
Advertisingisadistinctiveanduniquetypeofdiscourseforseveralreasons.Itis
prevalentinmodernsocietyor,asWilliamson(1978:p.11)states,
advertisements:
"areubiquitous,aninevitablepartofeveryone'slives:evenif
youdonotreadanewspaperorwatchtelevision,theimages
postedoveroururbansurroundingsareinescapable."
3
While,accordingtoDyer(1982),abusinessthatengagesinadvertisingmay
claimthatthepurposeissimplytomakeconsumersawareoftherangesof
goodsandservicesavailablewithinafreemarketeconomy,itwouldbenaïve
tosupposethepurposeisasaltruisticasthissuggests.Theultimateaimof
anadvertiseristomodifyconsumerperceptions,andtherebyinfluence
consumerbehaviortotheadvantageofasupplier;inotherwords,itisto
transformreceiversofadvertisementsintocustomers.Advertisersemploy
anassortmentofmethodstocapturetheattentionofpotentialcustomers
includingsuchasimagesjuxtaposedwithcaptions(asdescribedin
subchapter2.6),presentingareaderofviewerwithariddleorenigma
(subchapter2.10)andpersonalization(subchapter3.4).Theirsuccessinthis
respectiscontingentuponthempossessingsomeunderstandingofthe
interpretiveabilitiesofreceivers(i.e.theircognitiveprocessing),andtaking
accountoftheseinthedesignoftheiradvertisements.Asagenre,
advertisingsharessomeofitsfeatureswiththatofliterature.Itconstructs
parallelworldsthatcanbeenteredandwhichhavesimilaritieswiththose
inhabitedbythereaderoraudience,butareoftenmoreglamorous,exotic
andexcitingthanthebanalityofday-to-dayexperience.Itgenerates
narrativesthatalludetofolkloreandpopularculture,asexemplifiedby
BeasleyandDanesi(2002)wheretheysuggestallusionsaremadetothe
AncientGreekgodofwineandcarnalpleasures,Dionysus,inaVersace
advertisement(asdescribedinSubchapter5.6,below).Insomecases,these
featurecelebrities,suchasHalleBerry,whoisusedtomarketRevlonbeauty
products(Subchapter2.6).Sometimes,advertisingcreatesstories,and
characters,ofitsownwhichitcandevelopthroughoutacampaignanda
notableexampleofthisisaseriesoftelevisionadvertisementsforNescafe
GoldBlendinstantcoffeebroadcastintheUKbetween1987and1993,and
thisdepictsaslowlydevelopingromancebetweenacouple(Armstrong,
1995).Tobesuccessful,advertisershavetocaptureattention,perhapseven
overcomingsomeresistanceintheprocess.Inordertoengageconsumers,
advertisersexploitsomeofthemethodsfavouredbyauthorsandfilm
directors,suchasvisualstimulibywayofimageswhichmaybestrikingin
termsofthephotographyorgraphicsused,andthroughlinguisticdevices
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suchasjingles,straplines,enigmaticwordingorpersonalization(as
mentionedabove)(Brierley,2002).However,unlikenovelists,playwrights
andmoviedirectors,advertisersdonotinvitethosewhoexperiencethem
intotheseworldsprimarilytoentertain.Forthem,Dyer(1982)asserts,the
entertainmentaspectisinsteadavehicleusedtofulfillanentirelydifferent
purpose,namelytopromoteaproductorbrandandtherebyalter
perceptionsand,ultimately,behaviorwithrespecttothatproductorbrand.
Thisdifferenceinpurposemakesitnecessarytoviewadvertisementsfroma
differentperspectivefromthatofothergenres.Specifically,ifthefuture
behaviourofthereceiverisnotinfluencedintheprecisewayintendedthen,
asBissel(2001)pointsout,communicationmayberegardedasunsuccessful,
theopportunityaslostandmoneyspentonproducingtheadvertisementas
wasted.
1.3ADVERTISINGASANOBJECTOFSTUDY
Asageneralrule,commercialandpublicinformationadvertisementsare
receivedunsolicitedandattachedtootherdiscoursessuchastelevisionand
radioprogrammes,andperiodicals.Nonetheless,researchshowsthat
advertisingismemorableasthecontentofadvertisementsreadilycomesto
mind,suchaswhenshopping(Cobb&Hoyer,1985;Daltonetal,2013).
Commercialsare,asnotedbyDyer(1982),ubiquitousinmodernsocietyandare
foundinallformsofmedia(Cook,2001).Tobeeffective,theymustberelevant
totheconsumersandsoeffortsaremadebothtoreflectmodernlifestylesand,
insomecases,presentconsumerswithaprojected“idealizedself”in“idealized
settings”(Richins,1991).Theeffectivenessofadvertisinghasultimatelytobe
measuredintermsoftheprofititisabletogenerateand,asaconsequence,
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“advertisingtheoryandpracticehadtodefineveryearlythe
conceptofadvertisingeffectivenessandalsothetoolstomeasure
thiseffectiveness”(Pavlu,2016).
Inordertoengageconsumers,advertisersexploitarangeofmodesincluding
imagery,musicandlanguage,accordingtoBrierley(2002).Whenanalyzingthe
artisticelementsinadvertisements,andthecreativepracticesofthosewho
producethem,theirprimarypurposeofpersuasionmustnotbeoverlooked.
Thisstudyconsidersthetrainingthatadvertisingpractitionerswerereceivingat
thetimeoftheresearch,butitfocusesparticularlyonthecontentofsomeofthe
textbooksthathavebeenproducedofferinginstructionintheprinciplesand
practicesofadvertisingforstudentsandpractitioners.Insomecases,theserefer
toconceptualmodels,suchasLavidgeandSteiner’smodel(Lavidge&Steiner,
1961),whichestablishesahierarchyofeffects,showstheoperationof
persuasionandsuggestsaseriesofstepswhichchartareaderorviewer’s
progressfromthepointofproductawarenesstopurchase.Majorfiguresinthe
marketingindustry,likeOgilvy(2007)andHegarty(2011),sharetheir
experiencewiththeindustrybyrecountingitinbooksandmanuals.Inorderto
establishtheeffectivenessofadvertising,anumberofstudieswereperformed
whichexaminedtheperceptionofadvertisements,someasearlyasthe1920s
(Nixon,1927).Later,cognitivemodelsofperceptionandrecallweredevised
(Hornik,1980).AccordingtoPietersandWedel(2004),oneofthegreatest
challengesofanadvertiseris:“tocutthroughtheclutterofcompeting
advertisementsandeditorialmessages”(p.36).Visualstimuliapproachesfocus
uponthewaystomaximizethelevelofreaderattentionanadvertisementcan
secureandtheextenttowhichthesizeoftheadvertisement,andtheelements
within,contributetothis.Theperceivedwisdomhas,intheviewofPietersand
Wedel(2004),longbeenthatlargeradvertisementsattractagreaterdegreeof
attention
Asidefromtheobviousbusinessperspective,advertisinghasbeenatopicof
interesttoscholarsofapparentlyunrelateddisciplinesandwherethechief
6
purposehasnotbeentofurthertheaimsofbusiness,butrathertoachieve
greaterunderstandingwithinoneorotheracademicfields.Disciplinesthathave
demonstratedaninterestinadvertisingincludepsychology(e.g.Eighmey&Sar,
2007;Fennis&Stroebe,2010),sociology(Packard,1957;Marsland,1988),
socialanthropology(Goldman,1992;Leiss,Kline&Jhally,1990),philosophy
(Spence&VanHeekeren,2005)andtopicsfallingunderthegeneralheadingsof
communicationstudiesandlinguistics,asoutlinedinthenextsubchapter.
1.4ADVERTISINGASCOMMUNICATION
Somescholarsapplyprinciplesfromabroadrangeoftheoreticalapproachesto
advertising(e.g.Vestergaard&Schrøder,1985;Myers,1994;Cook,1989&
2001);othersfocusonspecificaspectssuchaslexisandsyntax(e.g.Leech,
1966);criticaldiscourseanalysis(e.g.Williamson,1978;Mills,1995;
Thornborrow,1998)andpragmatics(Tanaka,1994).Examplesfrom
advertisingprovidematerialforpioneersofculturalsemioticssuchasEco
(1976),Barthes(1957,1977)andBignell(2002)totheextentthatithasplayed
aroleintheadvancementofthisfield.Thesamemaybesaidforthe
developmentofmultimodalapproaches(e.g.Kress&vanLeeuwen,2001),
whereadvertisingcomprisesasubstantialpartofthematerialanalysedusing
thismethod.
Semioticssuggestswaysofunderstandingthecultureofthesocietyinwhichthe
signsexistinparticularaspectsofculturalmythologyandthesocialroleofsuch
myths(Bignell,2002;Turner,2002).Fromanadvertisingstandpoint,thisoffers
possibilitiesforengagingthepublic,capturingattentionandinfluencing
behaviour.Itisthereforeunsurprisingthatsemiotics,whichhaspreviously
beenofinterestmainlytophilosophersorlinguists,hasalsoattractedthe
attentionofscholarsfromthefieldofmarketing(e.g.Beasley&Danesi,2002;
Brown&Turley,eds.1997).Asstatedabove,semioticshasbeenappliedinthe
analysisofadvertisementsforseveraldecadesand,morerecently,aworking
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knowledgeofithasbeenarequirementforsomestudentsundertakingdegree
coursesinmarketingandadvertisinginBritishuniversities.However,whilethe
subjectisorhasbeentaughtincertaincourses,thedegreetowhichsemiotic
toolsaresystematicallyusedintheeverydayworkoftheadvertisingindustryis
oneofthemattersexploredinthecourseofthisresearch.
Thestudyofsignsisanancientbranchofphilosophyandcanbetracedbackas
farastheAncientGraeco-RomanperiodonthethirdandfourthcenturiesBCE
(Nöth,1990:pp.14-15),butalaterdevelopmentistobefoundinstructuralist
semiotics.Sincetheinceptionofstructuralistsemioticsbythepioneering
linguistFerdinanddeSaussure,semioticshasbeenhugelyextendedinits
purview.Whilemanyformsofcommunicationexist,themostsophisticated
systemusedbyhumansislanguage.Thiscanbestudiedacrossmanylevels,
fromthemostelementalsoundsofspeech,throughtheinternalmeaningsof
morphemes,wordsandphrases,anduptothestudyofcompletetextsand
discourses.Thestructuralistapproach,however,isunabletotakeaccountofthe
fundamentalroleofcontextintheproductionandinterpretationof
communicationalprocessesandproducts,arolewhichhasbecomeincreasingly
recognizedsincetheinceptionofpragmaticsasadistinctdisciplinefromthe
earlyandmiddleofthetwentiethcentury(Biletzki,1996).Pragmatic
approachessuchasthosesuggestedbyAustin,Grice,andSperberandWilson,as
describedinSubchapters3.2to3.7,focusprimarilyuponcontextwithinspoken
interaction.Whiletherehavebeeneffortstoextendpragmaticanalysistoother
communicativesituations,theseappeartobefewinnumber.Thosewhichdo
exist,e.g.Geis(1982),tendtobedatedandsotheydonotemploymoremodern
pragmaticframeworksorelsetheyconsistofstudieswhicharehighlyspecificin
character,suchasTanaka's(1994)contrastivestudyofthecontextualfeatures
ofBritishandJapaneseadvertisements.
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1.5 STATEMENTOFAIMSANDRESEARCHQUESTIONS
Asmentioned,asubstantialbodyofscholarlyworkrelatingtoadvertisinghas
beenproducedoverseveraldecadesandbyacademicsfromawidevarietyof
disciplines;someofthesearelistedinSubchapters1.3and1.4,above.Thetwo
disciplinesofinterestinthisthesisaresemioticsandpragmatics,andthe
particulartheoreticalconstructsandprinciplesfromthesedisciplinesthatare
employedinanalyzingexamplesfromadvertising.Thetwochaptersfollowing
thisIntroductioncompriseareviewconductedforthepurposeofestablishing
whichparticularmodelsareapplied,whattheycontributetoenhancing
understandingofthediscourse,andhowtheymayshedlightonthecreative
processesinvolvedinproducingcommercials.
Whileitmaybethecasethat,amongthosepractitionerswhohavereceived
traininginsemanticand/orsemioticprinciples,theseprinciplesguidetheir
creativeroutines,thiscannotbetakenforgranted.Itisconceivablethatmuchof
theircreativityarisesfromothersources,suchastheirlifeexperiences,
recollectionsofprevioussuccessesandfailuresinpreviousadvertising
campaigns,andwitnessingandemulatingtheworkofotherpractitioners.By
exploringthecreativestrategieswhichadvertisingprofessionalsadopt,itis
possibletodeterminetheextenttowhichtheircreativityandinspirationarises
fromthesesources,andestablishingthiswasthechiefaimofthesecondmajor
partofthestudy.Whereitisdiscoveredthatpractitionersdrawupon
experienceandintuitionratherthanattemptingtoapplytheoreticalprinciples,
thatisnottobeinterpretedasmeaningthattheseprinciplesareirrelevantto
theprocess.Thisstudyisdesignedtoascertainwhethersuchcreativepractices
accordwiththeprinciplesevenwhentheyarenotconsciouslyapplied.A
numberofin-depthinterviewswithpractitionerswereconductedtoexplore
thispossibility,andtheseareoutlinedandanalysedinthesixthchapter.
Inadditiontoexploringthistopicfromtheperspectiveofadvertising,thisstudy
considerstheimplicationsoftheconsciousandunconsciousapplicationof
theoreticalmodelsandprinciplesintermsofitscontributiontothe
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understandingofthemodelsandprinciplesthemselves.Itattemptstoestablish
whethertheresearchundertakensupportsorconfirmsthevalidityofthe
theories,orchallengesthem.Deconstructingadvertisementscanbeinsightful,
buttheinsightsgainedarelimitedaccordingtothemethodbywhichthedata
analysedisobtained.Theoreticallyinformedanalysisofadvertisements
(Williamson(1978),Vestergaard&Schrøder(1985),Myers(1994)Tanaka
(1994)Cook(1989,2001)andBignell(2002))hasledtosignificantinsightsinto
theunderstandingofthegenre,andinparticularintotheroleofaspectsof
contextintheinterpretationofthetextualcomponentsofadvertisements.Atthe
sametime,itremainsanopenquestionastowhatsuchtheoreticallydriven
researchhastoofferregardingthecreativecommunicativeandcognitive
processesthatpractitionersthemselvesevinceindesigningadvertisementsand
advertisingcampaignsandtheirexplicitknowledgeandapplicationoftheories
inprofessionalpractice.Consequently,thisdissertationhasinvestigatedin
detailthecharacterofthecommunicationalexpertiseinevidenceinprofessional
practice,theroleinthatpracticeofexplicitknowledgeinsemioticsor
pragmatics,theextentandnatureofthatknowledgeandhowsuchknowledge
wasacquired.Tothatend,thenatureofthetrainingundertakenbyadvertising
professionalsisexaminedwithaparticularfocusonthetwodisciplinesthatare
ofparticularinterestwithinthisresearch.Itis,ofcourse,possiblethat
theoreticalknowledgeisacquiredoutsideofformaleducationalandtraining
environments,apossibilityexploredintheinterviewswithpractitioners.Where
intervieweesrevealtheyhaveatleastsomefamiliaritywiththeoretical
principles,theextentoftheirknowledgeandwhetherandhowtheyattemptto
applytheseintheirdailyworkisinvestigated.
InChapter2,thestudyconsidershowthecreativeprocesseswithinadvertising
relatetoBarthes'sviewofculturalmyths,theinfluencesexertedonsemioticsby
Formalism,andespeciallyShklovsky'stheoryofdefamiliarisation,developments
ofapproachessuchasmultimodality,andwhethertheseareconfirmedor
underminedbyevidencecollectedfromthosewhoactivelycreate
advertisements.Similarly,aspragmatictheoriesaremainlyconcernedwith
dialogueintheformofutterances(Levinson,1983;Sperber&Wilson,1995),
10
Chapter3ofthestudyattemptstouncoverthedegreetowhichpragmatic
principles,andespeciallythosewithinRelevanceTheory,aresubstantiatedby
advertising.Advertisementsareamarkedlydifferentformofcommunicationto
thatofconversation;advertisingismasscommunicationratherthanpersonal
communicationand,assuch,itisone-wayonly,withtheadvertiserbeingthe
communicatorandtherebeingnoexpectationthatthereceiverwillrespond.It
hasapurposewhichisspecificandfarnarrowerthanadialogue;itmostly
consistsofmorethanjustthelinguisticmodeanditcommonlyincludesthe
elementsofimages,graphics,video,soundandmusicwhichcontributetothe
contextthroughwhichthespokenorwrittenlanguageisinterpreted.Thisstudy
thereforeattemptstoascertainhowadvertisingpractitionersgeneratecontext
intheircreativepracticesandwhethertheirmethodsconformtoparticular
pragmatictheoriesthatareprimarilyaimedatexplainingcontextinface-to-face
spokeninteractions.Accordingly,afurtherambitionforthestudyisthat,by
highlightingpointsofconcordanceanddivergencebetweenthetheoriesofthe
disciplinesmentionedandadvertisingpractice,theboundariesofknowledgein
termsofsemioticsandpragmaticsareextendedtosomedegree,thusadvancing
thesefields.Thisobviouslyrelatesmainlytoadvertising,butitalsoappliesto
otherdiscoursesthataresimilarincharacter,suchaspoliticalspeechesand
publicserviceannouncements.Additionally,recommendationsaremadewhich
maybeinformativeforindividualsresponsiblefordesigningthetrainingof
futuregenerationsofadvertisingprofessionals.
Theresearchquestionsforthisthesisaresummarizedasfollows:
1. Whathavelinguisticpragmaticsandsemioticscontributedtoour
understandingofadvertisingdiscourse?Whatarethekeytheoretical
constructsandprincipleswhichtheseapproacheshavebroughttobear?
2. Towhatextentarethespecificconceptualframeworksproposedin
theoriesofsemioticsandpragmaticsvaluableinsheddinglightonthe
11
linguisticandcommunicativeprocessesinvolvedintheproductionand
operationofadvertisements?
3. Howfamiliarareadvertisingprofessionalswithparticularsemioticand
pragmaticmodelsofcommunicationandtowhatextentdotheyattempt
toapplytheoreticalprincipleswithwhichtheyarefamiliarintheirwork?
4. Towhatextentdothecommunicativeinsightsandprinciplesof
professionaladvertisingpracticeprovidesupportfororconformtothe
relevanttheoreticalmodels?
5. Whataretheimplicationsfortheoryfromthisconfrontationbetween
theoryandpractice,andwhatimplicationsarethereforprofessional
practiceandtraining/education?
1.6SCOPEANDSTRUCTURE
ThescopeoftheresearchforthisstudyisconfinedtoadvertisingintheUnited
Kingdom,andthebackgrounds,approachesandcreativepracticesofadvertising
practitionersworkinginthenorthoftheEnglandatthetimeofwriting.The
primarydataforthisstudyisdescribedindetailintheMethodologychapterand
consistsoftwomainkinds,namelyteachingmaterialsusedbyeducatorsin
universitiesandelsewherewhoareconcernedwithtrainingprospective
advertisingcopywritersandmarketers,andinterviewswithindividualsworking
inthesefields.Withregardtothefirstkindmentioned,publicationsaimedat
studentsandpractitionerswereexamined,andtheseincludedrequired
theoreticaltextbooksandcoursematerialsusedinrelevantuniversitycourses
forstudentsaswellasbookswrittenbywell-knownfiguresintheindustryand
inwhichtheysharetheirpracticalexperiencesinadvertisingcreation.Aswith
manyotheraspectsofhumanactivity,differencescanbefoundbetweenthat
whichistaughtandstudiedintermsoftheoryandthedailypracticesof
individualswhoroutinelyundertaketheactivity.Practitionersthemselveswere
12
thereforeinterviewedtoestablishtheconceptualframeworkstheyhadbeen
usingintheiradvertisingdesigns,consciouslyorotherwise;howtheysoughtto
constructmeaning;howtheycontextualizedtheirmessagestocapturetheir
intendedaudience’sattentionandtoensurethatanyandallintended
interpretationswereaccessedbytheirintendedaudience.
Semioticsandpragmaticssharethesameobjectivebyvirtueofthembothbeing
concernedwithaccountingforthecreationandcomprehensionofmeaning.In
thecaseofsemiotics,meaningisconsideredtobeembodiedinsigns,andthe
semioticapproachconsidershowtheseoriginateorareintentionallygenerated,
howtheyinteractwithothersignsandhowtheymaybeinterpreted.The
conceptofsignsinsemioticsissobroadasitmaybeconsideredtoencompass
everythingthatalivingentitycandetectwithanyofitssensoryfaculties.
Languageis,insemioticterms,simplyasophisticatedsystemofsigns.Onthe
otherhand,accordingtoLevinson(1983),pragmatics,isconcerned
predominantlywithlanguage,theintentionbehinditsproductionandthe
possibilitiesfortheinterpretationofthatintentionthroughcontext.Semioticsis
generallyunconcernedwithcontext,althoughitmaybearguedthatthereisa
considerableoverlapbetweencertainconceptswithinit,andpragmatics,as
explainedinSubchapter3.1,below.Peirciansemiotics,andPeirce's
classificationofcertainsignsasindexical,havebeensuggestedasbeingclosely
tiedtocontext,suchasinassigningreferentstopersonalpronounsand
demonstratives.AsRellstab(2008)pointsout:
“…ifindexicalitypromptstheinterpretertolookforthespecific
objectsintended,thenthesentencecanonlybeinterpretedbya
mechanismthatDanSperberandDeidreWilson,prominent
representativesofRelevanceTheory,wouldcallcomputational,or
inferential.”(p.322)
13
Similarly,asisexplainedinSubchapter3.1,somesemioticians,suchasJakobson,
recognizethefrequentlyoccurringdiscrepancybetweentheformofan
utteranceandtheintentionthatmotivatesit,andattemptshavebeenmadeto
describethis,includingbywayofestablishingutteranceandintention
categories.
Inspiteofinterfacesbetweenthetwoapproaches,therearecleardifferencesin
theperspectivesofsemioticsandpragmaticsandsothetheoreticalbasisofthis
studyisstructuredaccordingly.Thefirstofthetwochaptersrelatingtothe
theoreticalapproachesbeginbyexplainingthebasicprinciplesofstructuralist
andculturalsemiotics,andhowadvertisingisunderstoodasconstituting,and
beingcomposedof,signs.Chapter2detailshowsemioticframeworkshavebeen
appliedasameansbywhichexistingadvertisementsaredeconstructed,either
forinterestbylinguists,orasmethodsthatcanbeusedbylearnersand
practitionersintheadvertisingindustry.Amongthetopicscoveredinthis
sectionarethebasicsofSaussureanstructuralism,thecontributionsofPeirce
(fromNöth,1990),Barthes(1957,1977)andEco(1976,1979),aswellas
pertinentapproachestointertextualityandmultimodalityastheyrelateto
advertising.Thethirdchapterreviewsthebasicprinciplesofpragmatics,from
workonspeechactsbyAustinandSearle,throughGriceanmaximsand
thereaftertothelatestapproachesofferedbyRelevanceTheory.Whilelittle
workhasbeendoneonapplyingthesecontext-basedtheoriestoadvertising
texts,onescholarinparticular,Tanaka(1994),attemptstoapplycertain
principlesofpragmatics,asameansofcomparingandcontrastingadvertising
languageasusedinBritishandJapanesecommercialsandherstudyisdescribed.
Thischapteralsodiscussesstylisticandrhetoricaldevicessuchasambiguity,
punsandmetaphor,andconcludeswithanexplanationofthetwomain
approachesinadvertisingsuggestedbyBernstein(1974)whichheterms
“reason”,i.e.persuasionbywayofmakingalogicalcaseforpurchasingaproduct,
ortoestablishorreinforcebrandloyalty,and“tickle”,whichisanapproach
aimedatamusing,entertainingorotherwiseengagingaconsumerwithout
providingconcreteproductorbrandinformation.Thefourthchapteroutlines
themethodologybywhichprimarydataiscaptured,recorded,processedand
14
interpreted.Chapter5functionsasalinkbetweenthetheoreticalbackground
andtheprimarydataanalysisbyinvestigatingthetraininggiventostudents
whowishtopursuecareersinadvertising;thepurposeistodescribewhatkinds
andlevelsofinputareprovidedthatrelatetosemioticsandpragmatics,andto
identifythebookstowhichtheyreferaspartoftheirtraining.Obtainingthis
informationisdeemednecessaryinordertoprovideinsightsintothepre-
existingknowledgethatadvertisingprofessionalsmighthaveinrespectof
theoreticalmodelspriortocommencinginterviewswiththem.Thesixthchapter
detailsthemostsalientpartsoftheinterviewswithcopywriters,andwitha
commercialsemiotician,andanalysesthedatatheyprovideintheiranswers.
ThewiderimplicationsofthisstudyareexploredinthepenultimateDiscussion
chapterandthethesisterminateswithaConclusionthatreviewstheprocess
andthefindings,evaluatesthestudy,suggestsfurtherresearchinorderto
extendunderstandingofthecognitiveandcreativeprocessesinvolvedin
producingadvertisements,andmakesrecommendationswithregardtothe
trainingofadvertisingcreators.
15
CHAPTER2-ADVERTISINGFROMASEMIOTICPERSPECTIVE
2.1CHAPTERINTRODUCTION
Thischapterdiscussesthecharacteristicsofsignsandtheirfunctionsin
communicationbyreviewingtheoreticalapproachesfromstructuralistand
culturalsemiotics,thetoolstheyprovideforanalyzingexistingexamplesof
advertisementsandtheirapplicationintheadvertisingindustry.
SemioticiansincludingBarthes(1957,1977)andWilliamson(1978)consider
advertisinginrelationtoitsideologicalcontentandpurposewhileothers(e.g.
Bignell,2002;vanLeeuwen,2005)viewitasagenrethatoffersameansby
whichsemioticprinciplesandmethodscanbeclearlyappliedtorealworld
communicationsandillustrated.Unlikestrictlylinguisticapproaches,semiotics
concernsitselfwithallmodespresentincommunication,includingsound,music,
imagery,graphicsandformat,andadvertisersseektomaximizetheiruseof
modalalternativestogenerateandmaintaininterestinthecommercialsthey
produce.Conversely,asthisthesisdemonstrates,therehasbeensomeinterest
fromthefieldofmarketingintothepossibleapplicationsofsemioticsasameans
ofdevelopingtheirfieldandenablingthemtoproduceadvertisingthatismore
impactfulandbettertargeted.Semioticshasbeenintegratedintosomemedia
andadvertisingcoursesatuniversitylevel,asisdiscussedindetailbelow,and
thelinkbetweensemioticsandmarketingisnowwellestablished,as
demonstratedinChapter6.7,below.
Anumberofbookshavebeenpublishedthataredirectedspecificallytowards
individualsworkinginadvertisingandwhomightwishtoexploitsemiotic
theorieswhendesigningcommercialsandevenmanagingbrands,andtheseare
outlinedinChapter4,butOswald(2012)highlightstherelevanceofsemioticsin
effectivebrandmanagement:
16
“Bymanagingbrandsemioticsatallstagesinthedevelopment,
execution,andcommunicationofthebrand,marketerscreatea
codesystemthatstructurestheconsistentandenduring
associationofthebrandwithspecificicons,language,and
symbolsinconsumers’minds.”(p.46)
Theconceptofstructure,whichisthefoundationofsemiotics,facilitatesa
processofbrandingthrough,forexample,markingdifferencesbetweenthe
brandadvertisedanditscompetitors.Oswald(pp.51-56)assertsthatbrands
are“multidimensionalsignsystems”andsheliststhedimensionsasbeingthe
“material”(i.e.thosesignifierswhicharedistinctivetothebrandandintendedto
bereadilyrecognized,includinglogos,brandnames,jingles,colourschemesand
evenfonts);“conventional”signifiers(i.e.thosewhicharecodifiedbytraditions
orrules);“contextual”signs(i.e.thosewhicharecontextsensitiveandperceived
throughtheculturalandsocialcodesandwhichwouldincludemarkersofsocial
statusandgender,plusfactorsrelatingtoconnotation)and,lastly,the
“performative”factor,whichisconcernedwithhowtheparticipantsusesemiotic
codesincommunication.Thesecodescanbecategorizedas(i)subjectaddress,
suchasthevoiceusedandchoiceofpronouns,and(ii)meaningandreference,
whichconsistsofmarketingsignsthatresemble,orsubstitutefor,linguistic
signs“bylinkingamaterialsignifiertoanabstractconcept”(Oswald:p.55).
Asisdemonstratedinthisthesis,brandingoperatesthroughsigns,regardlessof
whicheversigndimensionisdecidedmostpertinent.
2.2OVERVIEWOFSEMIOTICS
Philosophershavetakenaninterestinthenatureofsignssincethetimeof
Aristotle.StAugustine(AD354–430)consideredthedifferencesbetween
17
differenttypesofsigns,includingthosethatarenaturalandthosewhichare
madebyhumans,includingwords:
“Thereareotherkindsofsignswhosewholefunctionistosignify
something.Words,forexample:nobodyuseswordsexceptinorderto
signifysomething.”(Augustine,379:trans.Green1995:p.15)
Inthelaterpartofthe19thandearlypartofthe20thcenturies,ahandfulof
scholars,includingFerdinanddeSaussure,CharlesSandersPeirceandCharles
WilliamMorris,directedtheirattentiontothenatureofsigns.Saussureusedthe
term“semiology”todenotehisparticularfieldofinterestbut,inmorerecent
times,therehasbeenareversiontotheoldernameanditisnowmostlyreferred
toas“semiotics”(Beasley&Danesi:2002:p.26).Sincethen,semioticshas
developedand,whileretainingitsphilosophicalroots,italsohasanapplied
dimensionwhichisexploitedin,forexample,theanalysisandinterpretationof
texts.LatersemioticianssuchasRolandBarthes1(1957;1977)consideredthat
signscanoperateonmorecomplex,culturallevelsandcantherebybe
associatedwithstrongideologicalfunctionsinthattheywere“bearersof
acceptedopinionandideologicaltrickery”(Blonsky,1985:xvii).Oneexampleof
thisphenomenonwidelydiscussedinsemioticsisthatofthemyth(Barthes,
1957;Nöth,1990).
2.3SAUSSURE
Harris(1983:p.157)pointsoutthat,accordingtoSaussure,asignification
systemexistswhensignsrelatetoothersignswithinthesamesystemand
generatemeaning.Thefirstproblemencounteredwhenmentioningmeaningis
1Subchapter2.6,below,discussesBarthes'workindetail.
18
decidingwhatisactuallymeantbymeaningandespeciallyinrelationto
signification.Thewordmeaninghasmanypotentialinterpretationswhichare
subjecttocontext,includingexpressionofdetermination(e.g.Imeantowin),
importance(e.g.herexpressionofconcernreallymeanssomethingtome)aswell
asindication(e.g.thumbsupmeansyouhavewon).Semioticiansand
semanticistsdistinguishbetweendenotativeandconnotativemeaning,and
betweensenseandreference,andthesearediscussedbelow.AsSperberand
Wilson(1995)note,utterancesandtextsrarelyconveyasingleandprecise
meaningthatisincapableofmisinterpretationthroughsuchfactorsas
ambiguityorthemis-assignmentofreferents.Thisis,however,amatterthatis
exploredinChapter3,below,andthefocusatthisstageisontheprimary,and
exclusivelyhuman,significationsystem.
Language,writtenandspoken,offersasophisticatedhumansignificationsystem.
Everyphonemeinanyspokenlanguageandeveryletterinanywrittenlanguage
functionsinrelationtotheotherphonemesandletterswithinthesamewordor
adjacentwords.Similarly,wordsfunctioninrelationtootherwords,andthe
sequencesofwordsproducessyntaxthat,inturn,constructsmeaningful
utterances.Phonemes,lettersandwordsareonlymeaningfulaspartoftheir
systemofsignificationand,inthissystem,theyhaveanessentiallydifferential
quality,i.eanidentityrootedinthedifferencebetweensigns.Saussurestates
thatthe“linkbetweenthesignalandsignificationisarbitrary”(1916:p.67):
signifiershavetobelearnedandthey(mostly)bearnophysicalorotherrelation
totheconceptstheysignify.Saussuredoesnotundulyconcernhimselfwiththe
questionofdegreesofarbitrariness,butherecognizesthatsomesignsmaybe
morearbitrary,orlessarbitrary,thanothers.Heidentifiessignsofpolitenessas
being“oftenendowedwithacertainnaturalexpressiveness”(p.68)butadds,
however,thatthey“arenonethelessfixedbyrule”(ibid).Notevenwhatmightbe
consideredonomatopoeicwords,wherethewordisdesignedtoimitate
whicheveracousticphenomenonitrepresents,arefreefromhumanarbitrary
reformulation.Tosupportthiscontention,hecomparesthedifferentwords
usedindifferentlanguagestorepresentanimalsounds;thus,adoginFrench
makesthesound“ouaoua”,whileaGermandog’sbarkis“wauwau”(Saussure,
19
1916:p.69).Saussure(1916)considersthatthemostefficientconveyersof
meaningarethosesignsthatarethemostarbitrary.Thisgoessomeway
towardsexplainingwhylanguageisthemostwidespreadofallsemioticsystems,
thatithasexistedinvariousformsformanythousandsofyears,andisan
essentialtoolofcommunicationusedbyvirtuallyallhumanbeingsacrossthe
world.
Saussureargues,inrelationtosynchronicidentity:“awordcanexpressquite
differentideaswithoutcompromisingitsidentity”(1916:p.107)andhe
exemplifiesthisbyciting“the8.45(train)fromGenevatoParis,oneofwhich
leaves24-hoursaftertheother”(ibid).Hepointsoutthatthesetwo
manifestationsof“the8.45fromGenevatoParis”(ibid)aretreatedlinguistically
asthesametrain,eventhoughitisknowntheymightbedifferentphysical
objectsintermsofthembeingdifferentenginesandoperatedbydifferentstaff.
Bythesametoken,asignifiedcanusuallybedenotedbyseveraldifferentsigns
while,equally,asignifiercanhaveamultiplicityofpossibleinterpretations.For
example,amen’stoiletcanbeindicatedbyarangeofstylizedgraphics,orthe
words“men”,“gentlemen”,“gents”,“males”,oranynumberofcorresponding
wordsinotherlanguages,whilethesamesignifiersmaysignifyachangingarea
inapublicswimmingpoolorclothingstoreandtheintendedmeaninghastobe
recovered,eitherfromtheenvironmentorfromadditionaltextswithwhichitis
associated.Insuchcases,thedenotationalinterpretationwouldbethesameso
thatanysignwhichwasrecognizedassignalingthelocationofamen'stoilet
conveysthesameessentialinformation,althoughtheconnotationsmayvary.As
anexampleofthis,afacilitywhichusessignssuchas“ladies”and“gentlemen”in
traditionalRomancharacterswouldbeaddressingreadersinamannerwhich
suggestsbothpolitenessandformality,whereasanentirelydifferentimpression
wouldbeconveyedbysignswhichread“guys”and“gals”.Insuchcases,one
mightfindthatthewayinwhichthewashroomisdesignatedhaslittleorno
effectoncustomers’successintheirprimarygoalofnavigation,althoughthe
secondaryimpressiontheyobtainfromsuchadesignationaboutthe
establishment’sprojectedidentity(andtheirownrelationshiptothatidentity)is
adifferentquestion.
20
2.4PEIRCE
AnalternativeviewofsignsisofferedbyCharlesSandersPeirce,anAmerican
philosopherwhopostulatesthatasignisanythingthatdenotesanobjectother
thanitself,whileanobjectwasanything,concreteorabstract,thatcouldbe
thoughtaboutorconceptualized.Heusesthetermrepresentamentorefertothe
“perceptibleobject”(Nöth,1990:p.42)whichfunctionsasasignandwhich
correspondstoSaussure’ssignifier.ThesignforPeirceis,asNöth(1990)
explains,thementalrepresentationofanobject,whetherornotitexistsinthe
realworldandheintroducesthenotionofaninterpretanttodenoteitseffectin
themindoftheinterpreter.Heproposesatypologyofsignsconsistingofthree
categories,namelyicons,indexesandsymbols.Anicon,inPeirce’sterms,isa
representativewhichbearsa"similarity"(Chandler,2017:p.1)toitsreferentin
someway;itslikenesstotheobjectitrepresentsmakesiteasiertorecognize,
evenifitishasnotbeenlearnedorencounteredpreviously.Iconsona
computerdesktopprovideaconvenientexampleofPeirceaniconicity:auser
mayreadilyunderstandthattheimageofawastepaperbasketonthemonitor
indicatesameansforelectronicallydeleting,andtherebydisposingof,unwanted
programsanddata,whileanimagewhichresemblesatraditionalmanilafolder
representsanelectronic“file”ofbinarydataandnotphysicaldocuments.A
petrolpumpillustrationofthekindseenonroadsigns,forexample,wouldbe
classedasaniconinPeirce’striad.Similarly,metaphorsoperateasiconsin
Peirce’sframeworkas,whiletheyaremostlyconventionalizedbytheirfrequent
idiomaticuse,theyfunctionthroughresemblanceinthattheysuggestparallels
betweentheirsourcesandtargets.
InPeirce’ssystem,anindex“isasignthatencodesspatio-temporalorcause-and-
effectrelations”(Beasley&Danesi,2002:p.40).Purelynaturalindexeswould
parallelthenaturalsignsdescribedbyStAugustine,asmentionedpreviously,
andwouldinclude,asexamples,heavycloudsindicatingthelikelihoodofrainor
afastpulseindicatingphysicalexertionorexcitement.Thesecondtypeofindex
Peircedescribeswouldincludethosecreatedbyhumansasameansof
indicatingsomethingwhichhasfactualsignificance.Examplesofthismight
includethehandsofaclock,apointinggestureandsomefamiliarroadsigns
21
whichtaketheformsofarrowsorchevrons.Hisfinalcategoryinhistriadis
symbols,andsymbolshavearelationtotheirreferentthatisentirelyarbitrary
orconventionalinasimilarwaythatSaussuredescribeshissignifier.
Somesymbolshaveculturallyfoundedmeanings,suchasathumbs-upgesture
(Stone,1996),indicatingtheculturalviewthatpositivityandnegativityrelateto
directionalindicesofupanddown;awesternermayrecognizearedroseas
representingloveorthecolorwhiteasrepresentingpurity.Virtuallyall
componentsofwrittenandspokenlanguage,includingphonemes,letters,
morphemesandcompletewords,wouldbesymbolsinPeirce’smodelasthey
arearbitrary.Afurtherlayerofcomplexityexistsinmanylanguagesandata
higherlevelinthattheyhavesyntacticrulesthatalsogeneratemeaningthrough
structure.SpeakersofEnglishwillthusrecognizetheutterance“Paulhasa
brotherwhoisadoctor”asmeaningthatthedoctorreferredtointheclauseis
notPaul.Thiscanbecontrastedwithaverysimilarutterance,composedof
preciselythesamewords,“Paul,whohasabrother,isadoctor”,andthe
utterance“Paul,whoisadoctor,hasabrother”.Otherlanguagesconstitute
alternativesemioticsystemsand,inadditiontotheirdifferentvocabularies,
generallyhavedifferencesintheirsyntacticrules,sothattherecoveryofthefull
andintendedmeaningwill,tosomeextent,becontingentuponconsciouslyor
intuitivelyknowingtheserules2.
2.5STRUCTURALISMANDFORMALISM
Nöth(1990)describeshowRomanJakobsonisaprominentfigurebothin
structuralismandRussianformalismand,inthefourdecadesoverwhichhis
careerspanned,hiscontributiontothedisciplineofsemiotics,beginningaround
1920,hasbeenconsiderable(pp.74-76).
2Thatisnottosaythatsomeoralloftheintendedmeaningcannotberecoveredfromother
cognitiveresourcesavailabletothehearer,suchasencyclopaedicknowledgeorpragmaticawareness.ThiswillbecoveredinmoredetailinSubchapter3.2,below.
22
JakobsonconstantlyreferstoSaussureinhiswork,sometimesdevelopingitand,
atothertimes,criticizingitandclaimingtodisagreewithit3.Jakobsonisa
prominentfigurefromaschoolofliterarytheorythatemergedinRussiashortly
aftertheturnofthe20thcentury.Thisschoolconsistsofindividualsinterested
inthedefiningelementsofliteratureandpoetryanduncovering,byscientific
methods,thenatureofwhatisreferredtoas“literaturnost”,atermcoinedby
Jakobsonandgenerallytranslatedas“literariness”.Literaturnostisproposedas
thekeyingredientinliterarywriting-theessenceofwhatdistinguishedthe
literaryfromthenon-literary.Otherleadingfiguresinthisschoolincluding
VictorShklovsky,BorisTomashevsky,VladimirPropp,YuriTyraniov,Boris
EichenbaumandJanMukařovský,arereferredtoasthe“RussianFormalists”.
TheaimoftheFormalistsisto:
“endthemethodologicalconfusionprevailingintraditionalliterary
studiesandsystematizeliteraryscholarshipasadistinctandintegrated
fieldofintellectualendeavor”(Erlich,1965:p.172).
Jakobsonnotesthatallsignsystemshaveatwo-foldcharacterandsharethe
sametwoaxes.Hereferstotheseasthestructuralaxis,thesyntagmaticor“axis
ofcombination”,andtheoperationalaxis,theparadigmatic,otherwiseknownas
the“axisofselection”,becauseitrelatestotheselectionofparticularcomponents
asopposedtoothercomponents.Jakobsonsuppliesanexampleofthisatthe
phoneticlevel,withanexamplefromAlice’sAdventuresinWonderland:“‘Didyou
saypigorfig?’saidtheCat.‘Isaidpig’repliedAlice’”(Carroll,fromJakobson,
2010:p.72).Atthegrammaticallevel,itcanbeexemplifiedintheclause:“Does
Marydrinkwine?”,whichisidentifiableasaninterrogativestructurethroughits
syntax,andspecificallytheorderandrelationshipofthewords“Does”and
“Mary”.Byexchangingthepositionsofthesecomponentsintheclause,the
3Thecaveat’claimed’isthetermusedbyHarris(2003:p.94)because,toHarrisatleast,JakobsonappearstohavemisunderstoodSaussure’spointsonanumberofissues.
23
speakeraffectsthesyntagmaticrelationsbetweenthesecomponentsandthus
transformsthequestionintoanassertion,“Marydoesdrinkwine”.Incontrast,
theterm“paradigmatic”(Nöth,1990:p.195)relatestothereplaceabilityof
elementswithotherelements,eachofwhichwouldbecapableoffilling“the
samepositionwithinthesamecontext”(ibid).Forexample,anyoftheelementsin
“DoesMarydrinkwine?”canbereplacedwithotherswhichfulfillthesame
grammaticalfunction,“ShouldMarydrinkwine?”,“DoesSusandrinkwine?”
“DoesMarymakewine?”and“DoesMarydrinkcider?”Asageneralrule,the
syntagmaticelementsareassociatedbytheircontiguitywhileparadigmatic
elementsareassociatedbytheirsimilarity.
Jakobson(2010)ismindfulthatlanguageisnotalwaysunderstoodsimplyby
addingthemeaningsofthelexemesusedtoarriveataunifiedmeaning:the
formulaislessthansatisfactoryinexplainingidiomaticlanguage.Theexample
heofferstodemonstratethispointisthegreeting:“Howdoyoudo”.Henotes
howconnotationsaregeneratedthroughmetonymyandmetaphor:metonymy
isdependentuponcontiguityrelationswhilemetaphorsfunctionthrough
similarity.Inaddition,Jakobsonisoneofanumberofsemioticianswho
recognizethat,inadditiontothecodethatexistswithinamessage,certain
pragmaticfunctionscanalsobediscerned,andheproposesamodeltoexplain
thesefunctions.Nöth(1990:pp.185-187)listsJakobson'ssixfunctions,the
firstofwhichisthereferentialfunction,whichistheimpartingofinformation
andcandescribeanobject,asituation,aneventorastateofmind.The
expressivefunctionrelatestoutterancesintendedtodisclosethestateofmind
oftheaddresserandthisfunctionisoftenexpressedthroughinterjections.The
conativefunctionisintendedtoinfluencethebehaviouroftheaddresseeand
typicallyconsistsoftheuseofimperativestructures.Thepoeticfunction
focusesonconveyingthemessageforitsownsake,placingitsownformorstyle
asbeingofequalimportancetothecontent.Thephaticfunctiondescribeshow
languageisusedasameansoftheopeningof,andthekeepingopenof,
communicativechannelsbetweenindividuals,usuallyforthesakeof
establishingorreinforcingarelationshipbetweentheinteractants.Lastly,the
metalingualfunctionisconcernedwiththe‘code’,i.e.howlanguageisusedto
24
describeordiscussitselfandthisisanaspectwhichisfurtherdiscussedin
Subchapter2.13,below.
TheearliestworksofJakobsonarefoundedonthestructuralistapproach,which
hemodifiesanddevelops.Whilecriticalofmuchofhisthinking4,Jakobson
creditsSaussure’semphasisontheimportanceofthestudyoflanguageasa
system,butsuggeststhathisapproachofconsideringthatsystemtobe“the
exclusivedomainofsynchrony,andassigningmodificationstothesphereof
diachronyalone”(Pomorska&Rudy,1985:p.12)shouldberevised.Jakobson
extendssomeofthestructuralistunderstandingofsignsandconceptsbeyond
semioticsandconsiderstheirapplicationwithinthefieldofliterature.He
attemptstoexplainthepoeticfunction,whichhereferstoas“poeticity”
(Jakobson,1981),andtheuseoffigurativelanguageinpoetrywherebya
signifierrepresentssomethingbeyonditsconventionalsignified.Inseekingto
explainhowpoeticitymanifestsitself,hestates:
“Poeticityispresentwhenthewordisfeltasawordandnotamere
representationoftheobjectbeingnamedoranoutburstofemotion,
whenwordsandtheircomposition,theirmeaning,theirexternaland
innerformacquireaweightandvalueoftheirowninsteadof
referringindifferentlytoreality.”(Jakobson,1981:p.750)
Jakobsonisherebeginningtochallengetheperceptionthatasignandits
referentarealwaysunderstoodascorrelative.Hegoesontoexplainthat:
“…besidesthedirectawarenessoftheidentitybetweenthesignand
object(AisA1),thereisanecessityforthedirectawarenessofthe
4AccordingtoHarris(1983),“onanumberofpoints,JakobsonmisconstruedSaussure’sposition:
hepickedoutthebitsofSaussure’steachingthathelikedandrejectedordismissedtherest”(p.94)andheevendoubtedSaussure’sprincipleofarbitrariness(p.96).
25
inadequacyofthatidentity(AisnotA1).Thereasonthisantonymyis
essentialisthatwithoutcontradictionthereisnomobilityof
concepts,nomobilityofsigns,andtherelationshipbetweenconcept
andsignbecomesautomatized.Activitycomestoahalt,andthe
awarenessofrealitydiesout.”(ibid)
Poetstherebyworktoovercomethehearerorreader’sinclinationtoautomatize
theirresponsesbyforcingthemtorevisetheirawarenessoftherelation
betweensignsandtheirreferents.Indoingso,thecommunicativefunctionof
poetrydiminishesasitsexpressivityanditsabilitytoconvey(e.g.emotion)are
maximized.Thisisachievedthroughphonologicalandtexturalqualitiesof
soundcombinations,andbytheabilityofwordsusedpoeticallytocarryarange
ofdifferentandpossiblypreviouslyunimagined,meanings,thus:
“…wordsinpoetryhavethestatusnotsimplyofvehiclesforthoughts,
butofobjectsintheirownright,autonomousconcreteentities.In
Saussure’sterms,then,theyceasetobe‘signifiers’andbecome
‘signifieds’,anditisthepoem’salienatingdevicesofrhythm,rhyme,
metreetc.,whichenablethisstructuralchangetobeachieved.”
(Hawkes,2003:p.48)
Jakobson’sinterestinpoetryarisesfromaperspectiveoflinguisticsratherthan
ofliterarycriticism.Hepostulatestwomainprincipleswhichheclaimswould
explainthepoeticfunctionoflanguage,thefirstbeingpolarity,relatingbackto
Saussureandhisbinarynotionoftheplanesofsyntagmaticversusassociative
relations.Thesecondishisnotionofequivalence,whichispresentinmetaphor
andmetonymy,whereonephenomenonorconceptactsasaproxyforanother.
Hawkes(2003)argues:
26
“Metaphor…isgenerallyassociativeincharacter,andexploits
language’s‘vertical’relations,wheremetonymyisgenerally
‘syntagmaticincharacter,andexploitslanguage’s‘horizontal’
relations”(p.60).
Jakobsonconsidersimaginativewritingasaformofart,referringtoitas“verbal
art”andposingthequestion:“Whatmakesaverbalmessageaworkofart?”
(Jakobson,1981:p.18).TheFormalistsfocusonliteraryworksasartistic
creationsandcomparethemtovisualart(Erlich,1965).Specifically,the
imagerywithinpaintingshadbeenequatedbypreviousliteraryscholarswith
theimagesconjuredinthemindofareaderofpoems.Formalistsarelessthan
convincedbythisneatparallelandSchlovskyandJakobsonpointtoits
weaknesses,includingthatoffigurativelanguageextendingbeyondpoetic
works,andalsothatsomepoetryachievesanintendedeffectwithouttheuseof
metaphororotherfigurativespeech(ibid).
Inanymessage,onefunctionisnormallythedominantone,butamessagemay
havemorethanonefunctionandadvertisingisanaptexampleofthis.Onthe
onehand,itmayseemtobearelativelyneutralactofcommunicationconcerned
withthetransmissionofinformation(e.g.aboutabrand,productorservice).In
advertisementssuchasclassifiedads,thisisveryevidentlythemainpurposeas
abuyermaybeassumedtoknowmoreorlesswhatheorshewantsandthe
advertisementwillindicatewhetherornottheitemforsaleiswhatapotential
buyerisseeking,oriscloseenoughtowhatisrequired,inallrespects.However,
inviewofthepervasivenessofadvertisingthathasexistedformanydecades,it
maybethecasethatmodern,media-savvyconsumersofprofessionallycreated
advertisementsareawarethattheirmainpurposeextendsbeyondmerely
informing;instead,theystrivetochangethebeliefs,attitudesand,ultimately,the
behaviourofreadersorviewerssoastoachievetheaimsofthose
commissioningtheadvertisement.InJakobson’sterms,theconativefunction
maybedominantwhileanyinformationpassed,i.e.thereferentialfunction,is
relegatedsoastobeofsecondaryimportance.Lastly,thepoeticfunctionmay
27
alsobepresent.ThisistheentertainmentaspectmentionedinSubchapter1.1
andisemployedasameansofwinningtheattentionofareaderorviewer.In
advertisingtexts,thisoftentakestheformofliterarydeviceswhicharefoundin
poetryandliterature,andwhichoperateacrossalllevelsoflanguagefromthe
phonetic(suchasalliterationandrhyme)totheconceptual(suchasallusionand
metaphor).AccordingtoCook(2001):
“Thepoeticfunction,whichJakobsonregardedasofparticular
importanceforthelinguisticstudyofliterature,isalsorelevanttothe
studyofads.Whenthisfunctionisdominant,eachlinguisticunitis
effectivenotonlyforitssemanticandpragmaticmeaningbutalsofor
thepatternsitmakes–orbreaks–initsformalrelationships
(grammarandsound)tootherunits.”(p.134)
Inthisway,thereisashiftoffocusawayfromthearbitrarymeaningthatis
carriedbyasignifier,i.e.itsinformativecontent,andtowardsitsforminstead.
Formalistsareinterestedintherelationshipbetweenformandcontent,and
itistheformwhichdeliverstherewardintheformofpleasure,e.g.ofa
rhyme,alliteration,orthesatisfactionofrecognizinganambiguityor
resolvinganobscureverbalorvisualmetaphororotherriddle;thereinisto
befoundtheartistryorliterarinessthatFormalistsseektoexplain.
AfundamentalcharacteristicofliterarinessiswhattheFormalistsrefertoas
“ostranenie”,whichmaybetranslatedas“makingstrange”or
“defamiliarization”.ThisisbasedonShklovsky’s(1917)preoccupationwith
thenotionoflifeasrelativelymundane,consistingofagreybackdropand
automatizedhumanbehavioragainstwhichhumansexperiencedistinctand
memorableevents.Oneofthemeansbywhichthisoccursinthereadingof
textsiswherethewriterwishestopresentaphenomenonoreventwhichis
likelytobefamiliartothereader,butinawaywhichisunfamiliarand/or
unexpected.Thedevicesthatareemployedinthisrespectareintendedto
28
maketheunderstandingofthecontentmorechallenging,presentingreaders
withobstaclestoovercomeandforcingthemtopausebeforetheyfullygrasp
themeaning(ibid).Indeed,themeaningwillbeatbestsecondary,and
perhapsevenentirelyunimportant5.Indoingso,thewriterendeavorsto
enhance,refreshandprolongtheaestheticexperienceofthereaderwhois
engagingwiththetext,andhastherebycreatedaworkofartisticmerit.
Shklovskystates:
“Thepurposeofartistoimpartthesensationofthingsastheyare
perceivedandnotastheyareknown.Thetechniqueofartistomake
objects'unfamiliar,'tomakeformsdifficult,toincreasethedifficulty
andlengthofperceptionbecausetheprocessofperceptionisan
aestheticendinitselfandmustbeprolonged.Artisawayof
experiencingtheartfulnessofanobject:theobjectisnotimportant.”
(Shklovsky,1917:p.5)
AnexampleofthisisprovidedbyAuerbach(1968),inwhichhetranslatesa
paragraphfromLaBruyere’sCharactersthatpresentstheappearancesandlives
of18thcenturyFrenchpeasantsinawaywhichis,tous,bothoriginaland
disturbing:
“Oneseescertainferociousanimals,maleandfemale,scatteredover
thecountryside,blackandlividandburnedbythesun,boundtothe
soilwhichtheydigandturnoverwithunconquerablestubbornness;
theyhaveasortofarticulate[sic]voice,andwhentheystandupthey
exhibitahumanface,andinfacttheyaremen.Theyretireatnightto
theirdens,wheretheyliveonblackbread,water,androots…”(p.366)
5Anexampleofthiswouldbeatonguetwister.
29
However,whatisunfamiliarwill,soonerorlater,becomefamiliarand
automatizationbecomesestablishedasexposuretoitoccursandisrepeated.
JustaswhenthepetroldistributorEssourgedmotoriststobytheirfuelby
urgingthemto“putatigerinyourtank”(Exxon,n.d.)(Appendix4:image1),this
wasoriginallyanovelconceptanditsuseacrossseveraladvertisingcampaigns
establisheditasiconicofthebrand.Thomashevskyexplains:
“devicesareborn,live,growoldanddie.Totheextentthattheiruse
becomesautomatic,theylosetheirefficacyandceasetobeincludedon
thelistofacceptabletechniques”(Tomashevsky,BfromHarland,
1999:p.151).
TheconceptoflinguisticforegroundingisattributedtoanotherRussian
Formalistscholar,JanMukařovský,whoreinforcesTomashevsky'sclaimand
explainsthevalueofforegroundinginasmuchasitis:
"theoppositeofautomatization,thatis,thedeautomatizationofan
act;themoreanactisautomatized,thelessitisconsciously
executed;themoreitisforegrounded,themorecompletely
consciousdoesitbecome"(Mukařovský,n.d:p.44).
Foregroundingtechniquesconsistofcreatingparallelswhichareunexpected
andtherebyattractattention,givepleasureormakeamessagememorable,and
canincludedevicesatalllevelsoflanguagefromalliterationandrhymeatthe
phonologicallevel,toconceptualparallelssuchasmetaphorsanddeviation.The
effectofforegroundingistointensifythepoeticeffectsofthelanguagetosucha
degreethatitsreferentialpurposeispushedtothebackgroundandtheactof
expressionitselfisemphasised(ibid).WhileMukařovský'sprimaryfocusis
30
Czechpoetry,Cook(1992)andMyers(1994)notetheuseofthekindsof
foregroundingtechniquesdescribedwithinadvertising.Foregroundingisa
phenomenonfurtherdiscussedbelowinrelationtotheworkofBarthes
(Subchapter2.6),multimodalapproaches(Subchapter2.10)andmetaphors
(Subchapter3.6).
2.6BARTHES
RolandBarthesisanotableFrenchphilosopherandsemiotician,andhis
writingshavebeenhighlyinfluentialforacademicsworkinginsemiotics,
linguisticsandotherdisciplines.Studentsofmarketingtheoryareintroducedto
Barthesinsomeuniversitycoursesandparticularemphasisispaidinthese
coursestohistheoryofculturalmyths,howtheseareactivatedwiththeaidof
pictures,andhisinsightsinrelationtoconsumerism,neomaniaand
connotations.This,alongwiththetextsmarketingstudentsusewhichreferto
Barthes6,areoutlinedindetailinChapter5,below.
Barthessuggeststhatmythsareaneverydayaspectofmodernculturerather
thanbeingsimplyancientfablesinnarrativeform.Specifically,hedefinesa
mythasa“message”which“cannotpossiblybeanobject,aconcept,oranidea;it
isamodeofsignification…”(Barthes,1957:p131).Herecallshisschooldays
andreadingaLatintextwhichhadasentencecontaining“quiaegonominorleo”.
Ifthereissuchathingasliteralmeaning,thenthiswouldbe“becausemynameis
lion”,butBarthesrecognizes:“thesentenceinnowaysignifiesitsmeaning”and
mustthereforesignifysomethingelse(pp.138-139).ReferringtoSaussure’s
structureofthesign,whichiscomposedofthesignifierandthesignified,he
suggeststhisnotioncanbeextendedsothatitisalsoapplicabletocultural
6TheseincludeBarthes’sownworks,suchasMythologies(1957),andImage,Music,Text(1977),
aswellasbookswrittenwithmarketingstudentsinmind,suchasTurow&McAllister’sTheAdvertisingandConsumerCultureReader(2009)andBeasley&Danesi’sPersuasiveSigns(2002).
31
myths.Afurtherexampleisgivenintheformofanimagefromthemagazine
ParisMatch,whichhasonitscoveraphotographof:
“…ayoungNegrosoldierinaFrenchuniform…saluting,withhiseyes
uplifted,probablyfixedonafoldofthetricolor”(ibid).(Thisimagecan
beviewedinAppendix4:Image2)
Barthesdescribeshisownunderstandingofthemythbeingpresented,
specificallythatFranceisagreatempireandthatthemenofthatempireare
servingfaithfullyandwithpride.Thesignificationhere,possiblydirected
towardsthedetractorsoftheFrenchEmpireandwhoaccuseitofcolonialism
andoppression,isthatpeoplefromacrosstheEmpireenjoythebenefitsit
bestows,areenthusiasticcitizensofitandarenotsubjectedtodiscriminationon
thebasisofraceorskincolour.Themediumbywhichthismythispresentedto
theviewerisphotography.Itrecordsascenewhichisa“literalreality”and
therefore“amessagewithoutacode”(Barthes,1977:p.17)astheevent
occurredasitisdepicted.Thefactthataphotographcapturesanactualevent
makesitadenotativesign.Thisconfersuponitadegreeofauthoritybecause
whatisbeingviewedinthephotographhappenedandthatcannotbedenied.
However,Barthespointstothefactthataphotographisanobjectwhichhas
beenchosen,composedandworkedon,anditis:“treatedaccordingto
professional,aestheticorideologicalnormswhicharesomanyfactorsof
connotation”(p.19).Itistheseintentionalfactorsthat,accordingtoBarthes,
containthecodeandnotthephotographitself,andhereferstothisasthe
“photographicparadox”(ibid).
Signs,rangingfromsimpleiconstolinguisticutterances,canbeviewedfroma
denotativeandaconnotativeperspective.Forexample,asimplecrossmight
denotethefactthatachurchisnearby,butthatsame,simplesignislikelyto
havesubstantial,andperhapsdivergentandhighlysubjective,significancefor
thosewhoviewit.Advertisementsoperatewithsignsthathavebothdenotative
32
andconnotativeinterpretationsavailable.ThisthesisdemonstratesinChapter6
that,byvirtueoftheirsophisticationandingenuity,advertisersarealerttothis,
andareatleastasmuchconcernedwiththeconnotationsoftheproductsthey
aremarketingaswiththeirpracticalbenefits.Inhislaterwork,Barthes
considerstheroleoftheimageandhowitcanbeusedrhetoricallyandto
generatedesiredconnotations.Hisexampleconsistsofaprintedadvertisement
forPanzanipastaproductsbearingacaptionjuxtaposedwithaphotographic
imageofastringbagtornopen(Appendix4:Image3).Thecontents,namely
vegetablessuitableformakingpastadishes,plusPanzaniproducts,aredepicted
asspillingout.HereferstotheFrenchcaptionandthename“Panzani”,and
statesthatthissign:“istwo-fold…:denotationalandconnotational”(Barthes,
1977:p.33),becauseitnotonlyinformsthereaderofthenameoftheproducer,
butitsoundsItalianphoneticallyandthatcarriesassociations,especiallyin
connectionwithfood.Theimageissaidtocomprise“aseriesofdiscontinuous
signs”(p.34),amongwhicharethefreshvegetables,indicatingfreshnessand
naturalnesswithwhichthismanufacturedproductistobeassociated.Herefers
tothemas“discontinuous”(ibid)becausethereisnosyntax:theirorderis
unimportant.Thenextsigntoberecognized,accordingtoBarthes,istobe
foundinthecoloursofthevegetablesandwhichheassociateswiththeItalian
flag.HecoinsthetermItalianicitytodescribethisphenomenon:
“itssignifieristhebringingtogetherofthetomato,thepepperandthe
tricolouredhues(yellow,green,red)oftheposter;itssignifiedisItalyor
ratherItalianicity.Thissignstandsinarelationofredundancywiththe
connotedsignofthelinguisticmessage(theItalianassonanceofthe
namePanzani)andtheknowledgeitdrawsuponisalreadymore
particular;itisaspecificallyFrenchknowledge(anItalianwouldbarely
perceivetheconnotationofthename,nomoreprobablythanhewould
theItalianicityoftomatoandpepper),basedonafamiliaritywith
certaintouriststereotypes.”(ibid)
33
Ifaphotographofatomato,oranyotherofthecomponentsmentioned,istobe
consideredasignwhenusedinanadvertisingcontext,thenitmayreasonably
assumedthatitsdenotationissimplyarepresentationandfulfillsasimilar
functionastheprintedorspokenword“tomato”.Itsconnotativevalueis,
however,likelytoencompassallthatisknownabouttomatoesfromthe
viewer’sexperienceandculture,rangingfromitsversatilityasaningredientfor
arangeofdishesandperhapsthearomaofthisfruitbeingcultivatedina
greenhouse.Aswithallthevegetables,theremaybeaconnotationwith
freshnessandhealthproperties,too,operatingperhapsmetonymicallyas
representativesofthesequalities.Thesignspresentintheimageoperate
togetherto“formacoherentwhole”(Barthes,1977:p.35).
Itcouldbesaidthatitisintheinterestsofadvertiserstoconstructand
promulgatecertainmythsasdescribedintheprevioussubchapterinorderto
increasethesuccessoftheiradvertising.Bignell(2002)noteshowtheRolls
Royceemblem“isnolongersimplydenotingaparticulartypeofcar,but
generatingawholesetofconnotationswhichcomefromoursocialexperience”(p.
16).InthecaseofRollsRoyce,itmaybetakenforgrantedthatthesewouldbe
luxury,refinementandsuccessand,oncethepublichasmovedbeyondthe
simpledenotationofthesign,suchasabrandofcar,andbeginstoconnoteit
withthesequalitiesoftheproduct,thenthemythhasbeencreated.Afurther
examplemightbeaperfumeadvertisement,asitisunlikelytostatethatthe
product“smellsreallynice”eventhoughitisunlikelytobesuccessfulifthe
fragranceislessthanpleasing.Manyadvertisementsforsuchproductscontain
verylittlereferentialproductinformation,orevennoinformationwhatsoever,
relyinginsteaduponanimagewhichdepictsaproductorbrandinsomekindof
visualcontext,andanexampleofthiscanbeseenintheTommyHilfiger
advertisementshowninbelowinAppendix4:Image4.Whenanimageisread
asasign,itsdenotationistheforegroundedobjectorobjects,andpossibly
people,situatedagainstabackgroundandoccupyingamomentintimeas
depicted.Intheperfumeadvertisement,theadvertiserhopesthatthe
connotationsrecoveredbythereaderwillhavebeenthosewhichwere
intentionallyintendedbythem.Thesecouldrangefromsimplefamiliaritywith
34
theappearanceoftheproduct(“thisiswhatabottleofPerfumeXlookslike”)to
amoreambitioussetofassociations,possiblyonesthatcouldbetiedtoamyth,
andwhichobliquelyinvitethereadertoassociatethebrandorproductwitha
desirableoutcomeorlifestyle.Theabilitytoevokethedesiredconnotations
maythusbeamongthekeyskillsofsomeoneemployedtodesign
advertisements.
Whileadvertisementsgeneratetheirownmyths,theyalsodrawonandinteract
withexistingculturalmyths,suchasthedepictionofscenesfromthetranquil
andorderedvineyardsinruralFrancewhensellingwines,orientalimagerysuch
astheTajMahalandelephantswhenpromotingjarsofcurrysauce7andeven
theconceptofItalianicityasitisperceivedbynon-Italians.Often,thesemyths
arisefrom,orarelinkedto,othertextsincludingwell-knownexamplesfrom
genressuchasliterature,TVshows,filmsandoccasionallyevenother
advertising(seeSubchapter2.8,belowwithregardtointertextuality).
Thecharacterizationoftheperfectionofthehumanformisalsocontinually
reproducedwithinthemediumespecially,butnotexclusively,whenselling
clothing,makeup,toiletriesandluxuryitems.Thismythicalperfectionis
predominantlyrepresentedbythefeminineandmasculineidealsthatare
prevalentwithintheculture.Thedepictionsofthesearerepresentations
comprisingimagesofprofessionalmodelswho,byvirtueoftheirphysical
characteristicsoftenenhancedthroughcosmetics,lightingtechniquesand
photographicretouching,areabletooperateassignifiersfortheseidealsand
thusfacilitatetheconstructionofanintendedmeaning.Whenapersonwho
doesnotfitthisidealisshown,thereislikelytobeareasonthatcanbe
discernedfromtheadvertisement,suchasinstancesinwhichsomeotherdevice
isusedtoattractattentionorwherephysicalperfectionmaylookoutofplace
7EdwardSaid’s(2003)theoryofOrientalismdescribesthedepictionofMiddleEasternandEast
AsiancultureswithinWesternsocietiesbytheirmediaandthroughtheirart,andtheperception
ofthembywesternersasexotic.Whilesomeofthesecountriesmaybegeographically
neighboursofwesternnations,and/ortheymaybeformercoloniesofEuropeancountries,Said
pointsouttheycanalsobeviewedvariouslyasrecentlywealthy,alienand,insomecases,apotentialthreat.
35
andactuallydetractfromthemessage.Itmayalsobepresentwherethe
individualshowncanbeidentifiedashavingotherdesirableattributes,suchasa
fullheadofhairinadvertisementsforbaldnesstreatments,orinstanceswhere
advertisementsexploitcertainmythicalqualitiesthatmaybeassumedin
respectoffamouspersonalities.Advertisementsareabletocapitalizeonthe
fameofsuchpeopleandthecausesoftheirfamesuchastheiractingorsinging
abilityorsportingprowessandsuccess.Inaddition,advertisersareawareofthe
public’sperceptionsoftheopulentandjet-settinglifestylesoftherichand
famousandtheircasualassociationswithothercelebrities.Examplesofthis
includewell-knownfilmactorstopromotebeautyproducts8andfragrances9and,
bycontrast,seriousandrespectedformerTVpresentersandnewsreadersto
marketpracticalproductssuchasinsurance10.Thesecelebritiesarenowseen
outoftheirnormalcontext;bytheirparticipationinthediscourse,theyare
addressingviewersindividuallyandofferingaccess,orpretendedaccess,to
certainaspectsoftheirlivesthatareostensiblyunrelatedtotheirfame.Inorder
tomakethenecessaryassociations,areceivermustinstantlyrecognizethem,
recallthereasonfortheirfameandperhapsotheraspectsoftheirlivesthathave
beenreportedinthepopularpress.Inadditiontoactualandlivingpersonalities,
advertisersarealsoabletoinvokeculturalknowledgethatmayrelateto,for
example,longdeadhistoricalpersonalitiesandthemythssurroundingtheir
charactersanddeeds.
Theterm“neomania”iscoinedbyBarthes(1957)torefertothecravingthat
existsinconsumersocietiesforgoodswhicharedesirablebyvirtueoftheir
newnessintermsofthedesignsorfeaturestheyoffer.Thisphenomenon
createsitsowndemandasconsumer,whomayalreadyowncomparableitems
8AnotableexampleofthisisAmericanactressHalleBerry,whoseimagehasbeenusedto
marketRevlon’sFabulashmascara(Appendix4:image5),andevenhasabrandofperfumenamedafterher.
9Manyperfumesaremarketedbyspecificcelebrities,eventtotheextentofbeingnamedafter
them.Anexampleofthisincludes“ElizabethTaylorWhiteDiamonds”perfume.
10AnotableexampleofthisistheveteranTVpresenterSirMichaelParkinsonwhoprojectsan
imageofadown-to-earthYorkshireman,sonofaminerwhofrontedAXASunLifeAssurance’sproductcalled“Parky'sPlanforOver50's”
36
whichperformthesamefunctions,cravesbeingamongthefirsttoacquirethe
latestmodel.Inordertodrivethisdemand,andthuskeepthemselvesin
business,manufacturersallegedlybuildinobsolescenceandthesameproduct,
withsomemodificationsandperhapsminorimprovements,canberepeatedly
soldtothesamecustomers,andthisphenomenonisnotedbySarver(2006).
Whenthisispropelledbyacarefullyconstructedandpervasivemyth,the
marketingopportunitiesareprodigious.Amodernexampleofthismightbethe
popularityoftheAppleiPhoneanditslatermodels,theiPhone3GS,iPhone4,
iPhone4S,iPhone5,iPhone6andsoon;atthetimeofwriting,theiPhone7isdue
tobereleasedontothemarket.Wheneveranewmodelisintroduced,this
generatesexcitementinthemediaandamongthosemoreenthusiasticofiPhone
users,andpromptsspeculationastotheappearanceoftheforthcomingmodel
andnewitsfeatures.Onthedaysonwhichanewversionislaunched,ithas
becomeusualforthestorestoopenhoursearlierthanusualandtohavelengthy
queuesofwillingcustomerswaitingoutside,manyofwhomwillalreadyowna
perfectlyfunctioningdevice,asobservedbyWilliams(2015).Suchisthepower
oftheiPhonemyth,andtheneomaniaassociatedwithit,thatconsumersofthis
productarewillingtobehaveinawaythatappearstodefylogic,andtheyhave
givenrisetoanewcolloquialterm,namely“Apple-fanboy”,torelatetothose
whoareinvariablysusceptibletotheAppleCorporation’smarketingstrategies
(UrbanDictionary,2010).
Theimplicationofsignsandmythsasdiscussedsofarseemstopresentand
evendefineviewersaspassiveconsumersbothoftheadvertisements,andofthe
productstowhichtheirattentionisbeingdrawn;advertisersposition
consumersassuchtosuittheirpurposeandtheyfrequentlyoblige.However,
signs,especiallyimages,arepolysemous11andopentovariousinterpretations.
Barthesrecognizesthisashedescribesimagesas“a‘floatingchain’ofsignifieds”
(Barthes:1977:p.39)fromwhichreaderscanchoosewhichtoacceptandwhich
toignore.Multiplicityofmeaningpresentsadvertiserswithanopportunityfor
creativityby,forexample,playingwithambiguity,butitcanalsoposeariskin
11Thepolysemousnatureofimagesisfurtherdiscussedlater.
37
thatthereadermayfailtoperceivethemessageinanythingclosetothemanner
intendedandtherebyfrustrateitspurpose.Itisthereforeuseful,andperhaps
evenessential,fortheproducerofprintedadvertisementsinparticulartobe
abletoanchorthemessageinsomewayinordertodelimititsrangeofpossible
interpretations,andinhibitlessdesiredmeaningsfromestablishingthemselves
inthemindsofreaders.Barthesappliestheterm“anchorage”(p.38)todescribe
occasionsinpressreportsandadvertisementswherewordsareusedin
associationwithimagesas,forexample,captions.Thisisnormallyachievedin
advertisingbytheadditionofsomeformoftextualcomponentandisoften
supplementedbyanothersign,suchasabrandnameorlogo.Forexample,the
widelyusedtigerimageoftheEssobrandmentionedinSubchapter2.5above
maybesubjecttomisunderstandingwhenitdoesnotappearinitsexpected
context,e.g.onaposterwhichisnotsituatedatapetrolstation.Theadditionof
theassociatedstrapline“Putatigerinyourtank”would,formostBritishreaders
whoarelikelytobefamiliarwiththebrand,enablethemessagetobe
recognizedunambiguouslyasanadvertisementfortheEssobrandandproducts
soldunderit.Inthisway,theadditionoftheEssologotendstoeliminateany
otherpossiblereadingsofthepurposeoftheimageandleadtheviewertothat
whichwasintendedbyitsproducer.Itistherebyapparentthatthemessageis
deliveredthroughtheactionofrelayingthem,i.e.thethreecomponents,the
image,thetextandthelogo,“standinacomplementaryrelationship”witheach
other(p.41).
Tanaka(1994)attemptstoaccountfortheoperationofadvertisementsthrough
pragmaticprinciplesratherthansemioticones,butshebeginsbydescribing
howsemioticsisusedforthispurposeandBarthesisherstartingpoint.She
explainshowhedoesthisbythecombinationofalinguisticmessageintheform
ofthecaptionandanylabelsassociatedwiththeimagesandtheiriconic
messages.Thesemessagesarethendividedbetweenthosewhicharecoded
(denotational,perceptionalandliteral)andthosewhicharenon-coded
(connotational,symbolicandcapableofbeingunderstoodthroughcultural
knowledge)andshenotesthatsemioticsdoesnotalwaysprovideanadequate
explanationastowhyonlysomeoftheseareactivatedinadvertisements(ibid).
38
Tanaka(1994)findsBarthes’sviewtobeunconvincing,arguingthatthe
distinctionsarenotsoclear-cutbecause,forexample,perceptioncannotbeso
easilydivorcedfromculturalknowledge.Shealsoassertsthatlinguistic
messagesarepolysemousandclaims:
“Itisdifficulttofindanyutterancewhichdoesnotrequiresome
degreeofdisambiguation,referenceassignmentorenrichment.”(p.
61)
ShecriticisesBarthesforfailingtoaccountforlinguisticdevicescommonly
foundinadvertising,suchaspuns.Tanaka(1994)furtherquestionsthevalidity
ofBarthes’semphasisonthediscontinuityofsignsandreferstothesignifiers
whichBarthesclaimstobepresentinthePanzaniadvertisement.Shesuggests
thatthewaysinwhichBarthesgroupsanddividesthesignswithinthe
advertisement,andthenumberofsignsattributedbyhimtotheillustration,
appeartohavebeendeterminedbyhimarbitrarilyandwithoutanylogicor
explanation.
2.7LÉVI-STRAUSS
AnthropologistClaudeLévi-Straussisrememberedforhisapplicationof
Saussureanstructuralismtohisowndiscipline.Theaspectsthathewritesabout
inparticulararethoseconcerningidentitythroughsocialbehaviourand
relations.Theserelationsincludekinship,andevenculturalcuisine,bothof
whichheviewsassystemsoflanguage(Harris,2003).Asanexampleofthe
latter,hecontraststhesynchronicityofChinesemeals,servedallatonce,with
thediachronicnatureofFrenchcuisine,whichisservedincoursesandthishas,
accordingtoHarris(2003),attractedthederisionoflinguists(p.126).Heinsists
39
thatmythsarecomposedofcodesinasimilarwaytolanguage,andtheyhave
universalstructureswhicharetimelessandtranscendcultures.Indeed,myths
canonlyexistandbeperpetuatedbecauseoflanguageand,likelanguage,they
consistofalangue(astructurecommontoallmyths)andaparole(thevariant
contentsofaparticularmyth).Heproposesthatmythsarecomposedof
minimalunitswhichhecalled“mythemes”andthat“functionlikephonemesina
language”(Nöth,1990:p.375),havingbeenassembledorbundledtogether
intothemesthatcanthusbe“arrangedonasyntagmaticorparadigmaticaxis”
(ibid)andexampleswouldincludeheroes,villains,obstaclesandsolutions.
Followingtheprinciplesofstructurallinguistics,including“segmentation12,
classificationandthesearchforbinaryopposition”(ibid),Lévi-Straussapplies
thesetofeaturesofculturalnarratives,e.g.heroversusvillain,monsterversus
humanandproblemversussolution.Thisexplainsthewayinwhichcultures
organizetheirknowledgeoftheworld:theconceptoflightisunderstoodonly
becauseofitsrelationtoandcontrastwithdarkness,malewithfemale,wetwith
dryandotherbinaryopposites.Binaryoppositionis,accordingtoLévi-Strauss,
thekeytounderstandingthestructureofallmythsandhedemonstrateshis
approachbyanalysinganumberofstoriesandlegendsfromdiversecultures
(Nöth,1990).
Anyanalysisofatextgenerallyinvolvesbreakingitdownintoitscomponent
partsand,wherethisoccurs,itissometimespossibletoseethepresenceofthe
kindsofbinaryoppositionsthatLévi-Straussdescribes.Manyproductsare
made,oratleastmarketed,onthebasisthattheysolveaproblemand,insuch
cases,thebinaryoppositionismostevident.Forseveraldecadesandasfarback
asthe1930s,Lifebuoysoapwasadvertisedasprotectingtheuserfrom“B.O.”,or
bodyodour(Unilever,2017)andanexampleofsuchanadvertisementcanbe
seeninAppendix4:Image6,below.Theimplicationintheseadvertisements
wasthatreaderscouldchoosebetweenusingLifebuoysoaporemittingan
12SegmentationisaprocessdiscussedbyBarthes(1977)whichoperatesinconjunctionwith
classificationandrelatestothemethodsbywhichtextscanberationallydividedupsothattheir
elementscanbeanalysed.Thesameexpressionusedinmarketingrelatestodividinguppopulationsbyselecteddemographicparameters.
40
unpleasantsmell.Thispresentedtheconsumerwithsimplebinaryopposition:
nothirdalternativewasavailable.Morecommonlyperhaps,thebinary
oppositionislessexplicit.
AsimilarexampleistobefoundinaTVadvertisementfromthe1970sforFlora
margarine.Itshowedamiddle-agedmanstandingoutsideasupermarketwhile
awomanofaroundthesameagewasinsideselectinggroceries.Themanwas
lookinginthroughthewindowandhemadevariousattemptstogesturetothe
womanthathewantedhertobuyFlora.Thiswasonlysuccessfulwhena
bystander,whowasamanofasimilaragestandingnearby,pulledatubofthe
productfromhisownshoppingbagandshowedherthat.Theadvertisement
concludedwithastrapline“Themargarineformen”(astillimagecanbeseenin
Appendix4:image7).Thelogousedonthisproductconsistsoftheouteredge
ofasunflowerwithaheart-shapeatitscentre,andthemarketingofthisproduct
haslongbeenassociatedwithitsclaimtobefreeoftransfatswhichwereatthe
timebelievedtocontributetotherisksofcoronaryheartdisease(Kmietowicz,
2015)andthatmenwereclaimedtobeatgreaterriskofthisconditionthan
women(Nicholson,1973).Dietaryguidelinesurgingthepublictoreducetheir
consumptionofdairyfatswereprevalentforthisreason,asnotedbyNestle
(1998).ALévi-Straussanalysisofthisadvertisementmightproposeasetof
paradigmaticrelationships,somevisibleandothersimplied,namely:
man-woman
inside–outside
Flora–otherproducts
healthyheart–coronaryheartdisease
TheFloraadvertisementappearstobeexploitingthispublicconcerntomarketa
margarinefreefromtransfatsand,assuch,theproductsubtextwasofferinga
compellinglifeordeathbinary.Florawasthusnolongersimplyamargarine:it
wasthekeytosurvivingbeyondone’smiddleyears.
41
Applyingthesimplebinaryoppositionalternativesappearsstraightforward
whenanalyzingadvertisementsthatarepredicatedonanoverarchingbinaryof
problemversussolution.However,thismethodbecomescomplexwhen
attemptingtodeconstructadvertisementsthatareaimedchieflytoentertainor
amuseratherthanbyappealingtoreason.Afairlytypicalfull-page
advertisementonthebackcoverofVogue(fromAugust2014)showsan
attractivewomaninaleatherdressandmatchingsnakeskinboots.Herblond
hairisslightlydisordered;sheisadoptingacrouchingposture,againstabrown
andneutralbackground,andlookingintothecamera.Inthecentreoftheimage,
thebrandname“GUCCI”appearsinlargelettersand,nearthebottomofthe
pageandinmuchsmallertype,“GUCCI.COM”.Binaryoppositespresentinthe
image,ortheimagejuxtaposedwiththebrandname,arelessthanobvious.A
readerwhoisusedtoperformingsuchanalysesmayseethetensionbetween
thebeautyoftheyoungwomanandtheanimalisticelementsintermsofher
leatherandsnakeskinattire,orbetweentheprimitiveversusthesophistication
oftheGuccibrand.Whetherthesebinaries,orthemessagesorimpressionsthey
wereintendedtoconvey,wouldbeapparenttomostcasualreadersofVogueisa
matterofconjecture.
2.8INTERTEXTUALITY
Structuralistsemioticsprovidestoolsforanalyzingindividualutterancesand
textsanditsfocusispredominantlyoninternalstructures(Chandler,2017),yet
withoutmajorregardtothecontextorco-texts,ortothefactorsrelatingtothe
speaker/author,allofwhichmayhaveabearingontheirproductionand
interpretation.Poststructuralisttheorists,suchasKristeva(1980)andGenette
(1997),attempttoaddresssomeoftheweaknessesofstructuralistsemioticsin
theseregards.Theyrecognizethattextsdonotexistinisolation:they
incorporateandintersectwithothertexts,eitherbyreferringtothemdirectly,
42
orbyimplyingoralludingtothem(Chandler,2017)andthisconstitutesthe
linguisticphenomenonof“intertextuality”,atermcoinedbyKristevaherself,
accordingtoPrayerElmoRaj(2015:p.77).
Barthes(1977)isclearthattextsaremorethanjusttransmissionsoffullyself-
containedmessageswhenhedescribesthemas:“…madeupofmultiplewritings,
drawnfrommanyculturesandenteringintomutualrelationsofdialog,parody,
contestation”(p.148).Heproposesthatreadersconstructauthorsinasmuchas
theyareunlikelytoknowthewritersofthetextstheyarereading,norwhatwas
intheirmindsattheparticulartimewhentheirtextswerecomposed.Theyare
therebyforcedtogeneratetheirownmentalconceptionsofauthorsintermsof
theircharacter,theirpurposesforwritingandthemeaningstheyintendedtobe
recoveredduringthereadingprocess,andtomentallyframethetext
accordingly.Theobjectofstudyintextanalysistherebyshiftsfromauthorto
readerbecause,asBarthesexplains:“atext'sunityliesnotinitsoriginsbutits
destination”(ibid).
Kristeva(1980)proposesviewingcommunicationasfunctioningontwoaxes:a
horizontalaxiswhichconnectsthecommunicatorwiththeaddresseeanda
verticalaxisinwhichtextsareconnectedtoothertextswhichexistalongside
them(i.e.synchronically),orwhichpreceededthem(i.e.diachronically).
Communicationsarecomposedofchainsofsignifiersandareceiverofa
messageisabletoconstructameaningfromthesebyselectingsomeand
ignoringothers.Thisprocessofgeneratingandrecoveringmeaningcanonly
occur,however,byfirstactivatingtheparticularsignificationsystemstowhich
theyareanchored,andthisactivationmustitselftakeplacewithinthecontextof
theconnectionsdescribed.Sinceintroducingtheterm“intertextuality”,ithas
acquiredawiderrangeofmeanings(PrayerElmoRaj,2015)andencompasses
phenomenabeyondthosewhichKristevaoriginallyconceived.Genette(1979)
proposestheseincludeallusion,quotationandplagiarism,bothintentionaland
unintentionaland,intheviewofHitchon&Jura(1997),devicessuchas
extendedmetaphorswhichexploitasetofequivalentscanbeaddedtothis
43
category13.Theindirectnessofintertextualfeaturesrequiresthattheymustrely
uponareceiver'sabilitytorecovertheintendedmeaningthroughimplicature
and,inparticular,thebackgroundknowledgethatisactivatedwhenthemessage
isreceived.Theoriesthatattempttoexplainthisprocessaredescribedin
Chapter3,below.
Advertisingtextsare,toaconsiderabledegree,anamalgamandreformulationof
textsproducedinothertimesandatotherplacesandmostlyforotherpurposes.
Intertextualityisoftenovertinadvertisementsandisevenemployedasa
strategyforexploitingapopularmythasameansofgeneratinginterest.Bignell
(2002)providesanexampleofthiswhenhecitesanadvertisementforanew
VolkswagenGolfEstatecarthatdepictsthreeactorswhohave,atsometimein
thepast,playedtheroleofthefictionaltimetraveller,DoctorWho,intheBBC
TVseriesofthesamename.Theactorsareshownapparentlyscrutinizingone
ofthesevehiclesandthecaptionreads:“We’vedoctoredtheGolf”(p.44).The
DoctorWhoseriesisoneoftheBBC’smostsuccessful,andlong-running,series
(evenspawningbooks,toys,gamesandotherproductsassociatedwithit)andis
sofamiliarthatmaynowberegardedasembeddedinmodernBritishculture.
Consequently,areaderoftheadvertisementwouldbeassumedtorecognizethe
charactersasthreemanifestationsof“TheDoctor”(ibid),aswellascuessuchas
thefactthatthevehicleappearstohaveanewincarnation.Thisversionis,
allegedly,morespaciousinternallythanitappearsontheoutside,justlikethe
so-called“Tardis”,i.e.thesupposedspaceandtimetravellingcraftusedbythe
Doctor.Conversely,elementsfromadvertisingtextsareoccasionallyborrowed
andusedinothergenres.ThefamiliarEssoadvertisementsmentionedin
Subchapter2.6,above,withthestrapline“putatigerinyourtank”fromtheearly
1970s,isparaphrasedinthechorusofapopularsongfrom1976called“Jeans
ON”andsungbyDavidDundas:
13DiscussedinChapter3.6,below.
44
“Youandme,we'llgomotorbikeridin'
Inthesunandthewindandtherain
Igotmoneyinmypocket
Atigerinmytank
AndI'mkingoftheroadagain”
ThepenultimatelineofthissongcanbeseentorelatetotheEssocommercial
whichpreceedsitbyseveraldecades.Itisalsonotedthatthelastlineofthis
songisalsothetitleofapopularsongfrom1964,sungbythecountrysinger
RogerMiller(1936-1992).
LiuandLe(2013)suggestthatintertextualitytakesthreedistinctformsin
advertising,namelyquotation,whereexpressionsorlinesfromliteraryworks,
speechesandothertextsareeitherrepeated;allusion,whichconsistsofan
explicitorindirectreferencetoaperson,place,eventorliterarywork;and
parody,whichisawell-establishedrhetoricaldeviceandmayinvolvemimickry,
orcreatingnewexpressionsbyinnovativelyreplacingorotherwise
paraphrasingotherexpressionswhicharealreadyfamiliar14.
2.9ECO
TheItaliannovelist,philosopherandsemiotician,UmbertoEcomakesanumber
ofcontributionsintermsofdevelopingsemioticsasbothatheoryofcodesand
ofsignproduction.Heattemptstoproduceamorerobustdefinitionofasign,
14TherelationofintertextualityandconnotativechainsspecificallyinrelationtotextbooksonadvertisingisfurtherdiscussedinChapter5.6,below.
45
distinguishingsignsfromnon-signs,andproposeswhatheconsiderstobea
moreflexibleconcept,whichheregardsasasignfunction(Eco,1976).
Semioticsis,inEco’sview,atruescienceandhejustifiesthisviewbecause
scienceisanautonomousdiscipline;itproduceshypothesestestablewith
standardizedmethodologicaltools;itcanmakepredictionsandfindingswhich
canchangetherealstatesofphenomenaintheworld(ibid).Heacknowledges
thatworkinotherdisciplines,includingsemanticsandpragmatics,has
implicationsforsemioticswhichcannotbeignored,including:
“formallogic,philosophicalsemanticsandthelogicofnatural
languagesdealwiththeproblemoftruthvalueofasentenceand
withthevarioussortsofso-called‘speechacts’…”(Eco,1976:p.6)
Eco(1976)alsodescribestherolesofculturalmythsasdoesBarthes(1957),
andpaysparticularattentiontofictionalheroeswithsupposedsuper-human
abilities.Supermanisportrayedasamodernmanifestationofcharactersfrom
ancientmythology(likeHercules)andmorerecentliterature(likePeterPan).It
ispointedoutthat,whiletheyhaveextraordinarypowers,theseheroesalso
haveaweaknessand,inthecaseofSuperman,thatisthesubstancecalled
“kryptonite”.Hisvulnerabilityfacilitatesthepossibilityforhimtobetested,
therebybeingthecentralfigureinanadventureandsupplyingtohimthe
opportunitytoshowhisingenuityandheroism.Inordertoderiveboththe
meaningandpleasurefromthemyth,Ecostatesthereadermustsuspendbelief
inrealityandthatrequiresasuspensionofhisorherusualperceptionoftime
(ibid).WhileSupermanhasanormalhumanalterego,eventsunfoldwithlittle
ornoheedtotheneedforplanningorothermundaneconsiderationswhich
formanaturalpartoflifeforhumanentities.Eco(1979)referstoMartin
Heideggerinproposingthat,inordertoapplyhiddenpersuasion:“…asubjectis
notresponsibleforhispast,normasterofhisfuture,norevensubjecttothelaws
46
ofplanning…”15(p.117).Healludestoadvertising,aswellaspropaganda,as
genresinwhichthiskindofsuspensionmustbeappliedinordertoconvince
receiversofsomekindofproposition.Itistherebyassumedthatthosewho
createadvertisementswillhaveaconsciousorunconsciousawarenessofthe
advantagesofsuspendingrealityandthemeansofachievingsuchasuspension,
andthisisinvestigatedintheprimaryresearchconductedwithadvertising
creators,asdescribedinChapter6,below.
Eco(1979)drawsadistinctionbetweenwhathecalls“opentexts”,i.ethose
whichinvitemultipleinterpretations,and“closedtexts”,i.e.thosewhichinvitea
single,intendedinterpretation.Itfollowsthat,withregardtotheauthor,the
“ensembleofcodeshereliesuponisthesameasthatsharedbyhispossiblereader”
(p.7)andsoheisforcedto“foreseeamodelofthepossiblereader”,whomhe
referstoasthe“modelreader”(ibid).Amodelreaderofaclosedtextis
perceivedasatypicaladdresseeandtheinterpretationofthetextisthereby
straightforward.Thisiscontrastedwithamodelreaderofanopentext,i.e.an
individualcapableofnavigatingthroughacomplexofcodesandrecovera
multiplicityofmeanings.Heacknowledgestheneedforwhathereferstoas
“encyclopaediccompetence”(ibid)whichrelatestotheassumedbackground
knowledgeofthereader.Thisviewcoincideswithalmostidenticalconcepts
proposedbytheoristsfromotherfieldssuchaspragmatics(e.g.“encyclopaedic
memory”,fromSperber&Wilson,1995:p.137)andcriticaldiscourseanalysis
(“memberresources”fromFairclough,2001:p.20).Itispertinenttothe
researchdescribedinthisthesisasoneoftheaimsistoestablishthewaysby
whichadvertisersattempteithertolimitpossibleinterpretations,ortooffer
multipleorinfiniteinterpretationsofadvertisements.Afurtheraimisto
discoverwhetheradvertisersattempttoforeseeamodelofthepossiblereader
and,ifso,howthisisachievedandhowitinfluencestheirworkingpractices.
15ThisrelatestoHeidegger'sphilosophicalconceptofecstasy,whichmeanstostandoutside
oneself,ortoremoveoneselffromtherealitiesofearthlyexistenceandintoamythicalor
mysticalplaneofexistence.Heideggerwritesofthe“threeecstaciesoftime”,namelypast,presentandfuture(Abram,1997:p.209).
47
Additionally,Eco(1979)developsPeirce'strichotomy,specifyingtwoofhis
threeinterpretants,namelythe“emotional”,whichisthemental/emotional
effortinvolvedininterpretation,andthe“energetic”,whichisphysicaleffort
thathastobeexpendedininterpretation.Readersmust,heclaims,be
persuadedtomakesuchaneffortinordertoproduceadesiredemotional
responseorachangeofhabit,thesebeingtwooutcomes.Effortof
interpretationisclaimedtobeasignificantfactorintermsofthereceiver
respondingtoastimulus,andthelikelihoodofareceiverjudgingamessageto
besufficientlyrelevanttobeworthprocessing,asdescribedbyWilsonand
Sperber(2012)inChapter3,below.Theimplicationsthishasforadvertisersin
termsofthewaysthatstimuliareproducedbyadvertiserstoattractattention,
andthewaytheyseektoinvokedesiredemotionalresponsesinconsumers,are
factorsexaminedintheresearchdescribedinChapters6and7ofthisthesis.
Onceattentionissecured,advertisershavetodeterminehowconsumersare
incentivizedtoengagewiththecontentoftheircommercialsforthepurposeof
changingtheirhabitsandbehaviour.TheseaspectsareexploredinSubchapters
3.3and3.7,below.Intermsofstimulatinginterestinadvertisementsand
presentingacohesiveandpersuasivemessage,advertisershaveanarrayof
optionsthatcanbeusedalongsidelanguagetoreinforcethemessage,andto
increasetheprospectofproducingadesiredresponse;thesearediscussedin
thenextsubchapter.
2.10MULTIMODALITY
Onedevelopmentwithinthefieldofsemioticsthathasramificationsfor
advertisingisthetheoryofmultimodalcommunicationandtheanalytical
techniqueswhichareassociatedwithit.Multimodaltheoristsattempttoexplain
howmessagesarecreatedbyemployingandcombiningcommunicative
48
resources,or"modes"(Bezemer,2012b),toconstructaunifiedmessage.Kress
andVanLeeuwen(2001)definemultimodalityas:
“theuseofseveralsemioticmodesinthedesignofasemiotic
productorevent,togetherwiththeparticularwayinwhichthese
modesarecombined”(p.20)
Modestakematerialformssuchassound(includingspokenlanguage,
musicandothersounds),orvisualphenomena(likegestures,colours,
shapesandpatterns)orinformsthatcanotherwisebedetectedbythe
humansenses.Kress(2012,inBezemer,2012b)statesthesearesocially
producedandhavebecomeculturalresourcesusedforproducingan
intendedmeaning.Generally,theyareestablished,conventionalizedand
familiar;thecommunitywillhaveusedthemoveralengthyperiodof
timeandwillknowhowtointerpretparticularsignifiersintheway
intended(ibid).Somemodes,suchasiconsandimages,operatewithout
theneedforanykindofgrammaticalstructureandaretherebyakinto
Barthes’sdiscontinuoussigns,asmentionedinSubchapter2.6,above.
However,modesthataregrammatical,governedbysyntaxandrules,
offerfargreaterpossibilitiesinmeaningcreation.Theseinclude,
accordingtoKressandVanLeeuwen(2001),abstractmeanings,butthey
alsofacilitatetheproductionofmeta-signswithinthesamemode.
Advertisementsarenotmonomodal(Cook,1992),butrathertheyuseawide
arrayofmodesandwhathereferstoas“sub-modes”16(p.42)inordertocreate
meaningsthatpersuadereaderstopurchaseitemsortoinstillbrandawareness
andloyalty.Itmaythusbearguedthatmultimodalapproachesofferthose
seekingtounderstandtheoperationofadvertisementsaninsightfulmethod.In
thecaseofmagazineadvertisements,forexample,advertisersmakefulluseof
16Sub-modesarementionedbyCook(2001)butnotdefined.
49
themodesavailabletothemandhavedevelopedtechniquestoattractattention
throughthese,suchasphotography,colourandtypeface,aswellascarefully
formulatedcopyandto“keeptheeyemovingoverthepage”(Brierley,2002:p.
180).Readersarelikelytoencounteradvertisementswhichincludean
“interplayofvisualandverbalcomponents”(Hu&Luo,2016:p.31).The
advertiserisabletomakechoicesastowhatparticularimageorimagesareto
bedisplayedfromaninfinitenumberofpossibilities,howthatimageis
processed,filtered,croppedandpositionedwithintheareaoftheadvertisement.
Suchchoicesalsorequiredecisionstobemadewithregardtoforegrounding,
whichisatechniquedescribedinSubchapter2.5,decidingwhichwordsare
foregroundedandwhichwordsarenot,wheretheyappearonthepageandin
relationtoanyimagesused,aswellastheirsize,colourandfont(Brierley,
2002).
Inthecaseofabroadcastadvertisement,thechoiceofmusicorothersounds
mayaddtomeaning,alongwithaspectsofspeakervoice,gender,intonationand
accent(ibid).Kress(2012,inBezemer,2012a)statesthatamultimodalanalyst
investigatingthecompositionofsuchadvertisementswouldattemptto
determinetheroleofeachofthemodes,whethertheyhadthesameordifferent
roles,andthiswouldthengivehimorheraclearandholisticindicationasto
howanygivenadvertisementfunctions.Theanalystwouldillustratehow
differentsemioticresourcesormodesoffertheproducerdifferentpossibilities
inmakingmeaning.However,theuseofmorethanonemodeinanactof
communicationisnotusuallyjustarepetitionofexactlythesamemeaning:
instead,thecombinationofmodesallowsafarmorecomplexandricher
meaningtobetransmitted.Inadditiontoidentifyingthesemioticresources
used,multimodalitytheoryconsidersthecommunicativepracticesineachofthe
modes,includingdiscursivepractices,productionpracticesandinterpretive
practices(KressandVanLeeuwen,2001:p.111).Theterm“discursive
practices”inthelinguisticandanthropologicalsenseisaconceptgenerally
associatedwiththeworkofpost-structuralistMichelFoucault,andrefers“toa
historicallyandculturallyspecificsetofrulesfororganizingandproducing
50
differentformsofknowledge”(O’Farrell,201017)18.Thishassignificancein
advertising,asthereareconventionsandrules,largelyunwritten,which
advertisersfollowinordertodelivertheirintendedmessages.Thesemight
includethewaysthathavebeenlearnedtoassigntheappropriatereferents
whenpronounsareused19,andbywhichareceiverhaslearnedtorelatethe
mainimagetoanyforegroundedtextandthusrecoverasingle,unifiedmeaning.
KressandVanLeeuwen(2001)demonstratethemultimodaltechniquethey
proposebeingappliedtotwomagazineadvertisementsforproducts,namely
itemsreferredtoas“cottoys”(p.115)anddesignedtobeusedtostimulate
babies.Theadvertisementsareforproductswithsimilarpurposesand
thereforehavesimilaritiesintermsoftheirfunctionsanddiscursivefeatures,
buttherearecertainwaysinwhichtheydivergethattheauthorsclaimtobe
noteworthy.Thesehingeuponhowthescenarioofbabies’playisconstructed
andwithdifferentintendedoutcomes,e.g.theformerisconcernedentirelywith
theinfantuserhavingfunwhereasthelatterpresentstheirtoysasadvancing
thechild’scoordinationandmentaldevelopment(pp.115-117).Theauthors
attributethedifferencesintheexecutionofthepresentationtotheparticular
designofthetexts,andthisissummedupasfollows:
“Design…(1)contextualises,makesitworkwithinthecontextofa
communicativeinteraction(suchas‘givingparentaladvice’,‘tellinga
story’,advertisingaproduct’)by,creativelyorotherwise,drawing
uponsemioticresourcessuchasgenericschemasforstories,
advertisementsetc.;and(2)itselectswhichmodeswillbeusedto
17O'Farrel'sisFoucault'sbiographer.Thequotationisfromthewebsite:michel-foucault.com(Accessed27thJuly2014).Nopagenumbersareshown.
18Theterms"productionpractices"and"interpretivepractices"arenotdefinedbyKressandVanLeeuwen(2001),soitcanonlybeassumedtheyaretobeunderstoodintheordinary,literal
sense–i.e.whatpracticesareinvolvedinproductionandwhatcognitivepracticesreceiversemployininterpretation
19DiscussedindetailinChapter3.5,below.
51
realizewhichaspectsofthatcommunicativeinteraction,whetherby
drawingonconventionssuchasthevisualdepictionofthe
satisfactionoftheproductinfull-pagemagazineadvertisementsor
not.”(p.119)
KressandVanLeeuwenarehereclaimingthatcontextualisationis
achievedthroughtheparticulardesignsofeachofthetexts,andthese
involvemodeselectionandutilizingwhatare(presumably)arbitrary
conventions.Whilethismaybeconsideredaninterestingand
persuasiveobservation,theconceptofcontextappearstobeveryloose
andundefined.Noaccountisofferedastohowcertainmodesare
recognisedasthedominantwhileothersaremerelycontextual,noris
themechanismbywhichparticularmodesgenerateanintended
contextualunderstandingexplained.Whileitmaybetemptingto
imaginethatthenon-linguisticmodesareresponsibleforprovidingthe
contextandthelinguisticonesexisttorelaythecoremessage,itis
dangeroustoassumethisisalwaysthecase.The“semioticresourcessuch
asgenericschemasforstories,advertisementsetc”(ibid,andquoted
above)issuggestiveofintertextualinfluences,asdescribedin
Sunchapter2.8,aboveand,inparticular,Kristeva's(1980)recognition
thattextsdonotexistinisolation,andBarthes'assertionthatmessages
aremadeupof“multiplewritingsdrawnfrommanycultures”(Barthes,
1977:p.148).
Someadvertisementscontainnowords,relyinginsteadontheviewerto
recovertheintendedmeaningthroughpictorialandgraphologicalcues
alone.Othersuselanguageinawaythatisintentionallyobscure,
perhapstomaketheadvertisementenigmaticandthereforeinteresting,
orforotherreasons.Anexampleofthiscanbefoundinsomebillboard
andmagazineadvertisementsforSilkCutcigarettesinthe1980sand
1990s.Theseprintedcommercialshavebeenreportedoninanumber
ofstudies,includingbymediascholars(Rozik,1997),linguists(Cook,
52
2001),marketingscholars(Wentz,1988),andfromapublichealth
perspective(Hastings&MacFadyen,2000;Chapman,1994).They
consistedofanimageofapieceofsilk-likefabricinaparticularshadeof
imperialpurple,andthefabricwaseithercutinsomeway,orwasshown
juxtaposedwithanimageorimpressionofabladedinstrumentsuchasa
pairofscissorsoraknife,andanexamplecanbeseeninAppendix4,
image8,below.Nowordswerepresent,withtheexceptionofthe
statutorywarning,whichappearedunderneathastotheharmfuleffects
ofsmoking.Tounderstandthiswasanadvertisement,andtorecognize
theproductbeingadvertised,viewerswouldhavetobefamiliarwiththe
variousnon-linguisticsignifiersfrompreviousadvertisingcampaigns.
Thiswouldincludethedepictionofpurplesilkfabric,butitisalsolikely
thattheabsenceofanywordsinsuchanadvertisement,withthe
exceptionofthehealthwarning,wouldhavehelpedmakeitreadily
identifiableasoneforSilkCut.Duringtheperiodwhenbillboardswere
displayingthisadvertisement,lawshadrecentlybeenputintoplace
designedtorestrictthemethodsusedinmarketingtobaccoproductsin
theUK20.Consequently,advertiserssoughtingeniouswaysofpromoting
cigarettebrandswhilestayingwithintheregulations.TheSilkCut
advertisementswhichcontainednowords,andwhichshowednothing
morethanfabric,orfabricandabladedinstrument,weredemonstrating
suchingenuityandstillcreatingeye-catchingandinterpretable
advertisements.
20TheEuropeanUnionTelevisionwithoutFrontiersDirective,1989,madeguidelinesandthese
wereexpandedintermsoftheirscopebeyondtelevisionandenactedintolegislationbytheTobaccoAdvertisingandPromotionAct,2002.
53
2.11LIMITATIONSOFSEMIOTICANALYSISOFADVERTISING
Oneofthelimitationsofsemioticsthathasalreadybeenintimatedisthe
uncertaintyastowhatdoes,anddoesnot,constituteasignandthetheories
exploredtakedifferentviewsonthis.Saussureassertsthatsignsareessentially
arbitraryor,attheveryleast,theyarepredominantlyarbitraryas,forthemost
part,theydonotpossessanaturalcorrespondencewiththatwhichtheysignify.
Herecognizes,however,thatthereare“modesofexpression”(Saussure,1916:p.
101)whichdohaveaconnection,suchasmime,alongwithsomenon-verbal
expressionsofpoliteness.Hereferstotheterm“symbol”asdesignatingpartof
thelinguisticsign.Thisisatermhefinds“awkward”becausesymbolsare,he
maintains,neverentirelyarbitrary,andhecitestheexampleofscalesbeingthe
symbolofjusticewhichcouldnotsimplybereplacedwith,forinstance,achariot
(ibid).Afurtherexampleisonomatopoeicwords,whichareconventionalized
withintheprevailingculture,althoughtheyfunctionassignsonlyinrelationto
othersignsaspartofasignificationsystem.Itisdifficult,inpurelySaussurian
terms,tomakeacasethattheimageofatigerintheEssoadvert,asastand-
aloneelement,isasigninthelinguisticsense.Anobservercandiscernthe
signifierasthetigerimageandthesignifiedastheEssobrandandtherelation
betweenthetigerandtheEssobrandisonethatislargelyarbitrary.Saussure,is,
however,concernedpredominantlywithlinguisticsignsandthetigerdoesnot
signifyalinguisticmeaning,butratheraconceptualoneapproximatelyalongthe
linesof:
THISTIGER’SIMAGE=ESSOBRAND
Theimageisnotaconstituentelementoperatingwithinaclearlydiscernible
systemofsignification,noristhemeaningcontingentuponitsrelationshipwith
thoseothersignswithinthatsystem,evenwhereitisaccompaniedbythebrand
name.Anytextthatexistsalongsidetheimageintheadvertisement,suchasthe
54
brandname,willbecomposedoflinguisticsignsintheformofletters,words
andphrases,andthiscanreinforcetheimage-brandassociation.
AsdescribedinSubchapter2.4,above,Peirceassertsthatsignsfallintothree
distinctcategories,namelyindexes,iconsandsymbols.Thefirsttypeisnot
entirelyarbitraryasindexeshaveanobservableconnectiontothatwhichthey
representandcanbenaturalorman-made.Iconicsignshaveaphysical,sensory
orconceptualresemblancetotheirrespectivesignifiedsand,whiletheydisplay
oneormoreconventionalizedfeaturesoftheirsignified,theyarestillessentially
arbitraryintheirform.Symbols,ontheotherhand,areentirelyarbitraryunder
Peirce’stheoryandtheywouldincludelinguisticsigns.Inthisrespect,they
mostcloselyalignwithSaussure’snotionofasign,exceptthattheycanoperate
inisolationanddonotneedtobelongtoadiscerniblesystemofsignification.It
ispossibleforasigntohavefeaturesfrommorethanoneofPeirce’scategories.
Forexample,adrawingofaheartonaValentine’scardisundoubtedlyiconicas
itsignifiesahumanheartbyvirtueofitsshape,buttherelationbetweenthe
heartandloveissymbolic.Similarly,anillustrationofapointinghandona
streetsigntoindicateadirectionisiconicinthatitrepresentsatypicalhuman
hand,butitsfunctionisindexical.
Advertisingusesallthreetypesofsign,mostoftentwoormorebeingpresentin
anygivenadvertisementanditsconstituentsmaynotfallneatlyintoanyof
thesecategories.Imagesusedinadvertisingconsistofphotographsand
illustrations;aphotographfallsintotheindexcategoryinPeirce’stermsasit
pointstotheexistenceofaphenomenoninaparticularlocationinspaceata
particularmomentintime,i.e.theplaceandtimethephotographwastaken.
Peircewritesthatphotographs“areveryinstructive,becauseweknowthatin
certainrespectstheyareexactlyliketheobjectstheyrepresent”(Peirce,2.281
fromBaker-Finchn.d.).However,anargumentcanbemadethataphotograph
usedinanadvertisementcanalsofunctionasaniconunderPeirce’striadic
typology.Thiswouldapplywheretheimageshownhasametaphorical
associationwithsomethingelseandusuallysomethingabstract.Animageofa
rosebudinanadvertisementforperfumemayserveasametaphorinthenon-
linguisticsense,conveyingthequalitiesoflove,beautyoryouth,whiletheimage
55
ofEsso’stigermightbedesignedtoinvokepowerandfreedom.Onthatbasis,
returningtoBarthes’sadvertisementofastringbagbreakingopenandthe
contentsspillingout,itmaybeconsideredwhetherthemainimage,oranyparts
ofit,constituteasign.Onitsown,inSaussure’sterms,theentiretyoftheimage
wouldnotandnorwouldtheindividualcontents,astheydonotformpartofa
significationsystem.Nevertheless,Barthesdescribestheimageas“aseriesof
discontinuoussigns”inthat“theyarenotlinear”(Barthes,1977:p.34);heasserts
theliteralimagetobedenotedwhilethesymbolismitgeneratesoperates
throughconnotation(p.37).Theproducerofadvertisementshastomakea
calculationbasedonaspectssuchasthelikelyculturalknowledgeoftheviewers
andreaders,andanyadvertisementisdependentuponsomeorallofthe
connotations,includingmetaphoricalsignifiers,beingrecoveredifitistobe
successful.Thisis,however,aspeculativeundertakingasanadvertisercannot
becertainpreciselywhatknowledgeispresentorwhatconceptualdomains21
areavailabletobeactivatedorwhetherthedesiredconnectionswillbemadeby
thereceiver.Asaresult,receiversarelefttodecideforthemselvesprecisely
what,ifanything,isbeingrepresentedbyanimageofarosebudinaperfume
advertisement,afighteraircraftinanadvertisementforaman’swristwatch,ora
pictureofatigeratapetrolstation.
Again,recallingPeirce’sview:“nothingisasignunlessitisinterpretedasasign”
(Nöth,1990:p.42),adefinitionofsignisproposedwhichisorientedsquarely
uponthereceiverratherthanthetransmitter.Logically,then,unheardspeech
andunreadtextsdonotconformtothisdefinitionanditmustsurelyalsofollow
thatthesignconstitutesonlythatwhichispositivelyunderstoodbythereceiver.
Whereanimageofatigerisrecognizedasadvertisingbreakfastcerealthenitis,
inPeirce’sterms,asignofbreakfastcerealregardlessoftheintentionofthe
transmittertoadvertisepetrol.Ifthisisdoubted,itcanbearguedthatPeirce
appearstoreinforcetheperceptionbyhischoiceofnegativepolarity(i.e.
“nothing”).Ratherthansaying,forexample,“everythingisasignifitis
21Thetermconceptualdomainisusedincognitivelinguisticstorefertothewaymetaphorsare
usedtorelateandunderstandoneexperienceintermsofanother.Thiswillbediscussedlaterinthethesisandinthesectionrelatedspecificallytometaphor.
56
interpretedasasign”,herejectsconsideringsomethingtobeasignbasedon
whateverwasintendedbythetransmitter.
Thelimitationsofsemioticsbecomeapparentwhenattemptingtoexplainthe
recoveryofmeaninginadvertisementsbyfollowingasimpleprocessof
decodingandwithouttakingintoaccountotherlinguisticandcontextualfactors
includinglexicalandsyntacticchoices,rhetoricaldevicesandinferencing.With
theslogan“putatigerinyourtank”,thesyntaxisstructuredasanimperativeas
theclausebeginswithaverbinitsbaseform.Novocativeispresentandthis
invitesthereadertoassumethepositionofaddressee22(Leech,1983).“Put”has
abroadmeaningandtherearemanywaysitispossibletoputsomething,both
physicallyandmetaphorically.Theverb“put”istransitiveandsoitmustbe
followedbyanobject.Thisparticularverbfurtherrequiresanobligatory
adverbialwhich,inthisinstance,takestheformofaprepositionalphrase.In
addition,itprovidesanopportunityforthecreatortopersonalizethe
advertisementwithapossessivedeterminerdirectedtothereader(“your”)and
toaddanelementofalliteration(“tiger”and“tank”).Theentireutteranceis
predicatedonasetofpresuppositions,suchasthatthereaderhasamotor
vehiclewithafueltankinwhichtoputthemetaphoricaltiger,andthereader’s
tankisotherthanfull,andthereaderhasthemeanstopayforthefuel.The
readerwillrecognisethatthetigerreferredtoisanallusiontoEssopetrol,
althoughthenamealonewouldachievethat.Semioticsdoesnotgenerally
attempttoaccountforfactorslikepersonalisation,thestylisticdevicessuchas
alliteration,presuppositionorallusion,orwhattheadvertisermightbeaiming
toachievebycomplementingastraightforwardlinguisticmessagewithan
ingenioussloganorpun.Traditionalsemioticapproachesthusconcern
themselveswithuncoveringmeaningsthatarerepresentedeitheratthesurface
levelbydecodingsimplesignifiers,oratamoresophisticatedleveland,
consciouslyorotherwise,relatingthemtoculturalphenomenasuchasmyths.
Arguably,thegreatestcriticismofapplyingsemioticapproachesinanykindof
22MorerecentscholarshavenotedthatanumberofsubjectsarepossibleinEnglishimperatives,e.g.whereavocative,oranindefinitepronounisused(Rupp,1999).
57
analysisisthattheyareconcernedwiththeformsandcodeswhilefailingto
accountsatisfactorilyforcurrentsocialpractices,humanrelationshipsor
societalstructures.Theypaylittleheedtotheparticipantsinanyinteraction,or
theirmotivations,butinsteadfocusontheformsandstructuresofsigns,and
howtheyconveyovertandcovertmeanings.
Advertisingmaybeconsideredartisticorentertaining,eventotheextentof
beingthesubjectoftelevisionprogrammeswhicharedevotedtobroadcasting
humorousorotherwiseingeniousadvertisementsfromacrosstheglobeforthe
amusementofaudiences.Yet,unlikeotherformsofartandentertainment,
advertisementsexistforaparticularpurposethatisdistinctfromtheircreative
meritsandartisticappreciation.Mostly,theaestheticelementisthestimulus
throughwhichattentionisgarneredandfortheoverallpersuasivefunctionto
takeeffect.Theoverridingpurposeofadvertisementsistoinfluencethe
perceptions,beliefsandfuturebehaviourofthosewhoareexposedtothemina
waydesiredbythosewhohavecommissionedthem.Consequently,their
existenceiscontingentuponother,realworld,phenomenaoutsideofthetext,
specificallytheproductstowhichtheyareattemptingtodirecttheviewers´
attention.HodgeandKress(1988)challengeSaussure’sapproachandadvocate
that“culture,societyandpolitics(are)intrinsictosemiotics”(p.18).They
proposea“higherlevelcontrolmechanism”,whichtheycalla“logonomicsystem”
(p.4)whichconsistsof:
“asetofrulesprescribingtheconditionsforproductionandreception
ofmeanings;whichspecifywhocanclaimtoinitiate(produce,
communicate)orreceive(know,understand)meaningsaboutwhat
topicsunderwhatcircumstancesandwithwhatmodalities(how,
when,why)”(ibid).
Advertisingisapracticethatprojectsaworldinwhichsocialidentityis
determinednotsomuchbywhosomeoneis,orwhattheydo,butbywhatthey
58
consume,thuspositioningeveryoneasconsumersandthoseworkingin
marketingaspartieswhoknowtheirneedsandwants,andareableandwilling
tosatisfythem.Notallsemioticiansorphilosophersarewillingtodrawsucha
sharpdistinctionbetweenthetwoworlds.Ifadvertisementsaretobeviewedas
signsinthewidestsense,andtoacceptSaussure’sviewthatthesignifierand
signifiedare,tousehismetaphor,twosidesofthesamepieceofpaper,thenthe
questionastotheextenttowhichadvertisementscanbeperceivedasbeing
separateandremovedfromthecommoditiestheyareadvertisingbecomesmore
complex.
2.12METALANGUAGE
Metalanguageisvariouslydefinedas“alanguageusedtodescribelanguage”
(Lyons,1995:p.7)and“asystemfordescribingalanguagethatdoesnotrelyon
itself”(LynneMurphy,2010:p.45).Theoriginalfocusofmetalanguagewasto
describeaspectsof,andmakejudgmentsabout,otherlanguages,butitisnow
morewidelyusedtorefertolanguageconceptsineverydayuseandalsoasa
specialregisterusedinthediscoursesoflinguists,philosophers,scientistsand
others.Insomeinstances,metalanguagesaredistinctfromthelanguagesthey
describe.Others,however,arereflexive,meaningtheyareabletotalkabout
themselvesintermsthatare,orarenearto,ordinarylanguageand,assuch,may
belesspreciseandtherebyopentoawiderrangeofinterpretations.Preston
(2004)claimslinguistsextendthenotionofmetalanguage“torefersimplyto
mentionoftalkitself”(p.85)andthatexpressionssuchas“inotherwords”and
“doyouunderstandme”constituteakindofmetalanguage.Analysingthe
metalanguagethatadvertisingpractitionersemployislikelytobeinsightfulfor
thisthesisinexplainingtheirownprofessionalcommunicationalpractice,
includinghowsuchterminologycontributestotheformulationand
developmentofideas.
59
Likemostspecializedfields,advertisinghasitsownvocabularywhichconsists
ofwordsandphrases,oftenmetaphorical,andwhichwouldbe
incomprehensibletosomeoneunfamiliarwiththisfield,althoughthisvaries
betweenindividuals.Someterms,suchas“caption”,“promotion”and“voice
over”maybewidelyunderstood,whileothers,suchas“copy”,“segmentation”
and“scamps”wouldbeobscure.Thisiscomplicatedbythefactthatsometerms
areusedexclusivelyinadvertising,othersareusedinmarketinggenerallywhich
includesadvertisingandothersstillhaveamoregeneralbusinessapplication.
Examplesofmetalanguageareexaminedinthisstudyastheyariseandwhere
theyaredeemedtoberelevantininvestigatingtheprocessesofgeneratingand
developingideasanddiscussingtheprocessesinthecreationofadvertisements.
Semioticapproaches,especiallythekindsuggestedbysuchasBarthes(1957),
appeartoofferameansbywhichthecodescanbeinterpretedtorevealmost
subtle,culturally-basedsubtextsandtheyarethusappropriatefor
understandingtheoperationofpurelybrand-basedadvertisementssuchasthe
glossymagazinekindmentioned.Theyencompassalltheoriesof
communicationasopposedtojustlanguageusing,forexample,multimodality,to
accountfortheeffectsachievedbyjuxtaposinglanguagewithimagery,andthe
syntagmaticsequencingthatoccursinsequencedadvertisingcampaigns.More
generalcriticismsofsemioticsasananalyticmethodincludetheclaimsthat:
“semioticianspresenttheiranalysesasiftheywerepurelyobjective'scientific'
accountsratherthansubjectiveinterpretations”(Chandler,2014:p.1)and
“semioticanalysisislooselyimpressionisticandhighlyunsystematic”(ibid).
Criticismsthatmayrelatemorespecificallytotheanalysisofadvertisinginclude
thosebyTanaka(1994),whopointsoutthatinterpretingadvertisementsas
simplydecodingsignscannotaccountforlinguisticmessageswhichare
intentionallypolysemous.Itwould,forexample,bedifficulttoseehowany
semioticapproachcouldsatisfactorilyexplainwhyareaderorviewermightfind
anintentionalambiguityorpunusedinanadvertisemententertainingand
therebystimulateinterestinabrandorproduct.Leissetal(1990)make
particularcriticismof“semiology”(p.198)asananalyticalmethodfor
60
advertiserswhentheyaccusesemioticanalystsofbeinginclinedtobehighly
subjectiveand“dependentupontheskilloftheindividualanalyst”(p.214)andto
selectadvertisementswhichproveaparticularpointtheyaretryingtomake
whichcarries“thedangerofself-confirmingresults”(ibid).Whileitmaybe
appositetodothiswhencompilingasemioticstextbooktobeusedonmarketing
coursessuchasthebooksmentionedinChapter5ofthisthesisandinorderto
explaintheories,selectingillustrativeexampleswouldbeofonlylimitedvaluein
empiricalresearch.
Whilesemioticsconsiderscommunicationtoconsistoftheencodingand
decodingofmessages,thenextchapterconsidersadifferentapproachto
communicationintermsofhowmessagesarecreatedandmeaningisrecovered
havingregardtocontext,andtheimplicationsofcontexttoadvertisingtexts.
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CHAPTER3-ADVERTISINGFROMAPRAGMATICPERSPECTIVE
3.1CHAPTERINTRODUCTION
Asisclearinthethesisquestions,akeypurposeofthisstudyistoestablishhow
producersofadvertisementsworktoensurereaders’andviewers’attentionis
drawntoaprintedadvertisementandtheprocessbywhichasufficientdegree
ofunderstandingisachievedinordertofulfillitspurpose,ortoencouragethe
readertoinvestigatetheadvertisementfurther.Whilethepreviouschapter
outlinesapproachesthatexplaintheunderstandingfromasemioticperspective
andtheroleplayedbysignifiers,thischapterexploreshowmorerecent
theoreticalapproachesfromthefieldofpragmaticsareappliedinorderto
uncoverwhethersuchmeaningsmaybebetterunderstoodasbeingconveyed
throughimplicature23.Itconsiderscertainstylisticandrhetoricaldevicesthat
areaccountedforsemanticallyorcontextually,includingintentionalambiguity,
metaphorsandpuns.Lastly,thedistinctionbetweenhardandsoftadvertising
approachesisdiscussedandthisisbasedprimarilyonBernstein's(1974)
differentiationof“reason”and“tickle”strategies.
Pragmatics,likesemiotics,hasphilosophicalantecedentsthatcanbetracedback
toancientGreece,accordingtoHanke(1990).However,mostmodern
pragmatictheoriesaremorerecentand,accordingtoLevinson(1983),manyof
themoverlapwithothersub-disciplineswithinlinguistics.Atitsmostbasic
level,semioticsissimplythestudyofsigns(Harris,1996:p.112;Bignell,2002:p.
5;Chandler,2009:p.1),althoughthisdefinitionmaybeconsideredan
oversimplificationinviewofthedevelopmentswithinthefieldsinceits
inceptionintheearlypartofthetwentiethcentury.Pragmatics,meanwhile,is
describedasthe“relationofsignstointerpreters”(Morris,1938,pp.6-7,from
23”Implicature”atermcoinedbyHPGriceandwhichreferstoanindirectorimplicitspeechactinwhichwhataspeakermeansinanutteranceisnotpartofwhatisexplicitlystated.Thiswillbefurtherdescribedin2.2.2,below.
62
Levinson,1983;p.1),whileLevinsonoffershisown,somewhatfullerdefinition
as:“thestudyofthoserelationsbetweenlanguageandcontextthatare
grammaticalizedorencodedinthestructureofalanguage”[p.9]
AsdiscussedinSubchapter2.5,above,RomanJakobson,whoisgenerally
regardedasasemiotician,suggestssomefunctionsoflanguagefromapragmatic
perspectivebyfocusingontheintentionorpurposeofanyparticularutterance.
Whilethiscontributestounderstandinglanguage,thedegreetowhichit
explainslanguagethroughcontextislimitedtoaspectssuchasthepurposeof
thecommunication.
Semantics,inthelinguisticsense,isastudyofmeaningwhichintersectswith
semiotics,pragmaticsandotherdisciplinesrelatedtocommunicationand,
accordingtoPalmer(1981:pp.83-85),tologic.Asaconsequence,itwillalmost
inevitablyfeatureinanyexaminationoftextsthatseektoexplainthecreation
andcomprehensionofmeaning.Whereassemanticsisconcernedwiththe
relationsbetweensignsandthephenomenatowhichtheyrefer,pragmatics
considersthecontextofthecommunication,andthishastobeachievedby
analysingfactorsexternaltothetextswithinwhichthesesignsexist,butwhich
determineorinfluencemeaning.However,theboundarybetweensemantics
andpragmaticsisnotalwaysasharpone.Strawson(1952)pointstoa
differencebetweenspeakermeaningandlinguisticmeaning;thisisdeveloped
byGrice(1989),whoidentifiesadistinctionbetweenwhatissaidandwhatis
implicated.Pragmaticswasinitiallyconcernedwithexchangesintheformof
interactionbetweeninterlocutors,ascanbeseenfromsomeofitskeytheories
suchasAustin’sspeechacttheory(assubsequentlydevelopedbySearle),and
Grice’scooperativeprinciple.However,morerecentscholarshavemade
tentativeeffortstoextendpragmaticapproachesbeyondimmediate,orface-to-
face,dialogueandintotherealmofmasscommunication,includingadvertising
(e.g.Pateman,1983;Tanaka,1994).
Inthischapter,themainprinciplesrelatingtothetheoriesproposedbyAustin
andGriceareoutlinedfirst,andthenadetailedexaminationoftheworkby
linguistswhohaveutilisedpragmatictheoriesandmodelsinexplaininghow
63
advertisementsseektocontextualisethemselvesismade,andthewaysby
whichadvertisersareabletoinvoketheencyclopaedicknowledge24oftheir
readersisconsidered.WorksstudiedincludethosebyMyers(1994),Cook
(1992)Tanaka(1994)andSimpson(2000).
3.2OVERVIEWOFTHEORIESOFIMPLICATURE
ThelecturesandpapersofOxfordphilosopherJohnLangshawAustinarethe
precursorsofwhatisnowregardedasmodernpragmatics,anavenueofstudy
thatinvestigatesthedistinctionsbetweenwhatissaidandwhatismeant
(Levinson,1983:pp.226-227).Amonghisbest-knownworksisHowtoDo
ThingswithWords,publishedin1962.Inanefforttoaddresstheapparent
inadequaciesinthefieldoftruth-conditionalsemanticsand,inparticular,their
inabilitytoexplainallutterancetypes,Austinproposesthatmanysuch
utterancescannotbeassignedasimpletruthvalue(Grundy,2008:p.71).Some
declarativestatements,suchas:“thepresentKingofFranceisbald”arecapable
ofbeinguttered,yettheyaremeaningless,astheyappeartocontainafalse
premise,namelythatthereissuchanentityasthepresentkingofFrance,while
otherstatementscontaininternalcontradictions.Austindiscernsadistinction
betweena“locutionaryact”(Levinson,1983:p.236)andan“illocutionaryact”
(ibid),andtheformerisexplainedbyLevinson(1983)as:“theutteranceofa
sentencewithdeterminatesenseandreference”(ibid).Illocutionaryactsdescribe
whataspeakerdoeswhenperformingalocutionaryact,suchaswhetherheor
sheiscommanding,promising,threateningandsoon,andthespeaker’s
intentionwhenproducingtheutteranceisknownasthe“illocutionaryforce”
(ibid).Theseshouldthenbeassessednotintermsoftruthconditionality,butin
24 The term “encyclopedic knowledge” is used by Tanaka (1994: p. 27) to describe pre-existing knowledge. This is not explained by Tanaka but, for the purpose of this study, it will be assumed that it approximately equates with Fairclough’s (2000) notion of “Member Resources” (MR), which he defines as being “what people have in their heads and draw upon when they produce and interpret texts” (p.20). This is also a concept extensively used in Relevance Theory and will be described in detail in Chapter 2.2.3, below.
64
termsoftheirsuccessorfailure,i.e.theeffecttheiractshaveuponthereceiver,
whichhereferstoasthe“perlocutionaryact”(ibid)andwhichmay,inturn,give
risetoaresponseonthepartofthehearerwhichhereferstoasthe
“perlocutionaryeffect”(p.237).Themajorityofillocutionaryactsareimplicit
ratherthanexplicitbecausetheydonotinvolvetheuseofoneofalimitedrange
ofperformativeverbsthatsignaltheact.Thiscanbedemonstratedby
contrasting:
(implicit)Thismeetingisover.
(explicit)I(hereby)declarethismeetingclosed.
Thelatterinvolvestheuseofafirstpersonsingularverb,the(usually)optional
adverb“hereby”andaperformativeverb.Theparticularutterancethatcloses
themeetingalsodependsupontheexistenceofcertainconditionsinorderto
achievetheintendedperlocution.Oneoftheseisthatthepersonutteringthe
performativehassomerecognisedauthoritytodoso;anotheristhatthe
situationinwhichthespeechactoccursisappropriatewhileathirdrequires
thatcertainperformativeverbsareused.Austin’stheorywasrevisedand
modifiedseveraltimesduringhislifetime,butitsweaknessesgraduallybecame
evident(Levinson,1983).Amongtheweaknessesidentifiedinthistheoryare
thedifficultiesindistinguishingaclearsetofverbswhichareperformativefrom
thosewhicharenot,andthosewhichareperformativecanbeusedinother
ways;thisistheconceptfamiliartolinguistsandgrammariansandmentionedin
Subchapter2.5,above,namelythatformdoesnotalwaysequalfunction(p.239).
OneofAustin’scolleaguesatOxfordinthe1940sand1950sworkingon
languagephilosophywasPaulGrice,whoformulatedahugelyinfluentialtheory
withinthefieldofpragmaticswhich,likespeechacttheory,isaimedat
distinguishingtheliteralmeaningofwhatissaidfrom“whatismeant”(Grandy
&Warner,2014:p.1).Griceproposesthat,inutterancesinwhichthereisa
65
layerofliteralmeaningthatcanbeidentifiedasbeingdistinctfromtheother
layersofmeaning,therearetwopossibletypesofimplicatureandhenames
these“conventionalimplicature”and“conversationalimplicature”.Conventional
implicatureoccurswherecertaingrammaticalforms,suchasconjunctions,are
used,forinstancebut,yet,stillandtherefore(Levinson,1983:pp.127-128).In
theutterance:“Sheispoor,butsheishonest”,theuseofbutiscontrastiveandso
carriesanimplicationthatthehonestyofthesubjectoftheclauseswould
otherwisebequestionedbecauseofherpoverty,althoughthisisnotexplicated.
Similarly,with:“SheusedtoworkattheSavoy,thereforewecanexpectherfoodto
begood”,thewordthereforeimpliesthatthesubject’spreviousemploymentcan
beregardedasaguaranteeofherculinaryskills.However,thisseemingly
straightforwardconceptisnotbeyondchallenge.Bach(1999:p.365)claims
thereisnosuchthingasconventionalimplicature,andremindsreadersthat
evenGriceacceptedthatitneededtobeexaminedbeforebecomingwidelyused.
Whilehiscontributionofferssomeclaritywithregardtothesupposedboundary
thatmaydividewhatissaid(thesemantics)fromwhatisimplicated(the
pragmatics),BachtakestheviewthatthephenomenaGriceclaimstobe
conventionalimplicatureshouldberegardedas“examplesofsomethingelse”(p.
365)andnothingmorethanpartofwhatissaid.Bachprovidesanexampleof
thiswiththeutterance:“Shaqishugebutheisagile”(Bach,1999:p.327).Thisis
differentiatedfrom“Shaqishugeandheisagile”(Ibid)byvirtueofthe
conventionalmeaningoftheconjunctionbutbeingcontrastiveratherthan
merelyadditive,asisthecasewithand.
ThesecondtypeofimplicatureGriceproposesisconversationalimplicature,
whichispredicatedonabeliefthat,whenengaginginconversation,human
beingscooperatebymeansofanunspokenunderstandingastotherules25of
theirinteraction.Thereisanunderlyingassumptionthatallpartieswilladhere
totheserules,butsubjecttocertainmutuallyunderstoodexceptions.Therules
existunderanoverarchingprinciplewhichhewordedasfollows:
25Itshouldbenotedthat,inspiteoftheimperativeformusedbyGrice,these”rules”are
intendedtobeusedtodescribetheprocessofcommunicationanditscooperativenatureandshouldnotberegardedasprescriptiveorevenadvisory.
66
“Makeyourcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichit
occurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangein
whichyouareengaged.”(Levinson,1983:p.101)
Subordinatetothisbroadprinciple,Griceproposesfourconversationalmaxims
thatenableparticipantstogenerateandinterpretimplicatureandtheseare:
MaximofQuantity: Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasis
required(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange).Donotmake
yourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.(ibid)
MaximofQuality: Trytomakeyourcontributiononethatistrue.
Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.Donotsaythatforwhichyou
lackadequateevidence.(Levinson,1983:p.101)
MaximofRelation: Berelevant.(Levinson,1983:p.102)
MaximofManner: Avoidobscurityofexpression.
Avoidambiguity.
Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).
Beorderly.(ibid)
Itissuggestedthat,forthemostpart,speakersadheretotheseandassumetheir
interlocutorsaredoingthesame,eveniftheyarenotconsciousofdoingso.
67
However,onemayalsofailtoobserveamaximforvariousreasons.Thismaybe
byinfringingamaxim,whichcanoccurwherethefailureisunintentionaland
thereisnoattempttogenerateanimplicatureatall.Inthebelowexample,a
smallchildisattemptingtocooperatebyansweringthequestion,butperhaps
alsoinfringingthequantitymaximbybeingmoreinformativethanwas
required:
Teacher “Didyourdaddybringyoutoschooltoday?”
Child “No,thatwasn’tmydaddy.Heisinprison.”
Thetypeofnon-observanceofmaximswhichismostheavilydependentupon
implicatureisthatwhichisblatant,i.e.wherethespeakerunderstandsthe
implicitrules,expectsthattheheareralsounderstandsthem,willrecognizethe
non-observanceanddrawanimplicaturefromthat.Thisisknownas“flouting”
(Grundy,2008:pp.97-98)oneormoreofthemaximsand,inthiscase,thereis
nointentiontodeceiveormisleadthehearer.Instead,theintentionistoinvite
thelistenertofollowaprocessofreasoningandtoarriveatanintended
interpretationthroughimplicature.Inthecaseofquantity,forexample,a
speakermightfloutamaximasawayofhinting,orbeingeconomicalwith
words,asinthecaseofbothspeakers,below:
SpeakerA.There’squiteabitofwashingupthisevening.
SpeakerB.Iwashedupafterlunch.
SpeakerA’sutteranceconsistsofasimpledeclarativesentenceandmaybe
interpretedassuch,orasahintthatSpeakerAbelievesthatSpeakerBshould
undertakeorassistinthewashingup.Whilethereareseveralpossible
interpretationsofSpeakerB’smeaning,amongthemisthathe/sheisimplicating
68
his/herunwillingnesstowashuponthebasisthatshehasdonesopreviously
thesameday.However,thisalsoillustratessomeoftheproblemswithGrice’s
theory.Intheaboveexample,thereisarangeofpossibleinterpretations
availablefromthefloutingofthequantitymaxim,allofwhicharedefeasible,e.g.
SpeakerB.Iwashedupafterlunch,sothereshouldonlybeafew
dishestowashfromsupper.
Or:
SpeakerB.Iwashedupafterlunch.Todayismydayfordoingthe
washingup.
Theconceptsof“loosetalk”and“faithfulness”,whichstemfromGrice’smaximof
quality,carryassumptionsthatthetruthfulnessanddetailnecessaryforany
interactionisamatterofdegree,accordingtoitsnatureandpurpose.Thisis
discussedindetailinSubchapter3.6,buttheexamplebelowisaquotationofa
Britishnewspaperheadlinewhichprecedesastorypublishedin2014:
“CanterburyCathedral'sgirls'choirtobreak1,000yearsofall-male
tradition”(Anon:2014)
Inthiscase,thefigurecitedof1,000-yearsmayhavebeenprecise–thetradition
mayhaveexistedsincetheyearAD1014.However,itseemsmorelikelythatit
wouldhavebeenanapproximation,andthatmostreaderswouldhave
interpreteditassuch.Thisperceptionissupportedbythesub-headlineofthe
samestory,whichreads:
69
“Tonighta900-yeartraditionofmale-onlychoirsatCanterburyCathedral
willcometoanend,whenthebrand-newCanterburyCathedralGirls’Choir
makesitsdebutatSungEvensong”[Ibid]
Incontrast,CanterburyCathedral’sownwebsiteprovidedfarmorespecific
informationastodates,presumablybecausereaderswhohadaninterestin
historywerepresumedtopreferexactdates:
“1070-1077CathedralrebuiltbyArchbishopLanfranc
1098-1130NewQuirebuiltoveraCrypt(presentWesternCrypt)
1170ThomasBecketmurderedintheCathedral”
(CanterburyCathedralwebsite)
OneofthelimitationsofusingGrice’sapproachinanalyzinganutteranceortext
isthatthereisnosystematicmethodorprotocolfordeterminingwhichofthe
possibleinterpretationsistheintendedone.Anotheristhatthereissometimes
anoverlapintermsofwhichmaximisbeingflouted,asinSpeakerB’sutterance
“Iwashedupafterlunch”,whereadifferentmeaningcouldberecovered
dependinguponwhetherthehearerhadcalculateditasafloutingofquantityor
ofrelation.
Cook,whoseworksonthediscourseofadvertising,publishedin1992and2001,
offersawide-rangingexaminationofthegenreofadvertisingontelevisionand
inprintandheprovidesperspectivesbasedonmodelsfromseverallinguistic
70
sub-disciplines.However,pragmaticapproachesdonotfeatureprominentlyin
hisworksandarelittleusedinhisanalysisofactualadvertisements.Healludes
tothetwoconversationalprinciples,namelyGrice’sco-operativeprinciple,as
describedabove,andGeoffreyLeech’spolitenessprinciple,whichincludesthe
maximsofavoidingimposition,makingthehearerfeelgoodandgivingthe
heareroptions.Cook(2001)pointsoutthatthelatteraremainlyphatic,i.e.
concernedwithestablishingandmaintainingsocialrelationshipsandthat,as
withGrice’smaxims,Leech’smayattimesappeartoconflictwithoneanother.
Heacknowledgesthatthetwoconversationalprinciplesmaybeculturally
universal26,butargues:
“theyarenotequallyapplicabletoallgenres.Theybelongverymuch
tothespokenphaticdiscourseinwhichrelationshipsareneitherof
unequalpowernorofgreatintimacy….Neitheradvertisingnor
literaturecanbeeasilyaccountedforintermsofconversational
principles.”(p.154)
Cook(2001)goesontoproposethatthereisagulfbetweenthepurposeof
phaticdiscoursesandthoseofliterature–therelationshipbetweenthe
addresseeandaddresserbeingoneofextremedistance,asisthecasein
advertising.Modernadvertisingmethods,heasserts,arenomoreconcerned
withconveyingtruththanareworksoffiction.Cook(2001)maintainsthat,
owingtolegalandotherconstraints,advertisersshyawayfromfactualclaims
forwhichtheycanbeheldresponsibleandsotheyadoptotherstrategies.
Withoutrejectinghisviewsoutofhand,itmustbeacknowledgedthatmany
advertisementsaredesignedtomimicface-to-faceconversation.Themodesof
address,grammaticalaspects(suchaspersonalandpossessivepronounuse),
26Thisseemsodd,astherehavebeenmanystudies(e.g.Huang,2008;Spencer-Oatey&Jiang,
2003)whichdescribetheproblemswiththeconversationalprinciplesincross-culturalcommunication.
71
useofimperativeandinterrogativestructures,statementswhichexpress
empathy,solidarityandevenintimacywiththereader,emulatefeaturesof
conversationandarethus,subjecttocertainlimitations,amenabletoanalysisby
useoftheconversationalprinciplesproposedbybothGriceandLeech.Thisis
especiallythecasewhenitcomestotheforegroundedtextsusedtocaptureand
sustaintheinterestofareaderandthefloutingofGrice’smaximsisamuch-
favouredstrategyforachievingthis.TheTommyHilfigeradvertisement
mentionedinSubchapter2.6,above,demonstrateshowadvertisementsmay
floutthemaximofquantityastheyconsistofnothingmorethanacarefully
constructedimagewiththeproductorbrandnamestrategicallyplaced.They
mayuseatextwhichisobscure27or,uponfirstreading,nonsensical28,again
floutingmaximssuchasquantityandrelevance,andperhapsalsothemaximof
mannerastheyfailtobeperspicuous.Insomecases,theyinvitemorethanone
interpretation29andsofloutthemaximofmannerbyvirtueoftheirambiguity.
Asadvertisementsinmagazineshavetocompetewithjournalisticcontentand
otheradvertisementsforreaderattention,theymustalsomakethemselvesboth
conspicuousandrelevanttothereadermoreorlessimmediatelyiftheyareto
avoidbeingpassedover.
WithregardtoGrice,Tanaka(1994)considersGeis’s(1982)contributioninhis
workonthepragmaticsoftelevisionadvertising.Headvancesanddevelops
Grice’snotionthatinferencingasdescribedbyGriceattemptstoofferamore
robustexplanationastohowsuchtextsareunderstood,andhethen
reformulatesthemaximstosomeextentforthatpurpose.Heincreasesthe
numberofmaximstosix,ostensiblybydividingGrice’sQuantityintotwo
maximswhichhecallsStrength(saynolessthanisnecessary)andParsimony
(saynomorethanisnecessary)andhereassignsQualityastwomaxims,namely
Truth(donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse)andEvidence(donotsaythatfor
whichyoulackadequateevidence).Heoffersawayofestablishingwhethera
27AsintheAudicaradvertisementdescribedinSubchapter3.5,below.
28AsintheBoddington'sbeeradvertisementdescribedinSubchapter3.6,below.
29AsinthePlayer'scigarettesadvertisementdescribedinSubchapter3.7,below.
72
sentenceconversationallyimpliesapropositioninthatitcanbeachievedonlyif
theliteralmeaningisunderstood,generalconversationalprinciplesare
observed,thecontextisknownandthereisacommonbackgroundknowledge
sharedbetweenthespeakers.Heproposesthatthereisahierarchyofmaxims
whichoperateswheretwoormoreconversationalmaximsoccurinopposition,
withRelationseeminglybeingsuperiorintheinterpreter’smind(ibid).
Geis(1982)alsonotesthatthosewhodesignadvertisementsareinclinedto
makethestrongestclaimstheycaninfavouroftheirproducts,butusingshort
statementsthatareunprovable,largelybyuseofhedgingexpressionsandwith
wordsindicatingonlyprobability,suchasmodalverbs(Geis,1982,fromTanaka,
1994).Tanaka(1994)highlightswhatsheclaimstobeaweaknessinthis
approach,towit,thatitistooheavilydependentuponrigidrulesand,aswith
semioticapproaches,itfailstoaccountforcontext.
3.3LIMITATIONSOFGRICE/RELEVANCETHEORY
CriticsofGrice(e.g.Thomas,1995;SperberandWilson,1995)arguethathis
attempttoexplaintheprocessofimplicatureisincompleteandvague.Grice’s
explanationissuggestedtoappealmainlytointuitionasopposedtoofferinga
fullyreasonedortestableexplanationastohowutterancesareunderstood.
SperberandWilson(1995)offertheiralternativeproposal,knownas“Relevance
Theory”,andwhichadvancesthenotionthatrelevanceisthekeytoattracting
attentiontoaparticularstimulus.Thisis,theyclaim,achievedthroughanactof
ostensivecommunication:
“anactofostensivecommunicationmustattracttheaudience’s
attention.Inthatsense,anactofostensionisarequestforattention.
Someonewhoasksyoutobehaveinacertainway,eitherphysically
73
orcognitively,suggeststhathehasgoodreasontothinkthatit
mightbeinyourowninterests,aswellashis,tocomplywithhis
request”(p.155].
Whereanactofostensive-inferentialcommunicationoccurs,thecommunicator
intendsthatitwillberelevanttothehearerandthatthehearerwillrecognise
thespeaker’sintentionandthatthespeakerbelievesitisworththehearer’s
attention(Sperber&Wilson,1995).However,theeffortneededbothto
generateastimulusonthepartofthespeaker,andtheeffortneededtoprocess
itbythehearer,arealsoimportantconsiderations.Itisthespeaker’s
responsibilitytoselectthemostefficientandeconomicalstimuliforthepurpose
andtheremustbeapresumptionofthisiftheheareristobereasonably
expectedtomaketheeffortrequiredtoprocesstheutterance,whilethehearer
simplyhastorecovertheintendedmeaningaidedbytheprincipleofrelevance.
WilsonandSperber(2012:p.65)callthismutualunderstanding“the
presumptionofoptimalrelevance”;itiscommunicatedbyeveryactofostensive
communicationand“everyutteranceconveysapresumptionofitsownoptimal
relevance”(ibid).
SperberandWilson(1995)raisethequestionsastowhethercontextisgivenor
chosenandhowtheparticularassumptionsusedininterpretationofaparticular
messageareselected.Contextmaybeunderstoodsimplyastheresultof
whateverutterancesprecededit,assumingtherewereanysuchutterances,ora
combinationoftheutterancestogetherwithanyimplicatures.Sperberand
Wilson(1995)recognisethistobeaninadequateexplanationtoaccountforall
situations,suchaswhereanassumptionmustbepredicatedonknowledge
storedinthememoryintheformofan“encyclopaedicentry”(p.86).For
instance,alludingtoNapoleonwouldinstantaneouslyactivateasetof
assumptionsaboutthathistoricalfigure,assumingthehearerhadsome
knowledgeofhim,andsuchentriesareaddedtothecontexttoexplainthe
operationoftheimplicature.Then,furtherlayersofsuchentrieswouldbe
attachedtotheconceptsmentioneduntilthecontext,consistingentirelyof
74
encyclopaedicmemory,becomesvast.Thetaskofprocessingwouldbe
enormouswereitnotforthementalmechanismbywhichspeakersareableto
accessthosepreciseaspectsthatareneededwhiledisregardingthosewhichare
not(ibid).
Asrelevancedecreaseswiththedegreeofeffortneededtoprocessinformation,
SperberandWilson(1995)assertthatitgraduallybecomeslesspossibleto
achievemorethanminimalrelevance,eventuallycausingthenotiontobe
rejected.Onthatbasis,theymaintainthatcontextiscreatedeitherpriortothe
comprehensionprocesscommencing,orasapreliminarystageintheprocess,
andsothepossibilityremainsthatchoicesandrevisionsmaybeavailablein
contextformation.Thesechoicesare,however,limitedbythe“organisationof
theindividual’sencyclopaedicmemory,andthementalactivityinwhichheis
engaged”(p.137)andprocessingtheinformationaccordingtotheprincipleof
relevancemaybedependentuponthehearer’sabilitytoaddtotheinitial
context.Whatisaddedisinformationrecoveredfromshort-termmemory(e.g.
utterancesimmediatelypriortotheproposition),longer-termmemory
(includingencyclopaedicknowledge)orperception.Inturn,anyinabilitybythe
hearertoprocessthesemaylimittheextenttowhichthecommunicationwill
succeed.Mutuallysharedknowledgeisnotalwaysessentialasthecontextual
implicationcouldbederivedinanotherway,suchaswhereareplycontainsan
assumptionfromwhichthehearercanmakeadeduction,asinthefollowing
example:
aTim:Wouldyoulikeadoughnut?
bBill:I’vejustbeendiagnosedashavingglutenintolerance
TimwouldbeabletoprocessBill’sreplyand,bydrawinginferences,deduceits
relevanceasaresponsetotheparticularquestionasked.Hewouldderivethe
contextualimplicationthatBill’sdiagnosismeansheisprobablyprecludedfrom
eatingfoodssuchasdoughnuts.RelevanceTheoryexplainshow,through
75
deductiveinferencing,appropriatereferentsareidentifiedandpossible
ambiguitiesareresolved,thusfillingthegapbetweentheencodedutteranceand
itsultimateinterpretation.Grundy(2008)offersanexamplewiththepossible
interpretationsoftheutterance“Haveyouseenmybook?”(p.139).Amonga
rangeofpossiblemeaningsfromthiscouldincludeanindirectquestionasto
whethertheaddresseehasactuallyborrowedthespeaker’sbookwithout
permission,orwhethertheaddresseehasreadorhadsightofabookthatwas
writtenbythespeaker.Asisthecasewithallotherutterances,thequestion
“haveyouseenmybook?”ismade:
• withaguaranteeofitsownrelevance
• onthebasisofabeliefbythespeakerastothecognitiveabilitiesand
contextualresourcesofthehearer
• inawaythatisradicallyunder-determined,withawiderangeoflogical
andsemanticrelations.
Thus,theaddressee,withtheaidofhisorherowncontextualand
encyclopaedicresources,isabletorecovertheintendedmeaningonlyifheor
shehasfollowedaprocessofdeductiveinferencing.Thereis,however,no
guaranteethatthehearer’sinterpretationwillexactly,orevenapproximately,
mirrorspeakerintentionandmisunderstandingcanthusoccur.Sperberand
Wilson(1995)attempttolookbeyondwhattheyregardassimplisticand
empiricallyunsupportednotionsofmutualknowledgeandsharedinformation
bydescribingthe“cognitiveenvironment”(p.38).Theydescribehoweach
individuallivesinaphysicalworldinwhichheorsheacquiresinformationand
constructsmentalrepresentations,andtheyarguethathisorhercognitive
environmentconsistsoftheaccumulationofinformationthatismanifesttothat
person.Forafacttobemanifest,itmustbeperceptibleorinferable:
“if,andonlyifheiscapableatthattimeofrepresentingitmentally
andacceptingitsrepresentationastrueorprobablytrue.”[p.39]
76
Whileaspeakerhasnodirectcontrolovertheknowledgeandthought
processesofhisinterlocutor,heorshemayhavesomedegreeofcontroloverhis
cognitiveenvironmentandthismayindirectlyaffecthisthoughts.Sperberand
Wilson(1995)distinguishbetweeninformativeandcommunicativeintentions
inbothovertandcovertcommunicationandhowtheyareusedin
fundamentallydifferentways.Theinformativeintentionissimplytoinformthe
audienceofsomething,whilethecommunicativeintentiondescribesthe
intentiontoinformtheaudienceoftheinformativeintention.Achievingthis
requirestheproductionofanappropriatestimulus,andonethatbearsa
guaranteeofitsownrelevance.Thisaspecthasparticularsignificancein
advertisingandisdiscussedfurtherinSubchapter3.5below.
3.4DEIXISANDPRONOUNS
Myers(1994)describessentencetypesandstructuresusedinadvertising,
includinghowandwhyadvertisersareinclinedtouseimperativesor
interrogativesinpreferencetoindicatives,andthatwordsorstringsofwords
whichdonotconstitutecompletegrammaticalsentencesareoftenpunctuated
assentences.Hebeginsbymakingfivekeypoints(pp.3–10),thefirstbeing
thatadvertisements“aremadeupofpatternsoftextualchoices”,andhe
exemplifiesthiswithpoeticeffectsemployedinsomecatchphrasesusedinthe
marketingofAerochocolatebars.Hissecondpointadducesthepresenceof
intertextualfeaturesandhowtheseareinterpretedinrelationtoothertexts,
andhedirectsthereadertoaTVadvertisementforbreakfastcerealdepicting
thefamiliarcharactersfromtheRobinHoodfolktale.Myers’thirdpoint
proposesthatadvertisementsare“stereotypicalactsofcommunication”(ibid)
andthusconstituteagenreintheirownright.Inthisrespect,hecompares
advertisementstoliterarygenreswhere,forexample,murder-mysterystories
77
followcertainlines,butdistinguishthemselvesatsomepointbypresentingthe
readerwithsomethingwhichdeviatesfromtheirexpectationandwhichmakes
theexperienceentertaining.Hedevelopsthisargumentbyrelatinghowthe
cerealadvertisementmentionedportraysahumoroussituationinwhichthe
producthelpsthefamiliarhero(RobinHood)defeatthevillain.Thisviewaligns
withCook’s(2003)descriptionofadvertisingasbeingadistinctivediscourse.
ThefourthpointofMyers'(1994)pointsisthatanadvertisement“constructs
positionsfortheaudience”(p.6).Hesubstantiatesthisfirstlybyconsideringthe
referentofthepronoun“you”intheAeroadvertisement,andthenhighlights
howaTVviewerwatchingaseriesofcommercialsispositionedseveraltimesin
rapidsuccessionasachocolateeater(Aero),acatowner(Whiskascatfood),a
parent(Fairywashing-upliquid)anadolescent(acnemedication)andayuppie
(FerreroRocherchocolates).WhatMyers(1994)doesnotexploretoanygreat
extentinthisargumentistheexistenceofadvertisementsaimedatapurchaser
whoisnotaconsumer.Thereisclearlyanelementofthiswiththecatfood
example,butthereareadvertisementsthatareaimedatparentswhomaybuy
productsfortheirchildren30,andthosebuyinggifts31.Lastly,Myersreminds
readersofhow“audiencesreconstructadsindiverseways”(p.7).Heexplains
thisbyrelatinghowhisowndaughter,asachild,watchedanadvertisement
portrayingthecharacterRobinHoodwhowas,atthetime,runningaway.The
explanationshegavehimofherunderstandingofwhyRobinHoodwasfleeing
(presumablyfromtheSheriffofNottingham),wasthathedidnotlikethe
breakfastcerealbeingmarketedintheadvertisement.Thiswasalmostcertainly
notthemeaningintendedbytheproducersofthecommercial,butMyers’
daughterwouldperhapshavebeentooyoungtobefamiliarwiththegenreof
advertising,ortohaverememberedtheoriginalTVprogrammethatthe
advertisementparodied(ibid).
30OneexampleofthisisthetelevisionadvertisementbyCadbury’sinthe1980sthatusedajingle:“Afingeroffudgeisjustenoughtogiveyourkidsatreat”.
31Anadvertisementcreatedinthe1960sforArpègeperfumehadthetagline“Promiseheranything,butgiveherArpège.”ThiscanbeseeninAppendix4:Image18.
78
Myers(1994)suggeststhattheuseofpronouns32inadvertisingisafavoured
approachbecauseadvertisementsareattemptingtoreproducesomeofthe
functionsandmethodsofsalespeople,demonstratingempathyandsolidarity,an
awarenessoftheaudienceorreaders’concerns,andthuswinningthetrustof
thepotentialcustomer.Preciselywhatconstitutestheparticularconcerns
whicheachhumanbeingconsiderstobeimportantandevenmostintimateis,of
course,whollysubjective.Thefactthatadvertisementsaremostly
indiscriminateintermsofwhoisaddressedmeansthataproportionofthem
willhavenoconcernsthatareofrelevancetothepurchaser/consumer.
Obviousexamplesmightincludeadvertisementsformaleshavingproducts
whenviewedbywomen,orfemalecosmeticswhenviewedbymen.Cook’s
(2001)notionoftheprojectionoftheselfinothergenresmightoffersome
insightsintohowaddresseesrespondtosuchadvertisementsandhereferstoan
exampleofatraditionalfolksonginwhichthe“I”isthefemaleaddresserand
the“you”themaleaddressee,whoisherlover.Hesuggeststhatthereare
variouswaysinwhichthespecificreferenceforthesepronounsinthesongcan
beachieved,generallyassumingthattherewillbeacorrelationbetweenthe
gendersofthesinger/hearerandtheaddressees.Consequently,awoman
hearingthesongwilladoptthepositionofsinger,whileamalelistenerwill
positionhimselfastheonebeingserenaded.Whilethisseemsrationalatfirst
glance,theclaimisquestionableasitisbothoverlysimplisticandcloseto
impossibletoprove.Thesamemustsurelybesaidforadvertisements.The
parallelisunsatisfactoryforotherreasons,too,owingtothefactthat,while
advertisingreplicatessomeofthefeaturesofothergenressuchasfolksongs
andliterature,ithasentirelydifferentaims.Ifawomanseesanadvertisement
foraman’selectricrazor,itmaybeaskedhowisshepositioningherself.Firstly,
theadvertisementwouldhavetomakemanifesttoheritsownrelevance;ifit
wereunabletodoso,thenitmaybelogicallyassumedthatitwouldbe
disregarded.Incaseswhereafemalereader’sattentioniscapturedbeyond
merecuriosity,shemayconsiderbuyingtherazorforaparticularman,suchasa
partner,adultsonorelderlymalerelative.Theadvertisementservesasa
32TheuseofpronounsinadvertisingisdiscussedfurtherinSubchapter3.5below.
79
reminderofaneedforaproductofthistype,orconveyerofinformationabout
suchaproduct,butitisnotaddressingherasitwouldapotentialconsumerand
sothemechanismbywhichtheadvertisementworksisonlypartiallyactivated.
Whereanadvertisementisclearlyandspecificallydirectedatamalereader,itis
difficulttomaintainthatawomanreaderispositionedinanyrolethatbears
similaritiestothatofaliterarytext.
Myers(1994)claimsthatthewaypeopledefinethemselvesasbeinglikeother
people,andyetretainingdistinctivenessandindividuality,operatesdifferently
inadvertising,dependinguponthegenderoftheaudience.Heexemplifiesthis
withoneadvertisementforanoff-roadcarinwhichamandressedasa
successfulexecutivesays:
“It’sNotEveryone’sChoiceofCompanyCarButIt’sMine.”[p.84].
Hearguesthisisaimedatmen,andsuggeststhatthereadermaytakethemanto
beacityexecutive,perhapswithahomeinthecountrysidewheresuchavehicle
mightbenecessary.Itisnotclearwhyheregardsthisasbeingtiedtogender,as
afemaleexecutivemightalsohaveadesireorneedforsuchavehicle.
AcontrastisprovidedintheformofanotheradvertisementMyers(1994)cites,
thistimeforChampionathleticclothing.Itshowsapassiveyoungman,witha
womanperchedonasofaanddressedinsportsclothing.Themaleisapparently
contemplatingherrunningshoesandthecaptionreads:“He’smycomfort,my
inspiration,mylife.ButIamcaptainofmysoul”(p.84).Thisisaimedatwomen,
andMyersinvitesthereadertoimagineareversalofthesexesofthosedepicted
inthisadvertisement.Hedeliberatesuponhowtheresponseoftheviewer
mightdifferifmanweretoclaimthat,forexample,hisrunningshortsallowed
himtobecaptainofhissoul.Whileclaimingthisasevidenceofthegender
specificnatureofthepositionstheadvertisementoffersthereader,hedoesnot
elaborateuponwhythereversalwouldbehardertoconceive.
80
BothMyers(1994)andCook(2001)considertheemploymentofpronouns,
especiallybutnotexclusivelyinquestionsandimperativestructuresin
advertisements,andtheseareconsideredinturn.Myers(1994)explainshow
theuseandselectionofpronounsinaddressingreceiversforcesthemto
constructboththepersonandtheimaginedaddressee,andalsotoforma
mentalimpressionofthesocialworldthatthatpersoninhabits(pp.78-79).In
doingso,theaudienceisimplicitlyinvitedtostepintothepositionconstructed
forthembytheadvertisement33.Theadvantagesofsecondpersonpronounsare
thattheyaddressthereaderinapersonalwaythatcorrespondstonormal
humaninteraction,whilenotspecifyingwhomtheparticularreceiveris.
However,Myers(1994)contraststwodifferenteffectsthatcanbegeneratedby
theuseofyoubytwocaptionsquotedfromwarposters:“Daddy,whatdidyoudo
intheGreatWar?”(Appendix4:image9)and“IWANTYOUFORTHEU.S.ARMY”
(Appendix4:image10).Inthefirst,thecaptionsitsbelowapostershowinga
pensive-lookingmanseatedinanarmchairwithalittlegirlperchedonhislap
andalittleboyplayingcloseby.Myersproposesthattheimplicaturerecovered
whenviewingthisimageisthatitallowsareader:
“toseehimself(anditmustbehimself)inthisposition,notasamale
ofdraftableagebutasafatherofthefuture.Hejoins,notbecausehis
countrytellshimto,butbecauseofthethreatofaveryprivateshame.”
(p.80)
Toadoptthissubjectposition,somedegreeofempatheticidentificationmust
takeplaceandtherebytheadvertisementachievesitspurpose.However,the
advertisementwillclearlybeviewedbythosetowardswhomitisnotdirected,
includingthosenotoftherequisiteage,sex,stateofhealthandcitizenship,and
33Myers(1994)developsapointhereabouthowthisstrategycanbeusedtocarryassumptions,e.g.onaspectsrelatedtogender,classandnation.
81
alsotothosewhoarealreadyservinginthemilitary.Inorderfortheintended
viewerstoengagewiththeadvertisement,theywouldhavetoimaginea
situationseveralyearsinthefutureandtoidentifytheirfutureselveswiththe
mandepicted.Theymayaskthemselveshowtheirself-imageandtherespectof
theirlovedoneswouldbeimpactedbythefacttheyfailedtorespondwhentheir
countryneededthem34.Thesecondshowsanillustrationofastern-looking
American‘UncleSam’caricaturelookingandpointingdirectlyatthereaderand
thetextiscapitalisedforemphasis.Itcanbeassumedthatsomedegreeof
processingoccurssothereaderrecogniseseitherthattheybelong,ortheydo
notbelong,totheapplicablegroup.Toachievethisrecognition,theviewer
wouldhavetorelyuponexisting(i.e.encyclopaedic)knowledgeresources.In
thiscase,havingregardtotheparticulartimeinhistory,itwouldbeunderstood
thattheUSArmywaslookingtorecruitphysicallyableyoungmentofightina
warandthefictionalcharacterUncleSam,thequintessenceofAmericanidentity
andpatriotism,wasappealingtothemtorecognisethisandtovolunteer.Ifa
viewerdoesfitthisprofile,thentheadvertisementisaddressingthemdirectly
andthemainintentionoftheadvertisementhasthepossibilityofbeingfulfilled.
Wheretheviewerdoesnotfittheprofile,thenunderstandingisstilllikelytobe
achievedasthesameencyclopaedicknowledgeresourcesareavailabletothem,
too,buttheresponseislikelytodiffer,astheyknowtheyareineligibleto
volunteer.Theyarenot,asinthefirstexample,confrontedbyahypothetical
futureeventintheformofaquestionbeingposedbyachildwhohasnotyet
evenbeenconceived.
Fairclough(2001)discussesaphenomenonhecalls“syntheticpersonalisation”,
whichhedefinesas“acompensatorytendencytogivetheimpressionoftreating
eachofthepeople‘handled’enmasseasanindividual”(p.52).Helaterexplains
how“you”iswidelyusedinmasscommunicationasanindefinitepronoun,
34Thetacticofpointingouttheriskofshametoyoungmenasameansofencouragingthemintomilitaryservicewasfarfromnewevenwhenthisposterwasdesigned.Itisperhapsreminiscentofthewordsfromawell-knownShakespeare’splay,KingHenryV:AndgentlemeninEngland,nowa-bed,Shallthinkthemselvesaccursedtheywerenothere,Andholdtheirmanhoodscheap
whilesanyspeaks,ThatfoughtwithusuponSaintCrispin'sday.
82
wheretheidentitiesoftheaddresseesareunknown,andhecitesanexampleof
thewordingfromaBachelor’ssoupadvertisement:“Thecreamofthecrop,
whereveryoushop”(p.107).Heclaimsthisuseofthepronounsimulatesa
personaladdressandthisishelpfulinavoidingimpersonality.SomeGermanic
languages,suchasDutch,SwedishandDanishareunabletouse“you”as
indefinitepronounsinthiswayastheyarealwayspersonalpronounsandused
torefertospecificindividuals.Consequently,theygenerallychoosethe
impersonalmen/man/mandrespectively,whichapproximatestotheEnglish
indefinitepronoun“one”inconversationalandformalsituations,althoughthe
intimatepersonalpronoun“du”seemstobethepreferredchoiceinadvertising.
Similarly,inEnglishadvertisingtexts,using“one”inthiswaywouldbeunusual.
AsFairclough(2000)pointsout:
“Firstly,oneunderminesthemeaningof‘peopleingeneral’because
peopleingeneraldon’tusetheword–itis,roughly,amiddle-class
pronoun;itisthereforedifficulttomakeaneffectiveclaimto‘ordinary
people’aboutthecommonexperienceor‘ordinary’peopleusingone.You,
ontheotherhand,isusedtoregistersolidarityandcommonalityof
experienceinworking-classspeech.”[p.149]
Withregardtoweandour,Englishspeakersaregenerallyconsciousofthefact
thatthepluralfirstpersonpronounrefersbothinclusivelyandexclusively,and
thisismentionedbyMyers(1994:p.81).Thus,thewepronouncan
demonstrateanadvertiser’sempathyandsolidaritywiththereader,asin:“We
areconstantlybeingattacked”.Thecontextindicatesthattheagentattackingthe
inclusiveusisgerms.Fairclough(1989)noteshowthispronounisusedby
newspapersandcitesaheadlineintheDailyMailon4thMay1987inaneditorial
duringtheFalklandsWarwhichbegan:“Wecannotletourtroopslosetheir
edge…”(p.127).Hepointsoutthateditorialsoftenusetheinclusivewe,as
thoughtheywerespeakingfortheirreadersandallsupposedlyright-minded
Britishcitizens(p.128).Myers(1994)notesthatthefirstpersonpronounisalso
83
usedasawayofreferringtotheadvertiserspecifically,asin:“AtMcDonald’s,we
doitallforyou.”(p.82).Thefirstpersonsingularinadvertisingcaptionscan
refertowhatMyerscallsthe“salespeople”(ibid),bywhichheappearstomeana
realorconstructedentitypicturedormentionedintheadvertisement.Hecites
asanexampleShariBelafonte,anactresswhowascommissionedtoactasa
spokespersonduringthe1990sforthedietsupplementSlim-Fast,andisshown
inaTVcommercialsaying:“IfIcandoit,trustme,youcan”(Myers,1994:p.83).
Myers(1994)finallyconsidersthirdpersonpronounsandviewstheseas
referringtopeoplealreadymentionedorvisuallydepictedintheadvertisement
or“takenforgrantedaspartofthereader’slife”(p.85).Amongtheexamples
MyersoffersisonedirectedatparentsfromtheDepartmentforEducation
bearinganimageorimagesofauniformedschoolgirl’slegs.Thegirlhasone
kneesockfittingproperlyandtheotherslidingdown,withthecaption:“The
sooneryoucanspotwhereshe’sfallingdown,thesooneryoucanlendahand”
(ibid).Assumingallthemetaphorsinthissentenceareinterpretable,itcanbe
seenthatitcontainsanassumptionthatyou(thereader)hasaschool-agechild
and,ifso,thatchildisthereferentforthepronounsheanditisalsoimplicitthat
youwouldwishtoassistthatchild.Myers(1994)arguesthat,unlikewiththe
firstpersonpronoun,thegenderaspectisnotofprimaryinteresttothe
advertiserand,onthatbasis,areadercouldjustaseasilypositionhim/herselfas
theparentofaboyinthesamesituation.
Myers(1994)makeslittlementionofpragmatictheoriesinhisentirework,and
doesnotappeartobeapplyinganyofthesewithinhisanalyses.Withregardto
theuseofpronounsandhowreadersunderstandandrelatetothem,itmaybe
consideredthat,inneglectingthesetheories,hepaysinsufficientattentiontothe
waythatthecontextisgeneratedthroughimplicature.Inthecaseofpersonal
pronouns,theidentificationofreferentsisonlypossiblethroughsuch
implicature,ascanbeseeninthelasttwoexamples:
“IfIcandoit,trustme,youcan”
84
“Thesooneryoucanspotwhereshe’sfallingdown,thesooneryoucanlend
ahand.”
WhileMyers(1994)notesthattheseadvertisementsareassociatedwithimages,
hedoesnotexplaintheprocessbywhichthereaderisexpectedtousethesein
identifyingtheirreferents.Additionally,hedoesnottakeintoaccountthe
advertisers’dependenceonaviewer’sfamiliaritywiththegenreofadvertising
inordertoachievethedesiredunderstanding.Forexample,theword“I”inan
advertisementcouldconceivablyrefertoanynumberofpossibleentities,
includingthereader,theownerofthecompanymarketingtheproduct,the
editorofthepublicationinwhichtheadvertisementappearsorsomeoneelse
entirely.Thegeneralfamiliaritywithadvertisingensuresthatreferentsofsuch
asnon-specificnouns,pronounsanddeterminers,areidentifiedasindended.A
foregrounded“I”pronoun,whichisaccompaniedbyanimageofahumanbeing,
isreadilyundersoodasapersonaladdressbytheindividualdepictedtothe
reader.Inthecaseof:“IfIcandoit,trustme,youcan”thereferentof“I”is
understoodtobethepersonintheimage,inthiscaseShariBelafonte,andthe
“you”entityisthereader.
SperberandWilson(1995)proposethatreceivershaveatendencytopickout
themostrelevantstimuliinthecognitiveenvironmentandprocessthemsoasto
maximisetheirrelevance,andthatthisenvironmentconsistsofthosefacts
whicharemademanifest35.Whenattemptingtounderstandtheprocessby
whichareaderassignsreferentstopronounsinadvertisements,itwouldseem
logicaltoapplythisprinciplebyidentifyingthecognitiveenvironmentinwhich
theyappear.Thisenvironmentcomprisesthegenre,thespecifictext,any
associatedcotextsandalsothenon-verbalcomponentsoftheadvertisements–
thesebeingthefactsthatarebeingmademanifest.Similarly,readersarelikely
tohavefamiliaritybothwiththekindofproductsbeingmarketed,oftenthe
specificbrandsthemselves,andalsothenatureandcommonlyusedstrategiesof
35ThisisexplainedinfurtherdetailinthisSubchapterbelow.
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advertising,andthismustsurelyberegardedaspartofencyclopaedic
knowledge.Asaconsequence,thecombinationoftheenvironmentalfeatures
andencyclopaedicknowledgedescribedenablesthereadertoenrichthetext
mentallyandtherebyrecoversufficientcluessothattheintendedreferentsof
anypronounswouldbecomemanifesttothem.
Cook(2001)alsoconsiderstheuseofpronounsinadvertising.Theexpressions
hementionsarepersonal,possessiveandreflexivepronouns,andheexplores
thewaysthatadvertisersusethese,themeaningsattachedtothemandthe
intendedeffects.AswithMyers(1994),Cook(2001)arguesthatfirstperson
pronounsencouragethereader,havingcalculatedtheimplicature,toidentify
withthecharacterdepictedintheadvertisement;thatcharactermayormaynot
berepresentedbyaphotographorgraphicwhichaccompaniesthetext.His
exampleisanadvertisementforthePhilipscordlessphone(pp.160–161),
whichhasthephotographofaconventionallyattractiveandelegantlydressed
youngwomanintheforegroundalongwiththecaption:“Suddenly,everything
seemssomuchclearer”(p.160).Thesmallertextatthebottomofthepage
consistsofafullparagraphoftextandbeginswiththefirstpersonsingular
pronoun:“IunderstandthatthePhilipsOnis2rangeofcordlesstelephones…”
(ibid).Thepronounusedinthisadvertisementrequiresthereadertodetermine
thereferentorreferentsimpliedbyitandonewaythisisachievedisby
consideringdeicticprojection,whichoccursconversationally,andsomayalso
bepossibleinnon-personal,writtentexts.Theterm“deicticprojection”iscoined
byLyons(1977a)todescribeasituationinwhichaspeakerisenabled“to
projecthimselfintoadeicticcontextcentredontheaddressee”(p.579).Levinson
(1983)expandsthisnotionbydescribinghow“deicticexpressionsareusedin
waysthatshiftthisdeicticcentretootherparticipants,orindeedtoprotagonistsin
narratives"(p.64).Thereferentofthepronounintheadvertisementcitedcan
beassumedtobethecharacterinthephotograph,butareaderisthenableto
projectthatdeicticidentitytothemselves,ortotogglebetweentheidentities
mentally.Cook(2001)proposesthatadvertisementsexploitthehuman
experienceofprojectionoftheselfinothergenres,suchassongsandliterature
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andthattheyemploystrategiestopersuadeusingdirectaddressesand
expressinginterestinthemostintimateconcernsofconsumers.
Intermsofsecondandthirdpersonpronounuse,Cook(2001)reproducesan
advertisementforClearasilfacewash.Itshowsaphotographofaconventionally
goodlookingandmuscularyoungmanandthecaptionsatthetopandbottomof
theimageread,“youridealman”and“youridealfacewash”(p.162).Cook
informsthereaderthatthisadvertisementappearsinamagazineaimedat
teenagegirlsand,ifaworkingassumptionismadethattheyconsist
predominantlyofheterosexualgirls,thenthistimethesecondpersonpronoun
usesuggeststhatthereaderdoesnotidentifywiththecharacterdepicted.The
idealmanofthereadercanbeassumedtobethepersonainthemindofthe
readerasprojectedintoitbytheimage.Cookpointsoutthatthereaderarrives
atanunderstandingastowhomtheaddresseeisbecausetheyoungman“would
notbesovainastodescribehimselfas‘theidealman’,surely”[p.163].
Onthisoccasion,thereader,whoisassumedtobeamemberoftheoppositesex
fromthemodelshown,isnot“I”,but“you”,andthisisreinforcedbysmallertext
atthebottomoftheadvertisement:“Ourmicrobeadswillgentlyexfoliateyour
skin,whileyou’llbeleftfeelingfreshandclean”(Cook,2001:p.162).Inaddition,
ateachsideofthemodelsitsfurthercaptions,andthesesay:“Gentlesoftonthe
skinlikehiskiss”and“Power,toughonspots,likehisarms”(ibid).Thereferent
thirdpersonpronounhere,“his”,maybeassignedbothto“youridealman”
and/orthecharacterdepictedinthephotograph.
3.5OSTENSIVEINFERENTIALANDCOVERTCOMMUNICATION
Thebasicaspectsoftheprincipleofrelevancehavebeenexplainedin
Subchapter3.3,aboveandthissubchapterconsiderstwofurtheraspects,
namelyostensiveinferentialandcovertcommunication.AccordingtoSperber
andWilson(1995),ostensivecommunicationoccurswherethereisanutterance
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which“providesevidenceofone’sthoughts”(p.50)andWilsonandSperber
(2012)claimthatsuchanutterance:“conveysapresumptionofitsownoptimal
relevance”(p.65).Othercontextualelementsmustbeidentifiedandprocessedif
therelevanceistoberecognisedandrecovered.Typicalamongthesenon-
linguisticstimuliarefoodandsex.SperberandWilson(1995)claimtheseare:
“…probablyinnatelydetermined:forinstance,theautomaticattentionpaid
toallsuddenloudnoises…(andare)presumablyanoutcomeofnatural
selection.Othertypesofphenomenapre-emptattentionasaresultofsome
formoflearning.”(pp.151-152)
Theysupplyexamplesofsuchstimuli:
“Thecryingofaparticularbaby,evenifbarelyaudible,pre-emptsthe
attentionoftheparents.Asmellofgaspre-emptstheattentionofgas
users.”[p.152]
Ostensionintermsofintentionalcommunication,suchasdeliberategestures
andspeech,mostlyrequiresthattheintentionofthespeakerismanifesttothe
receiverifthedesiredinterpretationofthemessageistoberecoveredinfull
(SperberandWilson,1995).Thisoperatesintandemwiththeknowledgethat
humanbeingsmaximisetheircognitiveefficiencybyapplyingamentaldevice
thatautomaticallypre-emptsattentiontowardsstimuliwhicharelikelytobe
relevantandfiltersoutthosewhicharenot.Thestimuluswhichisthemost
relevantisthatwhichprovidesthefirstaccessibleinterpretation(ibid).
Intermsofadvertising,Tanaka(1994)suggeststhatreceiversgainpleasure
fromprocessingcertainstimuliandthatadvertisersexploitthisbyincluding
visualimages,oftenoneswhichhavenoobviousconnectiontothecoremessage,
inorderto“reward”(p.36)theirprocessingeffort.Shepointstoafurther
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situationwherecovertcommunicationisappropriateforsocialsituationsand
howthisrelatestoadvertising.Thereareoccasionswhenaspeakermakesclear
thataninformativeintentionmayfrustrateitsobjectiveratherthanaidits
fulfillment;theexampleshecitesisself-praise,asthiswillmoreprobably
conveyanegativeimpressionofthespeaker.Similarly,shemaintainsthat
advertisersareunlikelytoverbalisethatthepurposeofanadvertisementisto
maximisesales.Rather,theyusecovertcommunicationstrategiesby,ontheone
hand,obscuringthepurposeoftheadvertisementsothatitsmainfunction,
sellingsomething,isnotattheforefrontofthereader’smindwhenviewingit.
Thiscanbedone,sheclaims,throughemulatingthehousestyleofthe
publicationinwhichitisprinted,andtoachievethis,theadvertiseravoids
makingtheidentityofthespeakermutuallymanifest.Secondly,covert
communicationisused:“toavoidtakingresponsibilityforthesocialconsequences
ofcertainimplicationsarisingfromadvertisements”(p.44)andthatthismay
applywhere,forexample,advertisersseektoincludesubliminalaspectsof
sexuality.Tanaka(1994)distinguishescovertcommunicationwithin
advertisingfromostensivecommunication,wheretheintentionofthespeakeris
toalterthemutualcognitiveenvironmentofbothoftheinterlocutors.With
covertcommunication,thespeakerseeksonlytoalterthecognitive
environmentofthehearerandwithoutmakingthisintentionmutuallymanifest.
Tanaka(1994)claimsthisisthemainstrategyemployedbyadvertisers,andshe
beginsbyreflectinguponthepurposeandcharacterofadvertisingandtakesa
rathernarrowviewthat
“theadvertiserdoesnotinformforthesakeofimprovingthe
addressee’sknowledgeoftheworld,butonlytosellaproduct”(p.36).
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Sheemphasisesthispoint,claimingtheadvertiserwouldbecontentevenifthis
meantimpartingnoknowledgeatall,solongasthepurpose,namelysellingthe
product,weretobeaccomplished36.
Thekindofcovertcommunicationdescribedmaybeespeciallyeffectivein
advertisementsforgoodswhichaimtoconveyexclusivity.Advertisementsfor
thehigherendoftheperfumemarketmaycomprisesimplyaphotographofa
conventionallybeautifulwomanandthebrandname,butwithnoother
linguisticelement.Insuchacase,thereaderislefttospeculateontheintention
oftheadvertisement,andthiswilllikelybebasedontheirpreviousexperience
oftheadvertisinggenreandtheirawarenessofthestrategiesofmarketeers.
Covertcommunicationcanalsobeachievedwheretherearewordspresent,but
theydonotyieldenoughintermsoftheirsemanticpropertiesfortheintention
ofthecommunicationtobemademanifesttothereceiver,suchaswherethey
arecrypticinsomeway.ExamplesofthismightincludetheAudislogan
VorsprungdurchTechnik,mentionedbyPettyetal(2010:p.482)andshown
usedinanadvertisementinAppendix4:image11,andwhichisaGerman
phrasewhichtranslatesas“progressthroughtechnology”.Thissloganwasused
intheUnitedKingdominspiteofthefactthatGermanisnotwidelyunderstood,
buttheuseofanincomprehensiblestraplinethatwouldberecognizedas
German,andcontainedaGerman/Englishcognate“technic”,helpedtogenerate
animpressionthatthecarswereproductsmanufacturedaccordingtothehighly
respectedGermanengineeringstandards.
36Whilethismaybetrueinmanycases,itcanbearguedthisdoesnotofferafullycompleteand
satisfactorypicture.AsoutlinedinChapters1,2and7,advertisinghasamuchmore
sophisticatedpurposeinthemodernerathanmerelypersuadingpotentialcustomerstobuy
specificitems,focusinginsteadonbrandimage.Thismayhaveoccurredforanumberofreasons.
Firstly,theadvancementoftechnologyinmanufacturing,especiallyindevelopingcountries,has
resultedinincreasedproductionandlowerprices,andconsumersenjoyfargreaterchoicethan
wasavailablepreviously.Alongwiththis,inspiteofintermittenteconomicdownturns,
westernersmaybegrowingwealthierandarethusabletochoosetheproductstheypreferand
arelessconstrainedbywhattheycanafford.Brandthenbecomesassociatedwithconceptsof
imageandstatus,withsocietymovingtoasituationinwhichpersonalidentitiesare,toagreaterorlesserextent,createdandreinforcedbywhatisconsumed.
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SperberandWilson(1995)illustratehowahearer’srecognitionofaspeaker’s
intentionmayinfluencewhatthatheareractuallybelievesandthatthemereact
ofexpressingsomethingrevealstheintention.Theyexemplifythiswithaprison
warderwho,bymerelynotifyingtheinmatesofhisintentiontomakethemfear
himwill,withoutfurtherutterancesoractions,makethemfearhimandanactof
ostensivecommunicationhastherebyoccurred.Ahearerwhotruststhata
speaker’sutteranceissinceremayaidthisprocessevenwhere,asinthe
example,thetrustisnegativeincharacter:itisnotessentialtoinstillbelief,but
ratheritissimplypartofthegeneralcontext.Covertcommunication,onthe
otherhand,seekstoconcealtheintentionofaspeaker(ibid).Asstated,an
advertiserwillnormallyhaveanobjectivewhichrelateseithertoadesirebya
tradertoincreasesalesofaspecificproduct,orelsetoraisetheprofileofa
brand,butrarelyisthisexpresslystated.
Tanaka(1994)claimsthataninformativeintentioninadvertisingtendstobe
covertastheadvertiserseeksto“maketheaddresseeforgetthatheistryingto
sellhersomething”(p.43).Thisclaimis,however,debateable.Itseemsunlikely
thatanadvertiserwouldhaveintheforefrontofhismindwhendesigninga
commercialthathemustmakethereaderorviewerforgethistrueintention.
Evenifthiswerehisintention,itmaybereasonablyassumedthatthe
overwhelmingmajorityofthoseencounteringtheadvertisementwouldhave
instantlyrecognizeditassuchbyvirtueofitslocation,formandfeatures,and
thepresenceofimagesofproducts,brandnamesandtrademarksinprominent
positions.Further,thereadingandviewingpublicarelikelytobesofamiliar
withthegenrethattheprimarypurposeoftheadvertisementoccupiesaplacein
theirmindsforthedurationoftheirengagementwithit.Havingrecognizedan
advertisementforwhatitis,somelevelofskepticismorresistanceisthereby
activatedautomaticallyinthemindofthereceiverasitwouldwhenotherkinds
ofcommunicativeintentionareperceivedtobemotivatedbypecuniaryinterest.
Inspiteofthis,advertisershavetooperateontheassumptionthatreadersand
viewersdo,nevertheless,engagewiththeirworkotherwiseproducing
advertisementswouldbefutile.Ablanketassertionthateverycommercialis
motivatedwhollyandexclusivelybyanaimtomaximizetheprofitsoftheclient
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companywouldconstituteanoversimplification.Whenaworkofartsuchasa
sculptureormusicalcompositionisexperienced,itisentirelypossiblethatthe
workinquestionwasoriginallycommissionedbyanindividualororganisation
for,forexample,thepurposesofenhancingtheirprestige,orforpolitical
reasons.Wherethisisthecase,itwouldnotusuallyinspireresistanceinterms
ofengagingwithorenjoyingtheartwork,norwoulditgenerallybeseenas
detractingfromitsartisticmerits.Onthatbasis,whenTanaka(1994)proposes
thattheadvertiserissimplytryingtosellsomethingandsothecommunicative
intentioniscovert,thiscouldbesaidtobelikeningittoaconjurerusing
misdirectionratherthanaskilledartistworkinginacommercialfield,butstill
producingsomethingwhichhasaestheticvalue.
3.6LOOSETALKANDMETAPHORS
Thissubchapterdescribesthephenomenonof“loosetalk”(Sperber&Wilson,
1995:pp.233-237),andtheassociatedconceptof“looseunderstanding”(ibid),
althoughitisnotablethatWilsonandSperber(2012:p.19)andClark(2013:p.
205)appeartohavereplacedbothtermswithasingleexpression,“looseuse”.A
similarconceptdescribedbyLakoff(1975)concernedthemeaningboundaries
ofindividualwords,andwherethemeaninghadsomedegreeoffuzzinessor
impreciseness.Thisphenomenonisknowninlegalarguments,suchaswherea
residentonanopen-planhousingdevelopmentplantsrowofshrubswhilehis
neighbourallegesitconstitutesahedgeandthereforetheresidentinquestion
shouldhavesoughtpermissionbeforeplantingthem.Lawsdesignedtoprotect
childrenmustdefinetermssuchas“child”and“guardian”,otherwisethedegree
offuzzinessofmeaningcanleadtouncertainty.Fuzzinesscanoccurinsemantic
phenomenasuchascolours,e.g.whetheraparticularshadeisblueorgreen,or
orangeorbrown,andsoforth.Thiscanbecontrastedwithexamplesinwhich
worddefinitionsaredeterminedbyvirtueofspecificsemanticpropertiesthat
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mustbepresentforthewordtobeapplicable,andanexampleofthismightbe
theword“mare”,wherethereferentmustbebothequineandfemaletoqualify
assuch.SperberandWilson(1995)pointtotheconceptofprototypesinwhich:
“themeaningofawordisdeterminednotbyasetoflogical
properties,butbyamentalmodelofthethingthewordisusedto
referto37.”(p.91)
Therearelimitstotheextenttowhichwordscanbestretchedandthatthe
degreeofextensionpermissibleisdependentupontheconcept/sassociated
withit.Theterm“child”,forinstance,couldbeappliedtoa17-year-old,butitis
hardtoimagineiteverbeingsaidofa30-year-old,otherthanfiguratively.
Conceptsarepsychologicalobjectsandaregenerallyconsideredtobeabstract
ratherthanconcretephenomena,andSperberandWilson(1995)proposethat
theseexistinthreedistincttypes.Thefirstoftheseislogical,meaningthat
whichisdeduciblethroughtheapplicationofasetoflogicalrules.Thesecondis
encyclopaedic,whichisinformationstoredinthemindabouttheconceptin
termsofitsoriginsandassociations,andthatgivesrisetoasetofassumptions.
Thedistinctionsbetweenlogicalandencyclopaedicconceptsaregenerallyclear:
“Encyclopaedicassumptionsvaryacrossspeakersandtimes…Logical
entries,bycontrast,aresmall,finiteandrelativelyconstantacross
speakersandtimes“(p.88)
Thelasttypeofconceptisthelexicalentrythat:“containsinformationaboutthe
natural-languagelexicalitemusedtoexpressit”(p.90).Withregardto
37Asimilaritymaybenotedherebetweenthisdescriptionofaprototype,andSaussure’sideaofa”signified”inthatbotharementalrepresentations.
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advertising,Tanaka(1994)considersthatcharacteristicssuchasintelligence
andindividualismmayberegardedasfuzzyorimpreciseconcepts,andshe
contraststhesenotions,andthewaysinwhichthemeaningsareextended,and
offersexamplesfromJapaneseadvertisements.
Metaphorshave,accordingtoKirby(1997),beenasubjectofcuriosityand
examinationsincethetimeofAristotle,andtheirpurposeistoconveyathought
throughanalogy.LakoffandJohnson(1980)pointoutthatmetaphorsarenot
merelydevicestocreatepoeticorrhetoricalflourishes,butarepervasivein
everydaylife.Theyviewmetaphorsasprimarilymentalphenomena,enabling
languageuserstothinkintermsofabstractconceptsbyrelatingthemtothe
physicalworldandcreateandtovisualisemodelsthroughwhichtheycan
reason.Theabilitytocreateandinterpretmetaphorsalsomakesitpossibleto
relayeventhemostabstractthoughtstootherswithgreatprecisionand
economyofwords.
Myers(1994:pp.122–134)describestheuseofmetaphorinadvertisingand
beginsbyexplainingwhatmetaphorsare,andhowtheycarryrisksthatcertain
parallelscouldberecoveredthatwereneverintended.Hemaintainsthat
metaphorisatypeoffigurativelanguageandearlierstudiesofitweregenerally
confinedtopoetryandrhetoric.Morerecently,however,therehasbeena
greaterawarenessoftheextentanduseofmetaphorineverydayconversations
andtexts,andMyersillustratesthiswithaparagraphinanadvertisement
publishedinamagazineaimedattheadvertisingindustryitselfandwhichis
repletewithmetaphors.Hefurtherproposesthatadvertisements“neverreally
die”(p.125)andthatthey“canbringthedeadestofmetaphorsbacktolifeinthe
rightcircumstances”(ibid).Heoffersexamplesfromtheadvertisingworldof
metaphors,similes,synecdocheandmetonymy,andexplainsthedifferences
betweenthesedevicesandhowtheyareusedwithinthegenre.Similesarenot,
accordingtoMyers(1994),oftenthepreferreddeviceinadvertisingastheydo
notimposeaprocessingdemandontheaudiencetomakethedesired
connection,orelsetheyaretoohesitantintheirclaims.Citingthecaptioninan
advertisementforMillerbeer,Miller:TheChampagneofBottledBeers(ascanbe
seeninAppendix4:image12),Myersinvitesthereadertoconsiderwhatmight
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beregardedasaratherfeeblealternativewithasimile:Millerbeerislike
champagne.(p.127).Inthiscase,themetaphoroperatesnotbylikeningthe
tasteofthebeertochampagne,butbyimplicatingthatMillerbeeristoother
beerswhatchampagneistootherwines.Anassociationwhichisprobablyless
desiredwouldbetherelativecostofchampagnecomparedtoordinarywines.
Myers(1994)suggeststhatonereasonmetonymsareusefulincertaintypesof
advertisementsisthat,whereasmetaphorsareforegroundedandrequire
mentalprocessingtorecovertheparallelbetweenthetargetandsource,
metonyms,especiallyvisualmetonyms,areusedinadvertisementstoportray
suchassociationsasbeingnatural.Theexamplehegivesofthisisan
advertisementforalessexpensivebrandofwhiskyanditconsistsofa
photographofaringmarkmadebyaglassonatablenapkin.Hesuggeststhere
isaparallelbetweentheconceptsofimpression,intermsbothofthemarkofthe
glassandthatofpersonality,andpointstotheparadoxthathigherstatus
consumershavenothingtoprove:thosewhoaresuccessful“neednotprojectan
imagethroughconsumerchoices”(p.128).
LakoffandJohnson(1980)categorizemetaphorsasbeingstructural,
orientationalorontological.Structuralmetaphorsoccurwhere“oneconceptis
metaphoricallystructuredintermsofanother”(p.14)aswhenargumentis
correlatedwithwar:“Heshotdownallmyarguments”(p.4).Orientational
metaphorsorientabstractconceptswithspatialpositionordirection.The
notion,forexample,thatthehappyemotionis“up”whileunhappinessis“down”
canbeseeninexpressionslike“perkedup”and“feelinglow”.Ontological
metaphors,ontheotherhand,provideameansofrelatingabstractexperiences
intermsofobjectsandsubstances,asin:“Inflationisbackingusintoacorner”(p.
26).
Griceviewsmetaphorsasconstitutingnon-conformitytothetruthmaximinthat
thepropositionexpressedbyaspeakerisnotidenticaltohisbelief.Thespeaker
insteadreliesuponthehearertorecognisethemetaphorforwhatitisandthen
torecoverthemeaningfromcontext.Aweaknessofthisviewisthatit
envisagesthehearerrecoveringtheone,specificandintendedmeaningwhere
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therearelikelytobeothermetaphoricalmeaningsavailable;theremayalsobea
literalmeaningavailable,too.Anexamplemaybethatofmotherofachildtelling
thechild’sfather:“Thomasisgettingtoobigforhisboots”,whichrelatetothe
child’sattitude,orthatheisgrowingoutofhisfootwear.Contextmaybe
evidenttothehearerwhichresolvestheuncertaintyofinterpretation,andthat
mightconsistofpreviousconversationsaboutthechild’sclothingneeds,orit
mayfollowonfromanincidentinwhichthechildexhibitedinsolence,butitis
entirelypossiblethatnosuchcontextualelementsarepresentatthetime,or
shortlybefore,theutteranceismade.ApplyingGrice'sapproach,themother
wouldfloutingthequalitymaximifshewereusingtheexpression
metaphoricallybut,evenifthispremiseisaccepted,thecooperativeprinciple
appearstofallshortintermsofsatisfactorilyaccountingfortherecoveryofthe
intendedmeaningorthetrueintentionofthespeaker.SperberandWilson’s
(1995)principleofrelevance,asdescribedinSubchapters3.3and3.5above,
mayprovideamorecompleteframeworkforestablishingspeakermeaning.For
relevancetheorists,metaphorsarelikelooseuseandhyperboleinasmuchas
theyprovideothermeansbywhichoptimalrelevanceisachievedand,assuch,
theydonotstandapartfromthenon-metaphoricalutterancesaroundthem.
Levinson(1983)pointstootherproblemswithGrice’sclaimthatmetaphors
constituteafloutingofthemaximofqualityandthatthisisinvariablythe
processbywhichtheimplicaturesarecalculated.Ametaphorcanbeboth
literallytrueandmetaphoricalatthesametime,offeringtheexampleof:“Freud
livedhere”.(p.157).ThisutterancecanbetakentomeanthatFreudinhabited
theplacereferredtobythepronoun,orelseFreud’stheorieswerekeptalive
afterhisdeathinthatplace,orbothsimultaneously.Anotherproblemoccurs
wherethemetaphorismanifestlytrue,suchaswhenitisusedasanegationofa
proposition,andPilkington(2000)exemplifiesthiswith:“Nomanisanisland”
(p.86).Thepropositionsmetaphorsexpressareobviouslynotidenticaltotheir
literalmeaningandsomedegreeofinferencingmaybeneededinorderto
recognizetheparallelsandrecovertheirintendedmeaning.Thisisespecially
thecasewheremetaphorsareoriginalorpoetic.Deadmetaphors,i.e.thoseso
firmlyestablishedbyfrequencyofuse,maybedecodedinasimilarwaytothe
ordinarydecodingofliteralexpressions.Byvirtueoftheirvariednatureand
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potentialforuncertainty,andthefactthattheexactcontentsofimplicaturesare
notfullydeterminedbytheutterancesinwhichtheyarepresent,theymaybe
regardedasanothertypeofloosetalk,asdiscussedabove.SperberandWilson
(1995)describehowmetaphorsoperatewithinarange,fromthemost
standardisedatoneendtothemorecreativeonesattheoppositeend.They
suggesttheutterance“thisroomisapigsty”(p.236)exemplifiesonewhichis
standardisedasitisrecognisedthatapigstyistheculturalstereotypeofaplace
whichisfilthyanduntidyandsoprovidesthehearerwithastrongimplicature.
However,asPilkington(2000:p.93)pointsoutwithasimilarexample,the
utterancewillactivateinthehearercertainassumptionsaboutpigstiesthatare
storedasencyclopaedicentries,butnotothers.Inthecaseofabedroom,the
generaluntidiness,perhapswithitemsofclothingstrewnacrossthefloor,would
beimplicated,eventhoughoneisunlikelytofindsuchasituationinarealpigsty.
SperberandWilson(1995)offeramorecreativeexamplewith:“Robertisa
bulldozer”(p.236).This,theymaintain,offersawiderrangeofpossible
contextualimplications,althoughthefavouredoneislikelytorelatetoRobert’s
persistence,obstinacy,insensitivityandunwillingnesstobedeflectedrather
thanthatheismadeofmetalorthathemoveslargequantitiesofearthand
rocksaround.Atthefarthestendofthescale,theycitearemarkmadeaboutthe
poetLecontedeLislebyGustaveFlaubert:“hisinkispale”(p.237).The
weaknessandwiderangeofthepossibleimplicaturesavailablefromthis
utterancemeanthatthehearermustprocesshisencyclopaedicknowledgein
ordertoestablishsufficientcontexttorecovertheintendedmeaning.
Metaphorsofferarangeofimplicaturesinsteadofjustone,orafixedset
(Sperber&Wilson,1995:pp.230-231).Thereceiverisabletorecoveratleast
someoftheseimplicaturesandthefirstoneaccessedwouldnotnormallybethe
literalonebecauseofthemutualawarenessofthecontextbytheinterlocutors.
Laterrelevancetheoryapproachessuggestaslightlydifferentexplanationfor
theinterpretationofbothmetaphoricalexpressionandloosetalkintheformof
adhocconcepts.Theseassumethatanyconceptutterediscognitivelyadjusted,
perhapsinvolvingadegreeofnarrowingorbroadening,asitisaccessedin
context(Wilson&Sperber,2012;Clark,2013).Thisisillustratedwiththe
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wordssuchas“princess”and“flat”(Clark,2013:pp.250–251).“Princess”is
usedinitsmostliteralsense,tocommunicateafemalememberofaroyalfamily,
anditcomeswithcertainpropertiessharedbyprincesses,suchasthatthe
personreferredtoisimportantandthatothersareexpectedtotreatthemwitha
degreeofdeference.However,dependinguponthecontextinwhichthetermis
used,otherpropertiesmaybeimplied,perhapsincludingonewhichsuggests
thattheindividualisspoiltordemanding,eventhoughnotallprincessesmay
sharethesecharacteristics.Astowhetherornotthesenegativepropertiesare
inferredisdependentuponthehearerbeing“guidedbytherelevance-guided
comprehensionheuristicandthemutualadjustmentprocesswiththemosteasily
accessibleimplicationsderivedfirst”(Clark,2013:p.250).
Theword“flat”isusedbyWilsonandSperber(2012)todemonstrateadhoc
conceptswithrelationtoloosetalk.Theyinvitethereadertoconsiderthe
possiblemeaningsthatcouldbederivedfromtheword“flat”byenvisagingtwo
fictionalinterlocutors,PeterandMary,discussingacyclingtrip.Peterstates
thatheisfeelingunfitandMaryreplies:“WecouldgotoHolland.Hollandisflat”
(pp.72-74).Peter’sexpectationofoptimalrelevancewillcausehimtoinitiatea
processofbackwardinferencing,enrichingthecontenttocarrycertain
implications.Hewouldrecallhispreviousutterancewasthathewasfeeling
unfit,andheknowsthatcyclinguphillismorestrenuousandthereforeless
enjoyable.Consequently,themeaningof“flat”inthesenseofcyclingwouldbe
themostrelevant,whileotherpossiblemeaningsfor“flat”(suchasthekindof
flatnessimpliedwith“flat-screenTV”,orwith“flattyre”)areneveractivatedand
Mary’sintendedmeaningisreadilyunderstood(ibid).
Inthecaseofconceptualmetaphors,somedegreeofsharedknowledgeis
assumedandessentialfortheintendedinterpretationtoberecovered.For
example,certainpoliticianshaveearnedthenickname“Teflon”(Haq,2015),
whichfunctionsasametaphor.Torecognizethemetaphor,thehearermustbe
equippedwiththeknowledgethatthechiefpropertyofthatmaterialisthatit
canbeusedasacoatingforcookingimplementsthatenablesthemtoavoid
foodstuffsstickingtothemandtherebymakingcleaningthemfareasier.Inthe
caseofpoliticians,itisnotfoodresiduethattheyareabletoavoid“sticking”to
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them,butrathertheyareabletoescapeadverseconsequencesfromlosingtheir
positiontodamagetotheirreputationwhentheyhavemadecalamitous
decisionsorbecomeembroiledinscandals.Theuseofametaphorforabrand
orproductinthiswaycouldbesaidtobetothebrand’sadvantage,asitembeds
thenotionofthepropertyintothemindofconsumerstosuchadegreethatthe
conceptsbecomeinseparable.Inthiscase,byvirtueofthebrand’snamebeing
appliedtoentitieswhohavenoobviousconnectiontocookingimplements,a
meaningariseswhichmakestheassociationbetweentheultimateinnon-stick
qualities(ofutensilsandpeople)andthebrandofTeflon™,appearentirely
natural.Thisrepresentsaseriouschallengeforthebrand’scompetitors.
Metaphorsareinvaluableinmarketingastheycanmakeapointbotheffectively
andsuccinctly,andarealsomemorable(Leech,1966;Leissetal,1990;Myers,
1994;Cook,2001;Aaker,2010).Anexampleofthiscanbefoundwiththebrand
nameofatoiletriescompanythatspecializesinshavingproductsandiscalled
“KingofShaves”.Theuseoftheword“king”impliesthisfirmisunsurpassedin
termsofstatus,andmayinviteotherassociations,suchasthefactthatthisisa
traditionalBritishcompanyratherthanoneofitsbetter-knownAmericanrivals.
Scholarshavenotedthewidespreaduseofmetaphorsinmarketingandamong
themareMyers(1994),whocitesthesloganoftheBoddington’sbeercompany
as“TheCreamofManchester”(p.122)andusedinseveraladvertisementswhich
showalinkbetweentheirbeerandcreamorice-cream,anexampleofwhichcan
beseeninAppendix4:image13,andCook(2001),whocommentsonthechoice
ofnamefortheperfumeOpiumwhich,heclaims,invokesconnotationsof“the
Orient,dreams,Romanticpoetryandbohemianillegality”(pp.108-109).
MetaphorsoftheallthekindsdescribedbyLakoffandJohnson(1980)canbe
foundinadvertising.Ontologicalmetaphorsarecommonplace;theserequire
morecognitiveprocessingandagreaterdependenceonencyclopaedic
knowledge.Forinstance,advertisementsbyaporksausagemanufacturerforthe
productPeperamihaveusedthestrapline“abitofananimal”(Brierley,2002:p.
185).Thishastheadvantageofofferingbothaliteralmeaninganda
metaphoricalone.Theformersimplystatestherealitythattheproductis
manufacturedfromanimalflesh,althoughitisdifficulttoenvisageaconsumer
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notrealizingthiswasthecasewhenbuyingaporksausage.Consequently,the
informativevalueinthisregardisminimalandsothesecond,metaphorical
meaning,isforegrounded.Thissecondmeaningonlybecomesapparentwhen
thewordsareconnectedwiththevisualelementsofthecommercialthat
personalizethesausageasmaniacalcharacter.Brierley(2002)explainsthe
metaphoricalpointoftheadvertisementasemphasizing:“themeatinessofthe
brand,challengingthehealth-consciousvegetarianlobbyandappealingto
consumerswhoenjoymeat”(p.185).
Orientationalmetaphorsoccurinordinaryconversationsandaresopervasivein
languagethattheyareoftennotrecognizedasmetaphors.Nevertheless,Tanaka
(1994)offersanexamplefromthefinancecompany,SaveandProsper:“Regular
savingsbuilduptoabigsum.”(p.91).
Thevalueofnostalgiainadvertisingiswellrecognizedandisreadilyobservable
incommercialsforproductsliketea,certainotherfoodstuffs,andsomeproducts
associatedwithculturaloccasionslikeweddingsandChristmas(Cartwright,et
al,2016).Often,thisisinvokedusingimagerydepictingformertimes,but
Tanaka(1994)demonstrateshowmetaphorscanbeusedforthispurposewith
anadvertisementforaperfumecalled“Trésor”38.Itbearsthecaption“Leparfum
desinstantsprécieux”(p.100)(Appendix4:image14)which,shebelieves,is
closeenoughtoitsEnglishequivalenttobeintelligibletowhatsheregardsas
thetypicalBritishconsumerwhowouldalsounderstandthemeaningofthe
nameoftheproduct,i.e.“treasure”.Moreover,shesuggeststhatthisconsumer
mightrecoverfromthecaption:“…anassociationwithMarcelProust’sfamous
novel,‘InSearchofLostTime’”(ibid).Tanaka(1994)isperhapsoverestimating
theabilityofhertypicalBritishconsumer.Whileitisconceivablethatsuchan
English-speakingreaderwouldrecognizeenoughofthecognatestobeableto
translateandarriveatameaningwhichapproximatesto“theperfumeof
preciousmoments”,thelikelihoodofthembeingfamiliarwith(i.e.having
installedintheirencyclopaedicmemory)thetitleofanovelwhichmaybe
regardedashighbrowFrenchclassicalliteratureseemssmall.
38ThisisaperfumeproducedbyLancômeofParis.
100
RelevanceTheoryhasdevelopedoverthreedecadesatthetimeofwriting,with
someconceptsbeingrefinedandnewconceptsbeingproposed,suchas
explaininginferencingthroughmodules(Wilson,2004),andadhocconcepts
(Wilson&Sperber,2012).Whilesomescholarshaveappliedthetheorytoother
typesofcommunication,suchasnewspaperheadlines(Ifantidou,2009),
children’sliterature(Zhao&Jiang,2013), televisioncommercials(Martínez-
Camino&Pérez-Saiz,2012)andadvertisinggenerally(Tanaka1994),its
originators,SperberandWilson,appeartodirecttheirinterestalmost
exclusivelytoanalyzingspokeninteractions.Ratherthanpurportingtobea
generaltheoryofcommunication,RelevanceTheoryisconcernedwiththeuse
andinterpretationofutterancesandhowacommunicator“modifiesthephysical
environmentoftheother”(Sperber&Wilson,1995:p.1)bytheiruseoflanguage.
ThereislittleinRelevanceTheorywhichseekstoaccountfornon-linguistic
modessuchastheconstructionofimages,orunderstandinglanguageuse
throughcultureorideology.
3.7AMBIGUITY,PUNSANDPOLYSEMES
Myers(1994)discussestheuseofpunsandhowadvertisersusehomonymyand
polysemytogeneratethem.Hereferstoanearlyexamplefromaseriesof
cigaretteadvertisementswhichwerecommonlysituatedoutsidenewsagents
fromtheearly20thcentury;oneofthesecanbeviewedinAppendix4:image15.
Itconsistedofjusttwowords,generallyjuxtaposedwithvariousimagesand
eachdepictingsomeaspectofBritishlife.Thewordsinquestionwere“Player's
Please”and,asidefromtheobviousalliterativequalityoftheexpression,itisa
punwhichcanbereadasastatementoffact(Player'sarepleasing)orarequest
fromacustomertoashopkeeper(“IwouldlikeapacketofPlayer'splease”).For
somereason,Myersneglectstoinformthereaderthatthestraplineinthese
advertisementswasnormallyaccompaniedbytheimages,andthattheseimages
providedadditionalcontextwhichenrichedthemeanings.Ascanbeseenin
101
Appendix4,oneoftheseportrayedabearded,RoyalNavyratinginhisuniform.
Thiswasshownpossiblyinordertoinvokeparticularconnotationsinrelation
totheBritishnessofthebrand,havingregardtothefactthattheadvertisement
wasfirstdisplayedaround1916,duringtheFirstWorldWar,andaroundthe
timeoftheBattleofJutlandwhichresultedinthelossofmanyBritishsailors
(BBCNottingham).OtherPlayer'sadvertisementsbearingthiscaptionshowed
peopleeithercompetingintraditionalsports,suchascricketortennis,or
engaginginotheroutdoorrecreation,addingyetafurtherlayerofpossible
meanings(Alamy,2017).
Myers(1994)offersasimilarexamplewiththecaption:Sunlightisbest(p.64),
andthiscanbeseeninAppendix4:image16.Thisisanadvertisementfor
Sunlightsoapfromthe1890sthatexploitsthecommonstrategyofadvertisersin
usingthefactthataproductnameorbrandoftenhasastandard,common
meaningtoo.Amonghisotherexamplesisacaptiononaposterdisplayedat
railwaystationsforPenguinbooks:Bookatanystation(p.65).Thepunhere
amusesthereaderbyexploitingthepolysemyoftheword“book”wherebyitcan
functionasaverbrelatingtoplanningarailwayjourney,andalsoasanoun
invitingtheinterpretationthatthereadercanbuyabookatanystation.He
furtherdescribesanadvertisementforthehomelesscharity,Shelter,which
presentsanimageofayoungwomanwiththecaption:“WhenEmmatoldusshe’s
beenabused,weputherintoaspecialhome.Herown”(p.67).Inthiscase,Shelter
usesthedifferentsensesofthewords“special”and“home”togeneratetwo
possiblereadings.Myers(1994)offersarationaleforthis:“theadvertiserwants
tomakeusreflectonourownreasonsforourfirstresponse,asinmanyadsfor
charities”(p.67).Thismaybethecase,butamorelikelyexplanationisthatthe
expression,inthecontextofthesentence,isintendedtoimplicatethatEmma
wasaccommodatedinsomesoullessinstitutionandthisisundesirable.
However,thisinterpretationisimmediatelycancelledwiththephrasewhich
followed,“herown”,andthereaderisthusencouragedtoextendthemeaning
into“herownhome”,whichexploitsthemorepositiveconnotationsofboth
“special”and“home”.
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Myers(1994)distinguishesambiguityfromvagueness,whichischaracterised
bycertainfavouredadvertisingwordssuchas‘quality’and‘style’andtheseare
usedforpracticalorculturalreasons,suchasfor‘femininehygiene’,wherethe
precisefunctionoftheproductisnotstatedexplicitly.Advertiserstendtouse
comparativeadjectivesinavaguewayandwordssuchas‘smoother’and‘richer’
areusedtoassigncertainqualities,butwithoutfurtherexplanation(ibid).Itis
notmadeclearpreciselywithwhattheyarecomparingtheirproducts,anditis
lefttothereceivertomakewhateverinferencesseemtobenatural.Thewords
‘smoother’and‘richer’,forinstance,arelikelytoinvitecontrastswithother,
unspecified,rivalproducts.Heproceedstoconsiderwordassociationsasthey
arisefromtheculture,andthelexicalchoicesadvertisersmakeanddescribes
howadvertisersmakeuseofassociationswhich,althoughhedoesnotsaythis
specifically,drawuponwhat,fromaRelevanceTheoryperspective,mightbe
regardedasareader’sencyclopaedicknowledge.Amonghisexamplesofthisis
acaptionfromaholidayadvertisementthatappliesanextendedmetaphor
relatingtoclothingandsuggestsSpainasadestination:“Tailor-madebeaches
withoff-the-pegsunshine”(Myers,1994:p.74).Hecitesafurtherexamplefrom
awhiskyadvertisement:“Williamdroppedby,sowelefttheblackandsunkthe
yellow”(Grant’sScotch)(ibid).Myers(1994)statesthathebelievesthe
advertisement’swordingis“fromsnooker”,andhearguesthatitforcesthe
readertoidentifythereferentsforblackandyellow,whicharetreatedasnouns
ratherthanadjectives.Inadditiontothefactthatthesearethecoloursoftwoof
theballsusedinsnooker,theverbs‘sunk’and‘left’wouldalsoberecognisedby
aplayerassnookermetalanguagedescribingactionswithinthegame.These
enablethemetaphortobeextendedwhenthepossiblealternative
interpretationof‘sunktheyellow’couldcancelthesnookerinterpretationand
beunderstoodtomeantohavedrunktheyellowliquid,namelyGrant’swhisky39.
Myersstates:
39Myers(1994)offersnocorrespondingalternativereferentfor‘theblack’,althoughone
possibilitymightbearivalbrandofup-marketblendedwhiskyavailableatthetimecalledJohnnieWalkerBlackLabel.
103
“Itisnotalwaysclearthattheadvertiserwantsalltheassociationsthatthe
registercallsup:ascotchmaywanttobeassociatedwiththerelaxationand
skillofsnooker,butthereisnoparticularadvantagetoaresortbeing
associatedwithclothes.”(ibid)
Myers(1994)thusdescribestheadvertisers’parallelsintermsofscotchand
snooker,andbetweenholidaysandclothing,buthemakesnoattempttoexplain
whyitisnecessaryorevenadvantageoustocreatesuchparallels.Inother
words,onemightaskwhetheritwouldnotbesimpler,andrequireless
processingeffortonthepartofthereader,todescribescotchintermsofscotch
andholidaysintermsofholidays.
Whilesomeseetheadvantagesofpunsinadvertising,therearecriticswithin
literarystudieswhodismissthemas“thelowestformofwit”(Nobus,2004:p.
195)whileHopkins(1917,fromRedfern1982)claimsthatneitherhumournor
frivolityhaveanyplaceinadvertisingascustomerswouldnotbuyfrom“clowns”
(p.269)Redfernhimselfrejectsthis,assertingthat,whilesomeadvertisersmay
holdalowopinionofhumouringeneral,theargumentsfortheusefulnessof
wordplayarestrongerthanthedoubtsexpressed.Tanaka(1994)alsorejects
Hopkins’(1917)view,pointingoutthatitiscontradictedby,amongmanyother
examples,theubiquitousandwidelyrecognisedclownfigureinadvertisements
fortheMcDonald’shamburgerchain(Tanaka,1994:p.60).
Muchhumancommunicationcouldbesaidtobepotentiallyambiguousandthe
ambiguityisresolvedthroughcontextorrather,accordingtosomeobservers,
throughtheprocessofcontextualization.Harris(2010),forexample,asserts
thatcontextsarenotsomuchgivenastheyareconstructedbytheparticipants
withinparticularinteractionsand,assuch,theyarenotabletoberesolved
unproblematically;theythusgiverisetodifferencesofinterpretation.Where
ambiguityfacilitatesapun,ithasfirsttoberecognisedthatitisambiguousand
theavailableinterpretationshavetobemutuallymanifestifitistosucceed.The
advertiserutilisesdevicessuchashomonymyandhomophony(Cook,2001),in
ordertocaptureattentionintheknowledgethatrecognisingandresolvingthe
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ambiguitiesrequiresextraprocessingeffortwhich,whensuccessful,confersa
smalldegreeofself-satisfactiononthepartofthereceiver.Thisstimulates
interestandismemorable,thusachievingagoaloftheadvertiser.
TheoperationofpunscanbeexplainedthroughRelevanceTheorywherebya
singleutteranceisopentomultipleinterpretationsandthespeakerintendsthe
hearertonoticethispossibilityifthepunistobesuccessful.Tanaka(1994)
considerspunsusedinadvertisingasexistingwithinfourcategories,accepting
thattheboundariesbetweenthesemaynotalwaysbeentirelyclear,and
exemplifiesthemwithinstancesofeach.Thefirstisthenonsensicalpun,where
theinitialmeaningmakesnosenseatfirstsightandwithinthecontextinwhich
itappearsandthereadermustsearchforanotherinterpretation,whilethe
secondtypedependsheavilyoncontextualeffects.Putsimply,thisoccurs
wheretherejectedinterpretationcontributestotheintendedinterpretationand
isdependentuponthereader’sencyclopaedicknowledgeforthealternative
interpretationtobeachieved.ThethirdtypeofpunwhichTanaka(1994)
proposescontainssexualinnuendo,althoughonemightquerywhyshebelieves
thisrequiresitsowncategoryandtheonlyexamplesofthiskindofpunshe
offersareJapaneseoneswhichdonotappeartobeapplicabletoexamplesfound
withinEnglishadvertising.Lastly,Tanaka(1994)proposestherearepunsthat
havetwocommunicatedmeanings,eachwithsomedirectrelevanceasa
statementandthereisthereforenoreasontorejecteither.Shecitesan
advertisementforMazdacarsfrom1986bearingthecaption“Theperfectcarfor
alongdrive”[p.79].Theoperativewordinthiscaseis“drive”,wherethe
copywriterhasbeenabletoexploitthispolysemeintermsofmeaningtodrivea
longdistance,orhavingalongdriveway.Myers(1994)suppliesasimilar
polysemicpunwithanadvertisementcaptionforBootscosmetics,“Facethe
world”(p.65).
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3.8REASON/TICKLEANDHARD/SOFTSELLDISTINCTIONS
Simpson(2001)referstothemanyapproachesthathavebeenusedinprevious
studiesofadvertisingandwhichhaveviewedtheparticipantsfromthepositions
ofidealisedreceivers,intheformofreaders,viewersandlisteners(RVLs)and
this,heclaims,isolatesthereceiversofadvertisementsfromtheprocesses
whichgoverntheirproduction.Asstatedintheintroductorychapter,
advertisersemployadiverserangeofmethodsinordertostimulatetheinterest
andcapturetheattentionofpotentialconsumers.Tobesuccessful,however,
theymustpossesssomeunderstandingoftheinterpretivestrategies(cognitive
processes)ofreceiversandhaveregardfortheseintheiradvertisingdesign.A
majorinterestofthisstudyistoexplorehowadvertisersapproachthisandto
uncoverhowitinfluencesanddirectstheirworkingpractices.Simpson(2001)
providesadetailedanalysisofcertainadvertisingstrategiesbaseduponthe
binaryof‘reason’and‘tickle’whichBernstein(1974)proposes.Cook(2001)
makesadistinctionbetweenwhathecalls“productads”(p.15),whicharethose
forcommerciallysuppliedgoodsandservices,and“non-productads”(ibid),
whichincludethoseforcharitiesandpoliticalparties.Similarly,hedistinguishes
thembytechnique,whereheclaimsthereisawell-establisheddistinction
between“hardsell”and"softsell"(ibid);theformeroccurswherethereisa
directappealtobuywhilethelatteroperatesthroughmoodoralludingto
desirablelifestyles(ibid).
Cook(2001:p.15)alsomentionsthesimilardistinctionof“reason”and“tickle”,
asdefinedbyBernstein(1974).AccordingtoSimpson(2001),thereason
approachisdesignedtoappealtothelogicalmindofthereceiver.Itfollowsthe
directrouteofinformingthemoftheparticularqualitiesofaproductandby
foregroundingtheadvantagesofpurchasingitand,assuch,theadvertisementis
easytocomprehend.Acommonfeatureofreasonisthatitmakesuseofa
limitedandspecificsetof"conjunctiveadjuncts"(p.595fromHalliday,1994:p.
36)whicharerecognisedinsystemicfunctionallinguisticsasexpoundingthe
106
textualmetafunction40.Theseexpressionsareusedinpresentingthe
advertisementasoperatingonaspecificproposition,andoftenwithanelement
ofcauseandeffect,asinthebelowadvertisementforabrandofpainkiller:“If
painstrikes,thenhitbackwithSolpadeine”(ibid).
Tickle,ontheotherhand,iscalculatedtoappealtotheRVLobliquely,and
throughemotionandimaginativeinputsthatthereforerequiremoremental
efforttoprocess.AnexampleofticklecitedbySimpson(2001)forBushmills
(Irish)whiskeyhas,curiously,averysimilargrammaticalandsyntactic
structure:“Ifyouwanttodrinkwhiskey,drinkwhiskey”(p.599).Ascanbeseen,
thisisalsoapropositionwithaconditionaladjunct,yetoperatesthroughan
expectationthatthereaderwillseekfurthercontextualinformationthrough
exploringtheotherelementsoftheadvertisement.Indoingso,afurtherlayerof
meaningisrevealedbeyondsimplytellingthereadertodosomethingtheywant
todo.Thisinvolvesthereaderassigningaslightlydifferentmeaningtothe
secondinstanceoftheword“whiskey”byaprocessofinferencing.Whilethe
firstiterationof“whiskey”relatestoIrishwhiskeygenerally,thesecond
iterationisintendedtodenotespecifically“Bushmillswhiskey”,perhapsasa
representativeof“properwhiskey”or“goodwhiskey”.Theauthor/softhis
wordinghaveusedtherepetitionof“drinkwhiskey”astherhetoricaldevice
knownas“epizeuxis”,whichoccurswhereawordorphraseisrepeatedtwoor
moretimesinsuccessioninordertogenerateadesiredeffect.Sperberand
Wilson(1995)notethat,whileepizeuxisisusedforemphasis,thepreciseeffects
generatedbysuchrepetitionarenotconstant.Anexampletheyciteis:“Wewent
foralong,longwalk”(p.219).Theystatethatitcouldbeassumedthatthe
speaker,inaccordancewiththeprincipleofrelevance,wantedtoemphasisethat
thewalkmentionedwaslongerthanmighthavebeenexpressedhadtheysimply
40Halliday(1994,inSimpson,2001)identifiesfourmajortypesofconjunctiveadjuncts,namely
additive(adjunctslinkedwithand,also),adversative(adjunctslinkedwithbut,however),
conditional(linkedbyexpressionssuchasintheeventif,otherwise)andcausal(suchasso,then,because).
107
describeditas“alongwalk”41.However,thisexplanationdoesnotsatisfactorily
accountfortheBushmillsexamplebecausetherepetitionisasmuchforits
rhetoricalqualityastocreateitsownimplicature.Thechoiceofwording“Ifyou
wanttodrinkwhiskey,drinkwhiskey”operatesthroughitsgrammaticalstructure,
namelythatthewordingbeginswithaconditionalsubordinatingclauseinwhich
thenon-finiteverbphrase,“(to)drinkwhiskey”,takesthesameformastheverb
phraseinthemainclause,whichisanimperative“drinkwhiskey”.Theauthoris
abletoexploitthefactthat,inEnglish,theverbformininfinitivesisidenticalto
itsforminimperatives42andfacilitatestheproductionofaparallelinwhichthe
deviationisstructuralratherthanparadigmatic.
Simpson(2001)likensthisprocesstothesyntagmaticandparadigmaticaxes
fromJakobson’sstructuralisttheoryandwhichisdescribedintheprevious
chapter.Thesyntagmaticaxis,whichSimpsonreferstoasthe“structural”(p.
592)axis,representsdiscourseasalinearsequenceorchainofunitswhilethe
paradigmaticaxis,whichSimpsoncallsthe“strategic”(ibid)axis,consistsofthe
rangeofoptionsavailableateachpointalongthesyntagmaticaxis.Bothofthese
axesareinterdependent,andalsodependentuponcontext.Simpsonassigns
termsforthepolesonthestrategyaxisas“direct”and“oblique”(ibid).Hedraws
aparallelwithGrice’s“maximalefficiency”(ibid)forthedirectpoleasit
conformstoallfourconversationalmaxims,whiletheobliquestrategyinvolves
floutingoneormoreofthemaxims.Advertisementsattheextremeendof
directnessthusmakeexplicitreferencetothegoodsandservicestheyare
marketingandconsequentlyrequireminimalcognitiveprocessing.Conversely,
thoseattheextremeendofobliquenessrequiretheaddresseetoextendthe
contextsothattheyenablehimorhertoachievethedesiredinterpretation
throughtheprincipleofrelevance.Simpson(2001)alsorecognises,however,
41Analternative,yetentirelyplausibleexplanationforthisuseofepizeuxiscouldbesuggested
fromaPeirceansemioticperspective,namelythatitisiconic–theelongationofthephrasebyvirtueofrepetitionparallelstheelongationofa”longwalk”intoa”long,longwalk”.
42ThisisnotthecaseinotherGermaniclanguages.Forexample,inDanishandSwedish,
languagesveryclosetoEnglish,thiswouldnotworkbecausetheinfinitiveformsoftheverb”drink”(drikkeanddricka)aredifferentfromtheimperatives(drikanddrick).
108
thatthereisthepotentialforakindofhalfwayhousethatdisplays
“conventionalisedindirectness”(p.593).Asaconsequence,whilesome
advertisementsaredesignedtoappealpredominantlyeithertoreasonorto
tickle,theyinvariablycontainatleastsomeelementofboth,andthissuggestsa
gradation,orcline,withreasonatoneextremityandtickleontheother,andin
whichanygivenadvertisementcould,intheoryatleast,bepositioned.
Thepreviouschaptersurveyedthetheoreticalfieldsofsemiotics,includingthe
basisoflinguisticstructuralismasoutlinedbySaussureandthephilosophical
perspectiveofsignsandtheirtypology,asadvocatedbyPeirce.Latertheoriesof
culturalsemioticsasproposedbyBarthes,Levi-StraussandEco,havealsobeen
discussedaswellasthemethodsofanalyzingtextsthroughmultimodal
frameworksofKressandvanLeeuwen.Thischapterhasoutlinedthe
approachessuggestedwithinpragmatics,includingGrice'smaxims,Relevance
Theory,theroleofdeixisandpronouns,ambiguity,metaphorandpuns.In
additiontocoveringthesubstanceoftheoriginaltheories,themeansandextent
towhichsubsequentscholarshaveattemptedtoapplythemtoexamplesfrom
thefieldofadvertisinghavealsobeendiscussed.Thethesisnowproceedsto
describethemethodologyforauthor'sprimaryresearch,whichcomprisesa
briefexaminationoftheinputadvertisingpractitionersreceiveintheir
professionaleducationintermsofsemioticsandpragmaticsandanoverviewof
thetextsusedorreferredtobystudentsofadvertisingaswellasbythose
alreadyemployedintheindustry.Thisisfollowedbyasummaryofaseriesof
interviewswhichwereconductedforthepurposeofestablishingthecreative
processesandworkingpracticesinvolvedinadvertisingdesign,andhowthese
canberelatedtoconsciousandunconsciousapplicationsofsemioticand
pragmaticprinciples.
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CHAPTER4-METHODOLOGY
4.1CHAPTERINTRODUCTION
AsindicatedbythethesisquestionslistedintheIntroduction,thisresearchhas
beendesignedtoestablishhowadvertisersconstructrelevantandappealing
wordsandimagesandtheircombinations;themodelsofcommunication,
meaningandunderstandingthatappeartobeimpliedbythisdiscourse;how
ambiguities,alternativeinterpretations,implicitmeaningsandtheroleof
contextinunderstandingareaddressed(ifatall)inthesediscourses;the
specificterminologyorconceptualframeworksusedbypractitionersandhow
theseterminologiesandframeworkscanberelatedtosemioticandpragmatic
theories.Inordertodiscoverthecommunicationalprinciplesand
considerationswhichadvertisersareguidedby,andexplicitlyappealto,intheir
dailypractice,anumberofadvertisingpractitionershavebeeninterviewed,as
describedinSubchapter4.3below.Accordingly,itwasjudgednecessaryfirstto
obtainsomeindicationastowhattheoreticalinputpractitionersmayhave
receivedduringtheirtrainingandsosomepreliminaryresearchwasconducted
toinvestigatethis.Thefirstelementoftheresearchrelatestotheteachingof
semioticsandpragmaticsinadvertisingcoursesofferedatuniversitiesandby
professionalbodies.Thishadtobe,asamatterofpracticalityandasis
explainedinSubchapter4.2below,animprovisedandlargelyquantitativestraw
pollsurveyaimedatdiscoveringwhethertheseinstitutionsincorporateaspects
ofsemioticsorpragmaticsintheeducationtheyprovideand,ifso,thetitlesof
thetextsused.
Inrelationtothemainaspectoftheresearch,namelyinterviewswith
practitioners,anumberofalternativeapproacheswereconsideredbefore
undertakingthispartoftheresearch,inparticularinrelationtothequestionof
whetherthedataelicitedshouldbeanalysedthroughquantitiveorqualitative
methods.Itwasdecided,inkeepingwiththenatureoftheprimaryresearch
questions,thatthelatterwouldprovidemoreinsightfulinformationfromwhich
110
toanswerthethesisquestionsanddrawconclusions.Aqualitativeapproach
wasviewedasbettersuitedforachievingthisfortworeasons:a)becauseofthe
limitedsizeofthesample,i.e.,thesmallnumberofintervieweestakingpart,and
theunsystematicprocedurethroughwhichthesamplewasassembled,andb)
thetypeofinformationtobesought,relatingtotheirindividualbackgrounds,
educationandprofessionaltrainingandtheirpersonaldailyworkroutines.This
choiceofmethodologyaccordswithSilverman'sview,accordingtowhich:“if
youareconcernedwithexploringpeople'slifehistoriesoreverydaybehavior,then
qualitativemethodsmaybefavoured”(2013:p.11).Anotherconsiderationin
choosingaqualitativemethodwastheintendedfocusonparticularexamplesof
advertisingproductswithaviewtounderstanding,fromthepointofviewofthe
relevantqualitativeanalyticalframeworks,howandperhapswhytheywere
createdbytheprofessionalsconcerned.Silverman(2013)contendsthat
exclusivelyquantitativeresearchisinclinedtowardstheuseofrigidoperational
definitionsand,assuch,itriskslosingsightof“thewaythatsocialphenomena
becomewhattheyareinparticularcontextsandsequencesofactions”(p.97).The
useofqualitativedata,ontheotherhand,shedslightupon“thenormative,
ideological,historical,linguisticandsocioeconomicinfluencesonthebeliefs,
objectives,expectationsandtalkofallparticipants”(Yardley,2000:p.220).
Accountingfortheseinfluencesisessentialifthecreativeprocessesofthose
designingadvertisementsaretobeappropriatelyinvestigated.
4.2RESEARCH-ADVERTISINGEDUCATION
Atthetimethispartoftheresearchcommenced,therewerearound160
universitiesandhighereducationalestablishmentsintheUKandahigh
proportionofthemofferingbusinessandmedia-relatedcoursesand,inaddition,
numerousfurthereducationcollegeswererunningarangeofdiversecourses
thatincludedaspectsofadvertising.Tohaveundertakenafullsurveyofall
establishmentsthatprovidedadvertisingtrainingplusallindividualcourses
offereddidnotturnouttobefeasibleforthisstudywhereasitwaspossibleto
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gainatleastsomeimpressionofwhatistaughtbyselectingandcontactinga
sufficientnumberofthemasasample.Thissamplecompriseduniversities,and
alsotheprofessionalbodiesthatalsodelivertraining.Itwasappreciatedthat
thepreferencesofindividualteacherswithininstitutionswouldlikelyvary,and
sothesourcematerialforthisaspectoftheresearchwasconfinedtocourse
books,specificallythoseusedbyUKuniversitiesandprofessionalbodiesaspart
ofcoursesforprospectiveorexistingadvertisingpractitioners,orthose
studyingmarketingwithanadvertisingcomponent,atBachelor’sorMaster’s
level.Workswithsubstantiallinguisticscontentwereconsideredofparticular
interest,butmoregeneralbookswerealsoreferredtowheretheyhavebeen
foundtocoverassociatedlinguisticphenomena.
Thirtyinstitutions43fromamongthesewereselectedonthebasisofcriteriathat
aimedtoensurevariationintermsoftheirlocation(England,Walesand
Scotland)andstatus,e.g.RussellGroupuniversitiesandformerpolytechnics.At
leastonecourseatMaster’slevelwasincluded.Universitieswerecontactedfirst
bytelephoneandtentativeenquiriesmade,andthenthesewerefollowedup
withemailswhereapplicable.Thesuccessofthislimboftheresearchhinged
uponthewillingnessofstaffworkingintheseestablishmentstocooperateand
providetheinformationrequested.Inaddition,theprofessionalbodiesfor
advertisingprofessionalswerecontactedandinvitedtoprovideinformationas
describedwherecoursebookswereused.Thispartoftheresearchwas
predicatedonanassumptionthatallormostofthoseworkinginthisfieldwould
havepursuedatleastsomeformaltraininginadvertisingateducational
establishmentsorthroughprofessionalbodies.Atthisstage,itwasbynomeans
certainthatthisassumptionwasjustifiedandthatwassomethingwhichbecame
clearerastheresearchprogressed.
43SeeAppendix1forfulllist
112
4.3RESEARCH–ADVERTISINGPRACTICES
AsstatedintheIntroduction,mostresearchconductedonthetopicof
advertisingisfocuseduponexaminingadvertisementsthathavebeenpublished
orbroadcastatsomepointintime,andresearchersarelefttospeculateasto
whatwasthepurposeorintentionofthedesignerwhentheywerecreated.This
thesisaimstoremedythisbyaskingthosewhoproduceadvertisementsto
describetheir'creativeprocess',i.e.theircognitiveprocessesandprofessional
routines.Aspartofthisinvestigation,itisalsonecessarytoestablishhowthey
wereformallytrained,whetherthattrainingincludedasemioticscomponent,
andthedegreetowhichtheycurrentlyandknowinglyapplysemioticprinciples
intheirwork.Itisalsotheaimtodeterminethedegreetowhichtheircognitive
processesasdescribedbythemalignwithexplicittheoreticalframeworkswhich
areconcernedwithcontext,namelythosewhicharetobefoundwithin
pragmatics.
Initialcontactwithadvertisingagencieswasmadethroughaseriesoftelephone
callstoagencieslistedinInternettelephonedirectories.Around30agenciesin
totalwerecalled,butitwasnotbelievedtobefeasibleintermsofthetimeand
resourcesavailabletoconductthatnumberofinterviewsevenifsufficient
volunteershadbeenwillingtomakethemselvesavailabletoanswerquestions.
Inviewofthein-depthandqualitativenatureoftheinterviewstobeconducted,
itwasjudgedthatfiveintervieweeswouldbesufficientforthepurposesofthis
study.Aneffortwasmadetoobtainsomediversityofintervieweesintermsof
thesizeofagencies,andalsothetypesofworkthattheseagenciesundertook.
Forpracticalreasons,alltheagencieswerelocatedinthenorthofEngland,
leavingopenthequestionastohowrepresentativethisparticularsamplemight
beofwiderprofessionalpracticeandexperience.
Interviewsofthecopywriters/creativedirectorswereconductedface-to-faceat
thepremisesoftheirrespectiveagencies.Thesewereelectronicallyrecorded
andwiththeaidofapre-preparedquestionnaire(seeAppendix2).The
questionnairewasdesignedinaccordancewithprinciplesofqualitative
research,asdescribedinSubchapter4.1,andfollowingtheguidanceoutlinedin
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Silverman(2013).Theinterviewsweredesignedtobesemi-structuredrather
thanstructured,asdescribedbySmith(2014)and,consequently,questions
wereselectedandwordedsothattheyfollowedcloselytheaimsoftheresearch
asdefinedinthethesisquestions,havingregardtopreviousknowledgeand
research,andthedatawaslimitedaccordingly.Theywere,nevertheless,
constructedtobeopen-endedsofaraspossibleandflexibleenoughtochange
directionifthedatasuggesteditwasnecessarytoadjustthefocus,as
recommendedbySmith(2014).Thestructureofthequestionnairewassuchas
toensureconsistencyintermsofthesequenceofthequestionsasked;withthis
inmind,itwasdividedintofourparts,eachofwhichhasaspecificfunctionthat
relatesdirectlytotheaimsoftheresearch.Thefirstpartcomprisedfive
questionsintendedtoprobethebackgrounds,trainingandexperienceofthe
interviewees,theirawarenessofsemiotictheoriesandwhich,ifany,textsthey
hadusedtoguidethemintheirjobofdesigningadvertisementsfortheirclients.
Thesecondpartfocusedonthecreativeprocessesthemselves,howideasarise,
andwhetherpractitionersviewedthepromotionofbrandsdifferentlyfrom
advertisingspecificproducts.Thethirdpartrelatedtospecificworktheyhad
undertakeninthepast,orwhichtheyhappenedtobeworkingonatthetimeof
theinterviewanditspurposewastoestablishtheday-to-dayworkingpractices
oftheinterviewees,includingconvertingtheircreativeideasintocompleted
advertisementstobepublished,distributedorbroadcasted.Thelastpartofthe
questionnaireconsistedofthreequestionsdesignedtoextractasmuch
additionalinformationaspossibleastotheapplicationoftechniquesthatcould
belinkedtosemioticorpragmatictheories.Itwashopedthatthispartwould
informthestudyastothedegreeandmeansbywhichtheirpracticesaccorded
withthetheoreticalapproachesdescribedinChapter2andChapter3above.
4.4ADDITIONALINTERVIEW
Itwasknownthatahandfulofhighlyspecialisedcompaniesexistedwhichhad
thespecificpurposeofusingsemiotictheoriestoassistmajorinternational
114
companies,andtheprestigiousadvertisingagenciesthattheycommissionedto
advertiseforthem,withbrandcreation,re-brandingandaspectsofotherdesign
factorsincludingproducts,trademarks,packagingandlogos.IntheUnited
Kingdom,thesewerealltobefoundinLondonatthetimeofwriting.Itwas
consideredthatitwouldbeinformativetoconductanadditionalinterviewwith
aspecialistcommercialsemioticiantodiscoverthepotentialthatexpertisein
semioticsmightbeabletoofferthewideradvertisingindustry,andhow
methodsthatarepredicatedexpresslyonsemiotictheoriescouldbeusedto
influencemarketingstrategiesatthehigherendofthecommercialworld.
Anadditionalinterviewwasthereforearrangedandconductedwithaspecialist
semioticianwhoworkedexclusivelyinmarketing.Itwasenvisagedthatthis
wouldbeunlikethosewithcopywritersandgraphicartistsasthesubjectwould
notbeacreatorofadvertisements,butratheranadvisoronstrategic
approachesrelatedtobrandcreationandmanagement.Forthatreason,the
questionsputtothissubjectweresomewhatdifferentfromthoseaskedofthe
otherintervieweesandconsequentlythequestionnairementionedabovewas
regardedasinappropriateforthisinterview.Asthisroleishugelyspecialized,
withonlyahandfulofpractitionersnationally,itwasdecidedtointerviewthis
subjectonanadhocbasisratherthanbasingitonpre-setquestions.Thismade
itpossibletoestablishtheprecisenatureofhisjob,thespecificsemiotictheories
heappliedandhowheappliedtheminarealcommercialenvironment.Italso
gavehimmaximumscopetoelaboratewherehebelievedhecouldshareuseful
insights,toexpanduponpointsashewished,andfortheinterviewertoask
furtherprobingquestionsastheinterviewprogressed.
4.5ETHICALCONSIDERATIONS
Allintervieweeswerecontactedinadvancebyemail.Thepurposeofthestudy
wasexplainedtothem;theywereaskediftheywouldbewillingtoparticipatein
thisstudyandtheyrepliedbyemailthattheywerewillingtodoso.Theyare
educatedtograduateorpost-graduatelevel;allareexperiencedprofessionalsin
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theirfieldandnoneofthequestionsaskedwereofasensitivenature.Inorderto
extractthemostcomprehensiveandaccuratedata,allparticipantswere
encouragedtospeakfreelyandtouselanguageastheysawfit,including
esotericandcolloquialexpressions.Whiletheinterviewswerestructured,with
particularquestionsoccurringatparticularpointsinthedialogue,itwas
regardedasimportantthatthisdidnotconstrainthespeakerorinhibittheflow
inthedialogue.
Tworelatedaspectsconcerningconfidentialityandprivacywereconsideredand
thefirstofthesewasanonymity.Priortotheprocesscommencing,interviewees
wereassuredthattheywouldnotbereferredtobyname,butrathertheywould
beanonymized,i.e.referredtoasSubjectsAtoF.Itwasaconsiderationthat,in
sucharelaxeddiscussion,intervieweesmightrevealinformationabout
themselvesortheiragencythatwouldmakethemidentifiabletoanyonewho
hadsightofthisthesisandwasintentuponinvestigatingthem.This
considerationwasexplainedtoeachofthemindividuallyandtheirviewsand
permissionsoughtinrespectofdisclosinginformationthatcouldindicatetheir
respectiveidentitiesand/oragencies.Priortointerviewstakingplace,they
wereinformedthat,whiletheywouldnotbenamedasindividuals,norwould
theirrespectiveagenciesbenamed,otherinformationincludingdirectand
potentiallyidentifiablequotationsfromtheirwebpagesmayappearinthis
researchandthismightmakeitpossibleforthemortheircompaniestobe
recognizedordiscoveredbyadeterminedindividual.Theirparticipationinthe
interviewswasonthebasisofthatunderstandingandallacknowledgedthisin
writing.
TheinterviewswereconductedinaccordancewithSheffieldHallamUniversity
ResearchEthicsPolicy(6thEdition).
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4.6INTERVIEWS-DATAHANDLING
InterviewsmentionedinSubchapters4.4and4.5abovewererecordedusinga
dictationdevice,storedelectronicallyandretainedforfuturereference.They
weresubsequentlytranscribedandthetranscriptionsareshownattheendof
thisthesisasAppendices.TheresultsaresummarizedandanalysedinChapter5
andChapter6,andthenthewiderimplicationsofthefindingsarediscussedin
Chapter7.
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CHAPTER5–TEXTSUSEDINADVERTISINGEDUCATION
5.1CHAPTERINTRODUCTION
Thischapterdescribesresearchconductedwiththeintentionofsecuring
backgroundinformationwithregardtothetraininggiventoadvertising
practitionerspriortoconductinginterviewswiththem.Thisisdoneinorderto
establishtheirawarenessofsemioticsandpragmaticsthatarisesfromtheir
formaltrainingand,fromthat,determinewhetherthetheoreticalapproaches
suggestedwithinthesedisciplinesarelikelytoberelevanttothem.Itinitially
providesanoverviewofthetrainingavailableatthetimeoftheresearchto
thosewishingtoentertheoccupationswithinthefieldofadvertising;the
opportunitiesinrespectofthattrainingwhicharedeliveredbyinstitutionsof
highereducationintheUnitedKingdom;publishedtextsandcoursematerials
usedinadvertisingandmarketingcoursesandthepossibilitiesforentering
advertisingwithouthavingfirstundertakensuchtraining.Itthenexaminesa
selectionofthetextsidentifiedinthecourseoftheresearchtoestablishcontent
relevanttothisstudyspecificallyintermsofsemioticsandsubjectsrelatedto
linguistics,andhowtheseareappliedtoadvertising.
5.2PROFESSIONALBODIES
Thedevelopmentofadvertisingasabusinessdisciplineinitsownrightcame
sometimearoundthe1920sandthisdevelopmentwassignaledbyanumberof
publications,includingClaudeHopkin’sScientificAdvertising(referredtoin
Brierley,2002:p.25)andHarryTipper’sThePrinciplesofAdvertising(1923).In
theUK,socialtrendhasbeenobservedsincethe1990stowards
“professionalizing”certainoccupations,bothtoenhancetheirstatusand,more
importantly,toraisestandardstothebenefitofthewiderpublicandthisoften
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involvedtheestablishmentofregulatoryand/orprofessionalbodies44.Insome
cases,thesebodieswouldhaveresponsibilitiesandevenlegalpowersthat
includedsettingprofessionalandethicalstandards,disciplinarycodes,
determiningorinfluencingtrainingandtheencouragementandmonitoringof
continuingprofessionaldevelopment(CPD).Advertisingdidnotescapethis
trend,althoughwhilethebodiesestablishedwereconcernedwithworking
practices,ethicsandtrainingofpractitioners,theyhadnostatutorystatus.
TheInstituteforPractitionersinAdvertising,knownastheIPAwasestablished
in1917,althoughitsoriginalpurposewastoassistthegovernmentindesigning
recruitmentandpropagandamaterials(IPA,2014).Sincethen,itspurposehad
changedanditswebsitedescribedtheorganizationas“theprofessionalbodyfor
advertising,mediaandmarketingcommunicationsagenciesintheUnited
Kingdom”(ibid).Likemanysimilarorganisations,theIPAwasfoundtooffer
varioustrainingopportunities,accreditationforbothagenciesandindividuals,
andacontinuingprofessionaldevelopmentprogramme.TheIPA'sstatedits
pinnaclequalificationasitsExcellenceDiploma,describedasbeing:
“designedtocaterforpeoplewith3-5yearsofexperiencein
theadvertisingindustryandwhowanttodevelopabroader
perspectiveonhowbrandsworkandcreatevalueforclients”
(ibid).
InadditiontotheIPA,anorganizationwithevenolderantecedentswasfoundto
exist,namelytheIncorporatedSocietyofBritishAdvertisers(knownsimplyas
“ISBA”).Thisorganizationwasestablishedin1920,butderivedfromanearlier
one,theAdvertisers’ProtectionSociety,thatwasfoundedtwodecadesearlier
(IBSA,2017).ItswebsiteclaimedtheISBAworkedfortheinterestsof
44Thishasincludedadulteducation(Brown,etal2002),nursing(O'Connor,etal2003),
theCivilService(Rutter,2017)andpolicing(Bampton,2017).
119
advertisersgenerallyand,unliketheIPA,itdidnotrestrictitsmembershipto
agencies.LiketheIPA,itofferedtrainingintheformofcoursesandworkshops,
andalsoaccreditedtrainingthatwasrecognizedaspartofCPDandbythe
professionalbody,theCharteredInstituteofMarketing(ibid).Forthesereasons,
boththeIPAandISBAwereoriginallyconsideredpotentialsourcesof
informationfortheresearchdescribedinthisthesis.However,both
organisationswerecontactedbytheauthorandstatedthattherenosemioticor
pragmaticcontentwereincludedinanyoftheirtrainingmaterialsandthey
wereunwillingtoshareanyoftheseforthepurposesofthisresearch.
Atthetimeofwriting,nosingleprocedurewaslaiddownforthosewhohad
chosentopursueacareerinadvertisingandtheywereabletoaccessthefieldin
anumberofways.Ogilvy(1983:p.31)suggestsfourpointsofentryintothe
industryandthefirstoftheseistojoinanorganizationwhichisindirectly
involvedinadvertising,namelyjournalism,retailormanufacturing,andthelast
beingtojoinanadvertisingagency.WhileOgilvyisspeakingfroma1980s
Americanperspective,thecurrentpositionintheUKwasfoundtobesimilar,
especiallywithregardtohisfourthpointofentry.TheIPAwebsitementioned
thepossibilitiesoftakingupa“modernapprenticeship”(IPA:2014)in
advertisingwithanagencyasaschoolleaver,butitacknowledgedthatamore
usualwayintothefieldwasenteringasanundergraduateorrecentgraduateon
anagency’sgraduateentryscheme.
5.3UNIVERSITIES
ManyUKuniversitieswerefoundtoofferundergraduatecoursesinadvertising
ormarketingasapossiblerouteintotheindustrywhileaspectsofadvertising
wassometimescoveredincoursesinBusinessStudies,MediaStudiesor
CommunicationStudies.InthecaseoftheUniversityofBirmingham,advertising
wasincorporatedintoamoduleformingpartofabusinessstudiesdegreeat
Bachelorlevel.Otheruniversities,suchasUniversityoftheArts,London,Edge
120
HillUniversity,UniversityofChesterandAberystwythUniversity,offered
Bachelorleveldegreesspecificallyinadvertising,whilemany,including
LancasterUniversity,combinedadvertisingwithmarketing.LeedsUniversity
(SchoolofDesign),HullUniversityandSouthamptonUniversityprovided
specificadvertisingcoursesatMaster’slevel.Inaddition,manycollegesof
furthereducationrancoursesinmedia,businessstudiesandmarketing,upto
andincludingdegreelevelcoursesandinwhichadvertisinghadfeatured.The
qualificationsobtainedwouldfacilitateaccesstostudentswishingtopursue
careersinadvertising,ortootheraspectsofmarketing.
Inspiteofcontacting30universitiesinScotland,EnglandandWaleswhich
statedontheiruniversitywebsitesthattheyofferedcoursesinadvertising
and/ormarketing,itwasdisappointingthatonlyahandfulwerewillingtoassist
withthisresearch.Frequently,callsweremadewithunfulfilledpromisestocall
back,andemailsweresenttolecturersanddirectorsofstudieswhosimplydid
notrespond.Severaluniversities,includingBrunelUniversity,didreply,but
reportedthatnoaspectofcommunicationtheory(suchassemiotics),ortopics
relatedtolinguistics(suchaspragmatics)wastaughtaspartoftheiradvertising
ormarketingcoursesandnobookswereusedthatwouldberelevanttothis
study.Inothercases,coursebookswerementionedbutwhichitwasdiscovered,
onexamination,madejustacursorymentionofsemiotics.Whilethesubjectof
contextinadvertisingwasbroached,andcouldbefoundinthebooks'respective
indices,itwasinvariablymentionedinageneralsenseandwithoutreferenceto
anytheory,pragmaticorotherwise.Similarly,conceptsfamiliartosemioticians
andlinguists,suchastheuseofmetaphorsinadvertising,werereferredto,
althoughsuchmentionstendedtooccurwithoutbeingdefined,orelsethey
wereexplainedlooselyorsuperficiallyandthusnotinprecisesemioticor
linguisticterms.
OnetextthatwasusedatanumberofUKuniversitieswasabookcalled
PersuasiveSigns:TheSemioticsofAdvertising(2002)andwaslistedasacourse
bookforstudentsatBachelorlevelstudentsofadvertisingand/ormarketingat
theuniversitiesofAberystwyth,ChesterandLeeds.Whileadvertisingisthe
primaryfocusofthisbook,itdealswithmoregeneralcultural/socialissuesthat
121
relatetosemioticsandmarketing,suchaswhywomenwearhighheelshoes,as
discussedinthenextsubchapter.Itisalsoconcernedwithaspectsofthe
marketingprocesswhichprecedesthedesignofspecificadvertisements,namely
branding,selectinganddesigningbrandmarks,productnamingandaspectsof
productdesign,andhowtheseareinformedbysemioticapproaches.Thisbook
isarareexampleofonewhichwasco-authoredbywritersfromtwoapparently
divergentdisciplines,namelyaprofessionalmarketer,RonBeasley,45andan
academicanthropologistwithaknowninterestinsemiotics,MarcelDanesi46.
Theauthorsindicatethattheworkdoesnotintendtoconductdetailedanalyses
ofparticularadvertisements,asmanybooksonthissubjectdo,nordoesthe
bookaimtobeaninstructionmanualforcopywriters.Theystate:
“thepointofthistextbookissimplytoputondisplaythetechniquesof
semioticanalysis,nottoprovideaseriesofcriticalinterpretationsof
adsandcommercials.”(p.31)
Thisbookcomprisesjustfourchaptersandbeginswithageneraloverviewof
advertising,itshistoryanditsentrenchmentinsocialdiscourse.Itmovesonto
providingasummaryofsemiotictheoriesandprinciplesincludingsignification
andtheculturalaspectsofsemiotics,anditbrieflyoutlinestherolesemiotics
playsinmodernadvertisingapproaches.Thesecondchapter,entitled“Creating
recognizabilityfortheproduct”,instructsreadershowtouseinsightsfrom
semiotics,suchassignificationsystems,iconicityandmyths,indesigning
advertisements.Thethirdchapter,titled“Creatingtextuality”,discusses
techniquesincopywritingusingsemioticconcepts.Thefinalchapter,
45RonBeasleyis,atthetimeofwriting,thePresidentofABM,amarketresearchcompanywhichconductsqualitativeresearchinkeyglobalmarketstoprovidedirectionforthecustodiansofglobalbrandswhentheyaredevelopingmarketingandcommunicationsstrategies.TheirmajorclientsarecompanieslikeAB-InBev(producersofStellaArtois,Budweiser,Corona),BurgerKing,BrasilFoods,PepsiCo,Kellogg'sandUnilever.(Pers.2014)46MarcelDanesiisprofessorofanthropologyattheUniversityofToronto.Heisbestknownforhisworkinsemioticsandyouthculture(UniversityofTorontowebpage,n.d).
122
“Advertisingandculture”,outlinesmoreasophisticatedviewofsignification
systems,andmovesontoproposingtheimplicationsofusingsemiotic
advertisingmethodsintheindustry,forpromotingconsumerismandconsiders
advertisingasanartform.BeasleyandDanesi(2002)donotofferanycomment
regardinghoweffectiveanyparticularadvertisementsareinpersuading
viewerstopurchasetheproductstheyarepromoting.
Inquirieswiththoseuniversitieswheretherewasagreementtocooperatewith
thisstudyrevealedthat,whilesemioticswassometimesincludedinthesyllabi
foradvertisingandmarketingcourses,linguistics-relatedsubjectsdidnot
featureinanyrespect.Whenaskedaboutpragmatics,itbecameclearthatthere
wasacompletelackofawarenessamongteachersandcourseadministratorsof
whatthissubjectwasaboutorwhatitencompassed.Noneofthetextbooksor
coursematerialsexaminedwerefoundtomakeanyreferencetopragmaticsand
thetermisnotmentionedintheirindices.Theremainderofthischapter
thereforecomprisesasummaryofthecontentofthebooksmentionedby
universitieswheretheyexplainsemioticprinciples,orwheretheymake
referencetolinguisticphenomena(suchasmetaphors).Thisisinorderto
identifyanytheoreticalframeworksrelevanttothisstudywithwhich
advertisingpractitionersmayhavebeenfamiliar,havingbeenintroducedto
themduringtheirtraining.
5.4SIGNIFICATION
BeasleyandDanesi(2002)considertheuseofsignifiersbyadvertisers,although
notinspecificadvertisements.Theyrefertothenamechosenforarangeofcars
producedbytheJapanesemanufacturers,Honda.Thesevehiclesweremarketed
underthebrandAcuraandthisname,theyassert,combinesanarrayof
associations,orsignifieds,namely:
123
o Accuracy:thelinkis,theyclaim,self-evident
o Japanesetechnology:thecommonviewthatJapanisatthe
cuttingedgeoftechnology
o Italianlanguage:regardedasattractiveandthusthelanguage
oflove,poetryandsong,butalsoart,romanceandstyle
o Femininity:the–asuffixindicatesfeminineinItalian
grammar
Consequently,asignificationsystemisgeneratedbythenameAcurawhich
presentsthecarinquestionasonewhichismanufacturedwithJapanese
technology,andisthereforeaccurate,yetitisalsoItalianandtherefore
melodious,beautiful,poetic,artisticandromantic.Itisnotpossibletoestablish
whetheralloftheassociationsincludedinBeasleyandDanesi’slistwereinthe
mindoftheindividualswhodevisedandapprovedthisnameatthetime.
Certainly,thephoneticsimilaritybetweenthenameAcuraandtheadjective
accuracyisundeniableandtheprobabilityofalinkisstrong;thereisroomfor
doubtthatalloftheotherclaimedsignifiedswereintended,orwouldbe
universallyidentified.Inparticular,theclaim:“thesignifierhasbeenconstructed
atthesametimetobeimitativeofthestructureofanItalianword”(p.23)
appearstobeintuitiveand,assuch,islessconvincing.Itshouldbenotedthat
thisisaJapaneseproduct,andbothJapaneseandItaliannounscanendinthe–a
phonemewithbrandslikeHonda,NomuraandYamaha,butitisonlyinthe
Romancelanguages,suchasItalian,thatitfunctionsmorphologicallytodenote
thefeminine.Thisraisesquestionsastoboththedegreetowhichthiswouldbe
knownbypotentialreaders,andwhetherthiswasintendedinthe
advertisement’sdesign.BeasleyandDanesi(2002)appeartoassumethatthe
sensoryrepresentationofthenameAcuraautomaticallyresultsincertain
connotationsbeingtransmitted,regardlessofanyculturalknowledge.
Anotherexampletheymentioninrelationtothegenerationofsystemsof
significationisthatofadvertisementsforhighheelshoes,whichtheyclaim
occuralmostweeklyinthousandsofmagazinesacrosstheworld.Theypoint
124
outthattheoriginalpurposeofshoeswouldhavebeentoprotectthefeet
evenwhenwalkingondifficultterrain.Onthatbasis,shoesoughttobe
viewedasfunctionalandsocomfortandprotectionwouldbethechief
considerationswhenselectingthem.Inspiteofthembeingboth
uncomfortableandpotentiallyhazardous,high-heelshoeshavebecome
hugelypopularamongwomen47.Theauthorsattributethisphenomenon,
andthesuccessofsuchadvertisements,totheunderlyingsignification
systeminwhichcertaintypesofgarbareassociatedwithsexuality.High-
heelshoesare,accordingtoBeasleyandDanesi(2002),fetishesandthey
claimthatafetishisasignthatevokesdevotiontoitself(p.30).Theysuggest
thatputtingonhigh-heelshoesisassociatedwithputtingonstockingsand
thattheactofdoingthisisitselferotic,sotheyappeartobeimplyingthatthe
“signified”ofhigh-heelshoesissexualpotency.
Thisisunconvincingforanumberofreasons.First,theclaimthat
advertisementsforhigh-heelshoesareprevalentdoesnotappeartobetrue48.
Aperusalthroughahandfulofpopularwomen’smagazinesundertakenby
thewriterofthisthesisuncoveredzeroexamplesofadvertisements
specificallyforhigh-heelshoes.Thisperceptionisconfirmedbythe
advertisingexecutiveforthepopularwomen’sjournalMarieClaire,Angela
Rawstorne,whostatesthat,whilesomebrandmarketingmayoccurfortop
endadvertising,suchasJimmyChooandManoloBlahnik,orgeneral
advertisingforshoemanufacturersandretailerssuchasClark’sandRussell
andBromley,itwouldbeunusualtomakeanadvertisementspecificallyfor
high-heelshoes(Rawstorne,pers.2014).Secondly,whileitmaybe
commonplaceforwomendepictedineroticizedcontextstobewearing
certainstylesofshoeswithveryhighheels,itcouldbedisputedthatthe
correlationbetweentheseanderoticismisstraightforwardorinevitable.Itis
47Thisappliestomoderntimesinwesterncultures.High-heelshoeshavebeenwornbybothsexesinpreviouscenturiesandinothercultures.
48Itappearstobeuntrueatthetimeandlocationofwriting.Ithastoberememberedthat
BeasleyandDanesi’s(2002)bookwaspublishedtwelveyearsbeforethisthesis–andinadifferentcountry(Canada).
125
takenforgrantedinwesternculturesthatthereisanassociationbetween
eroticismandhighheelsandresearchexiststhatsuggeststhisrelatesto
sexualdimorphismandperceptionsofdesiredfemininetraits(Wouters,
2010;Clark,etal.2012).Oneofthetraitsconsideredissmallfeetor,atleast,
theimpressionofsmallfeetthatwearinghighheelscanconvey(Fessleretal,
2005).Othercommentators(e.g.Morrisetal,2012;Young,2013;Guéguen,
2015)reportthatthroughemphasizingsuchtraitsassmallfeetandan
alteredgait,highheelsareassociatedwithattractiveness.Whileitmaybe
arguedthatalinkexistsbetweeneroticizationandattractiveness,theyare
farfrombeingentirelyequivalent.Reasonsevenmoreremotefrom
eroticizationmayalsoexistforwearinghighheels,suchasbeingrequiredto
conformtoacertainstandardofformality(Wendt,1996)ortoshow
conformitytocurrentfashions(Parmentier,2016).Ifthisisthecase,then
thereasonsforwearinghighheelsaremorecomplexthanproposedbythe
claimthattheyarenothingmorethansignifiersofsexualpotency.Itcould
thereforebeadvantageousforadvertiserstorealizethateroticismmaynot
betheonly,orevenforemost,considerationinawoman’smindwhen
choosingherfootwear.
Advertisementsdesignedtoengenderconnotationssuchaseroticisminthe
mindsofconsumersareamenabletosemioticanalysisasassociated
signifiers,signifiedsandsignificationsystemsarereadilyidentifiable.
However,neglectingthecontextualdimensionislikelytoproduceatbestan
incompleteand,atworst,awhollyincorrect,analysis.Thisisbecausethe
analystmaynotbeabletoavoidprojectinghisorherowncultural
knowledgeupontheelementsindividuallyandincombination,asmightwell
havehappenedinthisinstance.Italsohighlightsthepossibilityofa
disconnectbetweentheproducerofanadvertisementandthereceiver,as
theintentionbehindthesignsmaybesomethingotherthanwhatis
perceived.Advertisershavetooperatewithinnarrowconfinesintermsboth
ofthephysicalspaceavailabletothemintheadvertisement(e.g.thepageor
thebillboard)andtheexpectedattentionthataviewerislikelytoafford
them.Thatmeanstheyinevitablyunderdeterminethesignifiersandhope
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thatareaderstillrecoversallthedenotative(information)input,plusmuch
oftheconnotative(persuasion)input,andthereforeitwillstillbeeffective.
Anyadvertisementthatisnotunderstood,orthatdoesnotpromptcloser
attention,wouldhavemisseditsopportunitytofulfillitspurpose.
5.5DENOTATION,CONNOTATIONANDMYTHS
BeasleyandDanesi(2002)considerchoicesofbrandnamesandshowhowthey
areconstructedtogeneratespecificsignificationsystemtypes.Theyclaimthat
oneswhicharefoundedonestablishedmanufacturerorcompanynamesare
abletocapitalizeoncertainqualitiessuchastradition,reliabilityor
sophisticationandciteasexamplesArmaniandGillette(pp.53-54).Other
namesmayappertaintoafictitiouspersonality,e.g.theRonaldMcDonaldclown
character;sometoageographicallocationorarea,e.g.SouthernBell;someto
nature,e.g.Surf,oranactivityinthenaturalenvironment,e.g.FordExplorer;
somearehyperbolic,e.g.SuperFresh;someareblendwords,e.g.Fruitopia;many
aredesignedtosaywhattheproductcandoorcanbeaccomplishedbyit,e.g.
EasyWipeandAirFresh(ibid).Whilethesenameshavelargelydenotative
meanings,i.e.bydenotingtheproductstowhichtheyreferatapracticaland
informationallevel,generatingconnotativemeaningsisaconsciousbrand
strategy,aswithwordsthatareassociatedwithnatureorafictitiouspersonality
andthus,accordingtoBeasleyandDanesi(2002):
“Itcreatesasemiotically-powerfulsignificationsystemforitthatcan
beusedorreusedforvariousadvertisingpurposes.”(p.56).
Aaker(2010)suppliesanearlyexampleofusingfictitiouscharactersfor
brandingwithanexampleoftheKodakcamera.ThisUScompanyhaddeveloped
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camerasaimedforthefirsttimeatamateurswithlittleknowledgeofthescience
ofphotographyandwhich,in1888,borethecaption“Youpressthebutton,wedo
therest”(p.4)andasimilarexamplecanbeseeninAppendix4:image17,below.
Itwentontointroducetwocharacters,theBrownieboyandtheKodakgirl,and
theyshowedscenesespeciallyoffamilies,children,dogsandfriends.Theclear
intentionherewastogeneratesignstoremindthosewhoseethemthat,thanks
toKodak’ssimplecamerasystem,evenachildcouldoperate,importantand
memorablemomentscouldbecapturedforposterity.Theusehereof
charactersassociatedwithabrandiscommonplaceinbrandbuilding.Aaker
(2010)mentionsthePillsburyDoughboyandconsumersarealsolikelytobe
familiarwithfictitious,yetlikable,characterswhoareusedinbrandingsuchas
theMichelinman(usedtoadvertiseMichelintyres)orevenrealpersonalities,
especiallythosewhoareregardedasthefoundersoforganisations,suchasthe
lateColonelHarlandDavisSanders(KentuckyFriedChicken)andSteveJobs
(AppleCorporation).
Connotationthroughbrandcharacteralsorelatestodesignerand
aspirationalproducts.GucciandFerrariare,intermsoftheirdenotation,
simplybrandnames,butthisisextendedthroughconnotationtothekinds
ofpeoplewhoreadersmayassociatewiththemandtheirimpressionsof
thelifestylestheyenjoy.Suchconnotationsarenotinvokedbynameless
brands:ahighqualityhandbagmightbeavailablefromasupermarketasan
ownbrandname,butitwillnotinvokethesameconnotationsasone
bearingtheHermeslabel,regardlessofitsstyleandquality.Mythsare
largelycreatedwiththeaidofsignificationsystemsandBeasleyandDanesi
(2002:p.59)considerthesignifiersforGuccihigh-heelshoes.The
denotationis,theystate,thatthebrandnameallowsreaderstoidentifythe
productforshoppingpurposes.Thisisextendedintowhattheyrefertoas
“extensionalconnotation”(p.59)and,inthecaseofGucci’sshoes,this
meansthebrandnameallowsthereadertofeelsheisbuyinga“workof
shoeart”(ibid).Lastly,theyofferafurtherextensionwhichtheycallthe
“socialconnotation”(ibid)andthiswouldbeeroticperceptionsinvokedby
thehigh-heelshoes.
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BeasleyandDanesi(2002)discusstextandtextualityinadvertising.They
remindthereaderthattheword“text”insemiotictheoryreferstotheputting
togetherofsignifiersinordertoproduceamessageandtheydescribetextuality
inadvertisementsasbeingthemodesbywhichtheyaremadeonthebasisofthe
significationsystemsthathavebeengeneratedforthembytheadvertiser.
Textualityisalteredandrenewedinadvertisementsinordertoperpetuate
neomania,i.e.thecravingsfornewproducts(seeSubchapter2.6).Generating
thisdependsnotjustuponaddingorchangingproductfeatures,butalsoonthe
constantupdatingofthesignifiers.Itcanbereinforcedbyfriendlyorhumorous
slogansandjingles,asintheoneforAlkaSeltzer.“Plopplop,fizz,fizz”,thechoice
ofmusic(inTVandradiocommercials)andthecreationofcharacters,suchas
RonaldMcDonald(McDonald’s).Apartfromneomania,usingthesefeaturesover
aperiodoftimecanbehelpfulinsecuringbrandloyaltybyconstructingastable
productpersonality(Aaker,2010).Theimplicationisthat,foradvertisingtobe
successful,copywritersmustworkonpublicperceptions,constantlyrenewing
publicawarenessandpromotingloyaltybychangingthesignifiersthatreferto
thesamesignifiedssothattheyareseenafresh.WhilenotmentionedbyBeasley
andDanesi(2002),thisconceptisreminiscentofanotionwithinliterarytheory,
namely“automatization”,asmentionedinSubchapter2.5above,andthisis
explainedbyCrawford(1994)inhiscritiqueofShklovsky’stheoryof
defamiliarization:
“Perceptionisthecenterofaestheticexperience,andperceptioncan
onlybeestablishedbyeffectinga(textual)difference:tobreakdown
theindifferentrecognitionofautomatization.”(p.210)
Withtheexceptionofclassifiedadsandcertainspecializedortrade
advertisements,itcouldbeassumedthatthoselookingatadvertisementsin
magazinesaremostly,andatleasttosomedegree,opentoaesthetic
experiencesastheywouldbewithliterature.Thiscanalsoaccountforthe
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useofartistic(imageryandgraphological)andliterarydevicesin
advertisingtexts.
5.6INTERTEXTUALITYANDCONNOTATIVECHAINS
Asubtextthatexistswithinatextisameaningwhichisencodedthrough
connotationswhichtheproducerintendsthereceivertorecover:wheretheonly
intendedmeaningistheliteralone,thereisnosubtext.Asmentioned,almostall
advertisements,withthepossibleexceptionofclassifiedadvertisements,aimto
bestimulatingtosomedegreeandrhetoricaldevicesincludingpuns,ambiguity
andmetaphor,aretoolscopywriterscanemploy.BeasleyandDanesi(2002)
exemplifythiswithaBudweiserbeeradvertisementshowingtwoyoungmen
whoare:
“Hangingouttogether,performingbizarremalebondingritualsand
generallyexpressingculturallybasednotionsofmalesexuality.The
subtextintheseadsis:You’reoneoftheguys,bud”(p70)
Intercodalityoccurswhereasubtextiscreatedbycombiningseveralcodesin
tandem.ThisnotionisillustratedbyBeasleyandDanesi(2002:pp70-73)by
wayofanadvertisementinwhichthetextisencodedinthreesegments;these
aretheproductname,whichhasbeencarefullyselectedtogeneratedesired
connotations,theartcode,whichincludeslogosandtrademarks,andthemusic
code,whichwouldincludethecompositionofjingles.Themakerand
interpreterofanadvertisementmusthaveaccesstothesamecodesifitistobe
successfullydecoded(interpreted).BeasleyandDanesi(2002)continuewitha
detaileddescriptionofanadvertisementforIroncologne,whichappearedin
Cosmopolitanmagazineduringthe1990s.Inthisadvertisement,amanis
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depictedinapassionateembraceofawomanandthisimageisaccompaniedby
anothershowingthebottlesprayingsomeofitscontents.Alongsidesitsthe
capitalizedtext“PUMPSOMEIRON”.Theyclaimthat,“atthedenotativelevel”(p.
72),themessageappearstobeurgingthereadertoenjoyanenergeticand
satisfyingsexlifethrough“pumpingiron”,andbyeitherusingthecologneor
buyingitforamalepartner.Fromtheelementspresentintheadvertisement,
theydrawaseriesofinferenceswhichpointtosexualconnotations,including
suggestingthatthesprayfunctionsasametaphorforejaculationandthe
referencetopumpingironinsinuatesmasturbation(p.73).
ApossiblecriticismwhichmaybeleveledatBeasleyandDanesi(2002),and
otherswhoattempttoaccountforthereasoningprocessesadvertisers,is
thattheyconsistofassumptionsderivedfromtheiranalysisofthe
advertisementsandtheelementsfromwhichtheyarecomposed.These
assumptionsrelatetomeaningsbeyondthosewhicharepresentatthe
surfacelevel.ThesubtextssuggestedbyBeasleyandDanesi(2002)forboth
theBudweiserandtheIroncologneadvertisementsmayormaynotreflect
theintentionsoftheadvertiserandtheinterpretationofthereceiver.This
cannotreasonablybeestablishedanditisnotwithintheaimsofthisthesisto
attempttodoso.Itcan,however,beproposedthatitisentirelypossiblethat
theseauthorshaveover-interpretedtheirtexts,thattheyhavemisidentified
metaphorsandrecoveredlayersofmeaningthatwereneverintended.From
thepointofviewofthereceiver,noattemptismadetoexplaintheprocessby
which(a)themessageofsolidarityintheBudweiseradvertisementand(b)
thesupposedadditionalsexualmeaningsintheIroncologneadvertisement,
whichareclaimedtobesubtexts,areactuallyrecovered,ortheroleplayed
byanypre-existingknowledgeinachievingtheintendedunderstanding.
Whileintertextualityisatopicreferredtobymanyauthorsofadvertisingtexts,
itspresenceinadvertisingisdescribedinthecontextoftheoryratherthan
taughtasatechnique.BeasleyandDanesi(2002)relatehowthisisusedina
coupleofadvertisementsandthefirstoftheseisforasparklingwinecalled
MarilynPeach.This,theyclaim,hasanobvioussubtextrelatingtotheBiblical
notionoftemptation,withsignifierspresentincludingabackgroundwhich
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includesaGardenofEdenscene,EvetemptingAdamandaserpentintheform
ofabracelet.TheseconddescribesaTVadvertisementforMillerbeerinwhich
ayoungmaninabarseesayoungwomanwhomaybeconsideredattractiveand
headsforher,blockingapossiblerivalintheprocess.Thereisavoice-over
duringthiscommercialwhichprovidescommentaryontheactioninthestyleof
anAmericanfootballannouncerandendingwiththemessage“Loveisagame”
appearingonthescreen.Thevieweristhusinvitedtodrawtheparallelsand
recognizetheintertextbetweenwinningasexualcontestandwinninginsport;
thisappliesnotjustintermsoftherealworld,i.e.thebehaviourssuchasmoving
andblocking,butalsolinguistically,assportsmetaphorscanbeusedinsexual
contexts,asin“makingaplay”and“scoring”.Inadditiontothis,thereisa
furtherintertextbetweentheloveandsportthemes,andthegenreoftelevision
sportscommentary(ibid).
ConnotationandsubtextsarefurtherdiscussedbyBeasleyandDanesi(2002)in
anattempttoexplainhowadvertisementsareabletotapintowhatiscalledthe
“buyingmotive”(p.96).Theydistinguishbetweenthesurfacelevelof
advertisingtexts,namelythetechniquessuchascharactersandjingles,andthe
underlyingsubtextinwhichthesignificationsystemisstructuredaround
connotativesignifieds.Thereafter,theyattempttodemonstratetheroleplayed
bytextualitythroughdecodingaselectedadvertisement,identifyingits
connotativestructureofsubtextsandexaminingtheverbalandnonverbal
elementsusedinconstructingthesesubtexts.Theadvertisementanalysed
illustratedtheuseofarangeoftechniquesincludingitslayoutanddesign,and
theuseofambiguity.Itwasaprintedadvertisementwhichwasdominatedby
animageofagroupofyoungmeninblack,yetcasual,attirewithopencollars,
andwasforacolognebyVersacecalledVersus.Intheanalysis,theauthors
highlightrangesofconnotationsachievedthroughsignificationandamongthese
isopposition.Thenameofthecologne,Versus,whichcrossesovertheentire
advertisement,impliesthisopposition.ItisspeculatedbyBeasleyandDanesi
(2002)that,astheyoungmenareabletoaffordfashionableclothingandan
exclusivebrandofcologne,theyarelikelytobeaffluent.Assuch,themen
depictedprobablywearbusinesssuitsduringtheday,buttheycrossoverintoa
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mysteriousandsomewhatdarkerrealmintheirleisuretime,signaledbytheir
sartorialchoicesandadashofVersus,andareabletoaccessanunderworldof
carnalpleasures.BeasleyandDanesi(2002:p.99)proposefurther,yethidden,
signifiersandsignifiedsassociatedwiththeadvertisementshouldbeconsidered,
includingtheprevalenceoftheletter“V”anditsshape.Asidefromthewords
VersusandVersacebothbeginningwiththisletter,theshapeofitisalsoevident
inotherelements,suchastheopen-neckedshirtsofthemodels.Ithasthe
possibilityofconnotingafissureorcleftthatconjuresamentalrelationto
femalesexualanatomy,andremindingthereaderthattheword“vagina”also
beginswitha“v”.Ontheotherhand,theysuggestthepresenceofmalemodels
only,onemodelwearingablackleatherhatandanotherablackleatherjacket,
maybeunderstoodtoimplyhomoeroticgratification,especiallyiftheviewer
recallsthatthelateGianniVersacewasadeclaredhomosexual.Anumberof
allusionsaremadetotheAncientGreekgodofwineandcarnalpleasures,
Dionysus,andparallelsaredrawnbetweenthecarefreeandshamelesslifestyle
oftheimaginedcharactersasportrayedbythemodels,andthismythicaldeity
(ibid).Theauthorsintimatethatperfumeandcolognebottlesaremostoften
designedtobelittleartistictokens,sometimesevensculpturedandwith
meaningsembeddedthatsuggestthepersonalitythemanufacturerintendsfor
theproduct,andthatthisfacilitatesthesemeaningsbeingtextualisedintheir
advertising.Amorerecentexampleofthisphenomenoncanbeseenwiththe
maleandfemalebodyshapesusedinperfumebottlesbyJeanPaulGaultier.For
perfumeandotherproducts,thedistinctivedesignofbottlesandotherkindsof
packagingmaybeacentralfeatureofthesignificationsystemthemanufacturer
hasdevised.BeasleyandDanesi(2002:p.100)refertotheclassicbottleshapes
ofCoca-ColaandChanel,whileBritishreadersmaybeequallyfamiliarwith
thoseofHPSauce,MarmiteandDimplewhisky.Theygoontoclaimthatthe
multiplicityofpossibleinterpretationsofadvertisements,e.g.theambiguityof
theVersusadvertisementanditspotentialtobereadfromaheterosexualor
homosexualperspective,imparts“ahighconnotativeindextotheproduct’s
textuality”(p.102)andthustheopportunitytorepeatedlyusethesame
signifiersinfutureadvertisementsandachievethesameeffects.Theyclaim:
133
“Themoreinterpretationsthereare,themorethemoretheproduct
canbeshieldedfromhavingitssignificationsystem‘unmasked’.
Becausethevariousconnotativemeaningsgeneratedbythesubtext
areinterconnectedtotheothernetworksofmeaningsthatarepresent
inaculture,thead’ssignificationsystemis,ipsofacto,intertextual,
linkingitsviewertothisnetwork…”(ibid)
ThisassertioninrespectoftheVersusadvertisementislessthancompellingfor
reasonsthatareexplained.Allenpointsoutthatmoderntheoristsregardtheact
ofreadingasplungingthereaderintoanetworkoftextualrelations.The
interpretationofatextthusinvolvestracingthoserelationsandmoving
betweentexts(Allen,2000:p.1).Fairclough(1992)drawsadistinction
betweenmanifestandconstitutiveintertextuality.Manifestintertextuality
referstothatwhichisoftensignifiedbyquotationmarks,andcantakeforms
suchasparodyandnegation.Constitutiveintertextuality,ontheotherhand,isa
farbroaderconceptwhich:“referstothecomplexrelationofgenresordiscourse
types’conventions”andis“theconfigurationofdiscoursetypeswhenthetext
produced”(p.85).Clearly,theformerdoesnotapplyintheVersusexampleas
nodirectorindirectquotationsorevenallusionsaremade.Theclaimfor
constitutiveintertextualityisalsotenuous.BeasleyandDanesi(2002)assume
theexistenceofadialoguebetweenthistext,theadvertisement,andothertexts
yettheyareobviouslyunabletospecifywhichtextstheyareastheyvaryfrom
readertoreader49.
TheVersusadvertisementisre-examinedbyBeasleyandDanesi(2002)from
theaspectofconnotationandsuggestedcognitiveprocesses.Theseprocesses,
whichconsistofsimilarity,difference,contiguity,intensityandassociation,are
49Fromapragmaticperspective,therangeofinterpretationsavailableduetothe'indirectness'usedinsuchadvertisingprovidesthepossibilityofdeniability,especiallywhereinnuendoispresent(Tanaka,1994).
134
saidtoworkintandeminordertogeneratecognitivechainsasthehumanmind
isdisposedtolinkmeaningstogetheraccordingtoitsownculture-specificlogic
Thefirstchainsuggestedisexplicatedasfollows:
“V-shape=femininity=sexuality=forbiddenpleasures=sado-
Masochisticeroticism=etc”(p.104).
TheDionysusallusion,whichissupposedlypresentinthesubtextoftheVersus
advertisement,ismentionedagainaspartoftheconnotativeprocessinthat
VersusisameanstofulfillDionysianurges(ibid).BeasleyandDanesi(2002)
supplementthisbydescribinganumberofotheradvertisementsthattheyhave
foundinpopularlifestylemagazinesinthelate1990s.Theseincludethemes
andimagesrelatingto:
• ThestoryofNarcissus(DooneyandBurke,manufacturerofbagsand
fashionaccessories)
• Thepresenceofasatyr,ofwhichtheauthorsclaim“inGreekmythology
wasaminorwoodlanddeity,attendantonBacchus”50(RemyMartin
cognac).
• Hermes,sonoftheRomangod,Zeus,andwhowasreputedlyheroic,
cunningand“anembodimentofextrememobility”(ibid).(FTDFlorist)
• Aphrodite,Greekgoddessofloveandbeauty(Givenchy)
• Apollo,theGreekgodofmusicandpoetry,andDaphne,thenymphwith
whomApollowasinfatuated(GennyBoutique)
• TheGreekgoddessGaia,whowasthepersonificationoftheearth
(Prada)(pp.105-107)
50Thismaybeanerrorbytheauthors.Bacchuswas,infact,agodoftheAncientRomans,althoughhewasequatedwithDionysus.SatyrswereafeatureofGreekmythology.
135
BeasleyandDanesi(2002)claimthepoweroftheartworkswhichprovide
thenarrativesfortheseadvertisementsistobefoundthrough“evokingthe
connotativechainsthatmythsinvariablygenerate”(p.107).
Thechoiceoftheword“invariably”byBeasleyandDanesi(2002)is
optimistic.Evokingthedesiredconnotativechainsmustsurelydepend
upontheexistenceofthenecessaryencyclopaedicknowledgeinthemindof
thereader:withoutsuchknowledge,theallusionsarewastedandany
connotativechainisbroken.Thismightnotbeanissueforareaderwho
hasbenefittedfromaclassicaleducation,butwhethercharacterssuchas
Dionysus,DaphneorGaia,andthelegendsassociatedwiththem,wouldbe
recognizedbyatypicalreader,orasEco(1979)referstosuchanindividual,
a“modelreader”(seeSubchapter2.9,above),ifsuchanentityexists,isa
mootpoint.Thepossibilitiesfortherangesofmeaningsoffered,alongwith
intentionalambivalences,byintertextualityandconnotativechainscan,in
theoryatleast,beexploitedbyproducersoftextswhoareabletodesign
themsoastoofferdifferentinterpretationstodifferentreaders.Theyare,
however,reliantuponassumedpre-existingknowledge,including
knowledgeofothertexts.Withagenresuchasadvertising,wherethereare
veryspecificandpracticalgoalsintermsofchangingreaderbehaviour,itis
surelydangerousforanalyststomakesuchassumptionsaboutreaders,let
alonepresentthesetostudentsasanythingotherthanconjecture.Beasley
andDanesi(2002)mayhavebeenentirelycorrectwhentheyidentifiedthe
intendedsubtextsandmultiplemeaningsavailable,andtheirmappingof
theconnotativechainsintheVersusadvertisement.Ontheotherhand,
someoftheintertextualityandconnotationsperceivedbyBeasleyand
Danesi(2002)maynothaveeverenteredthemindsoftheirproducers.
Whatisperhapsmoresignificantisthatonecannotfullyascertainthe
extentofunderstandingorthevariationsofinterpretationsofthosewho
haveviewedthisadvertisement.Arguably,thishighlightsalimitationthat
appliestoallsemioticandlinguistictheoriestovaryingdegreesaswellas
theadvantagesofundertakingpracticalresearchtotestandvalidate,or
refute,theoreticalapproaches.Therecanthusbenotruescienceof
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advertising,sinceitisultimatelydependentuponthevagariesofthe
interpretativecapacitiesandpropensitiesofbothpractitionersand
consumers.Theories(bothsemioticandpragmatic)whichattemptto
accountfortheinterpretativeprocessesare,asaconsequence,themselves
characterizedbyvaguenessandlackofcorroborationorverification.
5.7PRODUCTANDBRANDNAMES
Oneofthewaysbywhichtextualityiscreatedinanytextisbytheuseof
figurativelanguage.BeasleyandDanesi(2002)considertwootherperfume
advertisements,beginningwithVolupté,byOscardelaRenta.Theynotethe
name,whichtheyclaimistheFrenchwordfor“voluptuousness”(p.113),the
shapeofthebottleandthephrase“Trustyoursenses”(ibid)positionedbelow
theimageofthebottle.Theyalsoclaimtheshapeofthebottlecap:“ishighly
suggestiveofanarousednipple–asignofsuccessfulsexualforeplay”51(p.114).
Thisassociationisreinforcedbythemultipleinterpretationsofthephrasefrom
theonewhichismoreliteral,i.e.encouragingthereadertotrustherolfactory
senseinconfirmingthehighqualityoftheproduct,toaloosersetofmeanings
thatencompassallthesensesandthesensualitywhichisassociatedwith
voluptuousness.TheVoluptéadvertisementiscontrastedwithonefora
fragrancecalledL’Effleur,andwhichfocusesinsteadonromanceandloverather
thansexuality.Itusesvisualsignifiersincludingflowers,butterflies,angels,a
littlegirlandamodelinawhitedress,tocreateanimageofidyllicloveandthis
isreinforcedmetaphoricallybythepresenceofashortlovepoematthebottom
(ibid).Thepoemusesmetaphors,suchasmentioningthatloveis“fragrant”and
refersto“theonewhogaveusyesterdays”.BeasleyandDanesi(2002)notehow
brandnamescanalsooperatemetaphorically,andinwhichthedenotative
51ThisauthorhasnotedthatthebottleshapeappearstohavealteredsinceBeasleyandDanesi’sbookandbelievesthenew,straightershapeismuchlesslikelytoinvokesuchanassociation.
137
meaningsareintendedtobeignored,whereasarangeofconnotations
associatedwiththatnameareinvokedandtheseconveyinformationor
impressionsoftheproduct.AmongtheexamplesgivenarePoisonperfumeand,
inthisexample,thereceiverisnotexpectedtobelievethattheproductisalethal
substance,butrathertheyaredesignedtoelicitmoreglamorous,and
particularlyculture-specific,connotations,suchasmysteryandsorcery(ibid).
Theyshowhowthisstrategyisusedtoconveyspecificanddesiredconceptions
ofcarmodelswithincertaincategories.Theyincludethosewhicharesuggestive
ofmovementandexplorationwithproductnameslikeProbeandRangeRover;
thosewithsocialconnotationsrelatedtoanimalssuchasBeetle,Coltand
Mustang;thosewhichsuggestthecarisafriendorhelpersuchasEscort;those
whichimplyalifestyle,likeMetro;artisticconnotationssuchasSonataand
Prelude;thosewithchicorexoticconnotationslikeCavalierandGrandPrixand,
lastly,thosewhichinvitethoughtsofnatureortribal-mythicalprimordiality,
suchasFirebirdandSundance(pp.116-119).
Itcanbeseenthatmanyproductnamesforcars,andothercommodities,are
wordswhichhaveapre-existinglinguisticmeaningsemanticallyunrelatedto
theproductandBeasleyandDanesi(2002)saythisposesasemioticdilemma.
Forexample,aRabbit52isawordwhichdenotesatypeofcaraswellasan
animalso,theyargue,theword“rabbit”hastworeferentsratherthanjustone.It
is,therefore,assertedbyBeasleyandDanesi(2002)thattheproductname
functionsinasimilarwaytoametaphor,wherethedenotationoftheword
remainsunaltered,butcertaindesiredconnotationsaretransferredfromthat
meaningtoanotherreferent.Atypicaldenotationfor“metaphor”asalinguistic
phenomenonisofferedbyMcGregor(2009)“…thesenseofanexpressionis
extendedtoanotheronthebasisofaresemblance”(p.131).However,ingeneral
parlance,thisisfurtherextendedbeyondexpressionsto,forexample,physical
objects,asBrierley(2002)notes:
52TheRabbitcarismanufacturedbyVolkswagenandismarketedinEuropean
countriesastheGolf.
138
“Advertisersalsotrytoestablishtheirproductsandbrandsas
metaphors.Ahighperformancecarcanbecomeametaphorfor
success.Advertiserstrytomaketheirbrandsomnipotent.In
doingsoadvertiserstrynotonlytoattachmeaningstotheir
brands,buttoattachbrandstomeanings…”(p.144)
InthecaseoftheRabbitcar,thedenotationoftheword“rabbit”remainsthatof
alargerodent,butthehumanmindautomaticallylooksforinterconnectedness
whereonereferentisnamedafteranother.LakoffandJohnson(1980)illustrate
howthehumanconceptualsystemisattunedtowardsfindingexperiential
similaritiesandarelationcanbequicklyidentifiedbetweenthequalitiesofa
rabbitandthoseofasmallyetsprightlycar.Takingforgrantedtheintended
associationsbetweenthecarandtheanimal,whetherBeasleyandDanesi
(2002)arecorrectinclaimingthatproductnamessuchasthisaremetaphorical
isperhapsstretchingthedefinitionofmetaphortoofar.Inexploringthis
assumption,anothertechnologicalobjectnamedafterananimal,namelya
computermouse,canbeconsidered.Thedevicedoessharecertain
characteristicswithitsnamesakeintermsofitssize,roundedshapeandits
cable,thelattercouldbeperceivedassimilartoatail.However,itcouldnotbe
claimedthat“mouse”,whenusedtorefertoacomputerperipheral,is
metaphorical.Whileitcouldbesaidthereisadifferenceinthatthe(car)Rabbit
isabrandedproductwhilea(computer)mouseisnowagenericproduct,that
doesnotimpactuponwhatametaphoris,i.e.itisaconceptwhichplaysarolein
howhumansunderstandabstractrealities.Itseemsfairtoassumethat,whena
computermouseisused,nothoughtisgenerallygiventotheanimalfromwhich
ittakesitsname:theword“mouse”functionsinasimilarwaytoahomonym
andanyparallelswhichwereimaginedwhenthisdevicewasendowedwithits
namearenolongerreadilyapparent.Itmaybethecasethataprospective
buyerofaRabbitcarwouldneverdirecttheirmindstowardsthesomewhat
largerrodentfromwhichthevehicle’snamederives,butthepossibilitythat
suchanassociationismade,andthatthisinsomewayinfluencesthepurchasing
decision,cannotbecompletelydiscounted.
139
Metaphorfunctionsinthesamewayasanalogy,i.e.makingparallelsbetween
twootherwiseunrelatedphenomena,whereasmetonymsofferakindofverbal
shorthandbywhichonephenomenoncanbesubstitutedforanother,thistime
related,phenomenon.Therelationshipcanbethesubstitutionofeffectforcause,
objectforuser,substanceforformandnumerousothers(Chandler,2009).
Metonyms,andtheiruseinadvertising,aredescribedbyBrierley(2002)
althoughhisexamplesarefarnarrowerand,arguably,confusing.Theyraise
doubtsastowhetherhehasfullyunderstoodthepotentialofmetonymyasa
linguisticphenomenon.Oneofhisexamplesisfromanadvertisementwhich
appearedinthelate1990sorearly2000sforthenewspaperTheSundayTimes:
“TheSundayTimesistheSundaypapers”(Brierley,2002:p.147).Hestatesthat
thisstatementseekstoestablishthebrandbyusingmetonymy,sothatthe
readerorhearerassociatesthisonenewspaperwiththeentireproductgroup.
Whilethisisvalid,itcouldbecontendedthatconsumersmostcommonlyapply
metonymytobrandsandproductsthroughcoinage,asoccurswithproprietory
namessuchasaspirin,heroinandKleenex,andthrougheponymywithexamples
suchashooverandleotard.Someoftheseexamplesareold,butadvertisers
appeartobeawareofthebenefitsofusingmetonymytoassociatetheirbrand
withallproductsorservicesinthesameline.Morerecentexamplesmight
include:
“YoucandoitwhenyouB&Qit”(B&QStoresadvertisement,1987)
“ItallstartswithaNescafé”(Nescafécoffeeadvertisement–2015)
5.8RHETORICALDEVICES
Textswhichdescribethemethodsemployedbyadvertisers(e.g.Dyer1982;
Vestergaard&Schrøder;1985;Myers,1986;Myers,1994)generallydevote
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somespacetodiscussingtheuseofrhetoricaldevicessuchasjingles,rhyme,
alliterationandparallelism,andBeasleyandDanesi’s(2002)PersuasiveSignsis
noexception.BeasleyandDanesi(2002:pp120–121)pointoutthatjingles
andslogansreinforcetherecognisabilityofbrandnames.Imperatives,they
claim,givetheimpressionofanunseenauthoritativevoice53,whileformulas,as
in“Triumphhasabraforthewayyouare”(p.120)makemeaninglessstatements
thatsoundconvincing.Alliterationandparallelismarementionedseparately,
whichisperhapssurprisingastheformerisamanifestationofthelatterata
phoneticlevel.Absenceoflanguageisalsomentioned:
“Someadsstrategicallyavoidtheuseofanylanguagewhatsoever,
suggesting,byimplication,thattheproductspeaksforitself.”(ibid)
Areadermayrecallseeingadvertisements,especiallyinglossymagazines,
whichconsistoflittlemorethanverycarefullycrafted,enhancedandretouched
photographsdepictingparticularproducts,andusuallyaccompaniedbyoneor
morehumanmodels.Thisstrategyisgenerallyemployedforproducts
associatedwithlifestyleorglamour(Martínez-Camino&Pérez-Saiz,2012),and
isclearlyatthefarendoftheticklecline,asdescribedinSubchapter3.8above,
astheymakenoappealtoreason.Instead,theyarecalculatedtoattractthe
interestofthereceiverobliquely,throughsuchasemotionalappealand
aestheticappreciation,andtoachievethiswithminimalinformativecontent
requiresthattheviewerisalreadyfamiliarwiththespecificproductorbrand,
andtheimagerysimplybringsthesetomind.Theyalsomaximisethepotential
fortheviewertoaccessanalmostinfiniterangeofpossibleinterpretationsand
perhapsselectoneormorethatheorshefindsthemostrelevantorinspiring.
Unsurprisingly,thisstrategyseemstobefavouredforthosekindsofadvertising
53Imperativesarealsousedinanattemptatfriendlyorevenintimatepersuasion,asinaTVadvertisementforBailey’sIrishCream(2009)whichurgedviewers“Treatyourselftonight”.
141
thatareheavilyorexclusivelybrandoriented,suchastheGucciadvertisements
mentionedinSubchapter2.8above.
5.9RATIONALANDNON-RATIONALADVERTISING
BeasleyandDanesi(2002:pp.10-11)notethedistinctionbetweenwhatthey
callrationaladvertising,i.e.thatwhichappealstotheobjectiveandtherefore
rationalmind,andnon-rationaladvertisingthatappealstotheemotionsand
whichtheyclaimismoreassociatedwithelectronicmediasuchasradio,
televisionandtheinternet.Theyfurtherclaimthatthisdistinctionhasbeen
disappearingasmoreandmoreadvertisementsaredesignedtooperatealmost
exclusivelythroughemotions,thefocusbeingonproductpersonalityand
aspectsoflifestyleassociatedwiththeproduct.Thereissomecorrelationhere
withBernstein’s(1974)notionofreasonandtickle,ordirectandoblique
advertising,asmentionedinSubchapter3.5above.Thatisnottosaythereisa
perfectalignmentbetweenthembecausethatisnotthecase.First,whilethe
notionofrationaladvertisingseemsidenticaltoreason,thereisalessthan
perfectmatchbetweennon-rationalandtickle.Whilenon-rationalissimplyany
advertisementthatappealstoemotionratherthanreason,theobliquenessof
tickleinvolvestheaddresseeextendingthecontextwhichenablesthemto
achievethedesiredinterpretationthroughtheprincipleofrelevance.Afurther
differenceisthatBeasleyandDanesirefertothe“dichotomy”(Beasleyand
Danesi,2002:p.11)ofrationalandnon-rationaladvertisingapproaches.This
appearstocorrespondlooselywithSimpson(2001),whoconsidersreasonand
tickletobeaclineinwhichtheprocessislikenedtothesyntagmaticand
paradigmaticaxesfromJakobson’sstructuralisttheoryandthereforeoffersthe
possibilityofahalfwayhouse.WhileSimpsonisalinguisticsscholarandhasnot
beenfoundmentionedinadvertisingtrainingtexts,hisreasonandtickle
distinctionoriginatesfromtheworkofBernstein(1974),whowasan
advertisingexecutive.
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5.10BRANDBUILDINGANDBRANDRECOGNITION
Brandsactassignifiersinthesemioticsense,withbothadenotationandarange
ofpossibleconnotations.Theyinvokecontexts,relyinguponconsumers'
encyclopaedicknowledgeasSperberandWilson(1995)describeintermsof
previousexperienceof,orencounterswith,theirproductsand/orrecognitionof
previousadvertisingandbrandreputation.Onceestablished,brandshavea
valueoftheirown;thisvalueisanassetbelongingtothecompanyorindividual
whoownsitandhasmonetaryvalueinthesamewayasphysicalassets(Aaker,
2014).Takingawell-knownexample,asubstantialpartofthevalueoftheApple
Corporationisintheformofthebrandnameandthetrademarksassociated
withit.Itisthereforeintheinterestsofcompaniesandtheirshareholdersto
createstrongbrandsandmaintaintheirpowerassignifiers,andthisisachieved
bydevelopingbrandstrategies.Brandshavetheadvantagethattheycan
operateacrossarangeofproductsusuallyofsimilarorassociatedtypesandthe
significationandcontextarethustransferable.InthecaseofApple,theirrange
extendsacrosselectronicgoodssuchascomputers,notebooks,tabletsand
mobiletelephones.Thereare,however,brandswithevenmorediverseranges
ofproductsandservicesandtheirbrandsignificationistherebyexpansive.A
notableexampleofthisistheVirginGroup,whichmarketsawidearrayof
productsandservicessuchasrecordedmusic,othermediaincludingaradio
station,airtravelandholidays,hotels,trains,winesandsoftdrinks–allunder
thesamebrandnameandlogo(Finkle,2011).
Oneaspectofbrandbuildingdiscussedisbrandpersonality,andthisoccurs
whereanattemptismadetoassociateabrandwithasetofconsistentand
desiredhumantraits(Aaker,2010).Thisenablesabrandtoestablishakindof
remoterelationshipwithcustomers,invitingdesiredconnotationsand
increasingitsbrandequityatthesametime.ThewebsiteInvestopediaoffers
examplesofthesetraits:
Excitement:carefree,spirited,youthful
Sincerity:genuine,kind,family-oriented,thoughtful
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Ruggedness:rough,tough,outdoors,athletic
Competence:successful,accomplished,influential,aleader
Sophistication:elegant,prestigious,pretentious(Investopedia,2014)
Aaker(2010)pointstothePepsibrandasseekingtoportrayitselfasspirited
andyoung,andsorelatingtothe“Excitement”category,whiletheMarlboro
cigarettebranddepictsitsusersasrugged,outdoortypesandLexuscarsasa
sophisticatedandprestigiousbrand.WhileAaker(2010)doesnotsaythis,
thesecategoriesmaybeseentosomeextentasaspirationalintermsoflifestyle
andtheadvertisingthatisproducedwhichadvancesthesepersonalitiesis
highlydependentuponcarefullychosensignifiersinordertoinvokespecific
culturalmyths54.Anothermanifestationofbrandpersonalitycomesintheform
ofaquesttomakebrandsappeartobeasincereandtrustworthyfriendofthe
consumer.Inotherwords,thenaturalsuspicionthatconsumershaveofthe
motivesofadvertisersandtheveracityofclaimstheymakecanbeovercome
wheretherelationshipbetweenbrandandcustomerimitatesthatofpersonal
friendships.Thisisperhapsexplainabletoapointbecauseoftheway
consumerismhasevolvedoverrecentgenerations,asnotedbyCross(inTurow
&McAllister,2009).Sainsbury(1973)notesthat,untilthemiddleofthe20th
century,shoppingfordailyprovisionsandconsumerdurableswasmostly
somethingundertakenwithpeopleknowntotheconsumertosomedegree,such
as“familygrocers”.Supermarketsanddepartmentstoreswereunknowntoall
butlargecitydwellersandsofoodstuffswerepurchasedfromlocalshops,
bakeries,butchersandhardwareshops,andalsofrommarkets.Traders,whose
productswerejudgedtobeoverpriced,orbelowparintermsofquality,orthe
tradeservicestheyprovidedwereunreliableorinflexible,wouldearnapoor
reputationandbeforcedtomendtheirwaysorgooutofbusiness.Those
traderswhoweresuccessfulgenerallybuiltuptheirregularcustomerbaseover
manyyears,andevengenerations,andwereknownpersonallytoallmembers
inanycommunityandwereintegralpartsofsuchcommunities(ibid).This
54Furtherdiscussedbelow.
144
degreeofmutualtrustislikelytooccurtoafarlesserextentwithimpersonal
supermarketsandretailchains.Consequently,brandadvertisingisusedto
compensateforthisbycreatinganartificialrelationshipbetweenbrandand
consumerandthisisknownas“brandrelationshipquality”(Aaker,2010).In
ordertoactivateconsumerrecollectionofbrandpersonality,brandowners
oftenuseiconsandsymbolswhicharereadilyidentifiedwiththebrand,and
whicharesuggestiveofoneormoreofthepersonalitytraits.Aaker(2010:pp.
167-168)givesexamplesoftheseandwhichareveryevidentintheirlong-term
advertisingstrategies;amongthemaretheMichelinman’senthusiasm,strength
andenergy,andtheEnergizerbattery’srabbit,whichisbothupbeatand
indefatigableandthesecouldbesaidtobegeneratingthekindsofcultural
mythsdescribedbyBarthes(1957)asdescribedinSubchapter2.6,above.
Aaker(2010:pp.170-173)alsoarguesthatabrand’spersonalityas
characterizedinadvertisingmay,ormaynot,bedesignedtocoincidewithuser
imagery.Nike,forexample,oftendepictsbothprofessionalandamateurathletes
andsportsmenandwomenusingorwearingtheirproductsinthewaythat
consumerswould,andtherebythereaderorviewerisencouragedtoidentify
withthemodelbyvirtueofthemparticipatinginthesameactivityandinsimilar
surroundings.Ontheotherhand,thedifferencesbetweentheimageryusedin
projectingbrandpersonalityandtheconsumermayalsobeexploited.The
examplerelatedbyAaker(2010:p.170)isthatofadvertisementsforLevi’s
jeansandshowingthembeingwornbyminersandbycowboysassignifyingthat
thesearetoughanddurablegarments.Theexpectationis,however,thatbuyers
aremorelikelytobefashionconsciousteenagersofbothsexesandthehigh
quality,resilienceanddurabilityisbothguaranteedandamplified.Someofthe
attributesintermsofthebrandreputationintermsofthequality,authenticity
andresources(theytendtobemoreexpensive),areconferredfromtheproduct
andontotheperceivedimageofthewearer.
Companiesmaywishtotransmitthattheyhavecertainorganizationalvalues
whichareintrinsictothebrandandconnotedbyit,andwhichthecustomerwill
interpretandbuyintowhenpurchasingtheirproducts.Oneexamplecanbe
foundinAaker(2010),wherehedevotesachaptertodescribingthe
145
developmentbytheGeneralMotorsCompanyofSaturncarsintheUnitedStates
inthemid1980s.Thebrandwascreatedinlargeparttocompetewithforeign
manufacturerswhohadbeendominatingthesmallcarmarket.Oneofthekey
marketingstrategiesadoptedbySaturncarswasthefactthattheseweremade
inAmericabyAmericansforAmericanstodriveandthebrandthuscarrieswith
itassociationsofpatriotism.
Aaker(2010)notesthedistinctionbetweenproductandbrand(pp.72-73),and
thatabrandismorethanjustaproduct.Productcharacteristicscaninclude
whatitismadefromandtheprocessesinvolvedinitsproductionor
manufacture(forexample,thatitisnatural,orproducedinanenvironmentally
friendlyfriendlyway),itsattributes(suchasVolvo,whichmarketsitscarswith
anemphasisonsafety),thequalityoftheitem,itsvalueformoneyandits
versatility(suchasSubaru,whichmarketsvehiclesexpresslydesignedtobe
drivensafelyonsnowandice).However,asAaker(2010:p.73)notes,abrand
invitesarecollectionofmanymore,andwider,connotations,suchasthetypeof
personwhoisdepictedasatypicaluseroftheproductandthelifestylethey
supposedlyenjoy(e.g.thewomanwhousesaparticularperfume),thecountry
oforigin(e.g.acaradvertisementsuggestingthevehiclehasthebenefitof
Germanengineering)andemotionalbenefits.Withregardtoemotionalbenefits,
anexampleofthismightincludeanadvertisementforshowergelwhich
includessignifiersorcontextualcuessuggestingitwillmakethewearerfeel
freshandalert.Anotherexampleinvolvesinvokingnostalgicassociationsthat
relyheavilyuponencyclopaedicmemory.AtelevisionadvertisementforHovis
from1973,describedbyBillen(1986),depictsaboyinearly20thcentury
clothingstrugglingtowheelhisbicycleupaparticularlysteep,cobbledhillina
ruralvillagetodeliverthebrand’swholemealbread.Theadvantageofthe
nostalgiahereisthatitinvitestheviewertomakeanassociationbetweenthe
breadbeingmarketedandatimewhenbreadwasmadebylocalbakersfrom
natural,andthereforehealthyandtasty,ingredients;theymightalsocontrast
thatwiththefactory-madebreadofferedbytheircompetitors.
Thischapterhasconsideredthetrainingofferedtostudentsandpractitionersof
advertisingchieflythroughtextspublished,andfromsomeoftheearliest
146
attemptstoexpoundtheprinciplesofadvertisingasfarbackasthe1920s,upto
themodernday.Researchfoundthat,atthetimeitwasundertaken,universities
variedenormouslyintermsofwhethertheywereteachingthistopicatall,or
whetheritwastaughtasacomponentofabroadersyllabusofmarketingor
businessstudies,oraspartofcoursesincommunicationstudiesormedia
studies.Somepublicationswereregardedastextbooksforthispurposeasthey
werelistedasrequiredcoursebooks,yettheymainlyfocusonprinciples
formulatedonthebasisofexperienceofpractitioners,includingthoseoffamous
figuresintheindustry,ratherthanontheoreticalframeworks.
Asdescribedabove,othersworkshavebeenidentifiedthatarebasedupon
theoreticalapproachesandtheseexplaintheoperationofadvertisements
specificallythroughsemiotics.Oneworkofthisnaturestandsoutinparticular
asitwaswidelyusedinuniversities;thisbookisPersuasiveSigns:TheSemiotics
ofAdvertising(2002)byRonBeasleyandMarcelDanesianditisdeemed
particularlyrelevanttothisstudy.Theco-authorsofthispublicationconsistof
anadvertisingpractitionerandanacademicsemioticianandsotheapproach
andcontentsofthebookhavebeenexploredinsomedetailinthischapter.As
brandingandbrandrecognitionareseenaskeyaspectsofadvertisingandare
mentionedthroughoutthisthesis,anotherworkfamiliartotheindustrywhich
coversthistopic,Aaker’s(2010)BuildingStrongBrands,isalsodiscussed.
Thischapterhasbrieflyexaminedtheeducationofadvertisingpractitionersin
termsofsemioticsandpragmatics,andithasreviewedthesomeofthekeytexts
usedorreferredtobystudentsandpractitionersintermsofthesedisciplines.
Thenextchapterdescribesandanalysesprimarydataintheformofrecorded
interviewswithindividualsworkingascreatorsofadvertisementsanddiscusses
howthesemayberelatedtoconsciousandunconsciousapplicationsofsemiotic
andpragmaticprinciples.
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CHAPTER6–INTERVIEWS-RESULTSANDANALYSIS
6.1CHAPTERINTRODUCTION
AsexplainedinChapter4,itwasdecidedtoobtaindataintheformofrecorded
interviewsfrompractitionerswhoproducedadvertisementsandthemain
purposewastoinvestigatetheextenttowhichthetheoreticalmodelsof
communicationcorrelatewiththeactualcreativeprocessesandworking
practicesofadvertisingprofessionals.Wheresuchacorrelationwasfoundto
exist,theauthorhasattemptedtoascertainwhetherthisisaconsciousprocess
ofapplyingthetheoriesbroughtaboutasaresultoftheirawarenessofthem
throughtheirtraining,orelseanunconsciousprocesswhichoccurredmore
throughcombinationofintuitionandexperience.
Around30agencieswerecalledandahandfulrespondedwhileotherswereless
willingorabletohelp.Itwasultimatelypossibletoarrangeatotaloffive
interviewswithcopywriters.Apre-designedquestionnairewasusedtoprompt
thequestionsandthiscanbeseeninAppendix2;thequestionnairewas
intendedtobeusedlooselyratherthanstrictlyanditwastherebyhopedto
avoidconstrainingthequestionsaskedortointerrupttheinterviewee’sflow.
Thequestionnaireconsistedofeighteenquestionsintotal,andthesewere
dividedintofoursectionswhichwereheaded:
• IntervieweeBackground.Thissectionincludedquestionsaboutthe
interviewee’srouteintotheadvertisingindustryandanyformaltraining
theyhadreceived.Italsosoughttoestablishwhat,ifany,awarenessthey
hadofsemiotictheories,withwhichtheoriestheywerefamiliar,and
fromwheretheyhadgainedtheirknowledge.
• FormingIdeas.Thissectionexploredtheformationofideaswhichledthe
subjectstocreatingadvertisements,andinquiredwhethersemiotics
playedaroleinthis.
148
• Strategy–YourLastAdvertisement.Thissectionwasintendedto
encouragetheintervieweestorecalltheirlastadvertisement,andthe
questionsweredesignedtoelicitinformationabouttheiractual
processesinvolvedfromideatocompletedadvertisement,includinghow
thereaderorviewerwouldbeexpectedtomakesenseofit.
• MoreGenerally.Thissectionconsideredtheuseofsemioticconcepts
consciouslyorunconsciouslyused,includingsymbolism,stereotyping
andfolklore,andcontextualfactors,suchasencyclopaedicknowledge
andrelevancetotheconsumer.
Thepreviouschapterexplainedhowsemioticswasasubjectthatwas
beingformallytaughttosomestudentsofmarketingandadvertising,and
whichisalsocoveredtosomedegreeinmanyadvertisingtextbooks.
Intervieweeswerethereforeaskeddirectlyabouttheirknowledgeof
semiotictheoriesandframeworks.Italsomakesclearthatpragmatics
doesnot,atthetimeofwriting,featureinanypartofmarketingeducation
orthetextbooksused,andthatindividualsconsultedpriortothe
interviews,includingseniorfiguresintheprofessionalbodies,were
entirelyunfamiliarwiththeterm“pragmatics”orthefieldtowhichit
relates.Havingestablishedthis,itwasdecidednottoincludetheterm
directlyinthequestionnaire,butinsteadtherewouldbequestions
includedthatrelatedexpresslytothesubjects’awarenessofcontext.The
interviewerwasalerttoanyresponsesfromsubjectswhichindicated
eitheraformallyacquired,orintuitive,knowledgeofpragmatictheories,
whichwerefurtherprobedasandwhentheysurfaced.
Oneofthechiefaimsoftheinterviewswastoexplorehowideas
originatedinthemindsofpractitionersandwhetherthisprocessinvolved
aconsciousapplicationofsemiotictheories.Itmaybeusefulatthispoint
tomentionwhatismeantby“ideas”inthecontextofthisstudybefore
movingontodiscusshowtheyareformed.Forthepurposeofthisstudy,
ideasarethepotentialassociationsandimplicationsthatoccurtothe
149
practitionerandfromwhichtheycanselectthemostpropitious
advertisingangles,thewordsandimagestheymayuse,thewayinwhich
aproductispresentedanddescribed,andhowtheirchosenapproachis
designedtoinviteorelicitparticulardesiredresponsesintheconsumer.
Interviewswererecordedusingdictationequipmentandfulltranscriptsofthe
interviewswithcopywritersaretobefoundinAppendix3,below.Some
diversityintermsofthesizeandtypesofagencieswhichformedpartofthis
studywasachieved:oneconsistedofasoleoperator,twowerepartnership-type
companiesandtheremainingtwowerelargeandestablishedcompaniesintheir
ownright.AlltheagencieswerelocatedinthenorthofEnglandandSubchapter
6.2belowdiscussestheagenciesconcerned.Subchapter6.3describesanswers
suppliedinrelationtotheinterviewees'backgroundintermsofhigher
education,specializedtrainingandexperienceinadvertisingorrelatedfields.It
alsosoughttoestablishwhethertheintervieweeshadanyknowledgeof
semioticsand,ifso,itsextentandhowitwasacquired.Subchapter6.4describes
responsestoquestionsconcerningtheinterviewees'approachtocreativityand
sourcesofinspiration.Subchapter6.5followsthisbyinquiringintotheactual
processesofadvertisingdesign,bothconsciousandunconscious,whetherand
howsemioticswasconsideredandappliedandhowthesepractitionersfactored
contextintotheirwork.
AnadditionalinterviewwasconductedwithaLondon-basedspecialistwho
describedhimselfasa“commercialsemiotician”.Theinterviewee,referredtoas
SubjectF,hadfoundedandwasmanagingabusinessspecificallydesignedto
applysemioticapproachestocreate,developandenhancebrands,andto
resolvebranding-relatedproblemsformajorcompaniesandpublicsector
organisations.Theinterviewwithhimwasintendedtoelicitinformationthat
wouldmakeitpossibletoascertaintherangeofpossibleapplicationsfor
semioticsinmarketingandadvertisingasviewedbyaspecialistworkinginthat
particularandnarrowfield.SubjectFprovidedwrittenmaterialwhich
supplementshisanswersandthisformspartofthisanalysisandcanbeseenin
Subchapter6.6,below.
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6.2ADVERTISERS-AGENCY
Itwasintendedthatsomediversificationwouldbeobtainedintermsofthetype
ofagenciesinvestigatedandtheworkundertakeninordertomaketheresearch
applicableacrosstheadvertisingindustryandtherebymorerepresentativeofit.
Thissubchapteroutlinesthenatureoftheagencieswheretheinterviewees
workandtheinformationwasobtainedfromtheirrespectiveagencywebsites,
aswellasfromanswersgivenininterviews.
6.2.1SUBJECTA
SubjectAranasmalladvertisingagencyinDoncaster,SouthYorkshire.The
firm’swebsitesaidofthebusiness:
“We’reamixofcurious,creativeandsomewhatnerdymindsandwe
allhaveourowntalentsandskillstocontribute.Wecertainlydon’tfit
themarketing‘norm’.Welookatthingsdifferently,lovediscovering
newthingsandwedon’ttakeourselvestooseriously.”55
Whilehewasnota”onemanband”,thoseheemployedwerein
supportingrolesonly.Thismeanstheadvertisingdesignprocesseswere
somethingheundertookaloneandthishadimplicationsforthewayhe
formulatedhisideasandexecutedhisbriefs,asisexplainedinthis
subchapter.Hisworkwasbusiness-to-business,encompassingtechnical
equipment,componentsandbusinessresourcesandservices,ratherthan
beingdirectedatthewiderpublic.Itwasalmostentirelyprint-based,
mainlyappearingintradejournals,althoughhehadbeencommissioned
toproducepostercampaignsandalsoonlineadvertising.Hedidnot
undertaketelevisionorradioadvertisingbriefs.
55Companywebsite-accessed17.6.2015
151
6.2.2SUBJECTB
Thesecondcopywriterinterviewed,SubjectB,workedforasmallmarketing
companyemployingsixpersonnelinanindustrialareaontheoutskirtsof
Sheffield.Itswebsiteprovidedaprofilewhichstated:
“Wehelpbrandssellmore.Andwemeanthatinthebroadestsense:
sellingproducts,launchingorreinvigoratingbrands,creating
behaviourchangeoralteringattitudes.
Weworkacrossawiderangeofprojectsfromcomplex,multi
stakeholdercampaignstoadhoc,lowbudgettasksthatstillrequire
creativeexcellencealongwithspeedyandefficientdelivery.Many
projectsweworkonaremultifacetedcombiningbrand
developmentwithcampaigndevelopment,designanddigital
integration”.56
Italsoboastedthatitcould:
“delivercreativeadvertisingthatissecondtonone,offerafull
rangeofintegratedservices,projectmanagebothefficientlyand
effectivelywhilstprovidingapositive,friendlyandfruitfulworking
relationship.”(ibid)
6.2.3SUBJECTC
Thethirdinterviewee,SubjectC,wasacopywriterandthecreativedirectorfora
smallmarketingcompanyclosetothecentreofLeeds.Itswebsiteprovideda
56Companywebsite-accessed1.7.2015
152
profilewhichstatedthefirmwasestablishedin2009and,whenviewedforthis
research,itswebsiteclaimedthatithad:
“grownintoanagencywithareputationfordevelopingcreative
contentwhichneverlosesfocusonachievingyourbusinesses(sic)
aims.”57
Itprovidedfurtherdescriptionasfollows:
“Ourcontentcanbefun,inspiring,cool,imaginativeordownright
surrealbutitisalwaysclear,eloquentandeffectivein
communicatingyourmessage.”(ibid)
ThewebsitenamedSubjectCasresponsibleforensuringthatthecreative
outputoftheagencymetthecompany’sstandardsforinnovation,imagination,
impactandclaritywhilehisstrongclientrelationshipsdemonstratedhis“hands-
onapproach”todeliveringcreativecontentthatfittheclient’sneedsand
deliveredvalue.
6.2.4SUBJECTD
SubjectDwasthecreativedirectorforsizableagencywhichformedpartofa
marketinggroupofcompaniesbasedinYorkshireandLondon.Thiswell-known
andlong-establishedfirmofferedcompletedigitalmarketingstrategies,online
campaignsplusafullrangeofmulti-channelservicesandhadasubsidiary
marketresearchcompany.Itswebsitestated:
57Companywebsite-accessed6.7.2015
153
“Wecombinethebestindigitalthinkinganddeliverywith
specialistskillsinresearch,advertising,design,PR,shopper
andpromotionalmarketing.Clientscometousfornew
insight,freshthinking,compellingstrategyandbrilliant
delivery.Wetakeleaps.Butnotinthedark.”58
Furthermore,thecompanyproudlypointedoutitssuccessesinwinninganumberofprominentindustryawards.
6.2.5SUBJECTE
SubjectEwasthechiefexecutiveofalargeandadvertisingagencyclosetothe
centreofManchesterandthathadbeeninexistenceforaroundtwentyyearsat
thetimeoftheinterview.Thisfirmundertookadvertisingcommissionsfora
numberofmajorcorporationsthatwerehouseholdnamesinBritainandabroad.
Theagencyhaditsownstrapline“ThePowerofSimple”anditswebsite
describeditsapproachasfollows:
“Inourfast-pacedworld,catchingsomeone’sattentionishard.
That’swhybrandscan’taffordtoovercomplicatetheirmessage–it
justgetslostinallthenoise.Withsimplicityatourheart,wedon’t
stopuntilwefindtheclear,engaginganddistincttruththatsetsa
brandapart.Onlythenwillconsumersknowwhatabrandstands
forandwhyit’srelevanttothem.We’vetransformedthefortunesof
someoftheUK’sleadingbrandsbyuncoveringsimple,powerful
messagesandcommunicatingthempersuasivelywhateverthe
channel.”59
58Companywebsite-accessed17.7.2015
59Companywebsite-accessed22.7.2015
154
Itexplaineditsstrategiesintermsofbranding,advertisinganddesign
thus:
“(Brand)isourstartingpointforallournewclients.Weuseour
BrandDNAtoolinordertomapthebrandstrategyonasingle
chart.OncetheDNAiscrackedwedevelopstrikinglysimpleideas
andspreadthemacrosstherightchannelsinordertomakethem
famous….ourworktodayshowsthatwestillknowhowtograbthe
public’sattention.Therehasneverbeenatimewhenmasteryofthe
simplebutengagingmessagehasbeenmoreimportantthan
the21stcenturywhencut-throughcontentissovaluable…Wehave
ateamofspecialistswhoarepassionateaboutGraphic
Design.Theirwork–coveringpackaging,literature,corporate
identity,postersanddigital–isbasedonacorethoughtandis
broughttolifethroughtheircraftsmanshipandattentiontodetail.”
Amongthemanymetaphorsusedinthistextisanexpressionthatisworthyof
particularconsideration,namely“ourbrandDNAtool”.Theassociationof
commercialbrandsandDNAisnotparticulartothisinstanceofit.Abookwas
publishedin2010entitled“BrandDNA:UncoverYourOrganization'sGenetic
CodeforCompetitiveAdvantage”byCarolChapmanandSuzanneTulien,and
therearenumerousotherexamplesofthisassociationthatcanbefoundin
marketing-relatedtextsandoftenappearingalongsidetermslike“brand
personality”.Astheagency’sself-description(citedabove)wastakenfromits
ownwebsite’shomepage,itcouldbesafelyassumeditwasaimedatpotential
clients.Thiswasaprestigiousagencysituatedintheheartofamajorcityandit
acceptedbriefsformedium-sizedandlargercompaniesandpublicsector
organisationsthatgenerallyhadtheirownmarketingdepartmentsthatwere
responsibleforcommissioningtheiradvertising.Theexpression“DNAtool”
maythusbeviewedasmetalanguageinrelationtomarketing,withan
interpretationthatwouldbespecifictoprofessionalsinthatfield,andwhich
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facilitatedbothinternalcognitiveprocessesandalsocommunicationbetween
practitioners.Ontheotherhand,thisallusiontoDNAmayalsobeconsideredas
apoeticmetaphor,andonethatcanberecoveredbythenormalprocessesof
implicature.Processingtheterm“DNA”insearchofrelevanceelicitsthe
recollectioninthereceiverthatitreferstothemolecularcodethatdetermines
thecharacteristicsofeverylivingentity,andisthusunique.Thisreadingofthe
term,alongwithexpressionssuchas“brandpersonality”,andthemetaphorin
thefinalsentenceinwhichtheagencydescribedhowtheirworkwas“brought
tolife”(suchasbyartistryandcraftsmanship),appeartoillustrateastrong
tendencytopersonalizebrands,andtheparallelisexpressedsystematically
throughmetaphor.Consequently,animpressionwasconveyedthatapplyinga
metaphorical“tool”providedanin-depthunderstandingofeachandevery
featureofthebrandthatwouldenabletheagencytoconstructthebespoketype
ofadvertisingwhichaccordedwiththesupposeduniquenessoftheclient’s
brand.
6.3INTERVIEWEEBACKGROUND
ThissubchapterfocusestheanswerssuppliedinPartAofthequestionnaire,and
primarilyontheindividualinterviewee'sbackground,trainingandworkexperience.
6.3.1SUBJECTA
Whileheworkedprimarilyasacopywriter,SubjectAstatedthathehadnot
studiedeitheradvertisingormarketingintertiaryeducation.Hisbackground
wasoriginallypublicrelations(PR)afterstudyingatBournemouthUniversity,
andithadbeenhisintentioneventuallytoworkinjournalism.Thiscareerpath
didnotmaterialiseforhimand,afteraperiodworkinginPR,hefound
employmentwithamajoradvertisingagencyinLeeds.HewasassignedtoaPR
roleonacampaignforamulti-nationalindustrialmanufacturingclient,but
reportedthatheworkedcloselywithacopywriterandfoundtherewassome
crossoverbetweentheirrespectivefunctions.Havingdecidedthathepreferred
copywritingworktoPR,SubjectAdecidedtoleavetheagencyandsetup
businessonhisown.Hehadbythistimeestablishedarelationshipwiththe
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clientmentionedandwasabletotakethatclientwithhim,alongwithdealers
whoalsosoldtheproductsforthem,whenhelefttheemployment.Inhisdaily
workroutine,whilecopywritingwascentraltohisbusiness,heperformeda
widerrangeofactivitiesrelatedtomarketing.Althoughhewasopento
producinganytypeofadvertising,atthetimeoftheinterviewhisworkconsisted
ofprintcommercials,particularlyspecialisttradejournals,brochures,posters
andflyers,andhisworkcombinedimagesandcopy.
Intermsofhisformaleducation,hegraduatedatBournemouthUniversityand
hisdegreewasaBachelor’sinCommunication.Thiscourseintroducedstudents
toeditingandpublishing,andwasassociatedwiththejournalismdegreesalso
offeredatthatuniversity.Thesyllabusofhisdegreeincludedsomeaspectsof
advertisingandhewasabletorecallusingcertaintextsinhisstudies,someof
whichhestillowned.AmongthesewasEffectiveUseofAdvertisingMedia60.
Semioticswas,hestated,aminorpartofhisstudies,thoughhisrecollectionsof
thetheoriesatthetimeoftheinterviewweresomewhatvague.Nonetheless,it
didoccurtohimthattheyincludedaspectsoflanguageandalsosomeelements
ofliterature.HementionedthattheworksofNoamChomskywerediscussedand,
inonelecture,anamusingstorywasrelatedwhichshowedhowarailway
warninglightsignalwasmisinterpreted.WhilethenamesofSaussureand
Bartheswerenotrecognizedbyhim,hewasfamiliarwiththenotionofcultural
mythsasdescribedbyBarthes,althoughhestatedthathe“onlytouchedon”this
(07.09–07.25).
Hewasclearthathedidnotrefertothesetheoriesortextsinhiscurrentwork
andheattributedthistothefactthatheoperatedinasmall,provincialtown,
namelyDoncaster,andonlywithandforcertaintypesofbusinesses.Thiswas
interpretedasmeaninghisapproachhadtobeperceivedbyclientsasdown-to-
earthandpredicatedonpracticalexperienceandcommonsenseasopposedto
applyingwhatmightbeconsideredtobe“exotic”theories.However,helater
disclosedthathehadrecentlyusedaparticularbookcalledTheA–ZofVisual
Ideas:HowtoSolveanyCreativeBriefbyJohnIngledewasasourceofideas.
60ThisbookisEffectiveUseofAdvertisingMedia:APracticalApproach(1992)byMartyn
PDavis
157
6.3.2SUBJECTB
SubjectBenteredadvertisingobliquely,havingfirstworkedinadministration.
Oneofhisfirstjobswasforamajornationalizedindustrywhichwasinthe
processofbeingprivatizedandithadsetupafledglingmarketingdepartment
whichinterestedhim.Thispromptedhimtoenrolforeveningclasses,wherehe
tookhisCharteredInstituteofMarketingqualificationandthisenabledhimto
gainthemovehecravedinthenewdepartment.Heworkedinthefieldof
marketingforadecade,includinginthecomputervideogamesindustry.After
thisperiod,heswitchedjobsandbeganworkingforanadvertisingagencygroup,
initiallyasanaccountdirector.Itwaswhileworkinginthisemploymentthathe
methiscurrentbusinesspartner.Thetwofinallyagreedtoleaveandestablish
thefirmtheyranatthetimeoftheinterview.Hedidnotholdanyqualifications
thatspecificallyrelatedtoadvertising,andhestatedthatadvertisingwasnot
coveredatallinhisprofessionalmarketingcourses.Asaresultofthis,hehad
neverstudiedanyformaltextsrelatingtoadvertisingtheoryorpracticesandhe
wasentirelyunfamiliarwithsemiotics.
Atthetimeoftheinterview,though,SubjectBstatedhewaswritingaMaster’s
dissertationandthisrelatedtothecreativedecision-makingprocessesinvolved
inconstructingadvertisements.Hehadalsobeeninvolvedinteachingthe
advertisingmoduleforstudentstakingadegreeinmarketingatalocal
university.
6.3.3SUBJECTC
SubjectCexplainedthathehadalwayscultivatedaninterestinartanddecided
fromanearlyagetoworkingraphicdesign.Uponleavingschool,heenrolledat
collegeforafoundationcourseinart.Aftercompletinghiscollegecourse,he
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studiedattheUniversityofHumbersidewherehecommencedadegreecourse
ingraphicdesignand,ongraduation,heenteredtheadvertisingindustryasa
graphicdesigner,althoughwithleaningstowardsbeinganartdirectorashe
consideredthisofferedmorescopefororiginalandcreativework.Inthis
employment,hehadnoresponsibilityforwritingcopy.Herecalledreading
RolandBarthes’workMythologiesduringhisstudiesand,whilemostofthe
courseworkrelatedtographicdesign,20%orsoinvolvedwriting:
“onthetheoryofgraphicdesignandwriteaboutthatkindoflike
mythologiesstyle,sortofthinking.”(39.29–39.35)
Hestatedthathecompletedhisfinalthesisonthelanguageandvisualthemes
usedinelectionadvertising.Itwaswrittenjustpriortothe1992General
Election,andhecitedexamplesofhisapplicationofculturalmyths,including
howtheLabourPartyreliedupontheirperceiveddevotiontotheNational
HealthServicewhiletheConservativesexploitedtheperceptionthattheycould
betrustedonmatterssuchasdefence.Anotherworkheusedwascalled
UnderstainsbyKathyMyers,andwhichhesaidwasregardedasaseminalwork
byhistutorsandwidelyreferredtoinhiscourse61.
Subsequently,hestartedhisownbusinessingraphicdesignandranthatfor
aboutayearbeforehedecidedtofindjobsinadvertisingagencies.Thefirstof
thesejobslastedonlyafewmonthsbeforethebusinessceasedoperatingand
thesecondhedescribesas“quiteawell-knownagencyinLeeds”andwhichwas
61UnderstainsbyKathyMyers(1986)haslongbeenoutofprint,butacopyhasbeenobtained
forthepurposeofthisstudy.AsmallsectionisincludedinthebookentitledSemiology:inside
thefantasyfactory.Thisoffersacritiqueofadvertisingfromacriticaldiscourseanalysis
perspective,anditfocusesonimagerydirectedbygovernmentandcorporationsatthepublic.It
alsodiscusseshegemonyandthepower,andmakesreferencetotheworksofMarxand
Althusser.Inviewofitsparticularfocus,aswellasthefactsthatthisworkisnolongercurrently
usedandhasnot,sofarasitispossibletotell,beenusedaspartofacourseinmarketingoradvertising,itwasdecidednottoincludeitwithintheliteraturereviewofthisthesis.
159
thefirsttimeheworkedinwhathecalled“aprofessionalagencyenvironment”
(05.51–06.07).Inthisjob,hebegantoappreciatethedifferencebetween
advertisingcopyanddesign;hebelievedhehadanaturalaptitudeforwriting
copyandhisabilitiesinthiscametothenoticeofhismanagers.Heprogressed
fromtheretoworkingasadesignerforamajornationalmarketing
communicationsagency,basedinManchester.Thiswasthefirsttimehe
encounteredprofessionalcopywriterswhoserolewasjusttowritecopyand
nothingelse.Inthisemployment,hewasdeployedasadesignerinasmallteam
thatwasassignedparticularbriefsandhisteamincludedsuchacopywriter.The
teamworkedonafashioncatalogue,revisedandreprintedtwiceayear,and
whichconsistedofthedesignaspectofthecatalogueplusvariousmarketing
functions,includingTVadvertisinganddirectmail.
Afteraperiodwiththisemployer,hereturnedtoLeedsandwasoffereda
positionwithadirectmarketingcompanywithseveralbranchesacrosstheUK.
Thisfirmappearedtoridethewaveofpopularityofdirectmarketinginthe
1980s,andwhichtailedofftowardstheendofthe20thcenturyastheinternet
supersededit.SubjectC’sjobtitlewasartdirectorandhismainresponsibility
wastodrawlayoutsinroughform(called“scamps”intheadvertisingjargon–
seeSubchapter6.8)whichhewouldthengivetoanartworkerwithinstructions
ondetails,suchascolours.Again,hefoundhimselfasoneamongacreative
team,thistimeofaroundtenindividualswhichincludedcopywritersandart
directors.Hedescribedhowcopywritershaddifferentstrengths,stylesand
expertise.Oneofthecopywritershementionedwasaspecialistinfinancial
servicesadvertisingwhowouldwritelengthyanddensecopyincludingfor
headlines,andSubjectCwouldreducethewordingdownforhimtomakeit
“snappier”(24.38–25.10).Anothercolleaguehementionedwasacopywriter
whohedescribedasbrilliantathisjobandthatwasbecause:“Hehadatotal
abilitytocutthroughallthebullshitaroundabrief”(29.53–30.03).He
elaboratedthatbriefscouldbeseveralpageslongandoneoftheskillsofa
160
copywriterwastodecipherbriefsandidentifythekeymessage62.Aftersome
yearswiththeLeedsagency,thesubjecthadrisenthroughtheranksandbeen
promotedtoheadofart,afterwhichhewasheadhuntedbythesamefirmhehad
workedforpreviouslyinManchester,butthistimeattheirLeedsbranch,and
wasappointedcreativedirector.Oneofthememorablecopywritershe
managedinthisrolehadaparticulardispositiontowardswritingadvertising
copyinaconversationalandempathetic,evenintimate,style.Aroundthree
yearslater,heestablishedhisfirstbusinesswithapartnerandfoundhimself
havingtoperformalltheaspectsofdesigningadvertisementshimself,including
copywriting.Followingacoupleoffalsestarts,hesetuphisthirdandfinal
businesswhichhehadbeenrunningforapproachingsixyearsatthetimeofthe
interview.
6.3.4SUBJECTD
SubjectDwasintroducedtoadvertisingasaHigherNationalDiplomacoursein
acollegeoffurthereducation.Inthiscourse,hestudiedagreatdealofart
historybutwasalsoimmersedintheconspicuouscommercialsofthatera,
includingadvertisementsforHäagenDazsice-creamandBoddingtonsbeer.
Thesewereverymuchhisinspirationandhewantedtobelikethepeoplewho
producedthem.Herecalledcertaintextsthatheusedatthetimeandstillheld
insomeesteem,includingDavidOgilvy’spopularworkOgilvyonAdvertising,
andbooksbySirJohnHegarty,oneofthefoundersofthemajorinternational
agencyBartleBogleHegarty,andtherenownedAmericanadvertisingcreator,
BillBernbach.Uponcompletionofhisstudies,hewastopofhisyearin
advertisinggraphicsandalsowonanindustrystudentawardforhiswork.
62Itwasnotedthatthissamesentimentwasexpressedbyotherinterviewees,andthiswillbediscussedinthenextchapter.
161
Goingontouniversitywasanoptionatthatpoint,buthewasadvisedagainst
thisbyhislecturerwhoinsteadadvisedhimtocapitalizeontheaccoladethat
accompaniedtheawardhehadwonandtousethattolaunchacareer.He
pointedout:“No-onewilleveraskyouwhatgradesyougotinmylineofwork.”
(07.49–07.54)
Inpreferencetoacademicgrades,heclaimed,thoseintheindustrywould
advancetheircareersandachievetheirreputationsthroughtheir
portfoliosofwork.Whatmatteredmostofall,hesaid,washaving“agreat
mind”,andhelikenedcreativedepartmentstofootballteamsintermsof
havingeclecticskillsetsasdifferentpeoplewiththeirowndiverserange
ofskillsplaydifferentroles.Havingidentifiedhisownstrengthsinthis
respect,hehadobtainedhisfirstpositionwithamultinationaladvertising
companybytheageof21.
Hehadbeentaughtsomebasicaspectsofsemioticsinhisformalstudies,but
statedhehadlearnedmoreaboutthissubjectovertheyearsinthecourseofhis
work.Hecouldnotrecallspecifictheorists,butexplainedhisunderstandingand
applicationofsemioticprinciplesasfollows:
“Ithink…individual,cultural..thewaypeopleare,thewaythey
react,…howculturalreferencescan…impactonthose…the
differenttrendswhicharecomingthrough.Allthoseneedtoinform
howyouactuallygoabouttalkingtopeopleinacertain
way…sometimesnoonemessagestrikeseverybody”(11.43–
12.21)
Aftermorethantwentyyearsofexperience,SubjectDstatedhenolonger
referredtotextstohelphimindesigningadvertisements,butinsteadhewas
162
abletotapintohisexperience.However,hewentontosay“theD&Ads63ofthis
worldhavebeenmyBible”.(13.10)
6.3.5SUBJECTE
HavinggainedaPhDinAncientGreekfromEdinburghUniversity,SubjectE
realizedtherewerenotmanycareeropeningsfromthatsubject,soitoccurred
tohimthatworkinginadvertisingwouldaffordhimadifferentkindof
opportunitytoworkwithwords.Hehadnotreceivedanyformalspecialized
highereducationineitheradvertisingormarketing,althoughhehadlearned
aboutsomeaspectsoflinguistics,includingsemiotics,duringhisundergraduate
studiesmanyyearspreviously.Heexplainedhisunderstandingofsemioticsas
follows:
“Imayhavegotthiscompletelywrongbut,tome,semioticsisthe
linguisticsofimagesandpicturesandsigns…forexample…I
remember…’TheNameoftheRose64’–Ithoughtthatwasa
wonderfulbook…UmbertoEco”(3.07-4.06)
SubjectEwouldnotstatethathehadformallystudiedsemioticsasasubject,but
hewascertainlyawareofitand,whenculturalmythswerementioned,he
recalledthathemayhavereadsomeworksbyRolandBarthes,perhapswhile
workingonhisdoctorate.OncethebasicconceptofaBarthesmythhadbeen
explainedtohim,itmadesensetohimintheadvertisingcontext,butitwasnot
63The“D&ADs”referstoanawardingorganisationfortheadvertisingindustry–ithasbeen
describedasakintotheOscarsforadvertisers.“D&AD”wasformerlyknownasthe“DesignandArtDirection”,butthistermisnolongerused.
64WhileEcowas,amongotherthings,asemiotician,hisbookTheNameoftheRoseisamysterynovel.Inthisbook,Ecodrawsuponhisknowledgeofsemiotics,theBibleandliterarytheoriesinordertocreateastorywhichhasanintellectualappeal.
163
somethinghementallyretainedforuseinhiswork.Intermsofadvertisingtexts,
hestatedthathehadreadanumberofauthorsincludingOgilvyonAdvertising,
andessaysandarticlesbycopywriterswhosenameshedidnotmention.Hewas
interestedinwhattheywerewritingintheircopyasopposedtotheircomments
onadvertisinggenerally,althoughheexpressedtheviewthateachadvertiser
shouldtrytocreatetheirownstyle.Assuch,whendesigningadvertisements,he
tendednottorefertotheworkofothers,butwouldgohisownway.
Whenitcametorecruitingstaff,SubjectEalsoexplainedthathiscompanyoften
chosenottoemployapplicantswhohadadegreeinadvertisingormarketing
unlesstheywereotherwiseoutstandingintermsoftheirpersonalityand
intelligence.Asarule,hepreferredthosewhohadstudiedfieldssuchashistory
orgeographybecausehebelievedtheseweregenerallyofahighercalibre.
Havingsaidthat,anyonewishingtoenterhiscompany’sCreativeDepartment
wouldberequiredtohavebeenawardedadegreeinacreativedisciplineashe
sawthisasessentialforstaffwhowereemployedspecificallytogeneratefresh
ideas.
6.4FORMINGIDEAS
Thisaspectoftheresearchconsidersthesourcesofinspiration,andthepractical
andcognitiveprocesseswhichtheintervieweespursuedinordertogenerate
creativeandeffectiveadvertisements.Itrelatesmainlytoanswerssuppliedto
questionsinPartCofthequestionnaire.
6.4.1SUBJECTA
SubjectAstatedthathedidtakeaninterestintextsonadvertising(e.g.
Ogilvy)andreadthemfromtime-to-time,buthisapproachinformulating
164
advertisementswasinherentlypracticalandhewouldnotnormallyrefer
toorotherwiseconsidertheoreticaltextsaspartoftheprocess.Hethen
talkedthroughthestagesofcreatingideas,beginningwiththebrieffrom
theclient,andthisheexplainedasanattemptto“boildowntheessenceof
theadasmuchaspossible”.Onewayofachievingthiswastocomeup
withacoremessageorstrapline(10.17–10.53).Hebelievedhewasat
hismostcreativewhenhewasunconsciouslyprocessingthemessage,
immersinghimselfinthedetail,butwithout“tryingtoforceittoomuch”
(10.59–11.04).A“keytheme”wouldthenemergeandthelayoutand
othercomponents,includingwording,wouldflowalmostnaturallyfrom
that.Thiswouldnothavesucceededunlesshehadbeencognizantofthe
brandvaluesandheensuredtheywereexpressed.Hesaiditwould,for
example,havebeeninappropriatetousetermslike“good,oldfashioned
service”foracompanythatsoughttoprojectitselfasatthetechnical
cuttingedge.Thelookandfeelofthefinaladvertisementwouldhaveto
reflectthesevalues(11.40–11.57).Severalversionsofanyproposed
advertisementwouldbeproducedfortheclientoncethe“message”had
beendistilledandrefinedandthesewerepresentedinanacceptable
format.
SubjectAregardeddesigninganadvertisementasabuildingprocess
ratherthansomethingwhichwasvisualisedfromthestart,although
sometimeshisideasseemedtoariseinafully-formedstate.Asan
example,hedescribedthedevelopmentofanadvertisementforaforklift
trucksmanufacturercalledDoosanandthethemewasaroundtheideaof
“doingmore”,withemphasisonthesyllable“do”,whichwasthefirst
syllableofthebrandname(12.45–13.51).Thiswastheexception,
though,asproducinganadvertisementwasmostlytheprocessof
“chippingaway”and“shaping”untilaresultwasachievedthat“looks
right”(13.53–13.59).
SubjectAdescribedanothercampaignforanengineeringcompanythatbegan
locally,buthadevolvedintoalargeroperationwithbranchesacrosstheUK.
165
Thecompany’sownersstatedtheyunderstoodlocalbusinessesbecausethat
washowtheystartedandtheyviewedtheirlocalismascentraltotheirbrand.
Thumbingthroughabookoncreativeideas65,SubjectAthoughtofastrategyto
depictthestaffasbeingpeoplewithstrongconnectionstothelocality,andthis
promptedthetaglineof“localservicenationwide”.Graphicswereproducedfor
thecampaign,andtheseconsistedofaUKmapadornedwithamontageofmany
photographsofthefirm’sstaffalongside,orinfrontof,well-knownlandmarksin
theirlocale.Heexplaineditthus:
“Weunderstandlocalbusinessesbecauseweareone….Wetriedto
makeheroesofthepeopleinthedifferent…partsoftheworldand
puttheminfrontof….somethingthatwassymbolicofthatpartof
theworld,sotheguyfromNottinghamwasstoodinfrontofthe
statueinNottinghamofRobinHood;theguyfromHullwasstood
undertheHumberBridge…”(14.32–15.01)
Inmovingfrombeingasmall,localoperatorwhichhadestablishedrelationships
andtrustwithasectorofbusinessinonelocality,theclientregardedthisasa
valuableassetwhichshouldnotbelostintheprocessofthecompany’s
expansion.Thestraplinecouldbeviewedasbeingambiguous,dependingupon
whethertheword“nationwide”wasinterpretedasanadjective,asin“weare
nowanationwideoperatorasopposedtomerelyalocaloperator”,orelseasan
adverbasin“wearestillalocaloperator,butnowweareoperatingnationwide”.
Theimplicationwiththelatteristhat,inspiteofthecompanyoperating
nationwide,ithadnotabandoneditslocalvalues.Customerscouldbeconfident
thatthestaffemployedatanybranchwouldhavelocalknowledgeandan
interestinthearea.Arangeoffurtherimplicaturesmayberecoverableeven
thoughthesewerenotexplicatedandoneexampleisthat,asstaffwerelocals,
65ThiswasthebookTheA–ZofVisualIdeas:HowtoSolveanyCreativeBrief(2011)byJohnIngledew
166
theyhadastakeintheprosperityoftheareaandthesuccessoftheircustomers’
businesses.Consequently,theimpressionwasconveyedthattheservice
providedwaslikelytobefriendlyandefficient.
Next,SubjectAwasaskedhowhisapproachdifferedaccordingtowhetheran
advertisementwastofocusonbrandorproduct.Herespondedbystatingthat
hehadalwaystendedtopushhisclientstowardspromotingbrandratherthan
product.Thiswasforaparticularreason,namelythatmostofhisclientswere
effectivelydealerswhoofferedawiderangeofdifferentproducts,someofwhich
aretechnicaland/orspecialised.Thisalsoappliedwhenworkingfora
manufacturer,suchastheDoosanforkliftcompany,astheywereprimarily
competingwithother,andbetterknown,manufacturers.Whereaclientinsisted
onpromotingaparticularproduct,theprocesswasbroadlysimilarexceptthat,
insteadoftryingtopromotethecorevaluesofabrand,inthiscaseitwasthe
corefeaturesandbenefitsoftheproductwhichwereinfocus.Hecontended,
however,thatbrandadvertisingcouldbemoresophisticated,andwouldmakea
betterimpressionthanaproductadvertisement,andthiswasbecauseaproduct
changesovertime,unlesstherewerefeaturesofitwhichwerestaticandhighly
distinctive,likespecialprices(16.59-18.53).Whenformingideas,SubjectA
admittedhedidnotconsciouslylooktotheoriesofsemioticstoassisthim.He
explainedthathewouldseekapracticalanswertoaproblemandhisminddid
notconsciouslyturntosemiotictheoriesforthatanswer,regardlessofwhether
hewasadvertisingabrandoraproduct.If,however,hethoughtthatre-visiting
thetheorieshehadlearnedinthedistantpastwouldhelphimfindtheanswer,
hewouldrefertothem.Nevertheless,asbecomesevidentwhenexamininghis
strategyinthenextsubchapter,SubjectAhadanunconsciousawarenessofthe
valueofcertainsemioticphenomenainhisworksuchassymbolism,
paradigmaticchoicesandinvokingculturalmyths,aswellasarecognitionofthe
needtogeneratedesiredandrecoverableimplicatures.
167
6.4.2SUBJECTB
SubjectB’smentioningofhisdissertationpromptedhimtodescribehowthe
initialideasforanadvertisingcampaignbeginbyhisfirmfollowingwhathe
calleda“creativebriefingprocess”whichhedescribedasa“well-wornroute”and
whichhehaddiscernedfromtextbooksandexamplestherein(03.15–03.38).
Theseideaswereformedbyfirstdeterminingwhotheaudiencewas,whothe
competitionwas,thepurposeoftheadvertisingandthespecificrequirements
containedwithinthecommission.Whencombined,theyprovidedtheinsight
necessaryforthestartingpointofthecreativeprocess.Inaddition,theremay
havebeensomepracticalconsiderationsinrelationto,forexample,budgetsor
media.Hepointedoutthat,whilethesewerementionedintextbooks,theywere
notderivedfromacademicstudies,butrathertheyoriginatedwithinthe
industryandweresuggestedbytheInstituteforAdvertisingPractitioners.
Thedevelopmentprocesswasnotmappedoutbeyondthis,butwasrather
regardedasa“blankpieceofpaper”,andSubjectBwasaskedhowhewould
completethisintermsofadvancingtheproject.Herespondedbycitingan
exampleofabrieffromadiscountsupermarketchainforwhichhisfirmhad
beenresponsibleforallthepressadvertisinganddigitaladvertising.More
recently,theyhadbeenaskedtoreviewthecompany’stelevisionadvertising,as
theywantedtomakesomesubstantialchanges.Hedescribedtheexisting
advertisingstyleas“entrylevel”,meaningtheiradvertisementsconsistedof
nothingmorethanpresentingcurrentoffersaidedbyavoice-overand:
“anicebitofmusic,andhereisatinofbakedbeansandthisishow
muchwe’resellingitfor”(05.39–05.45).
Thenewbriefwastomovetowardsadvertisingthatwasmoreemotive,and
thatwouldbuildthebrandandbemoreengaging.Unfortunately,thisledtoa
differenceofviewbetweenSubjectBandtheclient,astheformerbelievedthe
168
aimshouldbetomakecustomerswanttovisitthisparticularsupermarketasa
“shoppingexperience”,whilethelatterintendedthefocustobeonselling
specificproducts.Oneofthechiefreasonstheclientwaskeentopushthe
productwasthatthemanufacturerhadpaidtheclienttoadvertiseiton
television.Whensomethinglikethisoccurred,theidealwayofapproachingthe
advertisingdesignwouldbefortheaccounthandlertowriteacreativebrief
basedontheclientbriefandthiswouldgivedueconsiderationtowhomthe
audiencewere,whattheobjectiveswereandwhatwasproposed.That
propositionwouldthenbecheckedbySubjectBpersonally.Inthespecificcase
mentioned,thebriefwassummarizedinameetingbythewholeagencyand
ideasweresoughttodetermine“howcanwebringthattolife?”(0709–07.13).
Theythenengagedinanactivityhereferredtoas“leapfrogging”,whichhe
explainedasfollows:
“…wedon’tdiscussthequalityoftheideas:thereisaphrasethat
weuseandit’scalled‘gettingtheshitout’.Youhavetosaythe
mostobviousandthemostbanalstuff.You’vejustgottogetitout
becauseifyoudon’t,thenitdoesn’tleadtoanythingelse.So
someonemightsaysomethingthat’sreallycrapandverypoorand
we’dneverdiscussitwithaclient,butthat’sfinebecausewithout
removingthatbarrier,itdoesn’topenthefloodgates”(07.19–
07.42)
SubjectBheredescribedacreativeprocessofinwhichtheemployees
wereencouragedtopullrawideas,whichhereferredtoas"theshit",
fromtheirmindsandexpressthemwithoutanyseriousconsiderationas
totheirfeasibility.Ultimately,mostoftheseideaswouldbedismissed
andthoseremainingwouldbeexplored,modifiedinanumberofways,
combinedwithotherideasandhoneduntiltheyresembledsomething
whichcould,induecourse,hadfulfilledtherequirementsofthebrief.
SubjectBwasaskedifhis“leapfrogging”techniquewasakinto
169
brainstormingandheconfirmedthatitwasasitinvolved“throwing
around”ideas.Duringthisprocess,theymighthaveusedtheinternet
andthosepresentmighthavesuggestedlookingattheworkofother
advertisersinordertostimulatethethinking.Afterfollowinganumber
ofsuchideas,manyofwhichhedescribedas“cul-de-sacs”,hesaidthey
wouldprogressonto“mind-mappingandwritingideasdownonbitsof
paperwithpencils”andthentheywouldbeabletobuildupa“flow”,
probablyendingupwithabouttwelve“routes”,whichhedescribedas
“veryhighconcepts”(08.02-08.23).ItwasevidentthatSubjectB’s
conceptualisationprocesseswerehighlydependentuponontological
metaphors,withexpressionssuchas“leapfrogging”,“gettingtheshitout”
“removingthatbarrier”,“openthefloodgates”,“throwingaround”(ideas),
“routes”,and“veryhighconcepts”.Howmuchthesecouldberegardedas
specializedmetalanguageusedinadvertising,ormarketing,orevencan
beconsideredasgeneralbusinessjargon,appearstovary.Itissuggested,
however,thatallcouldbereadilyunderstoodinthecontextinwhich
theyoccur,unlikeexpressionsthatarefoundinmoretechnical
specialismssuchasmedicineandelectronics.Ofthosecited,the
orientationalmetaphor“highconcepts”isofparticularinterestasit
appearstooriginatefromliteraryandfilmstudies.Kaire(2016)
suggeststhedefiningfeaturesofhighconceptincludeapitchthatis
originalandunique,hasmassaudienceappealandhassomekindof
storylinenarrativeatitscore.
ExperiencehadtaughtSubjectBthatsomeideaswouldbeexpensive,others
wouldbecheaptoproduceandsomewouldbeenormouslychallenging.
Similarly,hewouldbeawarethatsomeoftheseideashadbeendonebeforeby
someoneelse,perhapsforadifferentmarket,andthatofferedpossibilitiesof
borrowingthemandapplyingtheminhisownbrief.Eventually,theideaswould
bedistilleddowntoaboutfiveorsixoptionswhichwould,atthatpoint,be
presentedtotheclient.Thebriefwasthenleftaloneandallstaffmovedonto
workonsomethingelse;thiswasdoneinordertolettheideas“settle”and“sitin
yourbrain”,andtheycouldlaterberevisitedwithfresheyes.Thedirectors
170
returnedtothemafterasuitableinterval,selectedthosewhichhesaidhad“legs”
(i.e.theybelievedhadpotentialtoberealizedasviableadvertisements)and
thenwouldbegintheprocessesofdesignincludingscriptwriting,copywriting
andvisualresearch.Theymayhavedecidedtorefertoaproductioncompany
aboutthecostsofthevariousalternativesandafterwardstheywouldbeina
positiontodiscusstheideaswiththeclient.
6.4.3SUBJECTC
Askedabouthiscreativeapproachwhenhereceivedabrieffromaclient,
SubjectCstatedthatthesewererarelyinwrittenformasthatwasnothowhis
currentbusinessworked.Instead,hewouldspeakdirectlytohisclientsand:
“dragabriefoutofthem…justusingmyexperience,really,butI
thinkthere’salways…apointtoabriefandit’saboutfindingwhat
isrelevanttothecustomerortheprospectortheclient”(43.56–
44.43)
HeexplainedthattherewereprobablyahandfulofagenciesinLondonwho
producedallthe“cleverheadline-driven,highconcept,multi-millionpoundbudget
stuff”andthentherewastherest,ofwhichhisbusinesswasapart.Manyofhis
commissionswerefrombusiness-to-businessclients,andwereoften
international,soanyadvertisingthatwastooobtusewithlanguage,ortoo
dependentupononeparticularcultureasitsframeofreference,wasatriskof
notbeingunderstood.Hereiteratedamoregeneralpointhehadmadeearlier,
stating:
171
“Mostclientshavegreatdifficultyincondensingwhattheydointoa
simplestatement,andIseethatasmyjob…Forme,abriefisalways
aprocessofsimplifyingsomethingtoitsbasic,broadestterms”
(46.05–46.40)
ThesimplificationSubjectCdescribedinthiscaseinvolvedreframingthebrief
byidentifyingthoseaspectswhichwereconsideredthemostcrucialand
directingthefocusontothose,arguablybyrepresentingthemthroughaprocess
ofsignification.Hewentontosayhewouldrarelyattemptto“doanything
cleverwithlanguage”inhisadvertisingandthatwasbecausehisclientsdidnot
wantthat;hisworkintermsoflanguageconsistedofshortstatementsinstead
ofthe“intellectualspins”whichheknew,fromexperience,hisclientswouldnot
appreciate.Ratherthantheconceptdrivenmethodsofthehigh-end,high-value
agencies,hismethodwasto:
“deliverthemessageto(consumers)inaverystraightforward,clear
way….Ithinkit’saprocessofactuallystrippingawayallthebullshit
aroundabrief,drawingitdowntobrasstacksandtryingtogetin
theshoesofaconsumerandunderstandingwhattheirmotivation
willbetomakethepurchase…orbuythatservice…”(47.54–
48.18)
Asseenwithotherinterviewees,SubjectCdemonstratedthathisconceptual
thinkingwasaidedbymetaphorssuchas“strippingaway”,“thebullshit”,“brass
tacks”and“getintheshoesofaconsumer”.Theseare,forthemostpart,
recognizableaspopularidiomsratherthanspecializedjargon,buttheyfacilitate
areadymeansofimaginingandrelatingacomplexprocess.Individualfeatures
172
oftheprocessarerepresentedbymetaphorswhichinteractwitheachother
withvaryingdegreesofsystemacity.Theprocesshedescribedisagainlargely
thesameasoutlinedbybothSubjectAandSubjectB,inthatitbeganby
selectingthecorerequirementsanddiscardingperipheraldetails.Partofthis
processinvolvedattemptingtounderstandtheconsumer,theirconcerns,needs
andpreferences,inordertoproduceanadvertisementwhichwasthereby
relevanttothem.
Creatingadvertisementswasnot,inSubjectC’sview,abuildingprocessashe
wasmostlyabletovisualizethecompletedcommissionquitequicklybecause
hehadundertakensuchworkseveraltimesinthepast.Eachcommission
essentiallyfollowedthesameprocedure,butforadifferentclientordifferent
product.Heexpandeduponthisinsomedetail,citinganexampleofworkhis
firmwascurrentlyundertakingforaninternationalshippingconsultancy.His
agencyhadrebrandedthisclientinthepreviousyear,designedthemanew
websiteandhadpreparedanemailadvertisementtobesentoutonthevery
morningoftheinterview.Whenthiscompanygavehisagencyabrief,he
claimedtheywouldsaytheywantedtheiradvertisementtodiscuss,forexample,
pre-purchasevesselinspections,dry-docking,flagadministration,thefactthat
theyhadapresenceinvariousportsandahostofotheraspects.SubjectC
repeatedhispointthat,whileaclientoraccounthandlerwouldwanttocover
manybaseswiththeircommunication,oneofhisjobswastocondensedown
themessageandthiswascrucialwherethepromotionwasbyemail:
“…someone’sgoingtoreadanemail.Atbest,they’regoingtoglance
atitinthewaythatpeoplewillglanceatthatletter,thatdirect
mailletter,andthere’salotofsimilaritiesbetweenwhatdirectmail
didandtheskillsIlearnedthen,andwhathappensnowinonline
comms”(54.35–54.50)
173
Withtheemail,therecipientwouldfirstsee“avisual”whichwouldtellthem
whatthethemewas,alongwithaheadlineandsub-headlineswithinthat
communicationthattheycouldquicklyscan.Withthisinmind,insteadof
simplyrelatingaseriesoffactsaboutthebrandorservice,thefocuswouldbe
ononekeyaspectandthatwasonthebasisthattheviewerwasonlygoingto
devoteafewsecondstolookingatitanddecidingwhethertodeleteit,or
insteadtopursueitfurtherand,hopefully,pressonalink.SubjectCbelievedit
wasonlypossibletowrite(inthesenseofcopywriting)wellonasingle
attributeforthemessagetomaximizeitseffectandsoselectingthatattribute
wastheprimarytaskandonewhichhehadtohelptoidentify.Indoingthis,
SubjectC’sapproachwasrequiredtotiecloselywithSperberandWilson’s
(1995)theoryasitisapparentthathewasattemptingtoproduceastimulus
thatconveyedapresumptionofoptimalrelevance,thatstimuluswasrelevant
enoughtomakeitworthwhileforthereceivertoprocessit,anditwasthemost
relevantonecompatiblewiththecommunicator’sabilitiesandpreferences(p.
270).
Hebrieflydescribedhowheaccomplishedthis:
“…it’saprocessofsayingthisiswhoyouare;thisiswhatyou’re
goodat;thisiswhatyoudo;thisiswhatyouwanttheclienttodo
…andit’sonething”(56.24–56.32)
SubjectCobservedthathisapproachdifferedaccordingtowhetherhewas
promotingabrandoraspecificproductandheexplainedoneofthemain
reasonsforthiswasthat,whenadvertisingaproduct,muchofthefocuswould
inevitablyfallontheservicewhichwasofferedaroundthatproduct.This
answerisperhapsbestunderstoodwhenitisrememberedthathisadvertising
wasmainlybusiness-to-business,andtheexamplehesuppliedillustratesthis.
Hedescribedabriefforadvertisingsoftwaretocontroltechnicalequipmentfor
thebakingindustryandthemachinerequiredforinsertingjamintotarts.The
174
jamhadtobeatpreciselytherighttemperature:ifithadbeentoocoolthenit
wouldnotset,butifitweretoohotthenitwouldburnthepastry.Suppliersof
suchsoftwarecouldsimplydeliveritandthenforgetaboutit;itwasimperative
thatongoingsupportwasprovidedtothecustomer.Theadvertisinghadto
convinceprospectivepurchasersthatsuchsupport,andtraining,wouldbeon
handandefficientbecausetheirbusinessdependeduponit.Indeed,inrelation
toproductsaimedatbusinesses,theytendedtobedefinednotsomuchbythe
physicalitemstheysupplied,butbythelevelofsupportofferedaroundthem.
HelikenedthistoUKsupermarketchainswherebyonewouldhaveprices
significantlyhigher,buttheircheckoutshadmorestaff,storeswouldbecleaner
andtidierandstaffmorehelpful;conversely,thealternativesupermarketwould
becheaper,butqueuesatcheckoutswouldbelongerandcustomerservicewas
almostnon-existent.Ontheotherhand,focusonproductratherthanbrand
couldbeapproacheddifferentlywhenthetargetaudiencewasthegeneral
public.Anothercommissionwascitedtoillustratethecontrast,thistimefora
clientwhowasalargefurnitureretailerinthenorthofEngland:
“…whenwedoworkforthem,it’sallaboutproduct.Sofas,basically.
Andit’sallaboutthissofa,atthatprice,that’showmuchyousave
andisn’tthisagreatsofa?Like,theotherconcernsaroundtheir
servicelevelsandtheirshopsbeingthisstandardorthatstandardis
irrelevanttothem…”(1.02.20-1.02.40)
Hestatedthathisagencyhadencouragedthiscompanytoengageinbrand
building,buttheyhadbeenuninterestedinthisapproachastheyhad“asales
mentality”andanyattempttopersuadethemtodeliverabrandedcampaign
with“intellectualcontent”hadprovedfutile.
Thisintervieweemostlydidnotthinkdirectlyaboutsemiotictheorieswhen
designingadvertising,buthedescribedhowheconsideredthemasbeing
presentinhismindintuitively.Thiswasperhapsduetohispreviousreadingon
175
thesubjectandhisexperienceinthebusinessratherthanconsciously
attemptingtoapplythetheoriesinhiscreativeprocesses.Hewasalso
consciousthatmostofhisclientswantedasimpleapproachwhichtheycould
understand:“Ithinkvery,veryfewclientswantasortofcleversemiotickindof
approachtowhattheydo.”(1:04:57–1:05:02)
Heseemedheretobemakingadistinctionbetweenwhatheregardedasthe
practicalaspectsofadvertisingthathisclientswanted,andwhatheconsidered
tobe“cleversemiotic”advertising.Oneinterpretationofthisisthathehad
misunderstoodpreciselywhatsemioticsisbut,inviewofhispreviously
expressedknowledgeofthisfield,amorelikelyexplanationisthathewas
referringtothetypeofadvertisinghehadpreviouslycalled“highconcept”.
6.4.4SUBJECTD
Intheprocessofformingideasforadvertising,SubjectDoutlinedhisgeneral
philosophyasconstantlystrivingtobebetter,notbelievingheknewallthe
answersandlookingawayfromhiscomputerandfindingoutwhatwas
happeningintherealworld.Hegavetheexampleofcheckingoutwhathis
childrenweredoing,howtheywereinteractingwiththeirfriendsandtryingto
experiencetheworldfromtheirperspective.Hisconstantendeavorstoimprove
whathedidandtolearnrequiredhimtobeopen-mindedandtobewillingto
learnfromanyone.
Theprocessofvisualizingideasvariedintermsofhowspontaneouslytheideas
hadarisen.Sometimeshewasabletogeneratehisideasveryrapidly,buthe
recalledsomeonemakingwhatheregardedasanextremelyvalidobservation:
“Thedifferencebetweensomeoneoffthestreetandsomeone
professionalinthebusinesswe’reinisthatsomeoneoffthestreet
cancomeupwithsomethinggenius-ornothing;someone
professionalwouldcomeupwithsomethinggenius–orsomething.”
(15.56-16.10)
176
Whileanadvertisersoughttofindthegeniuswitheverybrief,thiswasnot
alwaysfeasibleforanumberofreasonsincludingthetypesofbriefs,
certaincontraintsonthatbrief,budgetaryconsiderations,timefactors,
thecomplexityofthebriefandhavingseveralpropositionsratherthan
justone.Thesimplerthebrief,hesaid,themorequicklytheideaswould
formandthemorescopetherewouldbeforcreativework.Henotedthat,
withmodernbriefs,therewasatendencyforclientstoover-thinkthem
andhepreferredthoseclientswhounderstoodthatthebriefis“a
springboard–acatalystforthecreativeimagination”.Thecomplexityand
qualityofabriefultimatelydictatedtheoutcomeandthefinalproduct
thatisdeliveredtotheclient.Fromtheagency’sside,abrief’s“brilliance”
requiredextensiveworkintermsof:
“…strategy,insight,distillingalltheclientinformation,lookingat
thesemiotics66…lookingatallthethingsoutthere;beingculturally
aware;beingawareofthelandscapeofthecompetitors…”(17.01-
17.13)
A“greatbrief”was,hesaid,thetokeysuccessingeneratingthenecessary
creativethinkingfortheagencytoproducethequalityadvertising.Clients,he
claimed,sometimesmadebriefsconvolutedbecausetheywerenotwillingtolet
goofaspectstheyhadinmindandthishinderedthedistillationprocess
necessarytorevealthecriticalcoremessage.
SubjectDdiscussedhowhecalledupontheexpertiseofdifferentmembersof
histeamaccordingtowhetherhewaspromotingabrandoradvertisinga
specificproduct.Heregardedhavingtheseresourcesasoneoftheadvantages
66Thesubject’suseoftheterm“semiotics”inthiscasewastakentorefertohisgeneral
impressionofthecompanyanditsproductsratherthanassuggestingtheapplicationofspecific
theorieswithinthefieldofsemiotics.Inhindsight,itmayhavebeenrevealingtohaveprobedhisuseof“semiotics”furtherinrelationtothiscontext.
177
ofworkinginalargeagencyanditenabledhimto“buildthedreamteam”to
addressanyparticulartask.Nevertheless,thethoughtprocessesand
approachesadoptedinbrandversusproductadvertisinghadmanysimilarities.
Bothtypesofadvertisingrequiredtheadvertiserstoimmersethemselvesinthe
client’sbrief,tounderstandthebrandandthecompetition.Inthecaseofanew
productlaunch,suchasanewchocolatebar,themanufacturerwouldalready
havetheirownwayofcarryingthisout,suchashighlightingtheenjoymentof
consumingsuchproductswhile,inthecaseofahigh-endfashionbrand,it
wouldthenbenecessarytotune-intotheworldoffashion.Theybothrequireda
clearawarenessofwhatexactlyanyadvertisingwasintendedtoachieve,butit
wasalsofundamentaltodeterminewhotheaudiencewasandhowtoengage
withthem.Inthatrespect,eachadvertisingcommissionhaditsownparticular
featuresandrequirementstowhichtheendproductoftheagencyhadtobe
tailored.Hedidnotbelieveitwasfeasibletomarketsomethinginhiswork
withouttheinvolvementofbrandingtosomedegree:
“Peoplebuyingabrandbuyintosomething...Whetherthatbrandis
established,likeaCadbury,orastart-upthatneedstohavevoice.
Youneedtostandforsomething…”(22.38-22.50)
Whatabrandstandsformightbevalue,oritmightbeitspremiumnature.He
gavetheexampleofDoveproductswhich,heclaimed,had“reinvented”someof
thenotionsaroundnaturalbeautythatdefineditspositioninthemarketand
howitwasdistinguishedfromotherbrands:
“Wehavetocleverlyworkoutwhereyousitandwhatmarketplace,
whoyouaretalkingto,whatdemographic…”(23.47–23.54)
178
Fromthat,itwouldbepossibletoworkouttheappropriatestrategy,andwhat
theagencycould“unravel”fortheclient.Anotherexamplehecitedwas
advertisingforcarmanufacturerSkoda,andherecalledthequestionaskedin
theiradvertisementsastowhytherewasawaitinglistforSkoda’svehicles67.
Thiswas,hebelieved,remarkableasitsignaledacompletere-inventionofthe
brandfromonewhichhadbeenregardedascheapandinferiortoonethatwas
respectableanddesirable.Brandcouldnot,inSubjectD’smind,bedisregarded
evenwherethefocusofaparticularcampaignwasontheproduct:
“There’snotoneclientthatcomesthroughthedoorthatisn’ta
brandinsomeway,shapeorform.Theymightnotbelievetheyare,
buttheyareabrandbecausethatiswhatwedo…”(24.34–24.44)
Whetherabrandwasaproductoraservice,itwasofparamount
importancethattheadvertiserwasabletoconstrueanddefinethebrand’s
natureandfeatures.Abrand’schiefstrengthmayhavebeenthatitwas
cost-effective,orefficient,oritmayhavehadqualitiessuchasbeing
“super-tasty”or“cheekyandlovable”.Whileproductadvertisingwasan
elementofhiswork,thisintervieweeregardedbrandpresentationand
promotionasthekeytosuccess.
ThechallengesSubjectDmostrelishedstartedwith“lookingatablankpieceof
paper”andmovingonfromtheretostimulatehiscreativeinstincts.His
inspiration,whichherepeatedlyreferredtoas“themagic”,mayhavecomefrom
spendingtimesearchingpagesontheinternet,lookingoverpastworksand,as
mentioned,havingthe“greatbrief”fromtheclient.Asideascame,hesaidhe
“push(ed)”themand“squeez(ed)”themuntilhereachedapointatwhichhe
67TheallusionhereisthatSkodahad,forseveraldecades,occupiedamarketpositionatthevery
bottom.Theircarsareclaimedtohavemassivelyimprovedinqualityandperformanceandthe
brandimageenhancedaccordingly.AccordingtoMurden(2001):“Aproductorservicecanlive
ordiebyitsbrandimage,thoughtheexampleofSkoda-whichnowhasawaitinglistforitsFabiaestate-provesthatnewlifecanbebreathedintoseeminglylostcauses.”
179
stopped,andbeingabletorecognisewhenthathadoccurredwasalsoacritical
factor.ThemetaphorsSubjectDchosehereareinterestinganditmaybe
suggestedthat,followingtheexhaustingandperhapspainfulprocessof“pushing”
and“squeezing”,aviableideaisborn.
6.4.5SUBJECTE
Uponreceivinganewadvertisingbrief,SubjectEstatedhisfirstthoughtwould
probablybetoascertainwhatthepublic’sexistingperceptionoftheparticular
productorservice,andwhatwashappeningintheirlifewhichcouldhave
significancetothat.Fromthere,hewouldattempttodiscern“somesortoftruth”
withwhichthemanorwomaninthestreetwouldidentifyandsay“that’sme”.
Sometimesthiswouldsuggestcomingupwithsomekindofwordplay;thismay
havefitwellwiththeproduct,buttheintervieweesaidhetendednottodothat
becauseitfailedtotakeaccountofthepeoplethemselves,i.e.thosehewas
tryingtopersuade.Nevertheless,hediduselanguagewhichaimedtointrigue
thereceiverandthiswasillustratedbyhimwithanexamplefromabouttwenty
yearsearlierwhenhisagencyreceivedacommissiontopromoteagolftraining
courseandwhichculminatedinagolfmagazinecarryingtheadvertisement
bearingtheheadline“playlessgolf”.Theheadlinewasintendedtosurprise
readerswhowereclearlyplayersofthesportandonewouldassumewantedto
playmoregolf.Theideawasthatthiswouldstimulatesufficientcuriosityto
investigatetheadvertisementfurtherandthusextractthefullmeaning,which
heexplainedthus:
“Ofcourseyoudoactuallywanttoplaylessgolf.Youwanttogo
roundin72shotsratherthan82shots.”(10.45–10.50)
Fromthatheadline,theskillofthecopywriterwasmanifestintheabilityto
communicatethecleverlyobscuredkeymessage,inthiscasethattheproduct,
i.e.thecourse,wouldenableaplayertoplaythegamewithgreateraccuracyand
180
success.Inordertobecertainthatthereaderwouldunderstandthemessage,
andrelateittotheproduct,theheadlinewasaccompaniedbyexplanatorytext
andbyarecognisablelogo.SubjectEbelievedthatthe“playlessgolf”linewas
ofakindthatwasenduringandcouldbeusedinfutureadvertising.
Approachestodesignvariedaccordingtowhethertheadvertisingformedpart
ofacampaign,perhapswhereaclientwishedtopointoutmorethanjustone
mainfacetorattribute.Wherethiswasthecase,hewouldattemptatanearly
stagetodeterminewhatheconsideredtobetheappropriate“toneofvoice”,
includingwhetherseriousnesswasneeded,oranoptimisticorlivelytonewould
bemoresuited.Withsomebriefs,theideascameveryquickly:
“Youthinkaboutthepersonyouaretryingtopersuade…youput
yourselfintheirshoesifyoucanand…youarewritingandyouget
up,walktothelooandbythetimeyou’vecomebackyouhave
solveditbecauseyouhavemovedawayfromyourseat.Ifindthat
happensalot.”(14.23–14.52)
Onetacticthisintervieweeusedtoarouseideaswastomakehimselflistento
musicwhichhebelieveshadthesame“tone”asthemessageheaimedto
reproduce.Forexample,ifhewantedtoinspireamoodthatisaggressive,he
wouldlistento,forexample,Mars–theBringerofWarfromGustavHolst’ssuite
ThePlanets.Hefoundthistobeasuccessfulwayofinstallingtherequisite
thoughtsandattitudesinhismind.Conversely,theremayhavebeenoccasions
wherehewantedtocultivatea“sweet”moodandhesaidhemighthaveturned
tosomethinglikethePastoralSymphony68.Anothermethodheemployedto
generateideaswastowriteon,forexample,yellowpaperasthecolourofthe
papersomehowmadehim“feeldifferently”.Bydeviatingfromwhitepaper,and
68ThewriterassumestheintervieweewasreferringtoBeethoven’sSixthSymphony,otherwiseknownasthePastoralSymphony,althoughthiswasnotexplicitlyconfirmed.
181
perhapshavingsomemusicinthebackground,hewastakinghismindaway
fromtheusualandmundane69:
“Itmightjust…takeyououtofthehumdrum;takeyououtofthe
…whatyou’reusedto.That’sofcoursewhatI’malwaystryingtodo.
GetoutofwhereIusuallyamandputmyselfsomewhereelse”
(16.24-16.39)
Thenextpartoftheinterviewinquiredintothedifferentapproachesadopted
accordingtowhetherSubjectEwasaimingtopromoteabrandoraproduct.He
confirmedthat,whilethiswascontingentuponpreciselywhatthebrandor
productswere,thenormalanswertothatwouldbe:
“thebrandonewouldbemoreemotionallybiasedandtheproduct
onewouldbemorerationallybiased.”(17.25-17.32)
Heelaboratedthat,whendevisinganadvertisementwheretheemphasiswason
theformer,theaimwastocausetheaudiencetoformsomekindof“emotional
attachment”tothatbrandinquestiontotheextentthatitoccupied“aprivileged
position”inthereaderorhearer’smentalrepositoryofbrands.Thiswasan
exampleofpurerelationalmarketingasopposedtothetransactional
marketing70wherebytheonlyaimwastoconvinceacustomertobuyaspecific
productataparticulartime.Wherethisthistypeofmarketingwassuccessful,
theoutcomewouldbetheachievementofthemuchdesiredphenomenonof
69ThisbehaviourcouldberelatedtoShklovsky’sconceptof“defamiliarisation”,inthatSubjectE
istryingtopropagateoriginalideasandinspirationbyremovinghismindfromthemundane,andfromautomatizedresponses,asdescribedinSubchapter2.5,above.
70Thetransactionalversusrelationalmarketingdistinction,andthesemioticsofit,isdiscussedfurtherinSubchapter6.7.3,below.
182
brandloyaltyandthiswas,hesaid,essentiallyanemotionalresponse.Thatis
nottosaytherewasnorationalelementtobrandloyalty:consumersgenerally
usedtheirownexperienceofparticularbrandsanddecidedwhichperformedto
theirliking.Inthecaseofadvertisingaproduct,SubjectEwouldperceivethe
audienceasneedingdetailsoftheproductandasbeing:
“inadifferentmode,wheretheyhavegotaproblemthatneeds
solving,andthissolvesit…inthat…itdelivers”(18.52-19.04)
Hefollowedthiswithanexampleofhimselfhavingrecentlypurchaseda
rucksackwhichwassuitableforcommuting.Werehetohaveadvertisedthis,he
would,heinsisted,havemadeapointoflistingtheexcellentproductbenefits
andfeatures.Insodoing,heimaginedthataninterestedreaderwould,after
readingoftheseattributes,haveappreciatedthattherucksacktheywere
currentlyusingwasinferiortotheonehewaspromoting.SubjectEcommented
thatheagreedwithBernstein’s(1974)viewthattherewereprobablysome
advertisementswhichwerecompletelydevoidofemotionandothersthatwere
equallydevoidofreason,butmostconsistedofamixtureofemotionandreason.
6.5STRATEGY
Thissubchapterrelatestoquestionswhichinquiredintothepracticalactivities
andprotocolsundertakenintheinterviewees'advertisingdesign,andit
summarisesanswerssuppliedtoquestionsaskedinPartCandPartDofthe
questionnaire.
183
6.5.1SUBJECTA
OnceSubjectAhadreceivedabrief,hestatedhisfirststepwouldbeasfollows:
“…Youwouldprobablytryandputdownonpaper,oratleastgetsettled
inyourmind,allthedifferentanglesofwhatwe’relookingat…youtry
tocomeatitfromadifferentapproachandoftenyouwouldthrowout
lotsofideas…”(20.04–20.26)
Inhiscircumstancesatthetimeoftheinterview,heformulatedhisideas(as
definedintheprevioussubchapter)onadvertisingdesignsmainlyonhisown,
whichhesaidaffectedthisprocess.Headdedthathewasnotconvincedthat
brainstormingwasaneffectivewayofformingideas,buthedidcollectasmany
ideasaspossible,manipulatedtheseinhishead,allowedthemto“settle”and
thentriedtoarriveatconclusionsastowhichoneswouldworkandwhich
wouldnot.Afterthis,hewouldattempttovisualisetheseideasandpresentthe
clientwitharangeofpossibilitiesinavisualformattoconsider(20.20–21.42).
Anadvertisementhehadbeenworkingonpriortotheinterviewconsistedofa
photographshowingdiscardedelectronicequipmentpiledup;itwasalludingto
ascrappageschemethatwasapproachingtenyearsold.Thephotographhad
superimposedinlargeprintthephrase“Endofthedecayed”andanyreaderhere
wouldhavetofollowaprocessinordertorecoverarelevantmeaning.This
processwouldbeginwithanexpectationthattheviewer,aidedbythe
photograph,wouldrecognisethenearhomophonyofdecayed/decade,accrue
thementalrewardforsolvingthepunandthenbemotivatedtolookforamore
generalrelevance.Next,asthisadvertisementappearedinatradejournal,it
waspredictedthattheviewerwouldrecognisethatrelevancespecificallyin
relationtotheirownbusiness.
SubjectArelateddetailsofanothermajorcampaignhehadbeencommissioned
toundertakeandthatwasforaSwisscompanywhichhedescribedasone
marketing“solutions”ratherthanparticularproducts.Thiskindofenterprise
184
wouldnormallybeapproachedbybusinessesorpublicsectororganisationsthat
hadaparticularproblemorprojectandoffereddesignservices,technical
expertiseandadviceasapackage.Theissueforhiminthiscasewasthatthe
clientexplainedtheywantedto“boildown”theircoreandbrandvalues.After
somedifficultiesinclarifyingwhatwasneeded,heeventuallyproposedan
alliterativecompanystraplineof“Design,Develop,Deliver”whichwasthe
essenceofwhatthecompanydidanditsethos(24.35–25.39).Thechoiceof
wordswassufficientlynon-specificsothattheycouldberelevanttovirtually
anyorganisationalprocessinwhichtheirclientwasengaged.Similarly,the
orderoftheseverbswascertainlynotrandom,butrathertheysuggesteda
logicalprogressionfromdrawingboardtofinishedarticle.Itwasalsonoticed
thattheword“deliver”hadarangeofmeanings,themostliteralofwhichwas
thephysicalactofbringingsomethingtosomepersonorplace.Atthe
metaphoricallevel,oneofthemorecolloquialinterpretationsof“deliver”,used
intransitively,connotedwithsuccessandsatisfaction.
ThenextaspectconsideredrelatedtohowSubjectAformulatedhisadvertising
sothatitwasaccuratelydirectedtotheintendedtargetaudience.Hepointedout
thathisexperienceinworkingwithbusiness-to-businessmarketinghadtaught
himthatsuchadvertisinghadtoaddresspersonnelatmultiplelevelswithina
business.Theindividualorderingatechnicalitem,theenduserofthatitemand
thepersonpayingforit,werelikelytobedifferententities.Toalargeextent,
appropriatebrandingalleviatedsomeoftheissueswhichstemmedfromthis
andthetechnicalpublicationsinwhichtheadvertisementsappearedwere
mostlyaimedatsuchpeopleaslogisticsmanagers,managingdirectors,financial
directorsandspecifiers(25.51–26.44).Inthecaseoftechnicaljournals,these
werepitchedataveryspecificsectorandanadvertiserwouldidentifythat
sectorandselectthemostappropriatepublication.Itwould,hesaid,be
improvidenttoinvestincostlyadvertisinginamasspublication,suchasRadio
Times,whenaimingatsuchaspecialistmarket;oneaimofadvertiserswasto
ensureleastwastage.Thisexplainedwhyheproducedrelativelyfewbillboard
typeadvertisementsasthesewerelessefficientattargeting.Hewasprompted
185
torecallapossibleexceptiontothiswhereheproducedadvertisingdesignedto
promoteawarenessofaparticularevent,suchasanexhibition(26.45–28.40).
Theuseofsymbolismandfolklorewerediscussed.SubjectAassertedthathe
deliberatelyusedtheseandthattheexampleoftheRobinHoodstatuein
Nottinghamasaculturalsymbolofthatcitydemonstratedthis71:
“…thesymbolismofthelocalareas,Iguess...wetriedtouseitasashort
cuttosaying’we’reinyourpatch’”(34.21–34.39)
Itmaybeassumedherethattheexpression“symbolism”wasnotspecifically
intendedtocorrespondwithaparticularsemiotictheorysuchashowsymbols
aredefinedbySaussureorPeirce,butwasinsteadusedinageneralsense,orin
asensewhichiscommonlyunderstoodwithinmarketing.Aaker(2010),for
example,proposesthatsymbolsconstitutea“keyingredientofbrand
development”(p.84)andadvocates“elevatingsymbols”(ibid)sothattheyform
partoftheidentitywhichreflectsthepotentialpowerofbrands.Whilenot
definingsymbolsassuch,Aaker(2010)suggeststheyfallintothreecategories
forthepurposeofbranding,specificallyvisualimagery,metaphorsandthe
brandheritage.Visualimageryconsistsofimagesthatarememorableand
powerful,capturethebrand’sidentityandhavebeenestablishedovertime
(ibid).SubjectA’smentionofsymbolismdid,however,indicatehisappreciation
ofthesemioticvalueofarecognizableimageofthelocalityandthereby
demonstratedtheuseofakindofsemioticmetalanguageindescribingand
conceptualizinghisworkingmethods.Hischoicetousesymbolismas“ashort
cut”,whichtoldtheviewer“we’reinyourpatch”,reinforcedthispoint.The
symbolinthisinstancewasthemeansofconveyingamessageinawaywhereby
71ThecharacterofRobinHoodis,ofcourse,internationallyknown.Whilethelegendclaimshe
livedinSherwoodForest,justtothenorthofNottingham,thestatueissituatedwithinthecity
andadjacenttoNottinghamCastle’swalls.Theuseofthisfigureintheadvertisingispredicated
onanassumptionthatviewersofitacrosstheUKwillrecognisehisassociationwithNottinghamshireorwiththecity.
186
thesignifierwouldbearnoobvioussimilaritywiththatwhichitrepresented,
andyetitwasentirelynon-linguistic.Inaddition,comprehendingthemessage
requiredtheviewertofollowthecognitiveprocessofassumingrelevance,
drawinguponencyclopaedicknowledgeandrecoveringtheimplicatures.
SubjectAstatedthatotherpeopleheknewwhoworkedinadvertisingdidnot
generallythinkwithahighlevelofsophisticationandthisdifferentiatedthe
serviceheofferedfromthatofothers.Asanillustration,hedescribedaseriesof
advertisementshewasshownwhenhewasstudyingatcollegewhere“women
wereshownasbits”.Themostmemorableand,inhisview,worst,examplehis
lecturercouldfindwasanadvertisementforcarpetunderlaywhichdepicteda
womaninjustherunderwearandthewords“Whatmattersiswhatyou’vegot
underneath”.Heregardedthisas“suchatenuouslink”totheproductmarketed,
andwenton:
“OneofthethingsIoftensaytotheclients…becauseit’squitea
narrowfieldbut…youdon’twanttolooklikeeverybodyelse.The
wholepointistostandout.”(33.40–34.16)
AswiththeimageoftheRobinHoodstatue,itwasevidentthatSubjectA
appreciatedhowalinkbetweenasignifierandthatwhichitrepresented
hadtobeunderstoodifthemessageweretobesuccessfullytransmitted.
Imagerywasoneofthemodesemployedintheadvertisementandcertain
paradigmaticchoicesweremadebytheproducer;amongthesewerethe
factthatthemodelwouldbeafemaleofaparticularageandappearance,
herattire,andtheposesheadoptedandthebackdrop.Theimage
providedastimulusinthatitattractedattentionbyvirtueofthemodel
beingcladonlyinherunderwear.Italsoinitiatedtheprocessofconveying
thesubstantivemessageoftheadvertisement,namelythathighquality
underlayisessentialforgoodcarpeting.Forthisaimtobeachieved,the
imagehadtobeaccompaniedbylinksthatwerelesstenuousintermsof
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theirrelationtotheproductbeingmarketed.Inthiscase,itconsistedofa
linguisticelementintheformofacaptionwhichwasmadedeliberately
ambiguous,i.e.thatitcouldbereferringtoawoman’sstateofdressas
wellastocarpets.Whileitwasnotspecified,otherproductorbrandlinks
mayhavebeenpresentinthecommercial,includingtextand/ortrade
marks,whichwouldhaveensuredthatthemessagerelatingtothe
advertisedunderlaywouldhaveemergedasthemostprominent.Other
messages,suchthosewhichmighthaveoccurredfromthesexually
suggestiveimagery,wouldhavebeenrelegatedinthemindoftheviewer.
SubjectAexplainedthat“lookinglikeeverybodyelse”relatedtothe
commonpracticeatthetimeforshowingallproductsinassociationwith
suggestiveorsexualisedpartsofwomen’sbodiesandusingthoseto
attractattentiontotheadvertisement.Itwasnotablethatheregarded
thisapproach,widelyusedintheindustryatthetime,asbeingso
commonplaceastoloseitseffectasastimulusandthat,inorderto“stand
out”,anadvertiserhadtoapplyoriginalitywhendesigningthe
foregroundedelementsofadvertisements72.
Thefinalquestioninquiredhow,whenmarketing,SubjectAattemptedtodraw
uponthereader’spre-existingknowledge.Hefoundthataratherdifficult
questiontoanswerandpointedoutthattheaimwasmorelikelytoseekto
challengewhatwasalreadyknownalthough,toachievethis,itwouldbe
necessarytoconfirmwhatthatknowledgeconsistedof.Hegaveanexampleof
theforkliftindustryandadvertisingcopyheproducedforaKorean
manufacturer,includingaphotographofthecapitalofKoreaaccompaniedby
thestrapline:“Seoul.LikeTokyo,onlycheaper”(35.47-35.59).Whilethis
particularadvertisementwasneverpublished,itwasbasedonassumptionsthat
potentialcustomerswouldknowthat:
72Acontemporaryreadermayrecoilattherepresentationofgenderhereandwonderwhythis
wasnotmentionedasanobjection.However,itshouldberememberedthattheinterviewee
wouldhavebeenundergoingthiseducationintheearly1980s,atimewhensuchadvertisingmethodswerecommonplaceandsounremarkable.
188
• TokyoisthecapitalofJapanandJapaneseproductswerehighquality
andbrandleaders.
• SeoulisthecapitalofSouthKorea,andKoreantechnologyand
manufacturingwasexpanding.
Fromthatunderstanding,itwouldbepossibletointerpretthemetonymicuseof
therespectivecapitalsasrepresentingtechnologicalproducts,inthiscase
forklifttrucksand,withtheaidofotherelementspresent,namelythecontext,
(includingtheparticularpublication,imagesandsignifierssuchasrecognizable
companylogos)anenrichedmeaningwouldhavebecomemanifesttothereader.
Whenitcametopromotingaproduct,anactivitywhichhedidnotbelievecould
bedetachedfrombrandpromotion,herepeatedhisethosmentionedearlierof
“boilingdown”thecoremessageandcraftingthisintoamemorablestrapline.
Onehedevisedforaforkliftmanufacturerbecamewidelyrecognized
throughouttheindustrybydealersandend-usersastheessenceofthebrand
anditsproductswas“Simple,Powerful,Performance”.Thisstraplinewas
conceivedapproximatelytenyearspreviouslyandwasstillbeingutilizedatthe
timeoftheinterview.
6.5.2SUBJECTB
SubjectBwasemphaticthathisstrategydidnotdifferaccordingtowhetherhe
wasmarketingabrandoraproduct;hiscompany’sapproachwasalwaysto“tell
astory”.Productsandbrandshad,sofarashewasconcerned,thesame
attributes,includinga“personality”,andtheyhadtotaketheconsumerthrough
theAIDAprocessofawareness,interest,desireandaction.“AIDA”isan
acronymforabehaviouralmodelusedinadvertisingandmarketingandthat
attemptstoshowthelistofeventsthatwouldideallyoccurwhenan
advertisementisviewedbyaconsumer.Thisisnotamodelbasedonany
specifictheory,butratheronewhichevolvedfromearlyapproachesto
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advertisingpracticegoingbacktothe19thcentury,andhasbeenmodifiedand
refinedbypractitionersintothefour-partmodelshownbelow:
“A–attention(awareness):attracttheattentionofthecustomer.
I–informthecustomer.
D–directbenefit:convincecustomersthattheywantanddesirethe
productorserviceandthatitwillsatisfytheirneeds.
A–action:leadcustomerstowardstakingactionand/or
purchasing.”(Brierley,2002:p.151).
Thismodelhasaclearstructure,orsyntagmaticcharacter,which
illustratesaprocessofactionsthatmustfollowaspecificsequence.The
“attention”aspectistobeachievedbymeansofasignorseriesofsigns
actingasthestimulus,promptingtheconsumertoengagewiththe
advertisement.Itmayalsoservetoensuretheconsumerrecognizesitas
suchratherthanassomeotherkindoftext.Toachievethis,the
advertisementmayutilizealinguisticsign(foregroundedcopy)ornon-
linguisticsign(suchasanimage,thelayout,musicorsound),ora
combination.Informingthecustomermeansrelatingsufficientfactsabout
thebrandorproduct,orremindingthemofthosefacts,oratleast
conveyingadesiredimpression,sufficientfortheinitialaimofthe
advertisementtobeachieved.Amorecompellingcaseforbuyingthe
productismadeoutwiththethirdelementofAIDAwhiletheaction
componentisintendedtochangetheviewer’sorhearer’sbehaviorina
concreteway.
SubjectBcitedanexampleofanongoingcampaigntopromotetourismata
localcastle.Amongtheattractionsatthecastlewereawallwalk,aVictorian
prisonandacollectionofvaluableartefactsstoredinavault;everyoneofthese
190
attractionsheviewedasanindividualproduct.Thecreativedevelopment
processwasappliedtoeachproductwhilethebrandaspectwasthatofthe
castleitself.Theremay,hesaid,havebeenashiftofemphasiswithregardto
brandversusproductadvertisingastheformeravoideddiscussingaspectssuch
aspriceorplace,butratherthefocusshiftedtoencouragingthecustomerto
engagewiththebrand.Thishedescribedasa“craftdifference”,asinusing
marketingskillstoexecuteaparticularidea,andhedistinguishedthecraft
aspectfromthecreativeprocess.Itwassuggestedtohimthattheremustbe
radicallydifferentcreativeapproachesemployedwhen,forexample,abriefwas
toproduceadvertisingfortechnicalcomponentsinatradejournal,withallthe
detailsoftheproductincludingspecification,priceanddelivery,ascomparedto
alifestylebrandsuchasVersace,wheretheaccentwasnotplacedonspecific
products,butpurelyonthebrandpersonality.SubjectBdiscountedthisand
arguedthat,whilethemotivationvariedenormously,theprocessofcreation
wasstillthesame,butdeliveredinadifferentway.TheVersaceadvertisement
“maynotobviouslysayanythingbutactuallybynotdoingthat,itissayingquitea
lotaswell”(14.23-14.31).Aseeminglyinappropriateapproach,e.g.tryingto
designatradeadvertisementinthesamewayasalifestyleadvertisementfora
lifestylebrand,wouldraisethequestionastowhethertheaudiencehadbeen
properlyunderstood.However,thatdidnotmeanitwouldnecessarilybeamiss
tousethelifestylebrandingmethodforatechnicaladvertisement.Itmay,for
instance,beemployedtohighlightapointofdifference,generatingattention(as
proposedbytheAIDAmodel)andtherebyencouragetheviewertoengagewith
itforthatreason.SubjectBconfirmedthatsemiotictheoriesdidnotplayapart
inhisthinkingwhendesigninganadvertisement,becausethishasnotformed
anypartofhiseducationinmarketing.However,whenthebasicnotionsof
signs,symbols,culturalmythsandfolklore,wereexplained,heinsistedthat
thesedidplayanimplicitroleandthiswouldbeintuitive,arisingfromhis
existingawarenessoftheprevailingculture.
Thisisofparticularinterestforthepurposeofthisstudyasitimpliesthatthe
relevanceofatleastsomeofthetheoriesofsemiotics,andespeciallythosethat
areincludedinthetrainingofmarketingandadvertisingpractitioners,canbe
191
tested.Italsoindicatesthedegreetowhichthecreativeprocesses,the
conceptualisationsthatoccurandhowthesearediscussedamongmembersof
advertisingteams,dependheavilyuponasharedmetalanguage.
Neartheendoftheinterview,hesaid:
“Ibetifyoubrokedownourprocesses…ifyoucouldlookintoour
heads…we’dbeusingsemioticsinsomeway,butnotactively…not
explicitly”(27.47–27.59)
Insupportofthis,heproducedanadvertisementdesignedafewmonths
previouslyforanautomotivecompany.Theheadlinetextread“FirstAid
forcars”anditwasjuxtaposedwithanimageofacarwiredtoadiagnostic
machine.Parallels,includingthechoiceofwords(FirstAid)andtheimage
ofanitemoftechnicalequipmentwiredtotheinternalworkingsofa
vehicle,invitedtheviewertorecognizesimilaritiesbetweenvehicle
diagnosticequipmentandaheartmonitor.Theysuggested,accordingto
SubjectB,thatthewireswereproducingdataabout“theheartofthecar,
almost”(30.04–30.06).Heviewedthisassymbolism,althoughitcould
bearguedthattheparallelswereimplicatedratherthanmademanifest.A
furthernoteworthypointwasthat,asseenintheprevioussubchapter,
SubjectBmadeextensiveuseofmetaphorsinexplaininghisown
processesandinthisexamplehewasusingconceptualmetaphorsdirectly
inhisadvertisingwhenhereferredto“firstaid”and“theheartofthe
car”73.
Thenatureanddegreeofdetailinbriefsfromclientsvariedconsiderablyand
dependedupontherelationshiphehadwithhisclients.SubjectBstatedthat,
withmostclients,agreatdealoftimewasinvestedinattemptingtoshapehow
73ThisexampleisdiscussedfurtherinChapter7.4belowintermsoftheuseofmetaphorsinadvertisingbyallinterviewees.
192
theclientthoughtintermsofhowtheyshouldbebriefedandwhattheagencies
requiredfromthem.Oneofthefirstkeymattersaboutwhichtheyhadtoreach
earlyagreementwastoestablishwhattheobjectivesoftheadvertisementwere.
Thisthenledtofurtherquestionssothattheaudiencecouldbeidentifiedandit
couldbeascertainedhowwelltheclientunderstoodtheaudience.This
intervieweealsosaidheaimedtodiscoverwhethertheclienthadinminda
positioningofthemselvesasabrandthattheywantedtoreinforce(18.31–
18.40).Itwasusuallyeasierwiththoseclientswithwhomhisfirmhadworked
overtime.Theywouldgenerallybeginbriefingtheagencyontheirmaingoals;
theywouldbeclearastowhattheyweretryingtoachieve,andwhetherthey
wantedanewapproachorjustmoreofthesame.Normally,aclientexpected
thecreativeaspecttocomefromtheagencyratherthaninstructingthemasto
exactlyhowtheadvertisementwastoappear.
Onefunctionofabrief,asmentioned,wastodiscusswhowerethetarget
audienceand,tosomeextent,thatcouldbecontrived.Anexampleofthiswas
occurringatthetimeoftheinterviewandconcernedthediscountsupermarket
mentioned.Theyhadcommissionedaseriesofradioadvertisementsto
promotelineswheretheywerestrongandwantedtoexpandsalesspecifically
inbarbecuemeats,sauces,andalsoalcoholproducts.Itwassuggestedthatit
couldbepropitioustodirectadvertisementsspecificallyatmalebuyersandto
dosoonradiostationsthattheyknewhadapredominantlymaleaudience.
SubjectBstated:
“weputtogetheraverymale-orientatedadthatwasverytongue-in-
cheekaboutbarbecuemeatsandstufflikethat,andalcohol,andso
weidentifiedtheaudienceveryclearly”(22.40–22.52)
Somethingsimilarcouldalsobeachievedwhenadvertisingwithnationalmedia,
includingnewspapers,astheyoftenhadalifestyleorafoodsectionthatSubject
Bbelievedwouldhaveappealedmoretowomen,orinthemainpartofthe
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newspaperwhereitwouldhavereachedalldemographiccategoriesequally.
Whenadvertisingtothegeneralpublic,segmentation74ofanaudiencehas
limitations;anadvertisementaimedatwomenisessentiallydirectedatall
womenor,morespecifically,allwomenwhoshopforfamilies.Inthecaseofmen,
thosemenwholikewatchingsportmaybethetarget.Toachieveanykindof
finesegmentationinvariablyinvolvesstereotyping75or,touseanotherofhis
metaphors,“takingbroadbrushstrokes”(22.36).
Effortsweremadetotesttheconsumers’understandingofproposedorongoing
advertisementsbyvariousmeans.SubjectBstatedhesometimesundertook
whathereferredtoasa“testcreative”,whichwasconductedthroughfocus
groups.Hegaveanexampleagainwiththesupermarketadvertisinghehad
describedpreviouslyandwasinprogressatthetimeoftheinterview.A
specialistcompanyhadbeencommissionedtoinvestigateandreportonthe
client’smarketing.Thisincludedanalysingtheiradvertising’seffectivenessfrom
severalangles,includingaudiencecomprehensionandbrandrelevance,andwas
tobeconductedonlinewith100to150testsubjects.Conductingsuchresearch
wascontingentupontheclient’sbudgetbeinglargeenough,andalsowhetherit
wasconsideredworthwhile:
“Soifyou’respendinghalfamillionpoundsonmedia,thenit’s
probablyworthdoingsometesting.Ifyouarespendingamillion
poundsoverayear,thenit’sprobablyworthdoingsometesting”.
(26.40–26.48)
74SegmentationisdefinedbyBarthes(seeChapter2.8above).Thetermhasalsobeenadopted
asmetalanguagerelatingtomarketingandreferstothecategorisingconsumersintotypesin
orderthatadvertisingandothermarketingpracticescanbemoreaccuratelydirectedtopotentialcustomers(Brierley,2002).
75Stereotypinghasbeenmentioneddirectlyorindirectlybymorethanoneintervieweeduringtheresearchandthisaspectwillbefurtherexploredinthenextchapter.
194
Hethenreferredbacktothecastlebriefthatwasmentionedpreviously.
Inacaselikethat,wheretheadvertisingwaswhollynewandinnovative,
andthebudgetstendedtobefarmorerestrictive,thennosuchresearch
wasfeasibleandassessingcomprehensionhadtobeajudgmentwhich
wasbasedupontheclient’sviews(includingbysimplytestingitouton
staff)andalsorelyingontheagency’s“craft”experience.Heconsidered
thismethodofassessingunderstandingtobeequallyvalid,evenifitwas
notasrobustastheformalizedresearch.SubjectBsaidhereliedheavily
onaclient’sknowledgeoftheirmarket,theircustomersandtheabilityof
customerstorecognizeproducts,alongwithanyperceivedproblemswith
theproductimage.
6.5.3SUBJECTC
SubjectChadpreviouslysummarisedhisbackgroundasbeingmainlyconcerned
withdirectmarketingandmuchofhispresentworkwasthroughthischannel.
Themethodshehadlearnedandemployedaredescribedinmoredetailbelow,
buthefoundthismediumofadvertisingespeciallyinsightful.Hestatedthathe
regardeditasacraftratherthananartisticpursuit,althoughhisjobwas“to
overlayasheenorabrandoverit”(23.22-23.29).Heviewedthismethodasan
“almostscientificprocess”anddescribedhowitcouldworkusingdifferent
strategiesandtestingthemamongdifferentgroups.Sometimesthevariations
wereoffer-based(e.g.discountvouchers,giftsorotherincentives)whileatother
timestheywouldtrylanguage-baseddifferences.Heexplainedthelatterin
somedetail,beginningwiththefirstimpressioncreateduponreceivingdirect
mail,namelytheenvelope.Iftheenvelopefailedtocapturetheattentionofthe
recipient,itwouldbeimmediatelydiscarded,andthefirstbarrierwastoensure
thereceiverwouldopenit.Havingopenedit,thenextstepwouldbeforthe
recipienttodiscoverthatitcontainedoneorperhapstwoleafletsalongwitha
letterpersonalisedtothemandwiththeirnameonitwhich,heemphasized,was
spelledcorrectly.Thisensureditwaspersonaltothem,addingtoitsapparent
195
relevanceandtherebyensuringtherecipientwillcontinueengagingwithit.He
describedthereceiver’sassumedbehaviouratthispoint:
…whattheywouldthendoisscantheletter.Sowhattheywould
typicallydoisscantheheadlinesandsub-headsandthink’isthis
relevant.Ifitisn’t–bin.Ifitwas,thentheywouldreadfurther.At
thatpoint,theywouldputdowntheletterandtakeuptheleaflet
andreadtheleaflet.”(21.21-21.40)
Leafletswerenowpersonalizedandtheirpurposewaslargelyreinforcement,to
re-presentthesameinformationastheletter,butinadifferentformat,and
perhapsinamorevisualway.Thelogicofthiswasthat,oncethereceiverhad
beguntoscantheleaflet,theywouldlookagainattheletterandreadits
contents.Letterswereproducedintwobasicforms:onewasalengthyand
detailedletterwhichdescribedthebenefitsoftheproductandoftenraninto
twopageswhiletheotherformwasshorterandpunchier,perhapswithmore
“visuals”onit.Thesewouldbeproducedsimultaneouslyandtestedfor
comparisontodeterminewhichwasthemosteffective.Theaspectofthe
opening,ordiscardingwithoutopening,ofdirectmailwas,accordingtoSubject
C,amuchtestedandresearchedareawithinmarketing.Itisalso,however,one
whichappearstohavebeenneglectedbysemioticians.
Itisobservedthatwhatisoccurringhereisafullylinked-upcommunication
approachwhichincludesallaspectsofthematerialdesign(materiality)ofthe
relevantsignsandtheirtemporalsuccession.Eachcommunicationrevealsaset
ofparadigmaticchoicesmadebytheproducerandtheseincludeaspectsofthe
designoftheletterintermsofthemodesemployedincludingwordsand
graphics,thetypeofpaper,andevendowntoensuringthecorrectspellingof
therecipient’sname.Inaddition,eachcommunicationoccupiesapositionalong
asyntagmconsistingofaseriesofsuchlettersindividuallycraftedand
dispatchedatspecificintervals.Thefunctionofeachletteristhusintegrativein
196
thatitseekstocombinetherecipient’spresentexperience(i.e.ofreceivinga
correspondence)withboththeirpastexperienceandalsowithanticipatedor
possiblefutureexperience(Harris,2010)andmaximumeffectisthereby
generatedthroughasophisticatedprocessofsemiosis.
SubjectCelaboratedonthedetailsofthecampaignhehadbeenworkingonthat
dayasfollows:
“Theemailthatwentouttodayisthefirstofafive-stageemail
communication.Sooneisanemailgoingoutonceaweekforthe
nextfiveweeksandthat…programmeisgoingtobuildupastoryof
allthethingstheydoandworkasakindofdrip-feedintermsofall
ofthefifteenthingstheydoaregoingtobeencapsulatedintoallof
theseemails,butnotallatthesametime.”(56.49–57.17).
Aswiththeletters,thecompositionofasubjectlinewithemailcommunication
wasseenascriticalindeterminingwhetheritwasopenedordiscardedonsight.
Therewerecertainpracticalfactorsthathadtobeconsideredwhenwording
thesesuchastheuseoftriggerwordsthatarepopularwithadvertisers,but
whichhadtobeavoidedwithemailshots.Theseincludedwordssuchas“free”
and“sex”,andtheyelicitan“automatized”response(seeSubchapter2.5,above)
inthemindsofreadersbasedonassumptionsthattheywereofhighrelevance
andimmediatelyinterpretable.However,inemailshotstocompanies,the
presenceofthesewordsislikelytoresultintheemailinwhichtheywere
includedbeingfilteredoutanddepositedintothespaminbox,andsotheemail
inquestionwouldlikelyneverbeopened.
Identifyingandtargetinganaudience,orwhathereferredtoas“dataselection”,
appearedstraightforwardforthekindofdirectmailadvertising,particularly
business-to-business,thatSubjectC’sfirmundertook.Thisworkwasaimed
towardsseniordecision-makers,suchasatdirectorlevel,incompaniesin
certainsectorsandofacertainsize.Whenitcametodirectmailtothewider
197
public,suchasthefurnitureretailermentionedpreviously,thisconsistedof
identifyingparticulardemographicsincludingpeoplewithinpredeterminedage
bands,atacertainincomelevel,certainhousetypesandsizesincertain
geographicallocations,andwithincertain“drivetimes”ofthestoresthatwere
beingpromoted.Therewasnoquestionofassessingtherecipients’intellectual
capacities,e.g.bytryingtoestablishthekindsofnewspaperstheywerelikelyto
read.Instead,assumptionsoftheireducationallevelweremadeonthebasisof
thedemographicsmentionedinordertocategorisethemintermsoftheirlikely
lifestyleanddecidewhethertheywere“thetypeofpersonwhobuysfurniture
fromthisstore”(1.13.23–1.13.28).Anothermeanshementionedwhichwas
employedasdataselectionwassocialmediaand,specifically,Facebook.He
explainedthisasfollows:
“Now,ifyoudoFacebookadvertising,youcanselectveryspecific
agegroupsandaudiences.Sowe’re,atthemoment,doinga
campaignthatisprovingtobeverysuccessful,veryeffective,fora
universitywhodoacertaintypeofvocationaldegreebasedaround
musicandtheentertainmentindustry…wearetargeting17to18-
yearoldswho’vegotinterestsinmusicincertaingeographic
locations….Youwon’tseetheseadsifyouare22;ifyou’re18you
will.”(1.14.24–1.16.07)
Facebookisattractivetoadvertiserspreciselybecauseitcandirectits
advertisingtoitsintendedaudiencewithhugeprecision.Inordertoachieve
this,SubjectChadtoensuretheadvertisementwaswritteninsuchawaythat
itssignificancetothereaderwouldbereadilyapparentandpotential
candidateswouldbethusencouragedtoenrolforthedegreecoursesoffered.
Theadvertisementwasbuiltaroundasloganthattheeducationbeingoffered
wouldleadtocareersthatwere“anythingbutordinary”.Inotherwords,young
adultswereofferedtheprospectoftakingadegreethatwouldenablethemto
gainapositionasastagemanager,touringtheworldandmeetingpopular
198
artistsandrockstarsandcelebritiesandtappingintotheiraspirationsfora
well-paidandvariedcareer,andnotendingupinamundanejobsuchasinan
officeorsupermarket.Heregardedhisworkasamatterof,tousehismetaphor,
“boilingdown”(1.19.01)thecoremessage.Conveyingtheessenceofthe
messagethroughsimplicitywashiskeystrategyinthisadvertisementand
consequentlyaudiencecomprehensionwouldnotbeamajorconcern.
Intermsoftheuseofsemiotics,SubjectCrecalledBarthes’“Italianicity”notion
andhowhehadusedthattoexplaintheconceptofculturalmythstohis
businesspartner.Hethengavehisownexampleofhowhehadapplieda
similarmyth,i.e.thatofthenotionoffivestarsrepresentingtheultimatein
efficiencyandluxury,inthecommissionfortheshippingconsultancythathe
relatedearlierintheinterview:
“There’sfivepointswhytheirserviceisbetterthaneveryoneelse’s,
andIwrappeditupasafive-starguarantee.Sotheopeningline
was‘guaranteedby(companyname)’.AndthenI’dgotfivestars.
SoIamusingvisuallanguagetoreinforce…..andIverymuchdoubt
anyonewillreadthroughthefivepointsbutthey’llseeafive-star
guaranteeandfivelovelybrightsilverstarslookingniceandclassy.”
(1.20.56-1.21.22)
Thesignificationofthestariconscombinedwiththeword“guarantee”would,
hesaid,beinterpretedasindicatingthatthiscompanycouldbetrusted.He
wentontosay:“Whenitgetsvisual,andcombineswithlanguage,that’swhenit’s
atitsmostpowerful”(1.24.28-1.24.28).Thisechoessomeoftheclaimsof
Barthes(1957,asdescribedinSubchapter2.7)intermsofcombiningimagery
withwordsinthatthesignifiedsoftheformer,whicharepolysemous,have
theirmeaninganchoredtosomeextentbythetextintheformofacaption.
ItisnotablethatSubjectCwasfamiliarwithBarthesand,whilethiscannotbe
establishedwithanycertaintyhowmuchhehadbeeninfluencedbyBarthes'
199
work,itappearstobethecasethattheintervieweehasbeenunconsciously
applyingatleastsomeaspectsofthetheory.
SubjectCexpressedhisbeliefthattherehadbeenaradicalshiftinthenatureof
advertisinginrecentyearswhichhad,hesaid,become“brainless”whilemore
sophisticatedapproacheshadbecomelesscommon.Heexplainedthe
implicationsforhisworkasfollows:
“Whereasitusedtobeanindustryfullofprofessionals,Iwouldsay
nowIwouldsayitisanindustrythathasprofessionalsatvarious
levels,butitisfull…ofpeoplewhodon’treallyknowwhattheyare
doing….soIthinktheindustryhasbeende-skilledandde-
intellectualised…andthecontentisalmostbecomingless
impressive...andthat’swhyIthinkmyskillsareactuallybecoming
morerelevant”.(1.06.32–1.07.42)
Heperceivedthattherewasnowalackofapplicationofacademicrigour
informingmarketingmethodsandthattheinternethadexacerbatedthis.
Anyone,heclaimed,couldputtogetherawebsiteandcallthemselvesadesigner
evenwheretheyhadalmostnoprofessionaleducationortraininginartor
design.Theabilitytobeabletoproducewebsiteswasnowachievedthrough
familiaritywithinstantwebdesigntoolssuchasWordPress,andeventhe
specialistsoftwarethathisfirmoperatedhadbecomesimpler.Theindustry
hadthusbeenmassivelyde-skilledand,withtheexceptionoftheprestigious
agenciesworkingwithmajorbrands,therehadbeenamovetowards
businessescreatingtheirownadvertisingin-house.Consequently,firmssuchas
hiswereonlyabletochargeabouthalfofwhattheyusedtochargeadecade
earlierfortheirworkandthestandardofmuchoftheadvertisingproducedhad
becomedismallylow.
Lastly,SubjectCwasaskedhow,whendesigningadvertising,hetriedto
ascertainandworkwithhisaudience’sbackgroundknowledge,howhechecked
200
thatknowledgeoutandwhatassumptionshemade.Herepliedthatitwas
mostlya“gutfeelthing”,whereassometimesanadvertisementalsoinvolved
educatingtheaudience.Heexemplifiedthisbyreferringtosomeadvertisinghis
firmhaddevisedforacuttingedgehealthsupplementscompanywhichworked
alongsidemedicalprofessionals.Inthiscase,somesupplementswouldbe
entirelyunfamiliartoconsumers,sotheadvertisinghadtobeinstructiveaswell
aspersuasive.Aproductsuppliedbythiscompanywasbasedonfishoilsand
thenutrientomega3.Whilemostconsumerswouldhaveavagueideathatthis
wouldbegoodforthem,theymaynotbeentirelysurewhy,andsowhenthey
didbuyit,theywouldoftenpurchasethecheapestproductavailable.He
claimed,however,thatthecheaperproductsconsistedmostlyoffishfatrather
thanomega3andhistaskwastoeducateconsumersastothedifference
betweentheseandthepremiumproductwhichhisclientwasmarketingand
whichwasfarmoreexpensive.Inaddition,theadvantagesoftakingthis
productwouldbeverylong-termandvaried,andthiswouldbedifficultto
transmitinadvertisements.Anadvertisingchallengeofthiskindwould,he
suggested,bestbeachieved“inastagedway”,butunfortunatelytheclientwas
notabletoaffordsuchacomprehensivecampaigninspiteoftheexcellenceof
hisproducts.
6.5.4SUBJECTD
Uponreceivinganewbrief,SubjectDwouldfirstclearallothermatters
fromhishead.Hebelievedhehadtrainedhimselfto“departmentalise”his
mindsothatotherconcerns,includingfamilymatters,couldbeputaside
whenhearrivedatworkandhecoulddevotehisenergiestohisjob.Once
hehadreadandabsorbedhimselfinabrief,hebelievedhewasmentally
“inadifferentzone”.Anyuncertaintieswiththebriefwouldbediscussed
atanearlystagewiththeaccountmanagersandthenhewouldbeginthe
201
processofimmersinghimselfinthebrand.Thiscouldconsistofonline
research,delvingintotheactivitiesandperformanceofbothcompetitors
andothersectorswhomayhavebeendoingsomethingsimilar.He
believedthiswasthefirststageinhiscreativeprocessandtheseedsof
ideaswouldbegintogerminateashebecameexposedtoimages,wordsor
phraseshefoundonline.Acceptingthatsomeofhiscolleaguesfoundit
necessaryto“bounceideasaround”or“talkandtalkandtalk”,hestated
thatheneededsomementalspacetodevelophisideasbeforehewould
begindiscussionsaboutthem.Hedescribedonetechniquethatheapplied:
”alwaysdoanovernighttestonanidea,becausewhatyoumight
thinkisagreatideaattheendofplaywhenyouaretiredandyour
brain’sprobablyhadabitofa…highs,lows,peakoftheday,my
bestthinkingisalwaysdonemid-morning”(31.03–31.16)
Ifanideastillseemedpromisingthefollowingmorning,whenhewasat
hismentalpeak,thenhewouldhaveconfidenceinit.SubjectD
emphasisedtheimportanceofhavingmanybreaksduringthethinking
phases;thisincludedbrainstormingdiscussionswhentheseideaswere
beingexploredand,whenthesewereheld,hewasalwaysmindfulthatthe
attentionspanofparticipantswouldbelimitedandsotheywerekeptbrief.
OnemethodfavouredbyJapanesebusinesseswhichhebelievedwas
beneficialforensuringfocusinmeetingswastoholdtheminroomswhich
hadnochairs,andinwhichdistractionssuchasmobilephoneswere
prohibited.Atthetimeoftheinterview,SubjectDwasworkingona
numberofcommissions.Oneofthesewasforacakecompanywhichwas
promotingacompetitionwhichrelatedtoacurrentmoviethatwasdueto
bereleased,whileanotherwasforacharitylinkedtoalocalprofessional
sportsteam.HewasmakinganumberofTVcommercialsandwasalso
involvedinmakingafilm.
202
SubjectDnextexplainedthemethodsbywhichadvertisementswere
directedtowardsspecificaudiences.Therewerealreadyestablished
categoriesofpeopleandhealludedtothesocio-economicgroupsusedby
governments,marketresearchorganisationsandothers,andwhich
classifythepublicasfallingintogroupsA,B,C1,C2,DandE.Withinthese
groups,hehadtotargetpeoplemorecloselyandhesupportedthiswithan
exampleofamajorclientthatisauniversity.Hesaidofthem:
“Theyhavetopositionthemselvesintherightway.They’renot
OxfordnorCambridge.Theyhaveto…sellto….theirstrengthsand
placetheirstrengthsinthatarea.Theystillhaveverybrightpeople
butjustwantingmoreofavocationalapproach.”(35.05-35.18)
Thekindsofwordsthatwereselectedinordertoreachaparticular
audiencedependeduponpinpointingthataudiencewithprecision,and
understandingwhatmediatheyusedandhowtheyusedandinteracted
withit:
“TotalktoaSunreader,who’sabrickie,who’s23-yearsoldis
differentfromtalkingtoaguywho’saconsultant…neurosurgeon.
You’vegottorecognisehowpeoplereact….Butthewordsyouuse
havetobeconsideredandrepresentativeofthepeopleyou’re
talkingto.”(35.49-36.11)
AlthoughSubjectDappreciatedthatwordplaysuchaspunshaveaplace
inadvertising,theywerenotatoolhegenerallychosetouse.The
“crafting”ofthewordswas,nevertheless,importanttohimandherecalled
winningacopywritingawardforanadvertisementhehadproducedfora
203
restaurantthathadopenedinpremisesthatwereformerlyanoldpolice
stationandthelineheproducedwas“rhubarbandcustardy”.
Intermsofsymbolismandculturalmythologies,hewasawareoftheir
significanceforsomeadvertisingstrategists,buttheywerenotsomething
hechosetoexploit:
“Ipersonallydon’tgetthatdeepintomythologyandsymbolismand
thingslikethat.Ithinktherearecertainpeoplethatbelievethatit
works..Ipersonallydon’tuseitverymuchasatechnique…Ithink
whatyoufindinadvertising…that..photography,styles,typefaces,
colours,techniques,animation,illustration,icons–theyallgoin
cycles…”(37.49-38.18)
Aswasevidentwhenhementioned“aSunreader”and“brickie”,
stereotypingplayedaroleinSubjectD’sapproach.Whilehestatedhe
triedtoavoidit,heclaimedthiswasnotalwayspracticableifhewas
workingtoachieveaparticularaim;itwas,andhebelieveedalwayswould
be,aninherentfeatureofadvertising.Hesuppliedanexampleofacurrent
campaignbytheCarlsbergbeercompanywhichpridesitselfonbeing
“probablythebestintheworld”andtheconceptofthisstraplinehasbeen
extendedinanongoingTVcommercial(Beenstock,1998).Thisdepictsa
hypotheticalCarlsbergsupermarket,showingittobeastereotypicalmale
utopiaandallthecustomersbeingmen.Theuseofastereotype,ora
culturalmyth,enablesanadvertiserinstantlytoactivateasetofmemories
andmentalresourcesinthemindoftheviewerandsays“sometimesit
helpsyoutoconnectAtoBquicker”.Similarly,theaudience’sexisting
knowledgeof,andperceptionsabout,theclient’sproductsandbrand
reputationcanbehighlighted.Thisheexemplifiedwithwhatheregarded
asthepublic’sbeliefandfaithinVolkswagenintermsoftheirvehicles’
qualityofbuildandreliability.
204
Hisagencyhadanassociationwithamarketresearchcompanywhichwaspart
ofthesamegroupandSubjectDconfirmedthiswasusedtocheckuponthe
effectivenessofthewordsandotherelementsintheiradvertisements.It
frequentlyusedbothquantitativeandqualitativeresearchinordertoinformthe
agency’sadvertisingpractices.
6.5.5SUBJECTE
SubjectEwasaskedtoexplainhisstrategicapproachwithacampaignonwhich
hewascurrentlyworking.Hesuppliedanexampleofaclientwhowas
marketinganinnovativeproduct,namelyanewformofinstantnoodles.These
noodleswere,hesaid,“excellent”;theywereverydifferentfromtheusualkind
ofmicrowavablenoodlesowingtoanewtechniqueinthewaytheywere
processed.Heexplainedthemasfollows:
“IfIservedyouthemupnow,eventhoughtheytake90secondsin
themicrowave,you’dthink’wow!’Howcouldmicrowavednoodles
beasgoodasthat?”(23.29-23.39)
ThequestionwhichwasintheforefrontofthemindsofSubjectEandhisteam
centredaroundhowtheycouldovercomethestigmaassociatedwith
microwavablefoodandinstantnoodles.Aparticularphrasewaseventually
devisedwhichwasintendedtohighlightthedifferenceandthiswas“Wok
qualitynoodles”andhelikenedthistoasimilarphraseusedinanearlier
campaignforGarnierhairproductswhichwas“Salonbeautifulhair”76.Thehope
wasthatthiswouldencourageanaudiencetoinferthatthesewere
76IthasnotbeenpossibletoverifythisparticularphrasebeingusedinadvertisingGarnier
products.However,thesimilarityintermsofthegrammaticalstructureof”wokqualitynoodles”
and”salonbeautifulhair”isstriking.Whilethisgrammaticalaspectwasnotmentionedexpresslybytheinterviewee,hisrecognitionofthegeneralsimilaritywasapparent.
205
microwavablebut,atthesametime,havingthesametastequalitiesasifthey
hadbeencookedinawokandhecontinuedthatthisphraseincorporated:“a
littlebitoftherationalandpossiblyabitofthepragmatic”.Itwasvitalthat,as
thiswasaimedatwhathecalled“thesnackingmarket”,theaudiencewould
havetobeconvincedthattheproducttastedgoodandwasthereforeworthyof
trying.Toensureconsumers’fullengagementwiththeadvertisingandthat
theywouldtakenotice,hebelieveditwasalsoimportanttoinstilabrand
character.Herecalledthebrandingstyleofthesnacksausageproduct
Pepperami,andthewaythatitwasportrayedashavingan“attitude”.Thebelief
wasthattheconsumerwouldbuyintothiscapriciouspersonalityatthesame
timeasbeingtemptedbytheproduct’smorerationalcharacteristicsintermsof
beingeasytoprepareandenjoyable.Eventually,itwasdecidedthatthe
advertisingwouldbebasedonthepropositionthat,owingtotheconvenienceof
these“wokquality”microwavablenoodles,consumerswouldnolongerhave
anyusefortheirwoks.Thisthenprogressedintoafurtherideaofinviting
consumerstoconsiderwhattheymightwanttodowiththisredundantpieceof
kitchenequipment.Somehumorousideasastohowtheymightrecycletheir
woksforanotherpurposeoccurredtothemandaneologismwascreatedfor
this,namely“wokcycle”.Videosweremadetoshowtheseideasincluding
depictingpeopleplayingtenniswithwoks,andusingoneasa“dogchariot”,i.e.
onewithwheelsfittedtoitandbeingusedtotransportasmalldog.Thehope
wasthatthiswouldcapturetheaudience’simaginationandviewersmight
inventtheirownpossibleusesforthisutensil.
Identifyingaparticularaudiencewas,accordingtoSubjectE,moreamatterfor
theclient,theaccountmanagerandmediaspecialists,thanforthecopywriter.
Technologyhasbeenabletooffersophisticatedmethodsofsegmentation,
especiallyforonlineadvertising:
“Particularlynow,inthisverydigitalage,itiseasiertoworkout
whoisconsumingwhattypeofadsorproducts.”(28.35–28.46)
206
Hementionedanewconceptcalled“programmatics”whichusesadvanced
computersoftwareinordertoautomatethetargetingofparticularsubsetsof
consumersbyfollowingthemaroundthedigitalenvironment.Thissystem
collatesvastquantitiesofdataonconsumerswhichisprocessed,andtheresults
areusedtodeliveradvertisingtailoredtoindividuals.
SubjectEexplainedhowthemostfundamentalquestionsthathiscreativestaff
hadtoaddresswhenconsideringtheaudiencewereexactlywhatwerethey
tryingtosell,andwhatwasthebestwayofsellingit.Thisbroughtclaritytothe
processashisstaffwereprovidedwiththesimplestandmostaccuratewayof
perceivingtheaudience.Itinformedthemofthebestmeanstoaddressthe
audienceevenwhereotherpartieshadtobeconsideredinthewiderprocess,
suchastheclient,themediacompanyandtheaccounthandler.Hence,he
claimedagoodcopywriterwouldbeabletoreducethemessagetoitssimplest,
paringbackthebriefto“whatismykeymessage,andwhoamIsayingto?”andto
envisagetheintendedtargetcustomer.SubjectErecalledhowbriefswere
writteninsectionsand“Point4”askedwhatwasthekeythingtheclientwanted
theadvertisementtosay,andhewouldreadthatfirst.Havingexplainedthat,he
offeredasanexampleworkforaspecificclientwhichwasawell-known
sportswearmanufacturer.Atthetime,thelate1990s,footballerMichaelOwen
wasatthepeakofhiscareerandtheplayerworethismanufacturer’sboots
whiletheclientwastryingtopromotearangewithanamehecouldnot
remember,butwassomethinglike“velocity”.HerecountedseeingPoint4on
thebriefaswrittenbytheaccounthandler.Thiswasaboutthreesentenceslong,
buthebelievedhecouldhavereplacedallthosesentenceswithasimple
statementtotheeffectthat“MichaelOwenislightningfast”.Theaimwas
therebytocreateadvertisingcopywhichexploitedthepublicknowledgeof
Owen’samazingspeedandtoassociatethemwiththeboots.
“Wewantedtosaythesearethebootsthatyouneedfor…Michael
Owen.He’slightningfastandwe’resayingthey’rereallylightand
thingslikethatso…ifyou’reagoodfootballerandyouwouldliketo
207
beasfastasMichaelOwen,atleastyoucanwearthesamebootsas
him”(32.38-32.52)
Thecopywriterhadthenformedaclearimpressionofthecoremessagein
termsofwhathadtobeconveyedandhesaidthat,inthiscase,itcouldbe
summedupinasingleword:“speed”.
Audiencecomprehensionforanynewadvertisementhadtobecarefully
consideredand,wherepossible,tested.Onewaytheintervieweecouldcheck
howtheirworkwaslikelytobeinterpreted,andthedegreeoflucidityofthe
coremessage,wouldbetoapplyanin-housemethodwhichwasnamedaftera
formeremployeeandhedescribedherasnotbeing“thebrightesttoolinthe
box”.Thiswassomethingheclaimedsherecognisedinherselfandmadeajoke
ofit.Shewasdelightedtoactaskindofguineapigformessagesinproposed
advertisementsasstaffwouldshowherthemandaskherwhatshethoughtthey
meantinordertoassesswhatmeaningshehadrecovered.Ifthisemployee
understoodit,theyknewthemajorityoftheaudiencewouldalsounderstandit;
ifshehadnotunderstoodit,oratleastbeensufficientlyintriguedtoread
furtherintoit,thentheywouldinvestigatewhy,andaskwhether“itwastoo
cleverforitsowngood”andthatobscuredthemessage.Sincethatemployeeleft
thecompany,theyhadbeenusingotheremployeeswhomtheyregardedas
suitabletofulfillthisrole.Theethosoftheagency,expressedinitsownmotto,
“thepowerofsimple”whichwasdisplayedintheoffices,onthewebsiteand
stationery,alsoinfluencedtheapproachesitadoptedwithanybrief.More
formaltestingalsotookplaceinsomecases,includingtheuseoffocusgroups.
SubjectEwasaskedabouttheuseofsymbolsandiconsindesigning
advertisementsandheconfirmedthatthesewereatooltoprovide“ashortcut
forwhatyouwanttosay”.Heexpandedonthisasfollows:
“Thereisawell-knowntechniqueinadvertising,andawellused
techniqueinadvertisingwhereyoucombinetwosymbolstohelp
208
yougetacrosswhatitisyouwanttocommunicateandthishas
beengoingonforaslongasIhavebeeninadvertisinganditisone
thatIthinkworkswellbecauseyoudogetquitealot….enjoyment
outofseeingit.”(41.13–41.47)
Hementionedaspecificexampleofanongoingcampaignhisagencywas
workingonatthetimeofinterviewforamajorclient,amanufacturerofbeds,
andtheadvertisementsweredesignedtopromotethelatest“memoryfoam”
latexmattress.Inthiscase,themainsellingfeatureofthesemattresseswasthat,
whenusedinsummer,theyweredesignedtobecool.Thecontrivedimageused
toconveythismessagewasamattressonalollipopstickanditwas
accompaniedbytextwhichassistedthereaderfirstinmakingsenseofthe
imageandthenrelatingittotheproduct.Atfirstglance,theimagewouldjust
beperceivedasalollipopandthefactthatamattresshadbeensubstitutedfor
theconfectionerypartwouldbecomeapparentoncloserinspection.He
mentionedthatmergingvisualcomponentsinthiswaytogenerateacombined
meaningwasacommondeviceemployedbyhisownagencyandmanyothers.
Theuseofimagessuchasthisinadvertisingiswelldocumentedinmarketing
studiesandreferredtoas“visualrhetoric”and“visualmetaphors”(e.g.Philips,
1997;Philips&McQuarry,2004;vanMulkenetal,2014).Thelollipopexample
describedbySubjectEappearstoconformtoatypewhichvanMulkenetal
(2014:p.334)refertoas“fusion”metaphorsandtheseoccurwheretwoor
moreobjectsarecombinedandtheresultisasingleobjectwhichisnot
completeinitsownrightandintheexpectedcontext.Theimagementionedby
SubjectEconsistedoffusingalollipopwithamattress;theresultwasa
hypotheticalobjectwhichborrowedtheattributeofcoolnessfromtheformer
(thelollipop)andbestowedthemonthelatter(themattress).
Thefinalquestionrelatedtothedegreetowhichhewouldrelyordrawuponan
audience’spre-existingknowledgeinordertomakesenseoftheadvertisinghe
produced.SubjectE’sfirstthoughtwasinrelationtopromotinggoodsor
brandstoconsumerswhohadsomekindofspecialinterestandtherebysuch
209
knowledgecould,toalargedegree,betakenforgranted.Herecalledsome
advertisinginthepastforamanufacturerofupmarketoutdoorclothingand
mountaineeringwearandequipment.Hecommentedaboutthisaudience:
“ThelastthingyouwoulddoisgivethemJanetandJohn
advertising…thesepeopleknowmoreabouttheoutdoorsthanwe’ll
everknow”(46.43–46.56)
Whenproducingtheseadvertisements,theintervieweestatedthathealways
showedthemtohisfriendsintheBritishMountaineeringCouncilbeforethey
wereusedtoensuretheywouldbeinformative,yetnotsomuchastobe
perceivedaspatronising.Whilehepersonallyenjoyedsomeoutdooractivities,
herecognisedthathisownexpertiseinthiswaslimitedanditwasimportantto
himthathisadvertisementslookedasthoughtheyhadbeenwritten“by
mountaineersformountaineers”.Carmanufacturerswerementioned,andhe
agreedtheyoftenhadalongbrandheritageintermsoftheiradvertising;this
wouldbesafetyinthecaseofVolvo;Volkswagenwouldrelyonitsnamefor
reliabilitywhileBMWwouldcapitaliseonitsreputationforexcellencein
engineeringqualityanddesign.Accordingly,whenreceivingbriefsfor
establishedbrandssuchasthese,thecopywriterwouldhavetobecognizantof
suchreputationsandpastadvertisingandthiscouldinfluenceinterpretation
andcomprehensioninnewadvertising.
6.6COMMERCIALSEMIOTICIANINTERVIEW
TheintervieweeforthecasestudymentionedwasSubjectF.Thisindividual
wasnotanadvertisingcopywriterbut,havingstudiedsemioticsformallyunder
210
MarcelDanesi77,hehadacloseunderstandingoftheprinciplesofsemiotic
theoriesandtheirrelevancetothecommercialworld.
6.6.1AGENCY
SubjectFwastheownerofasmall,LondonbasedagencycalledCreative
Semiotics,whichspecializedintheuseofsemioticsforbranding.Thefirm’s
websitedescribedtheirbusinessasfollows:
“CreativeSemioticsisaboutiqueconsultancy,whichusessemioticsas
afuelfordrivingstrategicdirectionandcreativeinnovation.”78
Hehadworkedforarangeofcompanies,agenciesandbrandconsultancies79and
had,shortlybeforetheinterview,beenacceptedontotheBBCrosterasa
potentialserviceprovidertothem.Hisworkconsistedofpreparingreportsand
“visuals”(graphicpresentations)as“inspirationdocuments”togivecompanies
ideas,andanindependentviewonhowtheycouldmoveforwardwiththeir
brands.Thiswasintendedtomaketheiradvertisingagenciesmoreeffectivein
communicatingandpromotingtheirrespectivebrands.Hementionedthelogo
fortheOlympicGamesasanexampleofhavingtodesignthebrandingperfectly.
Thislogowouldbeusedmillionsoftimesacrosstheworld,havetolastformany
yearsandyetretainrecognitionandappealtoawiderangeofstakeholders,
shareholders,thepressandotherinterestedparties.
77Co-authorofPersuasiveSigns,awidelyusedtextbookmentionedextensivelyinpreviouschapters.
78http://www.creativesemiotics.co.uk/-accessed17.6.2015
79“Brandconsultancies”areaphenomenonwhichstartedinthe1990swhichSubjectFlikenstopolitical“spindoctors”fromaroundthesametime.
211
Thisbriefcasestudyconsistsofasummaryofhisbackgroundandtraining,his
methodsandrationaleinapplyingsemioticsasinformedprimarilybya
recordedinterviewandalsobyapaperhewroteonthisandwhichiswas,atthe
time,unpublished.Citationsappearinparenthesesshowingeitherthetime
fromtherecording,orthepagefromhisunpublishedpaper.
6.6.1PERSPECTIVEOFACOMMERCIALSEMIOTIOCIAN
Inhispaper(page2),SubjectFsummarisesthescopeofcommercialsemiotics
asincludingbrandcreation,makingabrandappealtoaparticularsectoror
demographic;advertisementpropositiondevelopment,whichinvolvessituating
abrand,havingregardtotheexistingbrandorproductawarenessrelativetothe
culture,andalsoaspectsofproductdesign,logodesignandpackaging.A
frameworkthathereliesonisGreimas'snarrativemodelandthefour
modalitieswhichhelistsas“wanting-to-do,having-to-do”,knowing-how-to-do”
and“being-able-to-do”.Hespecifies“knowing-how-to-do”asthecorecompetence
ofacommercialsemiotician,being-able-to-do”asthelatentaptitudeand
“wanting-to-doasthemotivation.Inthecaseofthelatter,hepointstothe
“pleasureofdecoding”andhowthis“fostersacravingtobefreshlyconjoinedwith
morepleasurabletexts”(page4).Whileheexpressesthisintermsofhisown
passionforsemiotics,hisperceptionmighthaveinadvertentlyofferedaninsight
intomotivationsandunderstandingoftheviewerand,indirectly,theencoding
processesundertakenbythesemiotician.Inotherwords,itispertinenttoask
whetheraviewerofanadvertisementalsoexperiencesthe“pleasureof
decoding”,whetherthroughsignsorthroughimplicature.Ifso,itisreasonableto
supposethatthedesigneroftheadvertisementintendsthispleasuretooperate
asamotivatortoengagewiththeadvertisement.
Intheinterview,whilerecognizingthatanin-depthgraspofappliedsemiotics
wasneededtoworkinthefieldofcommercialsemiotics,SubjectFacceptedthat
212
muchofthetrainingadvertisingpractitionersreceivedatuniversitywas
somethingtheyhadtogothroughinordertoobtaintheparticulardesired
qualification.Hetooktheviewthatpractitionersalreadyinthefieldwouldhave
forgottenthesemioticsandinstead“freestyle”(04.44-05.21),i.e.generate
meaningintuitively.Theirapproachmightlaterbejustifiedretrospectivelywith
theories,eventhoughtheiractualengagementwiththematthetimehadbeen
superficial.Hereportedhavingencounteredactiveresistancetothereferencing
ofsemiotictheories.Arecentinstanceofthisinvolveda“fairlyjuniorresearch
person”workingforaclientwho,havingheardhisproposalforabrief,was:
“WhyareyoumentioningRolandBarthesinyourproposal?That
scarespeoplethatyouaregoingtocomeupwithallthisacademic
verbiagewecan’tunderstand”(07.5408.07).
Thishesawasillustrativeoftheanti-academicandanti-intellectualattitudeshe
encounteredinbusiness.Nevertheless,heunderstoodhowthisattitudehad
arisen.Insomeinstances,semioticmethodshadbeentriedbutwithoutsuccess
andthiswasduetolaziness,alackofknowledgeortheapplicationofrigour,and
hasresultedinthem,ortheirclients,being“burnt”;hesupportedthisby
referringtoapaperbyMick(inBrown&Turley,eds.1997:p.249)whichhe
claimedshowshowsemioticsisnotproperlyunderstoodorusedrigourously
enoughinthecommercialworld.
6.6.2EDUCATIONANDCERTIFICATION
Intermsofsemioticeducation,hementionedintheinterviewthattherewas
onlyahandfulofplacesthatarededicatedtothestudyandteachingofsemiotics,
AarhusUniversityinDenmarkbeingone.Whileestablishmentstaughtallmain
213
strandsofsemiotics,eachtendedtogravitatetowardsoneparticulartheoryor
approach.Hestatedthat,inthecaseofAarhusUniversity,thefocuswasmainly
onPeirceandthishebelievedwasduetothe“continentalphilosophical”
tradition,andalsototheScandinavianregardfor“designthinking”(06.40–
06.57).Peirce,hebelieved,offeredausefulwaytothinkarounddesignissues,
withhisnotionsoficonicityandindexicality,andhowtheperceptionofan
objectrelatestomeaning.
Inhispaper(page9),SubjectFindicatestheroutesintoacareerincommercial
semiotics.Theygenerallyinvolvesometraininginsocialsciencesandcritical
theory,andalsotherarepossibilityofapprenticeshipthroughwhichtraining
andexperiencecanbepassedon,alsoarise.Qualificationforthespecificroleof
commercialsemioticiandoesnotappear,atthemoment,tohavebeen
formalized,althoughhestatesthatGreimassuggestedqualifyingtestsforthose
wishingtoundertakethisrole.Asaconsequence,SubjectFreportsthatitisthe
trackrecordofindividualsinthisfieldwhichenablesthemtobefairly
evaluated:
“…theatomizednatureofcommercialworkmeansthatcommercial
successismoreimportant:satisfiedclients,recommissionedprojects
andglowingtestimonials.Competenceisoftenassumedsolongas
theworkhelpsgivetheinspirationorthedirectiontheclientneeds.”
(SubjectF)
Whileasoundgraspoftheoryisaprerequisiteforacommercialsemiotician,
SubjectFexpressedintheinterviewabeliefthatthataspectshouldnotbeover-
emphasizedandthatself-awarenessandanongoingprocessofquestioning
one’scompetenceandaimingforself-improvementareequallycrucial.
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6.6.3BRANDING
SubjectFstatedthat,whilemarketingandbrandingweredifferentactivities,
marketinghadbecomemorelikebrandingovertheyearsastherehadbeena
shiftfromtransactionaltorelationalmarketing(00.12–00.24).Where
transactionalmarketingfocusedonpersuadingcustomerstomakeaparticular
purchase,relationalmarketingwasconcernedwithbuildingrelationshipswith
customersand,consequently,therewerelikelytobedifferenceswhenitcameto
thechoicesofsignifiersused.Itisperhapsworthnotingherethatthisappears
toaccordwithnotionsmentionedpreviouslyinthisthesisthatdistinguish
betweensellingproductutilityversussellingbrandimageandreputation.
Brandingwas,hesaid,“moresubtleandemotional”thanmarketing,buthedid
notthinkitwaspossibletocreatea“cut-and-driedbinaryoppositionbetweenthe
two”(15.21–15.32).However,asageneralrule,marketingwasmore
transactionalinitsapproachwhereasbrandingwasmorerelational80.He
describedthewayconnotativeindexeswereamongthetechniquesoftenusedin
marketingandreferredtothefamiliarObamalogousedintheUSpresidential
campaignin2008.Connotativeindexeswere,accordingtoSubjectF,“different
propositions,differentassociationspackedintoaverysmallarea”(14.40–14.49).
TheObamalogoconsistedofanimageinthe“O”shape,theinnerpartofwhich
couldbeinterpretedasthesun,withwavylinesalongthebottomsuggestiveof
cultivatedfarmland,butinthecoloursoftheUnitedStatesflag.Connotations
thathesuggestedwereassociatedwiththisincludedtheNewDealinAmerican
politics81but,evenforthoseAmericanswhodidnotassociatetheirownpolitics
withthisera,thelogoanditsconnotationswouldstillresonatewiththem,
offering“atimeofhope,prosperityandaffluenceforbaby-boomersatatimewhen
Americawassuffering”(15.07–15.12).Luxurygoodslikeperfumesweremore
80ThisdistinctionisfurtherdiscussedinChapter7.6,below.
81The“NewDeal”wasthetermwhichrelatedtoPresidentFDRoosevelt’sdomesticprograms
(1933andbeyond,followingtheconsequencesofWorldWar1andinresponsetotheGreat
Depression).Thesefocusedonwhatwerelaterreferredtoasthe"threeRs",i.e.Relief,Recovery,andReform.
215
dependentupongeneratingarangeofconnotationinthiswaywhereasproducts
likeinsurance,bankingandclassifiedads,weremoreinclinedtobeexplicitly
informative.Thebrandingprocessformundaneproductsrequiredlessdensity
ofmeaningastheyappealedmoretotherationalmind.SubjectFexpoundedthe
viewthatthekeyindicatorofthesemioticdifferencebetweenmarketingand
brandingwastherelianceontheuseofconnotationsinbranding.
216
CHAPTER7–DISCUSSION
7.1CHAPTERINTRODUCTION
Semioticsoffersasetofanalyticaltoolsbywhichlinguisticandnon-linguistic
elementsfoundwithinexamplesofadvertising,andtheirintended
interpretation,canbeunderstood.Barthes(1957)explainshowculturalmyths
canbeinvokedinadvertisingevenwhentheirpresenceisnotimmediately
apparent,whilemultimodalityaccountsfortheeffectsachievedbyjuxtaposing
languagewithimagery.Nevertheless,asdescribedinSubchapter2.12,above,
semioticanalysisisgenerallyunsystematicandmustinevitablyinvolveloose
andsubjectiveinterpretationswhilefailingtoaccountfortherangeofsemantic,
stylisticandcontextualfeaturescontainedwithinsophisticatedtextssuchas
modern,professionallycraftedadvertisements.Pragmaticapproachessuchas
thosesuggestedbyRelevanceTheory,ontheotherhand,originatesfrom
semanticsandtheorieswhichrelatetotruth-conditions(Levinson,1983:pp.12-
15),andtheyofferacognitivesystemofinterpretationwhichappealstothe
rationalmindthrough,forinstancehighlightingtheuniquesellingpoints(USPs)
ofproductsorbrands.RelevanceTheoryseemstomirrorhumanconsciousness
inthatpeopleexperiencephenomenathroughthesensoryorgans,andthe
sensationsarethenrelatedtomemoryinaparticularordersothattheconscious
mindcanmakesenseofthem.Attentionispaidtothem,andthosephenomena
whicharedeemedthemostrelevanttosurvival,well-beinganddesires,are
prioritizedwhilethosewhichhavelessrelevance,ornorelevance,arede-
prioritizedorfilteredoutaltogether.Advertisingisexperiencedinthesame
way:advertisershavetobecognizantofhowconsumerstendtoexperienceand
respondtoadvertisingandtheydesigntheirworkaccordingly.Whilesome
attemptshavebeenmadetoanalysewrittentextsandbroadcasted
communicationsusingpragmaticapproaches(e.g.Tanaka,1994;Simpson,2001;
Martínez-Camino&Pérez-Saiz,2012),themainfocusofpragmaticshasbeen
exchangesbetweenindividualspresentinconversations.Non-linguistic
componentssuchasimages,soundandmusicfeatureheavilyinadvertisingand
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attemptstoaccountfortheseusingpragmaticframeworkshavesofarbeen
limited.
Themainpurposeofthischapteristoexplorethewiderimplicationsofthe
researchintermsofwhatitrevealsabouthowideasoriginateamong
advertisers;theroleofthebriefinshapingadvertising;thedegreeandvalueof
inputofsemiotictheoriesinthetrainingofadvertisingprofessionals;the
consciousandintuitiveapplicationofsemioticprinciplesbythosealready
workingintheindustry;thecognitiveaspectsofcalculatingandexploiting
contextwhendesigningadvertisementsandhowtheserelatetosomeofthe
theoreticalapproachessuggestedinpragmaticsand,lastly,howthecodeversus
contextdichotomycorrespondswiththechoicesadvertisersmakeintermsof
productversusbrandadvertising.Thefindingsastheyrelatetotheindividual
thesisquestionsissummarizedinthelastsubchapter.
7.2.LINGUISTICCONTENTINADVERTISINGEDUCATION
Itcanbestatedattheoutsetthatnoacademicestablishmentorprofessional
bodyinvestigatedincludedteachingforundergraduatesorpractitionersany
aspectofthesubjectofpragmatics.Alargenumberoftextbooksdesignatedas
formalcoursebooksorreadingmaterialwerealsoexaminedandnotasingle
referencetoanypragmatictheorywasfound.Occasionalmentionsoflinguistic
phenomena,suchasmetaphor,werefoundinadvertisingandmarketing
textbooks.Intheinterviews,itwasestablishedthatnoneofthepractitioners
hadanyknowledgeofpragmatictheoriesalthough,asisdiscussed,allwere
acutelyawareofcontextandwereabletoexplainhowtheycontextualizedtheir
advertisingcopy.
Semioticsisreferredtoinsomemarketingtextbooksandjournalsinrelationto
signsandtheirmeanings,butwithrarelyanymentionofanyofthekeytheories,
orofitspioneersandscholarssuchasSaussure,Peirce,Barthes,Lévi-Strauss
andEco(e.g.Ogilvy,1983;Brierley,2002;Aaker,2010).Ifitistobeaccepted
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thatthedefinitionissomethingakinto“ageneraltheoryofsigns”(Nöth,1990:p.
13),thenthereisnoreasontoquarrelwiththeiruseoftheterm.Forthe
purposeofthisthesis,however,thetermisusedonlywithinthecontextof
specifictheories,namelythosewhichappeartooffereithersystematic
approachesortoolsbywhichtheuseofsignsasfundamentalunitsforencoding
anddecodingmessagescanbeunderstood.
Structuralistsemioticsisvulnerabletothecriticismthatitfocusesonstructure
ofmessages,referredtobySaussure(1916)asthe“langue”(Subchapter2.3,
above)andappearstohavelittleconcernwiththeirmotivationorproduction,
orthecontextinwhichtheyoccur.Inadvertising,however,theaimisto
persuadeandsomorecomplexfactorswhichunderlietheintentionofthe
communicator,andalsoculturalaspectswhichmayinfluenceinterpretation,
havetobetakenintoaccount.Socialsemioticians,suchasBarthes,extendthe
conceptofthesignbeyondthelinguisticsignproposedbySaussure.Theonly
semioticianmentionedinmosttextbooks,andtheoneknownbymostofthe
advertisingprofessionalsinterviewed,wasRolandBarthes.Ithastobepointed
out,however,thatBarthesviewssignsthroughapoliticallensandregardsthem
asthemeansbywhichpowerfulinstitutionsconstructtheirownrealities,and
thatincludesfalserealitieswhereitisintheirintereststodoso.Such
institutionsincludecorporationstryingtoselltheirgoodsandservices,aswell
astheadvertisingandmarketingfirmsthatworkontheirbehalf.Onewaythey
seektoachievetheiraimis,heproposes,throughthecreationofmythswhich
projectwhatappearstobeanaturalorder,yetwhichservetheinterestsofa
capitalistsociety,andthesemythsfunctionasakindofcodethroughwhichthe
worldcanbeunderstood.Suchanapproachcouldbesaidtobelimitinginthe
sensethattheunderlyingintentionofthecommunicator,inthiscasethe
advertiser,isidentifiedasworkingintheinterestsofcapitalismthrough
presentingnotmerelyaproductorbrandinafavorablelight,butamajor
distortionofreality.Whilesuchdistortionsdoindeedoccurandhavebeen
describedinthisthesis,anynotionthattheyareinevitablewouldbeatbest
unreasonable.Insomecases,whatispresentedissufficientlyfactualandclose
torealitythatnodistortioniseitherpresentorintendedwhile,inothercases,
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thedistortionisdesignedasnothingmorethanastimulusandisintentionallyso
extremeastobeviewedassurrealorevencomedic.Similarly,thereisno
questioninBarthes’(1957)mythologytheoryofthereceiverhavingthecapacity
forindependentthoughtortheabilitytoevaluatewhatispresented;instead,he
orsheisassumedtobeapassiveconsumerofmyths.Nevertheless,itiseasyto
appreciatewhythepossibilitythatanalternativerealitycanbegenerated,as
wellastheabilitytocauseaconsumertoaccessawholenarrativewithwhich
theyarefamiliar(i.e.amyth,inBarthes’terms)instantlythroughabriefglimpse
ofasingleimage,expressionortune,wouldbeappeallingtoadvertisers.
MostoftheuniversitiescontactedintheUKthattookthetroubletorespond
whenaskedaboutthis(thevastmajoritydidnotrespond)statedthattheydid
notincludeacomponentofsemioticsintheircoursesformarketing.Thismay
havebeenthecasebecausecoursedirectorswhohadenteredteachingonthe
basisoftheirexperienceintheindustryratherthanthroughapurelyacademic
routeregardedthesubjectaseitherirrelevant,ortootheoretical,andtherefore
remotefromthepracticalitiesofmarketinginabusinessenvironment.This
mindsetwassuggestedbyseveraloftheinterviewees,includingthecommercial
semiotician,SubjectF.NoneofthethreeUKbodiesthatpurportedtorepresent
andtrainprofessionalsinmarketingandadvertising(theInstitutefor
PractitionersinAdvertising,theIncorporatedSocietyofBritishAdvertisersand
theCharteredInstituteofMarketing)includedsemioticsinanyaspectoftheir
training.
Therewereuniversitiesthatdidincludesomesemioticcontentintheir
advertisingandmarketingcourses,andthemoreadvancedaspects,which
encompassedculturalsemiotics,featuredatBachelor’sandMasters’level,and
thesehavebeendescribedinthepreviouschapter.Thecoursebooksin
marketingandadvertisingthatwereexaminedvariedenormouslyintermsof
semioticcontent.Wheresemioticswastaughtasacoursecomponent,abook
foundtobewidelyusedwasBeasleyandDanesi’s,PersuasiveSigns(2002).This
bookisnotaninstructionmanualforcopywriterssomuchasaworkwhich
offersinsightsintothewayadvertisementscanbedeconstructedusingsemiotic
tools.Inotherwords,BeasleyandDanesihaveauthoredabookthatanalyses
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existingadvertisementsfromasemioticperspectiveinthewaysomelinguistic
textbooksexplaintheoriesthroughreal-worldexamplesoftextsandthus
facilitateadeeperawarenessbystudentsofthecognitiveprocessesinvolvedin
interpretinganadvertisement.Foraprospectivecopywritertoutilizethisbook
whenconstructingadvertisements,heorshewouldhavetoapplyakindof
reverseengineering,consideringthecreationsofotheradvertisers,usingthese
tograspasemioticpoint,andthenemployingthisasakindofthoughttoolwhen
designinganewadvertisement.Othertextbookswerementionedbythe
intervieweesintheresearch.SubjectC,forexample,statedthatadvertisingwas
amodulewithinhisdegreeincommunicationandthecoursebook,Understains
(1986),doescontainasubchapterentitledSemiology:InsidetheFantasyFactory,
whichdiscussesnotionsofsignificationwithacriticaldiscourseanalysisangle
andhowadvertisingsignsrelatetoconsumerism.Thisworkisacommentaryon
advertisingandcannotberegardedasanykindofmanualforthedesignof
advertisements.
AnotherstandardtextusedinmanyinstitutionsisBrearley’sTheAdvertising
Handbook(1995).Asthetitlesuggests,thisisabookwhichprovidesabroad
overviewofadvertising,exploringwhybusinessesengageinit,thevariousroles
ofthosewhoworkintheindustryanditevendiscussescertainlegaland
regulatoryaspects.Muchofthebookisconcernedwiththepracticalitiesof
producingadvertisingincludingtheprinciplesofpersuasionandthe
appropriateuseofstyle,formatsandlanguage.Semioticsisverybriefly
discussed,butthisislimitedtoacoupleofsentences.Someofthetechniques
suggestedcouldbeobliquelyrelatedtosemiotictheories,butthetheoriesare
notspecifiedandanysuchrelationwouldhavetoberecognizedbyareaderwho
isalreadyfamiliarwiththem.Itwasnotedintheinterviewsthatonlyoneofthe
copywritershadreceivedanyformaleducationspecificallyinadvertising,while
theothershadeitherstudiedrelatedsubjects,namelycommunication,graphic
designormarketinggenerallyor,inonecase,awhollyunrelatedsubject,namely
AncientGreek.Someknowledgeofsemioticswasevidentamongallbutoneof
theinterviewees,althoughittendedtobecursoryandincomplete,was
sometimesself-taught,andrequiredthemtochallengetheirmemoriesinorder
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torecallwhattheyknew.Evenwhereitwasnotexpresslystated,itwas
apparenttheintervieweesdidnotconsciouslyapplytheoreticalsemiotic
principlesintheiradvertisingcreationprocess.Thatdoesnotmeantosay,
however,thattheintervieweeswhohadlearnedsemioticsinhighereducation
hadderivednobenefitsfromsodoing.SubjectArelatedhowhisclasshadbeen
shownanadvertisementwhichreducedwomentobodypartswhichhad,inhis
view,madeonlyaweakassociationwiththeproductbeingmarketed.Thatleft
animpressiononhimanditwasclearthatwouldnotbeanapproachhewould
favourinhisownwork.
7.3THEBRIEF
Oneaspectthatwasmentionedconsistentlyintheresearchwasthebriefand
howthatwaspreparedandused.Alltheintervieweesemphasizedthe
importanceofdistillingthebriefdowntoacoremessagebeforeideascouldbe
formulated,althoughtherewassomevariationinhowtheyachievedthat.Itwas
notedhowtheintervieweesidentifiedthekeysignifierswhichstemmedfrom
thebrief.Itappearedthatthebriefguidedtheirchoiceanduseofmetaphors
andmetalanguageinboththeirconversationanddesign,andinhowthey
attemptedtocontextualizetheirmessage.Evenwherethecommissioningfirm
wantedtoconveyacomplexmessage,oronethathadnumerouselements,the
intervieweesexpressedadeterminationtoreduceitdown,simplifyingitand
keepingittoasingle,coreelement.Itwasstressedbyseveralofthe
intervieweesthatthequalityofthefinishedadvertisingwasdeterminedtoa
considerableextentbythequalityofthebrieftheyweregiven.Oneinterviewee,
SubjectC,usedaseriesofmetaphorstoexplainthisprocessasconsistingof
“strippingawayallthebullshit”and“drawingitdowntobrasstacks”and“trying
togetintheshoesofaconsumer”.SubjectAexplainedhowhewouldattemptto
“boildowntheessence”ofabriefandtosettleinhismind,andperhapsputon
paperallrelevantanglesandasmanyideasashecouldmusterfromthebrief
whileworkingwithandtryingtoexpresstheparticularbrand’svalues.He
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foundithelpfultoreduceabriefdowntoasinglestrapline,oftenwithwordplay,
e.g.hisalliterativemottofortheSwissproblem-solvingcompanywhichread
“Design,Develop,Deliver”,andtheonehedevisedforthefork-lifttruck
manufacturerwhichread“Simple,Powerful,Performance”.
SubjectBwaslessemphaticonthisaspect,buthedidstressthatanearlypartof
theprocesswastoclearlydefinetheclient’smainobjectivesfortheadvertising.
SubjectCstatedthatbriefscouldbeseveralpageslongandoneoftheskillsofa
copywriterwastodecipherbriefsandidentifythecoremessage;thisinvolved
simplifyingittoitsmostbasicformandcuttingawayeverythingelse.Herelated
howmostofhisbriefswereoralratherthanwritten,andthatsometimeshehad
to“drag”abriefoutofaclient.Whereabriefhadbeenprovidedorelicited,he
commentedthatthesimplerabriefwas,themorequicklyideaswouldemerge
andthemorescopetherewouldbeforcreativity.Abrief,forhim,wasa
“springboard”andasa“catalyst”whichwouldstimulatethecreativeimagination,
butheregrettedthetendencybysomeclientstooverthinkthem.SubjectD
mentionedhowtheinterpretationofthebriefinvolvedaprocessofdistillation
inordertofindthekeymessageuponwhichadvertisingwastobecreated.He
wentontoexplainhowhisagencyhandledbriefs,andhowthismighthave
includedoptimizingthequalityofthebriefthroughacollaborativeprocess
betweentheclientandtheagencyratherthantheagencysimplyreceivingthe
briefasafully-formedassignmentfromthestart.Liketheothers,SubjectE
describedhowhewouldseekto“pare”thebriefdown,removingtheextraneous
aspects,inordertopickoutthe“keymessage”.
Twooftheintervieweesmadeconnectionsbetweenthepublicperceptionofthe
productsorbrandswiththoseofrivalfirms,andinitiatingthecreativeprocess
atthepointofreceivingthebrief.SubjectBstressedthewayinwhichhis
agencyfollowedtheindustry’s“creativebriefingprocess”,havingregardto
whomthetargetaudiencewas,thecompetition,theaimsoftheadvertisingand
otherrelevantfactors.Wheretherewasnoalignmentofviewbetweenthe
requirementsoftheclientandtheusualstrategyoftheagencyinthisregard
(suchaswheretheclientwantedtodirectattentionexpresslytowardsaspecific
productasopposedtoabrand),thentheadvertisingdesignwouldbeprepared
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bytheaccounthandlerbasedontheclientbrief.ForSubjectE,receivingabrief
wouldtriggeraprocessofconsiderationandresearchwhichexploredthe
public’spre-existingperceptionoftheproductorservicetobemarketed,and
anyothercurrentfactorsinsociety,orrelatingtothosetypesofconsumers,
whichcouldbesignificant,thusenablinghimtoidentifytheseconsumersinhis
mindandgenerateakindofempathywiththem.Thelinkbetweenthebriefand
thecreativeprocesscouldbeover-emphasised.Abriefwastheinspirationthat
gaverisetoideaswhilepoorlyconsideredbriefs,orconstraintsplacedonbriefs
byclients,wouldinhibitthescopeforcreativitybytheadvertiser.
Themainconstraintsdiscussedincludebudgetarylimits,especiallywherethe
clientwasasmallbusiness,andwhereaclienthadaveryfirmideathatthey
wantedsimplyapromotionbasedontheirlowprices.
7.4APPLICATIONOFSEMIOTICPRINCIPLESINADVERTISING
ThemostrevealingstatementfromanyoftheintervieweescamefromSubjectB,
whostated:
“Ibetifyoubrokedownourprocesses…ifyoucouldlookintoour
heads…we’dbeusingsemioticsinsomeway,butnotactively…not
explicitly”(27.47–27.59)
Thissubchapter,aswellasSubchapter7.7below,discussestheextenttowhich
theabovestatementisechoedbytheotherintervieweesandverifiedbythe
findings.Thevalidityofsemiotictheoryasatoolforadvertisersintermsof
generatinganddevelopingideasistestedbyexploringwhethertheircreative
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processesareamenabletoexplanationinrecognizable,i.e.theory-based,terms
andthissubchapterbeginsbyconsideringtheoristsmentionedinChapter2.
Saussure's(1916)modeloffersaninsightfromwhichtounderstandlanguage
throughtheconceptofthelinguisticsign,describingthesignbeingmostly
arbitrary,thatitcoexistsalongsideandcontrastswithothersignswithina
particularsystem,andthatsystemismanifestasacode.Knowledgeofsucha
codeisessentialforanyonewishingtouseitasameansofcommunication.
Williamson(1978)invitesreaderstoviewproductsasbothsignifiedsasthey
areobectsreferredtoinadvertising,butalsoassignifiersinthattheyare
depictedasrepresentingaparticularquality,asinawayoflifeormembership
ofaparticulargroup.WhileSaussure'semphasisuponstructureisauseful
startingpoint,itdoesnotaccountforallthecomplexitiesofhuman
communication.Cook(2001)warnsthatanoverrelianceondecodingtechniques
torecovermeaningmaycauseananalystto:
“…jettisonallconsiderationofwhatisparticulartothesurfaceof
thediscourse,oraparticularsignifier,andthusmissmuchofthe
complexity,skillandhumour”(p.68):
Saussure's(1916)workhasalsogivenrisetomoresophisticatedideas,leading
totheculturalsemioticsofsuchastheworksofBarthes(1957,1977)andEco
(1976,1979)and,fromthese,arangeofmethodshavebeendevelopedwhich
canbeappliedtospeechandtext,andalsotootherphenomenawhichcanhave
aroleincommunication,suchasimagesandmusic.Peirceansemiotics,as
describedbyNöth(1990),advanceswaysofviewinganadvertisementanditis
possibletoidentifyandcategoriseelementsfromadvertisementsasbeingicons,
indexesandsymbolsinhistriadictypology.Peircefamouslydeclares:“nothingis
asignunlessitisinterpretedasasign”(Nöth,1990:p.42)andthis
understandingofasignisorientedtowardsthereceiverratherthanthe
producerofasign.SubjectF,acommercialsemiotician,statedthatheregarded
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Peirceasofferingusefulperspectivesintermssuchasiconicityandindexicality.
Inhisview,Peirce’stheorieshadpracticalapplicationsinindustrialdesign
issues,branding,andthewideraspectsofmarketingofwhichadvertising
constitutesasmallpart.
BothCook(2001)andBignell(2002)pointtothedistinctionwhichmustbe
madeinanysemioticanalysisofanadvertisementbetweenthesyntagmaticand
paradigmaticselection.Whereaslanguageoperatesbycreatingmeaningina
linearwayandsothesyntagmaticaspectisafundamentalaspectofthemessage,
non-linguisticcomponentsofprintedadvertisements,namelyimages,maywork
withoutsuchneedforcontinuity,i.e.whatBarthes(1977)referstoas
“discontinuoussigns”(explainedinSubchapter2.6,above),andthefocusis
predominantlyontheselectionaspect,i.e.theparadigmaticchoices.Thisstudy
hasuncoveredhowlinguisticandnon-linguisticsignscanbeusedatahigher-
levelsyntagmaticallyaspartofacampaignstrategyandanillustrationofthis
wasprovidedbySubjectC,wherehedescribedtheprocessofengagingpotential
customersthroughaseriesofemailsormailshots.Eachemailorlettersenthad
aslightlydifferentfunctiontothepreviousoneasasequenceofactivities,or
signs,toproduceaparticularcognitiveeffectbyvirtueoftheirorderand
relationtotheotherswithinaseries.Thefirstofthesemayhavebeennomore
ambitiousthantoopenanenvelope,ortoreadbelowaheadline,whilethefinal
onewaslikelytoconsistofanencouragementtomakecontactwiththeclient
withaviewultimatelytoplacinganorderforgoodsorservices.
Bignell(2002)findsthatadvertisementsrarelyusesignssimplyfordenoting
something,preferringinsteadtoinvokeconnotationsthroughmeaningswhich
areculturallyderived.This,itcouldbeargued,providestheadvertising
practitionerwiththeopportunitytoexercisetheircreativetalentsand,asthe
interviewsshow,yieldssomedegreeofjobsatisfactionfortheeffortexpended
andtalentsemployed.SubjectAdemonstratedthiswhenhestatedthatthe
formulationofideasbeginswith“ablankpieceofpaper”andheexplainedthe
contemplationprocessthroughaseriesofmetaphorsi.e.“allthedifferentangles
ofwhatwearelookingat”;“comeatitfromadifferentapproach”and“throwout
lotsofideas”.Inspiteofhisclaimthathedidnotconsciouslyapplysemiotic
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principlesinhiscreativepractices,thesesuggestthathesearchedhismindfor
connotationsthathecouldincorporateintohisadvertisingandthatviewers
wouldrecognize.AnexamplefromhisworkwouldbetheRobinHoodstatuein
thecityofNottingham,wherethelegendarycharacterisassociatedwiththe
countyofNottinghamshire.Eco(1968:p.108,fromNöth,1990:p.102)regards
connotationsasspecifictypesofculturalunitandthey“areinstitutionally
associatedinthereceiver’smindwiththesignifier”(ibid).Connotationsareoften
invokedbysymbolsand,inrespectofthisadvertisement,SubjectAreferredto
thesewhenhealludedto“thesymbolismofthelocalareas”andhowthiscouldbe
used“asashortcuttosaying‘we’reinyourpatch’”(Subchapter6.5.1).
Insomeinstances,clientshavelittleinterestininvokingconnotationsas
agenciesarebriefedtoproducecommercialswherebytheinterpretationisas
denotativeaspossible.Subchapter6.4.2reportedSubjectBreferringto
advertisingforadiscountsupermarketthatwaschainseekingtopromotecans
ofbakedbeansslightlycheaperthantheircompetitorsas“entrylevel”while
urgingtheminsteadtobuildtheirownbrandasasupermarketbystressingthe
“shoppingexperience”.ThisaccordedwiththeviewexpressedbySubjectC,who
wasfrustratedbywhathereferredtoasa“salesmentality”inthecaseofa
furnitureretailclientwhosimplywantedtodrawthepublic’sattentiontoa
“greatsofa”atanexceptionallylowprice,whileanyattemptonhispartto
suggestabrandedcampaignwith“intellectualcontent”provedfutile.Itcan
thereforebesuggestedthatadvertisingwhichfocusesonproduct,especially
whereitstressesalowprice,islikelytohaveahigherdenotativecontentthan
advertisingwhichismoreconcernedwithbrand.Thismightnot,however,beas
straightforwardasitfirstappears.SubjectB’sdescriptionofanadvertisement
fortinsofbeansseems,onthefaceofit,tobenothingmorethanan
advertisementforasingleproduct,buttheclientwasasupermarketchainand
notamanufacturerofcannedfoodsandtheywouldbeunlikelytorecoupthe
costoftheadvertisementfromincreasedsalesofbeansalone.Also,itissurely
unlikelythatashopperwouldbeexpectedtotraveltoaparticularsupermarket
justtosaveacoupleofpenceononeortwocansofbeans.Onthatbasis,itcan
beassumedtheadvertisementhasawiderpurposethanpurveyingjustthis
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productandthevieweroftheadvertisementwouldautomaticallyregardthe
priceofthebeansasbeinganexemplarofotherdealsonoffer.Inotherwords,
thebeansweretheparadigmaticselectionandcouldhavebeenreplacedin
anotheradvertisementelsewhere,oratsomefuturedate,withdealsonbottles
oflemonade,jarsofpickleorboxesofsoappowder.Itwasthusinformingthe
readersthatthesupermarketconcernedwascommittedtoofferingitsproducts
atapricethatwassocompetitivethatitwouldbeworththeirwhilemakinga
journeytooneoftheiroutletsandtherebymakingsignificantsavingsona
trolleyfullofvariedgroceries.Similarly,thesofathatwasmentionedatan
exceptionallylowpriceinvitedtheviewertoconsidertheretailerasbeingworth
avisit,eveniftheywerelookingforadifferentkindofsofa,oradiningtable,ora
bed.Itcouldthereforebededucedthatthesewereconnotationswhichwere
intendedtobedrawnconcerningthebrandratherthanthespecificproductand
itaccordswithSubjectD’sclaim:“There’snotoneclientthatcomesthroughthe
doorthatisn’tabrandinsomeway,shapeorform”(Subchapter6.4.4).
SubjectCbemoanedhisclients'negativeattitudestowardswhathereferredto
as“intellectualcontent”and“intellectualspins”(Subchapter6.4.3),andthede-
professionalisationofhisfunctionasacreatorofadvertisingowingtohis
industryhavingbeende-skilledandde-intellectualised,withtheresulting
declineinthequalityofadvertising.Heattributedthis,atleastinpart,tothe
existenceofwidelyavailableandinexpensivesoftwarethatenabledfirmsto
producetheirownadvertisingin-houseandsosaveonthecostsof
commissioninganagencyorevenhavingtoemployspecialiststaffsuchas
graphicartistsandcopywriters.Withthesoftwarementioned,andamodicum
ofskill,itwouldbepossibletoproduceelegant,professional-lookingadvertising
incorporatingenhancedandretouchedphotographicimages,photographsand
illustrationsfromapicturelibrary,ahugevarietyoffontsandotherlayout
possibilities.However,thoseproducingthisadvertisingmayhavereceivedno
traininginmarketingoradvertisingandmayhavepossessedfew,ifany,artistic
skillsandtheresultoftheireffortswouldlikelyhavebeenproduct-orientedand
unsophisticated,andwithlittleintellectualcontent.Anotherreasonforthisthat
isapparenttotheauthoristhedeclineoftraditionalmedia,namelytelevision
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andprintednewspapersandmagazines,infavouroftheinternetasasourceof
entertainmentandnews.Internetadvertising,andthenatureofaviewer's
engagementwithit,arelikelytobedifferentfromthatofothermedia,although
researchbeyondthescopeofthisthesiswouldbeneededtodeterminewhether
thisisthecase.SubjectC'sconcernaboutthede-intellectualisationof
advertisingwassharedbySubjectF,whodescribedtheanti-intellectual
attitudesheencounteredinbusiness,aswellasthelackofknowledgeandrigour
which,insomecases,hadcausedadvertisingtofail.Thisispertinentwhen
consideringthetheoreticalunderpinningofadvertisingdesign,andhas
implicationsintermsofboththetrainingofpractitionersandfortheir
subsequentprofessionalpractice.Italsohighlightsfundamentalquestionsasto
thepurposeofadvertisinganditsrelationtoscienceandacademia,specifically
intermsofadvertisingasameansofmanipulatingthepublicandtheethical
questionsarisingfromthat.Onecouldreasonablysupposethatusing
sophisticatedlinguistictoolsthathavebeendevisedovermanyyearsby
theoristsforreasonsofscientificinquirytodiscouragepeoplefromsmoking,or
toencouragesafedriving,isethicallyjustifiable.Suchjustificationwouldnot,
however,beavailabletothoseapplyingthesetechniqueswhenurging
consumerstospendtheirlimitedfinancialresourcesonthelatestmodelofa
smartphonethattheydonotneedtothefinancialadvantageofanelectronics
manufacturer.Nevertheless,theintervieweeswhomentionedtheintellectual
aspectwereamongthosewhowerefamiliarwithsemioticsand,inparticular,
theworkofBarthesanditmaybethecasethatBarthes'ideasabout
consumerism,neomania,connotationsandculturalmyths,doindeedoffersome
kindofanintellectualbackdropfortheirwork.Advertisingdesignisthereby
elevatedintheirmindsfrombeingmerelyamechanical,money-orientedactivity
towardsonethatistoberegardedasartisticandprofessional,andconsequently
deservingofrespect.Asimilarargumentcouldbemadewithregardtotheories
ofpragmatics,andthisisoutlinedinSubchapter7.5,below.
Returningtotheapplicationofsemioticapproachesinadvertising,the
interviewsrevealedhowcreatorsactivelyanddeliberatelyuseacombinationof
picturesandtextinthewaysuggestedbyBarthes(1977)whenheexplainshow
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imagesarepolysemousandtheirmeaningisthenanchoredbythelinguistic
elementaddingessentialmeaningandbanishinganyunintendedsignifieds,
althoughoftenthisconsistsoflittlemorethanarelativelymeaninglessheadline
andabrandname.SubjectAgavetheexampleofdisplaying“doingmore”to
accompanyimagesofDoosanforklifttrucks.Inthisinstance,itishardtosee
howthestraplinewasinanywayinformativebeyondbeingapun,asitwould
surelyhavebeenunlikelytocauseapotentialcustomertocommittoabelief
thattheycoulddomoreworkwithaDoosantruckthananyotherbrandof
forkliftsuchasCaterpillarorYale.IftherehadbeenanchorageasBarthes(1977:
pp.38-41)describes,thenitwouldhavebeentoenablethereadertoidentifythe
textasanadvertisementratherthanassimplyaphotographbeingshownfor
someotherpurpose,andthatitwasspecificallyanadvertisementforDoosan.
Whereenigmaticwordingshavebeenused,suchasinthecaseofthe
advertisementheadline“playlessgolf”,mentionedbySubjectE,anotherfunction
wastointriguethereadersufficientlytoimpelthemtoreadthesmallprint
whichwouldfirmlyanchortheimagetoasinglemeaningwhile,atthesametime,
facilitateanunderstandingoftheverbalpuzzlejuxtaposedwiththeimage.
Barthes(1957)attributesconnotationswithinadvertisementstoabasichuman
tendencytowardsmakingsenseoftheworldthroughculturalmyths,andhe
claimsthatthesemythsplayaroleinenablinghumanstodefinethemselvesand
thegroupstowhichtheybelong.Inaccessingaculturalmyth,peopleareableto
graspanentirenarrativefromarelativelysmallnumberofsignifiersthrough
theprocessofconnotation.SubjectD,whohadalsostudiedbasicsemioticsin
histrainingfortheadvertisingindustry,wasremindedofBarthes’snotionof
culturalmythsandstatedthat,whilehepersonallydidnotattempttoapplythe
theoriesofculturalmythology,hewasawarethatsomeotheradvertisersdid
that.SubjectC,wasalsoacquaintedwithculturalmythsasherecalledreading
Barthes’classicworkMythologieswhilehewasastudent.Althoughhedidnot
sayheactivelyreferredtothisworkasasourceofinspirationwhencreating
advertisements,thepossibilitythatitformedpartofhismentaltoolsetwhenhe
engagedinhiscreativeprocesseswouldhavebeensignificantandhisawareness
ofculturalmythologymaywellhaveinfluencedhimsubliminallyevenifthis
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cannotbeprovedfromthepresentstudy.Ithastobesaidthattherewasno
evidenceamonganyoftheintervieweesofthelevelofsophisticationin
constructingadvertisingbasedonsuchas“theDionysianunderworldofcarnality”
asdescribedbyBeasleyandDanesi(2002:p.74)82.SubjectE,whowasawareof
semiotics,buthadneverstudiedanyaspectofitformallypriortoenteringthe
advertisingindustry,disclosedabehaviorheengagedinasawaytogerminate
ideaswhengivenabrief.Thisinvolvedlisteningtomusicwhichhewas
convincedcapturedsomethingofthemoodoressenceofwhathewantedto
market,andhementionedbothMars,fromHolst’sPlanetSuiteandBeethoven’s
“Pastoral”symphony.Theformerisveryevidentlybaseduponamythinterms
ofaRomangod,andtheassociationwiththemilitary,masculinityandviolence.
Thelatterconjurestheidealofarcadianexistence,withconnotationsof
tranquility,thechangeofseasonsandclosenesstonature.Whetherornotthis
intervieweeactuallyexploitedculturalmythsbyinvokingtheminhis
advertising,itisofsomeinterestthathegatheredinspirationfromthemandit
seemsfairtoassumethathisfinishedworkwasatleastinfluencedbythem.
SubjectDpointedoutthat“peoplebuyingabrandbuyintosomething”
(Subchapter6.4.4)andthat“something”couldcertainlyberegardedas
dependentuponamythwhichthebrandsoughttoestablishandreinforce.He
citedtheexampleofDoveproductsandhowthisbrandassociateditselfwitha
naturalratherthanartificialbeautythroughsignifierssuchaswhiteness,andan
absenceofperfumes.InSubchapter6.5.4,indiscussingmyths,SubjectDlisted
someofthesignifiersheusedinhisadvertisingas“photography,styles,
typefaces,colours,techniques,animation,illustration,icons”.Itwasnotablethat
theintervieweesreliedontheexistenceandawarenessofwhatBartheswould
haveregardedasculturalmythsnotjustforbrandsandproductsstrongly
associatedwithbrands,butalsoforproductpromotionwherebrandseemed
hardlyrelevant.AnexampleofthiscanbeseenwhereSubjectCexplainedan
advertisingcampaignhedesignedthroughFacebookforauniversitycourse
whichinvitedyoungpeopletoundertakeadegreecoursethatwould,itwas
82ExplainedinSubchapter5.5
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implied,leadtoacareerintherockmusicindustry.Theaimofthe
advertisementwastorecruitstudentsbytappingintoaculturalmyth,inthis
casethepublic’sperceptionoftheglamorouslifeofastagemanageror
technicianforarockgroupandallthatentailedincludingtravellingtheworld
andmixingwithcelebrities,allwhileearningahighsalary.Whetherthis
reflectedtherealityofthelifeofa‘roadie’wouldbeadifferentproposition,asis
whetherallthestudentswhohadcompletedthecoursewouldhavehada
realisticprospectoffindingfull-timeemploymentwithasuccessfulbandonce
theyhadgraduated.
Thepotentialforinvokingamythinthemindofavieweriswell-establishedand
almostcertainlyrecognizedbymanyconsumerswhenitoccurs.Itisexploited
inthetraditionalsensewithfolktaleswhichseemtorecurinadvertising.One
oftheseisthetaleofRobinHood,referredtobyMyers(1994)83anditwas
fortuitouslymentionedbySubjectA,whereastatueofthelegendaryoutlawwas
usedasasignifierforthecityofNottinghamowingtohisassociationwiththe
cityandsurroundingarea.Inothercases,thisparticularcharactermaybeused
withagreaterdegreeofintertextuality84todenoteotherqualitiesrelatingtohis
life,hisfriendsandexploits,alongwiththebeliefthathestolefromtherichto
givetothepoor,orhisromanticinvolvementwithMaidMarion,althoughthese
particularaspectswerelessrelevantinSubjectA’scampaign.Amore
contemporaryexamplecanbeseeninSubchapter5.9,above,whereitwas
mentionedthatsportswearmanufacturersdepictedathleteswearingtheir
products,thusencouragingareadertoidentifywithanindividualshown
engaginginaparticularphysicalactivity.Wheretheathleteshownhadcelebrity
statusowingtotheirreputationinthesport,thatindividual’sdepictionactivated
amythastotheirspecialtalents,andperhapsalsotheirimaginedlifestylein
viewoftheirwealth.SubjectEreportedhowhe“boileddown”abriefto
advertisefootballbootswhichexploitedthepublicknowledgeoffootballer
83SeeSubchapter3.4above.
84IntertextualityisexplainedinSubchapter2.9above.
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MichaelOwenand,inparticular,hisbreathtakingspeed,byshowinghimeither
wearingthemorendorsingthem.Aviewerassimilatingsuchamythintotheir
consciousnessmightbepersuadedtoregardthemasafactorinOwen’ssuccess
andthat,bypurchasingtheboots,someofwhatOwenenjoysintermsofhis
footballingachievements,andtheperhapshissupposed(mythical)glamorous
sportsstarlifestyle,wouldbemadeaccessibletothem.
Myers(1994),Cook(2001),Bignell(2002)andvanLeeuwen(2005)areamong
thosewhousesemioticsasatoolininterpretingselectedadvertisements,yet
nonehave,sofarascanbeascertained,consultedtheproducersofthese
commercialsinordertoconfirmthethoughtprocesseswhichtheysupposeled
totheircreation.Thedegreetowhichtheintervieweestendedtoapplycreative
approachesandmethodswhichcouldconceivablyberegardedasaligningwith
semioticprinciplesisconsideredinthissubchapter.Itcanfirstbestatedthat
noneoftheintervieweeswhoworkedasdesignersofadvertisementssuggested
theyevermadeaconsciousdecisiontoapplytheseprinciples,orthattheyrelied
uponthemingeneratingordevelopingideas;itwasclearthattheyinstead
reliedupontheirexperienceandintuition.SubjectFreinforcedthiswhenhe
pointedoutthatsemioticswasatopiccoveredsuperficiallyinsomeuniversity
courses.Herecognizedthat,wheresemioticshadbeenpartoftheirsyllabus,
advertisersregardedknowledgeofthissubjectassomethingnecessarytopass
theirdegreecoursesratherthanatooltheycouldapplyintheirdailywork.
Ratherthanattemptingtomakeuseofsuchtheories,hesaid,advertisers
preferredto“freestyle”,bywhichhemeantworkingintuitivelyandbasingtheir
approachonexperience.
Consequently,itmaybeconsideredwhether,andifso,how,conceptsrelatedto
semioticssuchassignificationandconnotationareappliedunconsciouslyfrom
theanswerstheintervieweeshavegivenandthisverypointwasexpressedby
SubjectB,asshownatthetopofthissubchapter.Whendeconstructingan
advertisementinordertounderstanditsoperationanditsingenuity,itcannot
beautomaticallyconcludedthatitscreatorhasheavilyengagedwithandapplied
semioticprinciples,evenifthatimpressionisgivenintextbooks.Similarly,in
thecaseofadvertisingpractitionerswhohavereceivedsometrainingin
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semiotics,orreadaspectsofitoutsideofformaleducation,theevidenceinthe
interviewsshowsitisunlikelythattheywouldcommencethetaskofcreating
advertisementsbyreferringtosuchtheoreticalframeworks,orthatthey
activelyconsiderapplyingthemduringtheprocessofdevelopment.Thefactthat
advertisingprofessionalsdonotseemtobeexpresslyapplyingsemiotic
methodsintheirworkmaybeaccountedforinanumberofways.Ontheone
hand,practitionersarefoundtoreceivelittle,ifany,traininginthesubjectand
thatwhichtheydoreceivetendstobebasedontheretrospectiveanalysisof
pastadvertisementsratherthantutoringinthepracticalitiesofadvertising
design.Itwouldbefarfromthetruth,however,toviewsucheducationasofno
value.Fornovices,thisintuitionhastocomefromsomewhereanditmaybethe
casethatexaminingadvertisementsandconductingsemioticanalysesofthem
enablesstudentstoacquiresomekindoffeelingorimpressionforhow
advertisingcanworkthroughsignificationandthussomeformoflearning
occurssubliminally,inasimilarwaytolearningacraft.Performinganalysescan
aidstudentsinunderstandinghowmeaningshouldnotbeunderstoodasstatic
orinert,butratheritisdynamic,multi-facetedandcomplex,andits
interpretationhastobenegotiated.Conductingtheseanalysesmayaidstudents
inappreciatingthepossibilitieswhichareavailableforthemtoutilizetheir
creativetalents.Forexample,modernadvertisersmakeuseofmediainallits
forms,andthevariousmodeswhichexistwithineachmedium(Kress&van
Leeuwen,2001)andsemioticsoffersa“unifyingconceptualframeworkandaset
ofmethodsandtermsforuseacrossthefullrangeofsignifyingpractices”
(Chandler,2014:p.15).Semiotictheoriesofferinsightsintohowsignsreferto
reality,buttheyalsosuggestthewaysbywhichsignscanframeandeven
constructtheirownrealities,andthisisadistinctadvantageforproducersof
messagesaimedatpersuadingpeopletobelievesomethingorbehaveina
particularway.
Alltheintervieweeswereclearlyawareoftheconceptofmetaphorsinthe
generalsenseanditbecameapparentthattheyusedthemintheiradvertising,
evenwheretheydidnotmentiontheexpression.Theseweresometimes
employedfortheirpotentialinenablingtwoormoresignifiedstobe
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representedbyjustonesignifier,andthiswasmadepossiblebyvirtueofthem
sharingaparticularcharacteristic.AmongtheexamplesofthiswereSubjectA’s
expression“deliver”,whichcouldbeinterpretedasphysicaldeliveryaswellas
operatingasanontologicalmetaphor(Lakoff&Johnson,1980:pp.25-29)
meaningtofulfillapromise.Anotherwaymetaphorwasusedcreativelybythe
intervieweeswastoconstructananalogyinanadvertisementbydrawing
parallels,butpresentingthemasreality.Anexampleofthiscanbeseenin
SubjectB’sadvertisementdesignedforanautomotivecompanywherethe
headlinetextread“FirstAidforcars”,andthistextwasjuxtaposedwithanimage
ofacarwiredtoadiagnosticmachine.Understandingtheadvertisement
requiredtheviewertobeabletorecognizetheparallelanddrawasetofdesired
inferencesfromthem,perhapsincludingthenotionthatthecarwaslikealiving
creature,thatitwasconsequentlycomplexandinneedofthekindofcare
normallyextendedtohumanbeings.Thisadvertisementfacilitatedthe
exploitationofanother,closelyassociatedmetaphor,butthistimeonebasedon
thepolysemicqualityoftheword“heart”in“theheartofthecar”.SubjectB
referredtothisas“symbolism”,althoughonemightreasonablywonderifitis
morelikelytobecomprehendedthroughpragmaticawarenessbasedonthe
viewer’sencyclopaedicknowledgeofwhatfirstaidis,thefunctionoftheheart,
somedegreeofrecognitionofmedicalandautomotivediagnosticequipment,
andlinguisticmemoryintermsoftheliteralandfigurativemeaningsof“heart”.
Aswithestablishedmetaphors,metonymsaresuchafundamentalpartof
everydaylanguagethatspeakersandwritersarelargelyoblivioustotheir
existenceorunderstandhowtheydifferfromtheliteraluseoflanguage.Itwas
thereforeunsurprisingthattheexpression“metonymy”wasnotmentionedby
anyoftheinterviewees.Nevertheless,acoupleoftheintervieweessignaledan
unconsciousawarenessofhowmetonymscouldbeusedtoconveyan
advertisingmessageeconomicallywithwords,andhowtoassociateanentire
productlinewiththebrandtheyweremarketing.AnexampleofthiswasSubject
A’sproposedheadline“Seoul.LikeTokyo,onlycheaper”.Athemeraisedbya
coupleoftheintervieweeswasthatofstereotyping,anditwasacceptedbythem
thattheydidpractisestereotypinginsomeoftheiradvertisingmessages.
235
Stereotypesandarchetypesoffertheconvenienceofanimmediateframeof
referenceforcharactersandsituationsandactivatingtheseconveysahostof
assumptionsinstantaneously.Thiscanbehighlyadvantageousinadvertising,
wheretheamountoftimeandeffortaviewerwilldevotetolookingatan
advertisementisoftenminimal.Stereotypescanbeactivatedbycombining
particularsignifiers,asinasingleimagesuchasaphotograph,andtheoption
existstobolsterthelikelihoodofitsrecognitionwithaword,phraseorsentence.
Anexampleofthiscanbeseeninatelevisionadvertisement(pub."MrMadman",
2009)inwhichawell-knownfootballer,VinnyJones,isseendrivingalonga
remotecountryroadwithayounggirlpassengerwhoiswearinganelaborate
fairycostume,andhiscarbreaksdown.Jonesisdepictedasastereotypical
fatherdutifullytransportinghisfemalechildtoaneventand,almostinstantly,
theviewerscomprehendthescenarioandmayevenrelatetoitfromtheirown
lifeexperienceinbeingachildorcaringforachild.Nowhereinthe
advertisementdoesitstatethatsheishisdaughter,northatheistakingherto
anevent:theseareassumptionstoberecoveredbytheviewerwhomayreadily
identifywiththesituationandconsequently“fillinthegaps”.Onepossible
explanationforhowsuchgapfillingisachievedissuggestedbyan
ethnomethodologicalapproachusedwithinconversationanalysisandknownas
“membershipcategorizationanalysis”(MCA);thisisadvancedbySacks(1972,
fromBilmes,2008)inexplainingtheuseofcategoriesinconversation.Awell-
knownillustrationofthisistobefoundinSack’sanalysisofthephrase“The
babycried.Themommypickeditup”.Unlessaheareristoldotherwise,theywill
naturallyassumethe“mommy”isthemotherofthatchildandnot,forexample,
akidnapper.Theobviousrelationof“baby”and“mommy”,includingthefact
botharehyponymsof“familymember”,wouldleadahearerwhoisanative
speakerwithinthesameculturetowardsmakingthatassumption.
WhileMCAmaygosomewaytowardsexplainingstereotypesinconversation,
exploitingthem,especiallyinmedia,canbecontroversialandrisksencountering
disapproval.Forexample,anadvertisementwhichportrayedayoungblackman
asadrugdealer,oroneshowingamanwhoissupposedlygayexhibitingovertly
femininemannerisms,wouldalmostinevitablyattractcriticismandcomplaint
236
andsoadvertisersmaybeinclinedtobecautiousandusestereotypes
judiciously,ensuringtheyarealwaysabletooffersomejustificationiftheyare
challengedforsodoing.SubjectBpointedoutthatclearlydefiningmarket
segmentsandaimingadvertisingtowardstheminvariablyinvolvesstereotyping,
whichhedescribedas“takingbroadbrushstrokes”.Inthemodernera,as
FurnhamandPaltzer(2010)andOlson(2013)note,objectionsaremadetothe
portrayalofawomandoingthelaundryinanadvertisementforwashing
powderasitallegedlyreinforcesstereotypesofwomen.If,however,market
researchshowsthat80%ofwashingpowderissoldtowomen,thenthismaybe
adepictionofrealityandsomebasisofjustificationforitcanbeclaimed.Subject
B’sownexamplesofthisincludedacampaignforsellingbarbecuemeats,sauces,
andalsoalcoholproducts,withadvertisementsspecificallydirectedatmale
buyersonradiostationsthattheyknewhadapredominantlymaleaudience.
Thesuppositionhere,arguablypredicatedonaculturalmyth,wasthat
barbecuingwaspredominantlyamasculineactivity.SubjectDexpresseda
similarlyambivalentviewofstereotypingwhenheadmittedthatitplayedarole
inhisadvertisingandwas,tosomeextent,unavoidableinspiteofhiseffortsto
resistit.HesuppliedtheexampleoftheCarlsbergutopianworldinwhichallthe
customersweremen,andwerebeingofferedgoodsandservicesthatmen
stereotypicallywant;thesewerethesignifiersofadultmalenessthataviewer
wouldquicklyassimilate.Inthiscase,thestereotypingworkednotjust,as
SubjectDsaid,tohelptheviewer“toconnectAtoBquicker”,butwasactuallythe
driverofthehumour.Inotherwords,thedegreeofstereotypingasmanifested
bythenumber,rangeandselection,ofsignifierswassoextremeastoconstitute
aparodyofrealityandhencebecomedic.Theimplicationofthisisthat,ifthe
viewerisaman,thenthegoodsandservicesshownrepresentperfecthappiness
forthatviewer,andCarlsbergbeerisoneamongthese.
Certaininadequaciesinusingsemioticanalysisasameansofinterpreting
advertisementshavebeensuggestedandsomeoftheseisoutlinedbelow.This
beginsbyconsideringanadvertisementcreatedbySubjectEanditisrecalled
thattheintervieweemarketedwhathereferredtoas“wokquality”
microwavablenoodlesandtheanglechosenwasthatconsumerswouldno
237
longerhaveanyusefortheirwoks.Viewerswereinvitedtoconsiderwhatthey
otherwisemightdowiththeirnowredundantwokswhentheyhadnofurther
usefortheminmakingnoodles.Theywerepresentedwithhumorousimages,
includingdepictingpeopleplayingtenniswiththeirwoksoradaptingthemasa
kindof“dogchariot”.Inorderfortheadvertisementtoworkasintended,a
viewerwouldhavetoconstructamentalbridge,wherebyalogicalconnection
couldbefoundbetweenplayingtenniswithwoksandbuyingmicrowavable
noodlesandsomementaleffortmustbeundertakentoachievethis.Onemay
deconstructthisadvertisementusingsemioticmethods,identifyingand
classifyingsignifiers,connotationsanddenotationsthatarepresent,thetypesof
messageclaimedbyBarthes,namelythecodediconicmessage,thenon-coded
iconicmessageandtheverbalcomponentintheformofforegroundedcaptions,
productnamesandlabels,andanysmallerprintedtexts(Barthes,1977).There
are,however,shortcomingswiththisapproachwhenitcomestoofferinga
comprehensiveunderstandingofthementalprocessesinvolvedintheactual
productionofthisadvertisement.Oneimagedepictedpeopleplayingtennis
withwoksanditwasaccompaniedbythecaptionwhichmayhaveread
somethinglike:“thefutureofyourwok85”.Barthes(1977)contendsthat
messageslikethishaveatwo-folddenotationandconnotationdistinctionbut,as
Tanaka(1994)pointsout,thisdistinctionisnotalwaysclearcut.Inthiscase,a
denotationcouldonlyberetrievedbyaddingwordstocreateapropositional
speechactintheformofthegrammaticalstructureofanindicativesentence,
somethinglike:thisisthefutureofyourwok.Syntacticallyincompletelinguistic
itemsarecommonplaceinadvertisingandtheirincompletenessoffersthe
readerwiderinterpretativechoicesthanwouldotherwisebethecase.Aside
frombeingeconomicalwithwords,whichisanadvantageforadvertisersasit
facilitatessnappymessages,theyalsoavoidthelimitationsimposedbytruth
conditionality.Inotherwords,theycannotbecontradicted,sotheyaresimply
offeredasideaswhichare“outthere”forthereadertoperceiveand
contemplate.AnotherproblemwithBarthes’(1977)thesisonthe
85Itisnotclaimedthiswastheactualcaptionusedasthisisnotknown.Thewordinghereisasuggestedcaptionforthepurposeofprovidinganexample.
238
connotation/denotationdistinctionis,asTanaka(1994)pointsout“perceptual
knowledgeisnotindependentofculturalknowledge”(p.23).Ifthecaptionis
interpretedasafactualstatementwhenjuxtaposedwiththeimage,i.e.“Thisis
thefutureofyourwok”,thereisanimmediaterealisationthatthedenotationhas
noseriousvalidity.Theadvertiserisnotexpectingthereadertoholdany
seriousbeliefthatwhatisdepictedisarepresentationofanyreality.Inorderto
understandthatthisadvertisementisintendedashumour,letalonetobeableto
processitfurtherandunderstandthelinkbetween,ontheonehandthe
linguisticandnon-linguisticelementsand,ontheother,theunderlyingmessage
oftheadvertisement,asignificantamountofculturalknowledgeonthepartof
thereceiverhastobeaccessible.
Itisfurtherpossibletorecoveranunlimitednumberofpossiblemeaningsfrom
theimageofthepeopleplayingtenniswithwoks,andthesemightinclude,for
example,thatthisisanewversionoftennis,orthatwoksaremoreefficient
thanraquetsforplayingtennis.Barthes(1977)claimsthatimagesarethereby
polysemousandthewordswhichjuxtaposeanimageinanadvertisement
“anchor”theinterpretationtoasingleanddesiredmeaning(seeSubchapter2.7
above).Whilethismaynarrowtherangeofinterpretations,itcertainlydoes
notcompletelyprecludeothersaswordsandphrasesusedarealsopolysemic,
andcanbeambiguousorposeuncertaintiesoverissueslikereference
assignment.Theimageandthecaptiontogetherdonottellthereadereventhat
thisisanadvertisement,letalonewhatisbeingadvertised,sothereisareliance
onthepresenceofothersignifiers,usuallyintheformofaproductimage,a
trademarkoranaccompanyingtext,inordertoensuretheadvertisingformat
isrecognisedandthepurposeoftheadvertisementisachieved.Nevertheless,
evenwhenallthesearepresent,Barthes(1977)stilldoesnotaccountforthe
visualhumour,howitworks,whyitattractstheviewerorthegenerationof
meaningbytheassociationofwoktennisandmicrowavablenoodles.
AsimilarexamplewasshowninwhichSubjectAdescribedanadvertisement
forascrappageschemeconsistingofaphotographofderelictelectronic
equipmentandwhichhadsuperimposeduponitinlargeprintthephrase“End
ofthedecayed”.Thisexploitedthenearhomophones“decayed”and“decade”to
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createapun.Aswiththepreviousexample,someofBarthes’anchoragecanbe
saidtobeoccurringwherebytherangeofpotentialmeaningsthatcanbe
recoveredfromthepolysemousimageislimitedbythecaption,butnothing
fromwithinhistheoryexplainstheoperationofpunsorhowtheyattracta
reader’sattention.Asafurtherpoint,inMythologies(1957),Barthesismainly
concernedwiththoseadvertisementswhichconnectimagesandtext,andhow
thejuxtaposingofthetwoelementsfacilitatesaparticularanddesiredreading.
Manyadvertisements,however,donotfunctioninthiswayastheyconsistof
nothingmorethananimageandperhapsatrademark,whileothersarepurely
linguisticincontent.
Tosumup,thosewhodeviseadvertisementsrelypartiallyatleastonpre-
existingbodiesofknowledgewhicharesharedbyboththeproducersand
consumersofadvertisements.Theinterviewsshowthatatleastsome
practitionersareawareoftheworkofBarthes(1957)concerningcultural
myths.Nevertheless,theydonotrefertoBarthesintheircreativeprocessesand
thismaybebecausetheyhaveaconsciousorunconsciousawarenessofthe
limitationsofrelyingsolelyuponsignifiers,includingsophisticatedonessuchas
culturalmyths.Semioticapproachessonot,forexample,accountforthe
appreciationofthehumourinSubjectE'simageofpeopleplayingtenniswith
woks,letaloneexplainhowencounteringsuchacommercialwouldbelikelyto
impelacustomertobuyacertainbrandofnoodles.Nordotheysufficiently
explainmanyoftheothercomedic,stylisticorrhetoricalstrategiesthatthe
intervieweeshavechosentouseintheirwork.
7.5APPLICATIONOFPRAGMATICPRINCIPLESINADVERTISING
Inthissubchapter,itisproposedthattheresearchdescribedinthisthesis
demonstrateshowcontextualfeaturesthatarenotreadilyexplainableby
semioticprinciplesareconstituentpartsofmodernadvertisements;thatan
advertiser’sawarenessofcontext,includingtheenvironmentinwhichthe
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advertisementappears,co-texts,andencyclopaedicknowledge,areheavilyand
intuitivelyappliedintheconstructionofadvertisingtexts;thatthecognitive
processesinvolvedinthecreationofadvertisementsalignwithrecent
developmentsinpragmatics,andthereforethatpragmatictheoriesmaybeas
relevanttoprospectiveandpractisingadvertisingprofessionalsassemiotic
theories.
Thedistinctionbetweensemioticsandpragmaticsisnotalwaysentirelyclear-
cutandthereareoverlapsbetweenthetwoapproaches.Thissectionbeginsby
referringtotheworkofanothersemiotician,RomanJakobson,andhisattempt
toclassifythefunctionsoflanguage,asdescribedinSubchapter2.5,andwhich
describeshowJakobsonproposessixfunctionsofverbalsigns,namelythe
referential,theexpressive,theconative,thephatic,thepoeticandthe
metalingual(Nöth,1990:pp.185-187).Morethanonefunctioncanbe,andoften
is,presentinanycommunicativeactbut,whenthisoccurs,thereisahierarchy
wherebyonefunctionisdominant.Differentgenrestendtorankcertain
functionsaboveotherssothatinpoetry,forexample,thepoeticfunctionis
dominant.Ifthepremiseisacceptedthattheprevailingintentionofan
advertisementistopersuadeareaderorviewertopurchaseaproductor
service,ortobeloyaltoabrand,thenthedominantfunctioninadvertisingmay
bearguedtobetheconative.Theconativefunctionaddressesorappealstothe
addresseeandis,accordingtoSerban(2012),definedintermsofitseffectson
theirbehaviour;ifthisisaccepted,thenanyotherofJakobson’sfunctionsare
subordinatedtothis.SubjectA’sagencywebsitedescribedhowhiscompany
“help(s)brandssellmore”,whileSubjectB’sagencyassertedthattheyworked
towards“creatingbehaviorchangeoralteringattitudes”(seeSubchapter6.2.2).
Similarly,ontheirwebsite,SubjectE’sagencyclaimedtheirapproachinvolved
“uncoveringsimple,powerfulmessagesandcommunicatingthempersuasively”.In
theinterviews,itwasevidentthatpractitionerswerelesskeenonpromoting
goodsusingwhatSubjectBreferredtoas“entrylevel”advertisingandhis
exampleofasupermarketpromotingtinsofbeanswheretheonlysellingpoint
wastheprice.Whiletheconativefunctionofadvertisingislikelytofeaturein
theirmotivation,thisfunctionappearslesslikelytobeforegrounded.Inother
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words,theconativefunctionmaybeimplicit,butitisacovertpartofthe
communicationandthestimulusismorelikelytobedesignedtooperatethough
oneofJakobson’sotherfunctions,specificallythephatic,poeticandreferential.
Evenwithsimpleclassifiedadscomposedbyordinarymembersofthepublic,
suchasforhouses,carsandsecond-handgoods,thismaystillapply.Mostly,
theseareostensiblydesignedtoconveyfactualinformationandsotheir
appearanceisreferentialinspiteoftheunderlyingconativefunction.Several
intervieweesexplainedhowtheymadeuseofimaginativemetaphorsand
stylisticdevicessuchasalliterationastheirchosenvehiclesofpersuasionand
thesemaytherebyberegardedasutilizingthepoeticfunctionastheyare
literaryincharacter.ExamplesincludeSubjectA’sparallelisminthe“doing
more”straplineforDoosantrucksandhishomophonyin“endofthedecayed”.
ThesemanticdevicesmentionedwouldincludeSubjectA’s“localservice
nationwide”,wheretheantonymybetween“local”and“nationwide”was
foregrounded,andSubjectE’senigmatic“playlessgolf”.Itmayalsobeargued
thatthechoiceofpersonalpronounscanaddsomedegreeofphaticfunctionto
anadvertisement.Theuseof“we”and“you”issuggestiveofasimulated
personal,empatheticandsometimesevenintimate,relationshipbetweenthe
advertiseror,perhapsmoreaccurately,theadvertiser’sclient,andtheconsumer.
SubjectAmentionedanoldadvertisementforcarpetunderlaywhichborethe
headline:”Whatmattersiswhatyou’vegotunderneath”(Subchapter6.5.1)and
whichdepictedawomaninherunderwear.Viewerscouldthusassignthe“you”
tothemodelortothemselves.Wherethelatteroperated,theywereableto
selectapreferredmeaningbetweenthebenefitsofgoodqualityunder-garments,
thebenefitsofahighqualitycarpetunderlay,orboth.
Austin’sspeechacttheory,describedinSubchapter3.2,offerscategorisationsof
utterancesfirstintolocutionaryandillocutionaryacts,anddefinestheseas
beingunderstoodintermsoftheirperlocutionaryeffects.Thefirstofthese,
locutionaryacts,consistsofassemblingastringofencodedsignsintheformof
phonemes,lettersandwords,toproduceanexpressionintermsof,forexample,
ensuringthereferentsareaccuratelyidentifiedanddeicticmeaningscanbe
resolved.SelectedsyntacticstructuresinEnglishcanbeindicativewhen
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establishingatypeoflocutionaryact,sotheline“playlessgolf”isreadily
comprehendedasaninstructionbyvirtueofitbeingagrammaticalimperative.
Itiscommonforforegroundedtextsinadvertisingtobestructuredas
imperatives,andthesefrequentlybeginwithonefromafairlylimitedsetof
single-syllablewordswhichengagetheconsumerandperhapsevenconvey
urgency,suchas“buy”,“choose”and“get”(Leech,1966:p.154).
Anothercommonlyusedlocutionarystructurefoundinadvertisingisthe
grammaticalinterrogative,wheretheadvertiserhailstheconsumerwitha
foregroundedquestion,suchas“Areyoupayingtoomuchforyourcarinsurance?”
Clearly,theentityaskingthequestionisnotanticipatingananswerandsothe
questionmayberegardedasrhetorical:itspurposecanonlybetoengagewith
theconsumerandstimulateathinkingprocessdesiredbytheadvertiser,ora
desiredbehaviorsuchasreadingfurtherintotheadvertisement.Itspurpose,in
thiscasetheintendedeffectofthequestionasdescribed,wouldbeitsillocution.
Searle(1976,inLevinson1983:p.240)proposesatypologyoffiveillocutionary
actsandheliststheseas:representatives,whichcommitthespeakertothetruth
ofaproposition;directives,whichattempttomaketheaddresseerespondina
desiredway;commissives,whichcommitthespeakertodoingsomething;
expressives,whichexpressapsychologicalstateanddeclarations,whichare
intendedtochangeastateofaffairsformallyandbymeansoftheutterance.
Foregroundedadvertisingtextsconsistingofimperativesorinterrogativesmay
beregardedasdirectiveswithinSearle’stypology.Alternatively,oneswhichare
grammaticaldeclaratives(e.g.“Wecan’tbebeatenonprice”)maybeviewedas
representatives,astheycanbeassessedintermsoftruthconditionality,oras
commissives,astheyaremakingapromisewhichisperhapsunderpinnedby
somekindofguarantee.
Anotablestratagemappliedbycopywriters,andwhichismentionedinthe
previoussubchapter,istheuseofnon-grammaticalformsinadvertisingtextsor,
atleast,formswhichdonotconformtoformalandcompleteEnglishsentence
structure.Theyoccurmainly,butnotexclusively,intheforegroundedtextand
theycanconsistofanythingfromasingleword,oraphrase,orafull
subordinatingclause.Asinglewordmaybeabrandnamewhereitisjuxtaposed
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alongwithanimage,usuallyshowingaproductthatrelatestothebrand.Itmay,
ontheotherhand,consistofapopularadvertiser’sbuzzword,like“Sale”or
“Now”.Theseisolatedlinguisticparticleshavecertainadvantagesforthe
advertiser:theyexpressapropositionwithmaximumeconomyofwords,
enablingthecopywriterto,asseveraloftheintervieweesputit,“boildown”a
coremessage,butwhilenotcommittingtheadvertiser’sclienttothe
proposition’struth.Theyalsosupplyscopeforlinguisticplayandstylistic
creativitytoattractattentiontotheadvertisementandofferflexibilityin
interpretation.Thisenablesthereceivertochoosethemostrationalor
preferredmeaning,ormentallytogglebetweenpossiblealternativemeanings.
AmongtheexamplesoftheseareSubjectA,whenheusedthephrase“doing
more”forDoosanforklifttrucksandwhichbecamethebrand’sstrapline,hisline
“localservicenationwide”fortheengineeringcompanyclientandhispunning
line“endofthedecayed”.Thesearephrasesandnotclauses:theyhaveno
subject-verbstructureandsomakenoliteralclaim,forcingtheviewerto
negotiatetheirownmeaningthroughaprocessofmentalenrichment.The
expectationofsuchenrichmentoccurringisevidentinthemindofthe
copywriterascanbeseenwithSubjectB’sexamplewiththediscountfurniture
retailermarketingasofaandhestated:
“Andit’sallaboutthissofa,atthatprice,that’showmuchyousave
andisn’tthisagreatsofa?”(Subchapter6.4.3).
Itisunlikelythesewerethewordsusedintheadvertisement,buttheywere
probablythemessageheexpectedthereadertoreceivewhenseeingapictureof
asofaanditsprice.Insuchexamples,therewasacleargap,oranunder-
determination,occurringbetweenwhatwasencodedbythewordsandthe
meaningtheproducerintendedtoconvey.Thiswouldinevitablyoccur
irrespectiveofthepresenceofanassociatedimageofthekindthatBarthes
(1977)claimsanchorsthemeaning,andthisappliesevenifmorelinguistic
codingisadded.Transmittersandreceiversofsuchmessagesmusttherebyrely
244
uponanotherfacultyhumanbeingspossess,namelytheirabilitytoconsider
messagesincontext,andtodrawconclusionsaboutacommunicator’sintentions
throughtheprocessofinferencing.
Inordertoanalysetheinferencingprocess,theline“doingmore”when
advertisingDoosanforkliftsagainprovidesanexampleanditcanbeconcluded
thatthephrasecontainedlittlemeaningwhenstandingalone.Inthecaseofa
full-pageadvertisementinaperiodical,thecontextisprovidedbyanumberof
signifiersandtheseincludetheimageandarecognizabletradename.Other
essentialcuesthataddtocontextwouldbethosethatsignaltothereaderthat
thetextrelatestoanadvertisementasopposedto,forexample,ajournalistic
article;thesecuesmayhaveincludedthelayoutofthepage,theplacementof
tradenames,thetypefacesusedandthestyleoftheimage.However,evenwith
allthese,thephrase“doingmore”wasobliqueinthatithadalimitlessrangeof
possiblemeaningsandthebestthatanalyzingthroughimplicaturecouldachieve
wouldhavebeentosuggestthosewhicharemostlikelytobeaccessed.While
theaimofaspokenutteranceispredominantlytodeliverasingleandcoherent
meaning,advertisersareabletoexploitambiguitytoinviteoneormoredesired
inferences.Possiblemeaningsrecoverablefrom“doingmore”mightinclude:
“We(Doosan)trucksaredoingmoreforourcustomers”
“Thepeopledepicteddrivingthetrucksaredoingmorework
becausetheyareusingDoosantrucks”
“YoucouldbedoingmorebusinessifyouwereusingDoosantrucks”
Thelackofafulldeclarativesentencecontributedtoboththevaguenessand
ambiguityofthephraseandthismightbeconstruedasthecopywriterhaving
failedtoabidebyGrice’smaximsofquantity(Makeyourcontributionas
informativeasisrequiredforthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange)and/or
manner(avoidambiguity).Wherethisisdoneblatantly,i.e.insuchawaythat
thefailuretoabidebythemaximsispurposelymademanifesttothereceiver,
245
andthereasonwastogeneratesomefurtherimplicatures,suchasthose
suggestedthen,inGrice’stheoryofconversationalimplicature,thesemaxims
havebeenflouted.Ifthecopywriterhadinsteadusedoneofthesuggestedlines
above,however,theapproachwouldhavebeendirectratherthanoblique,and
themaximsobserved.Floutingquantityinthiscasesignaledtothereceiverthat
morethanoneinterpretationwasavailableandheorshecouldselecttheone
whichismostapplicabletothem,mentallytogglebetweenthem,oreven
mentallyholdallthreeasmeaningfulandrelevanttotheirinterests.
AsexplainedinSubchapter3.3.above,SperberandWilson(1995:pp.36-38)
pointoutwhattheyregardasdeficienciesinGrice’stheoryandofferinitsplace
analternativeexplanationforimplicaturethroughRelevanceTheory.Intheir
firstmajorworkinwhichtheyoutlinetheirtheory,theybeginbyposingthe
followingquestion:
”Howcanaphysicalstimulusbringabouttherequiredsimilarityof
thoughts,whenthereisnosimilaritywhatsoeverbetweenthe
stimulusandthethoughtsitbringsintocorrespondence?”(p.2)
Thetheorytheygoontodevelopisrepletewithexamplesofspoken
communicationintheformofisolatedutterancesandbriefexchanges,butit
requireslittleimaginationtorelatetheirnotionofphysicalstimulustoan
advertisementandbringingthoughtsintocorrespondenceasthedesiredeffect.
OneoftheprinciplesofRelevanceTheoryrelatestowhatisreferredtoas
“ostentiveinferentialcommunication”(Sperber&Wilson,1995:p.50).Underthis
principle,astimulusisproducedwhichisintendedto“makemanifestormore
manifestasetofassumptions”(p.63)whilenotexcludingthesituationwhereby
thestimulusisintendedonlytoinform.Theyofferbywayofexamplesomeone
feigningayawntocommunicatetheyaretired.Adistinctionismadebetween
246
informativeintention86andcommunicativeintentioninthat,whiletheformeris
intendedtomakemanifestcertainassumptions,suchasrelatingfacts,thelatter
intendstomakethereceiverawareofthespeaker’saimtocommunicate
something,specificallybymakingmanifesttheirintention.
Accordingly,aspeakerinitiatinganactofostensivecommunicationhastosecure
theattentionofahearerandso,accordingtoSperberandWilson(1995:p.155),
anactofostensionisalsoarequestforattentionand,bysuchaction,the
utterancecarrieswithitaguaranteeofitsownrelevance.Thisisclearly
applicabletoanadvertisementwhereitsfirstpurposeistoattractattentionto
itself;ifitfailsinthisregard,thecostsandeffortexpendedindesigningitand
publishingorbroadcastingitarewasted.Everyadvertisementseeksattention
andis,bydefinition,an“actofostension”.Acopywriterknowshemustmakeany
advertisementheisproducingrelevanttotargetedindividualssuchthatthe
receiverswillrecognizeitisworthyoftheirattentionandtheireffortin
interpretingit.Tothisend,theadvertisermustgenerateanappropriate
stimulus,andonethatcancompetewithotherstimulipresentinthe
environmentsoastoattractandsustainthetargetaudience’sattentionand
convincethemthattheireffortinprocessingtheinformationisworthwhileby
virtueofsomereward.AsClarke(2013)explains:
“Cognitiveresourcesarepreciousandwedonotwanttowaste
theminpayingattentiontophenomenawhichwillnotrewardus
withenoughcognitiveeffects”.(p.108)
Successisthuscontingentupontheapplicationofeffortby,andtheskillof,the
advertiserinselectingandtransmittingthemostefficientandeconomicalstimuli
forthedesiredpurpose.
86Adetailedaccountofinformativeintentionisprovidedbelowinthissubchapter.
247
Theprocessingeffortrequiredinordertoproduceadesiredcognitiveeffect,
thatistoachieveoptimalrelevance,isakeyconsiderationinadvertising.Living
creaturesarecontinuallyreceivingnewstimulifromvarioussourcesintheform
ofphenomenadetectedwithintheirenvironmentandbytheirphysicalsenses.
Thesearethenrelatedtoexistingknowledge,includingimmediateandshort-
termmemory(e.g.whathasjustbeenexperienced,seen,readorheard)and
longer-termmemory(e.g.whatisbelievedtobefactualinformation).This
processmustoccurinhumansinordertobeabletointerpretutterancesina
conversationorbroadcastadvertisement,oranadvertisingtextinanewspaper
ormagazine.SperberandWilson(1995)state:
“Someonewhowantstoachieveaspecificcognitiveeffectmust
thereforetrytoproduceastimuluswhich,whenoptimallyprocessed,
willachievejusttheintendedeffect”.(p.153)
Inalaterwork,thesameauthorsdefinewhatisoptimallyrelevantastheir
“secondprincipleofrelevance”.Theyexplainthisasfollows:
“Anutteranceisoptimallyrelevanttothehearerif:
a. Itisrelevantenoughtobeworththehearer’sprocessing
effort;
b. Itisthemostrelevantonecompatiblewiththespeaker’s
abilitiesandpreferences.”(Wilson&Sperber,2012:p.65)
TheapplicationofRelevanceTheoryrequiresthatimplicatureiscalculated
throughfactorsthataremutuallymanifestbetweenthetransmitterandreceiver
ofamessage.Thesefactorsincludephenomenadetectableintheenvironmentin
whichacommunicationoccurs,andasharedresourceofencyclopaedic
knowledge.Itmustfirstbeestablishedwhatthefeaturesofthatenvironment
248
areastheyrelatetowhatissaid.Thisincludesresolvinghowreferents,
includingpronounsanddeictics,areassignedandambiguitiesareclarifiedby
virtueofwhatismanifesttothereceiver.Asanexampleinconversation,where
twostrangersarestandingatabusstopandonesays:“Ijustsawonegoingthe
otherway”,allelementsofameaningfulstatementmaybepresentsothe
receiverunderstandsthethespeaker’sintentionandthemessageheorshe
intendstorelay.Inthecasedescribed,theenvironmentisabusstopandthose
standingatthatlocationareknowntobe(generally)waitingforabustoarrive.
Thespeakerassumesthereceiverpossessesthenecessaryencyclopaedic
knowledgefromwhichtoidentifythereferent“one”,i.e.abus,andfromthe
words“goingtheotherway”asanintentiontoinformthemofarelevantfact.
Thatnewknowledgewill,whenaddedtoexistingencyclopaedicknowledge,
equipthereceivertomakeanestimateastohowlongitwillbebeforethe
awaitedbusarrives.Theenvironmentinadvertisingcanconsistofthelocation
ofanadvertisement(e.g.magazine,newspaper,flyer,radioadvertisement,
televisioncommercialorInternetadvertisement),thetimeitispublishedor
broadcastandanyeventsknowntobeoccurringatthattime,andanyassociated
co-textpresentwithorclosetotheadvertisementinquestion.WhenSubjectE
mentionedtheadvertisementforgolfingcourseswhichhadtheheadline“play
lessgolf”,thefactthatthiswaspublishedinagolfingmagazinewascrucialforit
toinvoketherequiredtypeofrelevance.Haditappearedinamagazinefor,for
example,competitioncyclists,notonlywouldithavegeneratedlessinterest,i.e.
itwouldhavebeenalesseffectivestimulus,butthemessagemayhavebeen
misinterpreted,perhapsassomethinglike:“playinggolfcaninterferewithyour
cycling”.Mutualityofknowledgeisakeyrequirementforthisadvertisementto
generatetherequiredimplicature,andthismeans:
• thoseadvertisinginitwouldhaveknownthatthereaderslikeplaying
golf
• readerswouldhaveknownthatadvertisersarewellawarethatthe
readerslikeplayinggolf
• advertisersknowthatreadersknowthattheyknowthis,andsoon
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Inaddition,thereaderswouldalmostcertainlyhaverecognizedthetextasan
advertisementastheadvertiserintended.Accordingly,ratherthanrelyingupon
makingthemessagesuchthatitwouldrequireminimalefforttobe
comprehended,SubjectEpresentedthereaderwithariddletobesolved.A
readercouldassumefromexperienceofsuchtextsthatthemessagecarried
withitaguaranteeofitsownrelevanceandtherewasthereforeanexpectation
thattheextraeffortrequiredtointerpretitwouldprovidesomekindofmental
reward.Consequently,inthiscase,theadditionalprocessingeffortmadethe
messagemorerelevantratherthanless.
Insomesituations,contextispredicatedonknowledgestoredinthememoryin
theformofanencyclopaedicentryinthememoryof,andaccessibleto,the
readerorviewer,andadvertisershavetomakeassumptionsaboutwhatthey
arelikelytoknoworthinktheyshouldknow.Thiscanrelatetoshort-termor
long-termmemory,andtogeneralaswellasspecializedknowledge.Advertisers
routinelyrelyonthepublic’sfamiliaritywithbrandnames,well-established
products,trademarks,straplinesandevenpreviousadvertisingcampaigns,and
thisappliestotheirownproductplusthoseofcompetitors.Theyhave
expectationsastothereaderorviewer’sgeneralknowledge,awarenessofmajor
andrecenthistoricaldevelopmentsandcurrentaffairs,recognitionofcelebrity
namesandfacesand,insomecases,morespecializedknowledgeand
terminology.Viewersandreadersarepresumedtohavealifetime’sexperience
ofencounteringandprocessingadvertisementsthattheycandrawuponto
facilitateadesiredinterpretation.Severalintervieweesgaveclearexamplesof
this.OnewasSubjectA’sproposedheadline“Seoul.LikeTokyo,onlycheaper”.
Thisrelieduponasupposedsetofencyclopaedicentriesconsistingoffactual
knowledge,suchasthatSeoulisthecapitalofKoreaandTokyoisthecapitalof
Japan,whichwouldbesharedbytheadvertiserandthereader,anditalsorelied
oncertainsharedassumptionsaboutthese,perhapsincludingthebeliefthat
Japanesegoodsarehighquality,buttendtobeexpensive.Secondly,SubjectE
providedanexamplewithhisadvertisementforfootballbootsdepicting
footballerMichaelOwenandhis“lightningfast”skills;thetargetconsumerhere
wouldhavelikelybeenespeciallyawareofOwenandtheadvertisementwas
250
mostrelevanttosuchanindividualonthebasisofthempossessingsuch
knowledge.Thirdly,SubjectCdescribedhowmatterssuchaspre-purchase
vesselinspections,dry-dockingandflagadministration,weremattersofinterest
toshippingfirms,whiletheseissues,andthetermsusedwithregardtothem,
wouldbelittleunderstoodbymostpeoplewhodidnotworkinthatindustryor
associatedfields.Lastly,SubjectDdescribedadvertisementsforSkodacarsand
thefactthattherewasawaitinglistforthem,thesignificanceofwhichwould
onlyregisterifthereaderwerealreadyawareofthebrand’sformerreputation
forproducingvehiclesthatwerecheapandundesirable.
Asshownabove,under-determinationmayoccurbetweenwhatisexplicitly
encodedandthemeaningtheadvertiserintendstoconveythroughimplicature.
Withanyadvertisement,arangeofimplicaturescanbegenerated,some
inadvertently,andsomearestrongwhileothersareweakastheyhavemoved
furtherfromtheexplicatureandrequiremoreprocessing.Theinterviews
provideevidencethatthisisaphenomenonpractitionersintuitivelyunderstood
andofwhichtheyweremindfulwhenconstructingadvertisements.Anexample
ofthiscanbeseeninSubjectA’scommercialdepictingthestaffinan
engineeringfirmasbeingpeoplewithfirmconnectionstothelocalitybyvirtue
ofthemstandingalongsidewell-knownlocallandmarkswiththetaglineof
“Localservicenationwide”.Somedegreeofexplicaturecouldbederivedfrom
thetaglineemphasizingthatservicecanbeaccessedlocally,andthiswas
availableacrossthecountry.Strongimplicatedconclusionsmighthaveincluded
thefactthatthecompanywasofferingassistancenomatterwhereintheUKthe
customerwaslocated,andthattheclient’sstaffwerelocalpeopleandfamiliar
withtheircustomers’area.However,itwasnotablethatSubjectAwentfurther
thanthis:hesaidtheaimwasto“makeheroes”ofthepeople,andshowing
imagesofrealhumanbeingsalongsidelocallandmarkssuggestedtheyhadlocal
interestsandapersonalstakeintheirarea.Theselatterconclusionsthathe
hopedviewersoftheadvertisementwouldreachhavehighdegreesof
indeterminacyandwerethusweak.SubjectAneverthelesshopedthatthey
wouldbesuccessful,andthisrequiredthathisintendedimplicatureswouldbe
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selectedoverothersonthebasisofthembeingrelevant.AsWilsonandSperber
(2012)explain:
“Thegreatertherangeofalternatives,theweakertheimplicatures,
andthemoreresponsibilitythehearerhastotakefortheparticular
choiceshemakes.”(p.16)
SubjectBandSubjectDdescribedthesomewhattortuousprocesstheir
respectiveagenciesundertookwhendevelopingideasanddevisingstimuliinan
efforttomaketheiradvertisementseye-catchingandeffective.Thisconsistedof
techniqueswhichtriggeredwhatissometimesreferredtoas“outsidethebox”or
“blueskythinking”while,atthesametime,theyhadtobepreparedtoborrow
ideasfrompreviousadvertisements.SubjectEmentionedthatheattemptedto
empathisewithconsumersbydiscerning“somesortoftruth”withwhich
ordinarypeoplecouldidentifyandsay,“that’sme”.Philosophersand
psychologistsattemptingtoexplainhumancreativitymayconsiderthataspect
hasbeentoucheduponinSubchapter2.5above,whereformalistconceptssuch
asdefamiliarizationarebrieflyexplained.Thecopywritersinterviewedwere
clearlytryingtoensuretheirworkwasnoticed;theirstimuliwereappropriate
andeffectiveinproducingthedesiredcognitiveeffectsbypresentingwhatwas
likelytobefamiliartothereader,butinawaywhichisunfamiliarand/or
unexpected.Thecreativityelementcouldnot,however,betheironly
consideration.Asidefromthepracticalaspectssuchasclientbrief,budgetsand
legalconstraints,theyalsohadtomaketheadvertisementsrelevanttothelives
oftheirconsumersbydisplayingsomeappreciationof,andindeeddrawing
upon,theirownknowledge,experienceandlifestyle,inordertomakethem
relevantinthebroadestpossiblesense.
Grice’sconversationalprinciplesarementionedaboveinthissubchapterwith
referencetohismaximsofquantityandmanner.Thesecondofhismaximsis
thatofquality,andthisrelatestothespeakerstatingonlywhathebelievestobe
252
true,andhasevidencetosupportthatbelief.Itmaybesupposedthat
advertisersmakeonlyrepresentationsthatadheretotruthfulness,andtheycan
supplyevidencetoverifytheirclaimsifneeded,inordertoprotectthemselves
fromlegalconsequencessuchascriminaldeception87,falseadvertising88,action
bytheregulatorybody,theAdvertisingStandardsAuthority,orbreachof
contract,oreventheadverserepercussionsofbeingpubliclyexposedas
untrustworthy.Whilethisisnodoubtaccurateintermsofintentionally
misleadingrepresentationsbeingpresentedasfactual,manyofthewordsand
phrasesusedinadvertisementsfallshortofmakingexplicitstatements,perhaps
forthereasonssuggested.Inaddition,examplescanbeseenwithinadvertising
oftheuseofsuchaspuns,hyperboleandpoeticelements,whicharenotmeant
tobetakenliterally.SperberandWilson(2012)rejectGrice’sviewregarding
thequalitymaximthatafailuretocommunicatealiteraltruthis“adeparture
fromthenormsofcommunication”(p.219).Theyargueinsteadthatthereare
twodiscreteformsofrepresentation,namely“descriptive”and“interpretive”(p.
218).Theformerrepresentsastateofaffairs,asinasupermarket
advertisementstating“XBeans–nowonly48pence”;thelatter,ontheother
hand,representsathoughtwhichitonlyresemblesintermsofcontentandthis
resemblanceiscontext-dependent.WhenanadvertisementforRedBullenergy
drinkclaimeditwould“giveyouwings”(Duggan,2012),andoneforsoftdrink
Irn-Bruclaimedtheirproductwas“madefromgirders”(Hodge2016),these
wereneverintendedtobeinterpretedastruthfulorstatementsoffact,butwere
ratherexamplesoftheadvertisersattemptinghumourthroughthelooseuseof
languageandimagery.Similarly,whenSubjectEdescribedanexampleofa
campaigntopromotethelatestmemoryfoamlatexmattressandtoillustrate
howtheyweredesignedtobecool,thecontrivedimageofamattressona
lollipopstick,itwasnottheaimofthecopywritertoimplythattheitemlooked
likealollipop,wasedibleorwouldbeanythinglikeascoldasalollipop.Rather,
thegraphicartistwasconveyinganidearatherthanadescriptive
87InEnglandandWales,thisiscoveredbysection15oftheTheftAct1968
88Forexample,theTradeDescriptionsActsof1968and1972,andtheBusinessProtectionfromMisleadingMarketingRegulations2008
253
representation.Inthiscase,thisconsistedofapropositionthatthemattresshad
certainspecificpropertiesofalollipopintermsofbeingabletocoolonedown
whenatriskofoverheatingowingtowarmweather.
Moregeneraltextsaimedatstudentsofadvertisingarefoundtoattemptto
explainmetaphors.AnexampleofthisisBrierley’sTheAdvertiser’sHandbook
(2002),abookwhichiswidelyusedintrainingandasareferencefor
advertisersstatesthatmetaphorsare:“partofoureverydayspeech”(p.144).
Brierleygoesontoinclude,asexamplesofmetaphors,redrosessentasasignof
loveanddrivingahighperformancecarasrepresentingsuccess;thisindicatesa
possibleconflationofmetaphor,whichisaphenomenonbasedonmakingor
invokingparallels,andsymbolism89.Metaphorsandlooselanguageare
describedintheprevioussubchapterfromasemioticperspectivebut,as
explainedinChapter3,pragmatictheoriesalsoofferexplanationsforthese.
Griceviewsmetaphorsasofferingakindofimplicaturewhicharises“fromthe
exploitationorfloutingofthemaxims”(Levinson,1983:p.147).Themain
maximexploitedorfloutedmightbeassumedtobequality,asthemessageis
notliterallytrue,andaseriesofmentalstepsissuggestedtoaccountforhow
themeaningisdeduced.Thisisunconvincing.Ifoneimaginestwopatientsina
hospitalwardandonesaystotheother:“Thenurseondutytodayisawitch”,it
isdifficulttobelievethehearerwouldentertainaninitialbeliefatanypointthat
thespeakergenuinelybelieves,andwishesthehearertobelieve,thenursein
questionpractiseswitchcraft,onlyforhimorhertorejectthatbeliefandthen
eventuallyarriveatamorelikelyinterpretation,suchasthatthespeakerwas
simplyintimatingshewasadeeplyunpleasantcharacter.RelevanceTheory
offersamoreplausibleexplanationbyreplacingthenotionoftruthfulnesswith
faithfulness–thatis,whatissaidisguaranteedbythespeakertobeafaithful
representationofathoughtwhichhewishestocommunicate(Wilson&Sperber,
2012).Consequently,ittreatsmetaphorasjustanothertypeoflooseuseof
languagewhichisentirelycontextdependent,creatingrelevanceby:
89AsdefinedbyPeirce,whodescribedsymbolsas“arbitraryandconventionalsigns”(Nöth,1990:p.45)
254
“awidearrayofweakimplicatureswhicharethemselvesweakly
implicated”andareconsequentlyidentifiableaswhattheyreferto
as'poeticeffects'”(p.118).
Conventionalmetaphorsoccurinadvertisingastheydoinnaturalconversation;
astheybecomeestablished,littleprocessingeffortisrequiredandtheywould
notberegardedaspoeticandtheirvalueinengagingahearerorreaderwould
beminimal.Bycontrast,metaphorswhichareoriginalpresentthereaderwith
conceptualparallelsthatrequiremoreeffortandthereare,thereby,greater
rewardsforresolvingthem;SubjectB’s“Firstaidforcars”exemplifiesthis.
OthermanifestationsoflooselanguageusedescribedbyWilsonandSperber
(2012)andmentionedinSubchapter3.6above,occurinadhocconcepts,which
aresufficientlybroadtoenablearangeofinterpretationstobemadeand
inferencestobedrawn.SubjectC’sFacebookadvertisementforauniversity
courseforrockgrouproadmanagersusedthetagline“careerslessordinary”.
Asidefromthesuppositionwithinthephrasethatothercareerswereordinary,
theinterpretationofthatexpressionislefttothereader.Onereadermay,for
instance,havedrawnameaningfrom“ordinary”assynonymouswith“boring”
andlackingexcitement,perhapscomparingthecareerwiththatofworkingina
supermarketoraclericaljob.Anotherreadermayhaveviewed“ordinary”as
meaningaconventionaljob,i.e.somethingseveralpeopleheorsheknowsdoes.
Thisleftopenthequestionofthedegreeofordinariness;thejobofahairstylist
inacitysalonmayhaveseemedlikeanexcitingcareertosome,whiletoothers
itwouldbelittlemorethanameansofearningaliving.Inonerespect,the
advertisementpresentedthereaderwithadichotomyofexcitementversus
banality,bothofwhichwerecontingenttosomedegreeatleastuponinvoking
myths,i.e.themythoftheglamorouslifeoftheroadieforasuccessfulrock
groupandthemythofthedrudgeryofspendingone’slifeinamundaneand
modestly-paidjob.Mythssuchasthese,whichofferaclearbinary,constitutea
setofparadigmaticrelationshipsaboveasproposedbyLévi-Strauss
255
(Subchapter2.7above)andasexemplifiedbythesuggestedanalysisofthe
Floraadvertisement.Inthiscase,thechoicepresentedwasthatbetween
signingupforthecourseofferedandendingupinaboringjob.Therewasno
thirdoption.
Itissuggestedabovethatthemainfunctionofadvertisementsis,inJakobson’s
terms(asdescribedinNöth,1990:p.187),conative,i.e.topersuadeconsumers
tobehaveinadesiredway,butthisintentionisinitiallyconcealed.Thestrategic
useofcarefullycomposedimagaryisafavouritemethodforadvertisersto
concealtheirpurposeandisthusakindofcovertcommunication.Sometimes,
theimagealoneconveysasmuchastheadvertiserneedstotransmittofulfillits
purpose.Thereceiversimplyviewsanimageandnaturallyrecoverswhatever
implicaturescomeintotheirminds,althoughthesemayrelatetotheirown,
individualwants,needs,aspirationsandlifestyle.Inthisway,theadvertisement
functionswiththeultimatelevelofcovertness.Thepotentialofthiskindof
advertisingwasnotedbySubjectBwhenhereferredtoVersaceadvertisements
which“maynotobviouslysayanythingbutactuallybynotdoingthat,itissaying
quitealotaswell”(Subchapter6.5.1).Preciselywhatwasmeantby“quitealot”
isunclear,andthismeansitwouldvaryfromviewertoviewerandanyattempt
toanalysesuchacommercialrisksbeingsubjectivelyreportedasperceived
fromtheintuitiveviewpointoftheanalyst,assuggestedbyLeissetal(1990).
Whenjuxtaposedwithacaption,therangeofimplicaturesanimagetransmits
maybereduced,buttheintentionbehindtheimageislikelytobecomeclearer.
TurningagaintoSubjectEandhisimaginativeusesforwoksbeingdepictedin
anadvertisementformicrowavablenoodles,thecovertcommunication
occurredwherebytheinformativeintentionwasnotmademanifestbythe
foregroundedpictureandtext.Instead,thestimuliconsistedofaseriesof
picturesandtherewardforprocessingthesewastobefoundinthehumour,and
inthepuzzleofrelatingthemtothecaptionandthentheproduct.Thereader
wastherebydistractedfromthemainpurposeoftheadvertisementalmostasa
meansofdrawingthereader’sattentiontoit.Awarenessoftheitembeing
marketed,thefulfillmentofthemain,i.e.conative,function,wasachieved
ostentiblyasaby-product.
256
AsexplainedinChapter3,DavidBernsteinwasacopywriterwhopublisheda
bookin1974inwhichhemakesadistinctionbetweentwostrategiesof
advertisingwhichhereferstoas“reason”and“tickle”,andthisdistinctionisa
toolheusedinhisdailyworkofdesigningadvertisements.Simpson(2001)
referstoBernstein’sreasonandticklehypothesisandattemptstorelatethisto
theoreticalmodelsfromlinguistics.HeevaluatesBernstein’sdistinctionfrom
twomainperspectives,namelytheHallidayansystemic-functionallinguistics
methodaswellasabroadlypragmaticoneanddrawsanumberofconclusions
inrelationtothedistinction.Heproposesthatso-called“reason”advertisements
prioritisecertainmotivationsforbuyingtheproductandthewordingtendsto
beformulaic,i.e.byusing“aspecificandrestrictedsetofconjunctiveadjuncts”(p.
603).“Tickle”advertisements,bycontrast,require“agreaterexpenditureof
processingeffort”(ibid)bythereader,listenerorviewer,whomhereferstoas
the“RVL”,andtheybringwiththemtheproblemofbeing“specificabout
inferencingpathwaysforallRVLs”(ibid).Thismeansthat,havingrecognizedthe
communicationasanadvertisement,theRVLwillatsomepointhavetoidentify
theactualsellingpropositioninordertoachieveafullcomprehension.
Reason“equalsfact,clinicaltruth,needs”(Bernstein,1974:p.119)and,asitis
concernedwithrelatinginformationtothereaderorviewer,thecontentwould
bepredominantlyreferentialintermsofJakobson’sfunctions.Reasonmight
inclinetowardsabidingbyGriceanmaximsor,inRelevanceTheoryterms,asthe
degreeofrelevanceisininverseproportiontotheamountofprocessingeffort
requiredtorecovertheintendedmeaning,ithasstrongrelevance.SubjectB’s
supermarketadvertisementpromotinganofferfortinsofbakedbeans,and
SubjectC’sadvertisementforafurnitureretailerofferingasofa,aretwo
examplesofthis.Bothofthesemightbeassumedtobewhollyreason-basedas
theyfocusonprice,butBernstein(p.118)claimsthisdoesnotoccurinany
advertisement.Hestatesthat,whilesomeadvertisementsarealmostallreason
andothersarealmostalltickle,noadvertisementcanbeahundredpercentone
ortheother:thereareproportionsofbothingredientsineveryadvertisement.
Thetickleelementinwhatmightberegardedasapredominantlyreason-based
advertisementmaycentreupongeneratingasenseofexcitementaboutalow
257
priceandsavingmoney.Thisissomethingthatcanbeseenwithadvertisements
forsuchasthoseforendofseasonandclosingdownsales,orthosepromoting
'buyonegetonefree'(BOGOF)deals.WithregardtoSubjectCandhissofa
commercial,thiswasapparentintheattemptbyhisclienttomakethedeal
offeredappearoutstandinglygood:
“Andit’sallaboutthissofa,atthatprice,that’showmuchyousave
andisn’tthisagreatsofa?”(Subchapter6.4.3)
Onemightsupposethatbusiness-to-businessadvertisementswouldbe
heavilyorientedtowardreasonastheyareaimedathard-headed
merchantsandbusinesspeople.Thisdoesnot,however,appeartobethe
case.SubjectC’sshippingconsultancyadvertisementappealedtotickleby
wayofemotionwhenhesaidtheirservicewas:“afive-starguaranteeand
fivelovelybrightsilverstarslookingniceandclassy”(Subchapter6.5.3).
Similarly,SubjectA’sagencywasconcernedalmostentirelywith
business-to-businessmarketing,andyetheappliedpoeticsinstraplines
like“doingmore”(withDoosan)and“Design,Develop,Deliver”forthat
typeofspecialistcompany.Conversely,tickleadvertisingisobliqueand
usesindirectapproachesasitaimstoappealtotheemotions.Assuch,
tickleadvertisementsaremorelikelytobeexpressionsofJakobson’s
phaticorpoeticfunctionsratherthanthereferentialfunction,althoughall
areultimatelydeployedintheserviceoftheconativefunction.Inviewof
theindirectnessmentioned,itisproposedthatadvertisementswhich
makeheavyuseofticklestrategiesaremorelikelytooperatethrough
generatingimplicaturesandthereforefloutGriceanmaxims.Froma
RelevanceTheoryperspective,agreaterdegreeofeffortisrequiredto
processatickleelement,sotheimplicaturesgeneratedareweak.
Subchapter7.4,above,discussesthelossoftheoreticalunderpinningin
advertisingandtwooftheinterviewees,SubjectsCandF,expressedconcern
258
withregardtothisand,byextension,tothelossofintellectualcontentand
sophisticationinmodernadvertisements.Asimilarargumenttothatmadefor
theinclusionofsemiotictheoriescanalsobemadewithregardtopragmatic
theoriesintermsoftheirpotentialvalueintrainingofpractitionersandthe
developmentoftheirprofessionalskills.AdvertisersmayfindRelevanceTheory
insightfulinthatitprovidesamodelthataccountsforhowaspeaker'sintended
meaningisunderstoodfromevidencepresentorprovidedintheformof
observablephenomenaandmemories.Itcouldbearguedthat,asageneralrule,
thoseaimingtohavetheiroccupationcreditedforhavingintellectualsubstance,
andthereforeheldinprofessionalesteem,havetobecognizantofcurrent
academicthinkingthatisrelevanttotheirprofession.Whetherornotone
acceptsthatRelevanceTheoryoffersacomprehensiveandirrefutable
explanationfortherecoveryofmeaningthroughimplicature,thistheoryfocuses
inpracticespecificallyonlinguisticinterpretationincontextand,assuch,itis
abletoilluminateaspectsoflinguisticcommunicationofwhichthisresearch
indicatesadvertisingprofessionalsareclearlynotaware.Fromthatpointof
view,suchanexplicitlinguistic/pragmaticfocusmaywellbeusefuland
interestingintheirprofessionalwork,encouragingcreatorstodevisemore
intellectuallystimulating,andtherebymorerelevant,advertisingthatoperates
withinthecontextofthelives,andhasregardtothevaluesandconcernsof
thosewhoexperienceit.
7.6PRODUCTVERSUSBRAND
Itisperhapsunsurprisingthatthereisanapparentdissimilaritybetweenthe
wayadvertisingispresentedinlinguisticstextbooksandtheperceptionsof
advertisingheldbythosewhoworkintheindustry.Inthecaseoftheformer,
existingadvertisementsaredeconstructedandtheiroperationand
interpretationexplainedusingsemioticsorlinguistictheories.Advertisingtexts
arethusasourceofdatatoillustrateordemonstratetheoriesandthe
applicationofthesetheoriesandtheanalyticaltoolsassociatedwiththem.In
259
thecaseofthelatter,advertisingisacommercialactivityandadvertisersarein
thebusinessofproducingaproduct,namelyadvertisementsforpublicationor
broadcast,inordertoenabletheirclientstoselltheirowngoodsandservices.
Thisdisconnectisespeciallyevidentwhencomparingadvertisementswhich
focusentirelyonbrandrecognitionagainstthosewhichaimprimarilytomarket
aspecificproduct.
Astrikingdifferencewasnotedinrelationtobrandsandbrandingbetweenthe
textbookswhichdealtwithadvertisingfromoneormorecommunicativeor
linguisticperspectives,andgeneraladvertisingtextbooks.Inthecaseofthe
former,workssuchasVestergaard&Schrøder(1985),Myers(1994),Tanaka
(1994),Cook(2001),Bignell(2001)andvanLeeuwen(2005)mostlymakesome
mentionofbrands,butalmostasthoughtheyareincidentaltotheadvertising
message.Withregardtothelatter,withworkssuchasBernstein(1974),Ogilvy
(1983)Brierley(2002)andAaker(2010),brandingisafactorwhichsitsatthe
verycoreoftheadvertisingmessage90.Thisaccordswiththeinterviewsas
brandpromotionwasviewedastheprimaryfunctionofcopywriters,unless
theyaredirectedbytheirclientstofocusonaproduct.Someoftheinterviewees,
suchasSubjectA,wereclearthattheywouldtryto“push”clientstowards
promotingbrandsoverproducts,whileothersweredisparagingaboutproduct
orientedadvertisingbeing,asSubjectBputit,“entrylevel”.Insomecases,
however,abrandmaybelessestablishedwiththepublicandfocusingonthe
uniquesellingproposition(USP)ofspecificproductsmaybetheonlyeffective,
ormosteffective,advertisingstrategy.ExamplesofproductUSPswouldinclude
SubjectC’sclientwantingtomarketOmega3fishoiltabletsandSubjectE’s
microwavablenoodles.Thelatterexamplecouldcertainlynotbedescribedas
entrylevelanddemonstratesthathighlyimaginativeapproachescanbeused
whereabrandisunknownorviewedasbeingoflessimportance.
90AnotableexceptiontothisgeneralobservationisBeasley&Danesi’sPersuasiveSigns(2002)
whichdevotesabouttwentypagestobrands,brandnamesandco-branding.Thisbookfunctions
asanauthenticinterdisciplinaryworkwiththefirstauthorbeinganeminentadvertising
specialistandthelatteraprofessorofsemiotics.Itcanbefurthernotedthattherearebookswhichfocusexclusivelyonbrands,suchasAaker(2010).
260
Itistemptingtoviewbrandingas,forthemainpart,invokingconnotations
whichthemarketerbelievesresidewithintheconsciousmindoftheconsumer.
Thisbecomesevidentwhenlookingatfull-pageadvertisementsinglossy
magazinesandwheretheycompriseaphotographandabrandnameormark,
andnoothercontent.Suchadvertisingdependsnotjustuponbrandrecognition,
butalsouponamorevagueimpressionofthebrandwhichmayhaveemotional
orotherwiseaffectivesignificancetoconsumers.SubjectFconfirmedthiswhen
hediscussedthetransactionalversusrelationalaspectandthatcanbeseen
operatingwhencomparingthekindsofsignifiersselectedfordifferentkindsof
advertisements,withtheformertypedirectingattentiontowardsspecific
products,emphasizingreasonstobuythemandtoclosethedeal,whilethosein
thelattercategoryoperatethroughaffectiveappeal,seekingtoattractdesire
andloyaltythroughsignifierswhichpointtolifestyle.Hepointedouthow
luxuryandglamourrelatedproducts,thosegenerallymarketedrelationally,are
positionedmorehighlyintheconnotativeindexastheytendtobemarketedless
explicitly,butwiththefocusonbranding.Analternativeunderstandingforthis
isofferedbypragmaticsand,inparticular,byRelevanceTheory(Sperber&
Wilson,1995;Wilson&Sperber,2012),wherebythecommunicatorreliesonthe
encyclopaedicknowledgeofthereceivertoenrichthemessage.
Whiletheintervieweesmostlyacknowledgedacleardistinctionbetweenbrand
andproductadvertising,allgaveexampleswhichcontainedbothkinds
simultaneouslyandtherewassomeinterdependencebetweenthesewhich
couldbedetectedinadvertising.Obviousexamplesofthisaretobefoundwhere
establishedbrandsmarketnewproducts,suchastheUmbrofootballboots
mentionedbySubjectD,wherethebrandwasakeyfeature.Conversely,when
SubjectE’spointaboutcarmanufacturerBMWseeking“tocapitaliseonits
reputationforexcellenceinengineeringqualityanddesign”(Subchapter6.5.5)is
considered,itwouldberationaltoassumethatitsbrandreputationwasbuilt
overaperiodoftime.BMWbeganitsbusinesswithnoreputationand,asaresult
ofitsproducts,thereputationitholdstodaywasearnedovertime.This,inturn,
wouldsuggestadvertisersmaybelievetheyhavetobeginmarketinganew
brandbybeinginformative,withstrongdenotationandmakingtheproduct
261
relevant,andthenbeingabletoaccessconnotationsandculturalmythsasthe
brandbecomesestablished.
7.7FINDINGSASTHEYRELATETOTHESISQUESTIONS
Thisthesissetouttoanswerfivequestionsandthissubchapterisintendedto
providesummarizedanswersforeachofthesebasedupontheresearchfindings.
1.Whathavesemioticsandlinguisticpragmaticscontributedtoour
understandingofadvertisingdiscourse?Whatarethekeytheoreticalconstructs
andprinciplesthattheseapproacheshavebroughttobear?
TheresearchhasshownthattheapproachestosemioticsdevelopedBarthes,
Lévi-StraussandEcooffertoolsbywhichtheworkingsofadvertisementscanbe
understood.Thefeaturesoftheirmodelsincludetherelationofandinteraction
betweendenotationandconnotation,characterizationorclassificationofthe
signifierspresent,theirrelationtotheirsignifiedsandhowsignifiersand
signifiedsfunctiontogethertoproduceintendedmeanings.Barthes(1957)
proposestheexistenceofculturalmythsinadvertising(aswellasothergenres)
andheillustrateshowtheseareusedtosignify,andthusinvoke,embedded
culturalmeaningsinthemindoftheconsumer.Semioticsaccountsforthe
powerofsignifiersintheformofconnotationsandthisgoessomewayto
explainingtheworkingsofbrandsincludingbranddistinctivenessandbrand
values.
Regardingpragmatictheories,traditionallythesehavebeenconcernedforthe
mostpartwithspokeninteractions(ofteninvented)betweentwoormore
speakersandwithattemptstoexplainhowmeaningisgeneratedandrecovered
throughcontext.Advertisementsarenotdialogical,sotheyhavetogenerate
theirowncontexttovaryingdegreesinordertosituatetheconsumermentally
insuchawaythattheyrecognizetherelevance,andarethussusceptibletothe
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influencetheadvertiserseekstoexert.Thisdoesnotmeantosaythatpragmatic
principlescannotbeappliedtomonologicalutterances,audioandvideo
recordingsortheprintedword,andanumberofscholarshavedonethis,as
explainedinSubchapter7.1,above.Wherethereisaspatialand/ortemporal
distancebetweenthespeakerandthehearer/reader,however,theburdenof
providingrelevantcontextislikelytobegreater.Asanexample,theutterance
“itisraining”byoneindividualtoanotherinsideabuildingislikelytogiverise
toabeliefinthemindofthehearerthatrainisfallingimmediatelyoutsidethat
buildingattheprecisetimetheutteranceisdelivered.Assumingthiswasindeed
theintendedmeaning,itwouldberecoveredinstantaneouslyand
unproblematicallybythereceiver.Thiswouldnot,however,bethecaseifthe
samephraseappearedasaforegroundedtextinamagazinearticle,orprinted
advertisement.Inordertorecovermeaning,theprincipleofrelevanceas
describedbyRelevanceTheoryisinsightful.Relevancetheoristsexplainhowa
readerofatextmaystillneedtocontextualizethestatement,andthiscanoccur
throughthepresenceofothercues.Suchcuesmay,accordingtotheoristssuch
asTanaka(1994),consistofphenomenaintheimmediatereadingenvironment,
e.g.accompanyingtextorpictorialcontentinthesamepartofthesametext,or
thatwhichcanbereliedupontobeintheencyclopaedicmemoryofthereader.
Thecontextprovidedmaybeexceedinglysimple,aswithSubjectC’s
advertisementforasofawheretheretailer’snamewasprominentalongwith
theprice,andperhapsjuxtaposedwithrecognizableadvertisingbuzzwordssuch
as“sale”or“nowonly”.Ontheotherhand,areadermaybeforcedtosearchfor
thecontextincaseswheretheadvertiseraimstomakethewordingcrypticin
ordertostimulateinterest,aswiththeexampleoftheadvertisementinagolfing
magazineurgingreadersto“playlessgolf”.Animagecanalsobecrypticand
thusinviteviewerstoconstructtheirownmeaning.Thisisthecasewiththe
VersaceadvertisementdiscussedwithSubjectB,whichcontainednolanguage
beyondthebrandname.Inothercases,animagehasaccompanyingtextwhich
isneededinordertomakesenseofthemessagetheadvertiserisgenerating,as
withSubjectE’sexampleofthepicturesshowingbizarreusesforwoks,asused
topromoteinstantnoodles.Toanextent,itmaybesuggestedthatthereissome
degreeofcorrelationbetweenadvertisementsinthewaycontextisproduced
263
andthereasonandtickledistinctionsasproposedbyBernstein(1974).Those
advertisementswhicharemorereasonorientedarelikelytotaketheformof
overtcommunicationandbedesignedtogivetheimpressionthattheirpurpose
isinformative.Conversely,anadvertisementwhichispredominantlytickleis
morelikelytobecovert;noinformativeintentionismademanifestandthe
strategyusedisdesignedtoattractinteresttotheadvertisementbytheartistry
involvedincreatingthestimulus.
2.Towhatextentarethespecificconceptualframeworksproposedintheories
ofsemioticsandpragmaticsvaluableinsheddinglightonthelinguisticand
communicativeprocessesinvolvedintheproductionandoperationof
advertisements?
Ataphilosophicallevel,itistruetosaythat,whilesignsexistindependentlyof
theirreferents,humanbeingsexperiencerealityandinteractwiththeworld
throughsignsdetectedbysensoryorgansandinterpretedbythebrainwiththe
aidofmemoryandintellect.Advertisementsaresignsandcombinationsof
signs,andsemioticsconstitutesamodelofhumancommunicationwhich
regardsthemassuch.Astheinterviewsrevealed,practitionersusethesesigns
inanattempttomakealinkbetweenaneed,wantordesireonthepartofa
consumerwhichamerchantaimstosatisfy.Atthemostbasiclevel,signs
operateassignifiersoftheexistenceofthesegoodsandservicesandtheymay
conveyotherinformationabouttheirquality,reliability,availabilityandprice.At
amoresophisticatedlevel,theyseektoassociatetheirproductsnotmerelywith
theirutility,butrathertopresentthebrandsandproductsinsuchawayasto
connectwithorinvokedeeperhumandesires,andespeciallythoserelatingto
lifestyle,socialstatusandsexualsuccess.Whilepractitionersmayormaynotbe
familiarwiththerelevanttheoreticalmeta-language,semioticconceptssuchas
connotationandsignificationprovideabasisforunderstandingthecreative
processesbywhichmeaningsareencodedandthustheyplayaroleinthe
creativeprocess.Itwasevidentfromtheinterviewsthattherewasalsoaclear
recognition,albeitanunconsciousone,ofthepowerofconnotationtomake
particularsignifiersmoresignificantandthusthemessageoftheadvertisement
becomesmorepotent.ThiswasconfirmedbySubjectB'scommentquotedin
264
Subchapter1.1abovethat“Ibetifyoubrokedownourprocesses…ifyoucould
lookintoourheads…we’dbeusingsemioticsinsomeway,butnotactively…not
explicitly”.Fromapragmaticperspective,ithaslongbeenrecognisedhow
personaldeictictermssuchaspersonalpronouns(e.g.us,we,you)andinformal
kinshipterms(e.g.mum,kids)canbeusedtogenerateimpressionsofintimacy
andempathywhile,atthesametime,distractingtheconsumerfromtheprofit
motiveoftheadvertiser,asnotedbyMyers(1991)andCook(2001).Some
workontheapplicationofRelevanceTheory(e.g.Tanaka,1994)accountsfor
featuresofadvertisingincludingtheuseofmetaphor,looseuseandadhoc
concepts,puns,crypticmessages,thewayadvertisementsmakethemselves
relevanttotheconsumerthroughthechoiceofparticularstimuli,andhowthey
relyuponassumedmutualknowledgeinorderforintendedmeaningstobe
conveyed.Theinterviewsshowthat,whileadvertiserswereunacquaintedwith
pragmatictheories,theywerecertainlyawareofcontext,andSubjectB'sclaim
aboutsemioticsbeingusedinsomeway,butnotexplicitly,couldalsobesaidto
applytopragmatics.
3.Howfamiliarareadvertisingprofessionalswithparticularsemioticand
pragmaticmodelsofcommunicationandtowhatextentdotheyattemptto
applytheoreticalprincipleswithwhichtheyarefamiliarintheirwork?
Itisclearthatwhilemany,ifnotamajority,ofuniversitiesdonotprovideany
inputonsemiotictheoriesintheiradvertisingandmarketingcourses,andnone
oftheprofessionalbodiesdo,copywriterstendedtohavesomedegreeof
awarenessofsemioticseitherfromothertrainingtheyhavereceived,e.g.in
coursesincommunicationsorgraphicart,orfromgeneralreading.Where
semioticinputwasfoundtoconstitutepartofuniversitycourses,itgenerally
reliedupontextbooksthatuseselectedsemiotictoolstodeconstructselected
advertisementsandthepracticalvalueofsuchinputcannotbeconfirmedwith
anycertainty.Ontheonehand,itmaybearguedthatthesetextbooksaremore
usefulforstudentsofsemioticsinexplainingandillustratingthetheoriesthey
areattemptingtocomprehendthaninofferinganinstructionmanualfortrainee
advertisingpractitionersincreatingcommercials.Ontheotherhand,exposure
tothetheoriescouldhaveaneffectofheighteningstudents’awarenessoffactors
265
suchassignificationandculturalmyth,andthisawarenesshelpsestablisha
foundationuponwhichprofessionalexpertiseisbuiltthroughexperience.It
wouldbedifficulttoestablishandmeasureanyofthesuggestedbenefitsthat
accruefromincludingsemioticsinthetrainingofadvertisers.Theresearchhas
shownthatsomepractitionerslamentthewayinwhichadvertisinghasbecome
de-intellectualisedandaccordinglytheircounterpartsinotheragenciesare
becominglessskilled.Itwasdiscoveredthatexpertiseintheapplicationof
semioticsexists,aswasevidentfromtheinterviewwiththecommercial
semiotician,butthisisemployedatthehighestendofmarketingmorebroadly,
andismakinglittleimpactupontheprofessionalknowledgeandmethodsof
provincialadvertisingagencies.Itbecameapparentintheinterviewsthat
practitionerswereacutelyawareofcontext.Theywereabletoempathisewith
theiraudience’sinterests,needsandwants,employahostofcreativestrategies
toensurethatdesiredmeaningswereconveyedthroughthegenerationof
implicaturesandtestaudiences'likelyabilitytobeabletorecoverthese
scientificallybymarketresearchandfocusgroups,andbyoff-the-cuffmethods
suchasSubjectE’s“Racheltest”91.Therewasacompleteabsenceofany
awarenessofpragmatictheoriesandconceptsonthepartofpractitionersand
soanyabilitytocontextualizetheircopywasentirelybasedonacombinationof
intuitionandexperience.
Theresearchrevealedthat,evenwheretheintervieweeshadexpressedsome
familiaritywithcertainsemioticprinciples,theydidnotmakeaconscious
decisiontoapplythese.Itmaybesupposedthatthisappliesacrossthe
advertisingindustry,atleastwithregardtosmallandmedium-sizedprovincial
agenciesintheUnitedKingdom.ThiswastheperceptionexpressedbySubjectF,
thecommercialsemiotician,whoseexperienceledhimtoconcludethat
copywriters’theoreticalknowledgewasofteninadequatewhenitcameto
applyingsemiotics,thattheyhadlittleideahowtoapplysemioticprinciplesand
wereafraidtousesemiotictermsastheycouldintimidateclients.Instead,they
preferredtoworkintuitively,basingtheirworkdecisionsontheirexperienceor,
91SeeAppendix3,below
266
asitwasexplained,they“freestyle”.Someawarenessofculturalmythsas
describedbyBartheswasdiscovered,albeitthatcopywriterswouldnothave
Barthes’stheoryinmindwhencreatingadvertisements.Therewasalsosome
levelofawarenessofmetaphors,andinvokingparallels,buttheseappearedto
bemorebasedongeneralknowledgecombinedwithextensiveworkexperience
inthefield.
Thepractitionersinterviewedwereacutelyawarethattheirprimaryfunction
wasmarketinggoodsandservicesandsotheirultimatepurposewasto
persuadeconsumerstobehaveinaparticularway,eveniftheirstrategywasto
distractfromthisbyconcealingtheirprimaryintentionbehindsomeother
apparentfunctionsuchasamusing,entertaining,perplexingorempathising.
Theyfullyappreciatedtheneedtoprovideastimulusinordertoattract
attentiontotheircommercials;thisstimuluswasgenerallythestartingpoint
andtheelementoftheadvertisementtowardswhichtheydirectedthemajority
oftheircreativeefforts.Simplycapturingattentionwasnotsufficient,though,to
achievetheaimsoftheadvertisement.Alinkhadtobemadebetweentheinitial
stimulusandthekeymessageforwhichtheadvertisementwascommissioned,
andtherecognitionofrelevancebythereceivermustnotbecomelostatany
point.IntermsofRelevanceTheory,thestimulusandotheraspectsofthe
advertisementcarryguaranteesoftheirownrelevancetotheconsumerandthat
itisworththeireffortinprocessingeachoftheelementsofitastheirattention
shiftsbetweenthem.Contextualisationwasgeneratedbycopywritersina
numberofways.Atthemostabstractlevel,andwheretheywereafforded
creativelicencetoapplyticklestrategies,theymentallyplayedaroundwith
thoughtssurroundingbrandsandproducts,relatingthemtootherphenomena
(suchasmusic)oraspectsoftheirownlivesandtryingtofindan“essence”92.
Thisenabledthemtomakeoutpatternsandparallelsthatcouldthenbeapplied
atamoreconcretelevel,wheretheywereseekingtoconstructandpositiona
messagewhichwouldprovideameaningfulstimulustoattractthedesired
92“Essence”wasatermusedbySubjectA.
267
attentiontotheadvertisementandpersuadethereaderorviewerofits
relevance.
4.Towhatextentdothecommunicativeinsightsandprinciplesofprofessional
advertisingpracticeprovidesupportfororconformtotherelevanttheoretical
models?
Anumberofattemptshavebeenmadeoverthepastcenturytoprovidea
definitivecompendiumoftheprinciplesofadvertising,butthedynamicnatures
ofculture,consumerismandmedia,wouldmakethisahugetask.Thepractice
hasevolvedmainlythroughexperience,althoughseveralacademicdisciplines
havecontributedtoitsdevelopmentandthebroaderfieldofmarketingisnow
anestablishedacademicdisciplineinitsownright.Sometextsusedincourses
andreferredtobypractitioners,includingsomeofthoseinterviewedinthis
study,(e.g.Bernstein,1974;Ogilvy,1983;Hegarty,2011)arelargely
experientialincharacterwhileothers(e.g.Brierley,2002)haveapproachedthe
topicaidedbyscientificunderstandingofmarketingtechniquessupportedby
citedresearch.Ithasbecomeclearduringthisresearchthatthereisnosingle
methodthatisuniversallyadvocatedwithinalltextsintermsofconstructing
advertisementsorinducingthecreativeprocessesthroughwhichtheyare
constructed.Therearemerelyfactorstobeconsidered,andapproachesthat
havebeensuccessfulorunsuccessful,givingrisetoaseriesofgeneralizedrules
ofthumbforpractitioners.Asforthepractitionersinterviewedforthisstudy,
certainthemesemerged,beginningwiththewaytheagenciesdescribed
themselves.Thefirstoftheseisacommonemphasisonoriginalthinking,with
SubjectA'sdescriptionofhiscompanyascomprising“curious,creativeand
somewhatnerdyminds”andclaimingthatthey“lookatthingsdifferently”and
thatthey“don’ttakethemselvestooseriously”.SubjectCdescribedhiscompany’s
advertisingcontentas“fun,inspiring,cool,imaginativeordownrightsurreal”,
whileSubjectDtalkedabout“freshthinking”.Thissuggestsanelementof
literarinessintheapproachoftheagenciesanditaccordswithnotionsfoundin
FormalisttheoriessuchasSchlovsky’sthatthetechniqueistomaketheobjects,
inthiscasetheadvertisementsproducedbytheseagencies,unfamiliar.There
268
wereexamplesofthisoccurringinadvertisementsproduced,includingthe
unfamiliaruseofwoksinthecommercialforinstantnoodles.Whileitisevident
SubjectEdidnothaveSchlovsky’stheoryinmindwhenheproducedthe
advertisement,heappearedinthisadvertisementtobeattempting:
“tomakeformsdifficult,toincreasethedifficultyandlengthof
perceptionbecausetheprocessofperceptionisanaestheticendin
itselfandmustbeprolonged”(Schlovsky,1917).
Agenciesappreciatedtheywereoperatinginthebusinessenvironmentandthat
theirartisticinclinationshadtobetemperedwithcommercialpragmatism.On
theirrespectivewebsitehomepages,theirself-descriptionsincorporated
expressionswhichinformedpotentialclientsofthisawareness,forexample
SubjectB:“speedyandefficientdelivery”;SubjectC:“achievingyourbusinessaims”
and“alwaysclear,eloquentandeffectiveincommunicatingyourmessage”andit
wassubtlyimpliedinSubjectD’sself-description:“Wetakeleaps.Butnotinthe
dark”.AsexplainedinSubchapter7.5above,practitionersweremindfulofthe
primarypurposeoftheiradvertisements,andthatpersuadingaudiencesto
behaveinadesiredway,e.g.bypurchasingproducts,wasthechief
considerationeventhoughthiswasrarelymadeexplicit;themoretickle
(Bernstein,1974)strategieswereapplied,themorecovertthisfunctionbecame.
Whilethecovertaimispersuasion,thestrategytoachievethiscanbyuseof
stylisticandpoeticdevicessuchasalliteration,homophonyandpuns,orphatic
approachessuchasbyusingpersonalpronounsandinformalspeechortryingto
showanempatheticawarenessofthereaderorviewer’slife,orsimply
informative,suchasbyshowingaproductalongsidewhatisclaimedtobea
remarkablylowprice.Provincialadvertisersmaynotinvokeclassicalfigures
suchasDionysus,ascitedbyBeasleyandDanesi(2002)93orFrenchintellectual
93MentionedinChapter5.6
269
novelslikeProust’sInSearchofLostTime,asmentionedbyTanaka(1994)94,
perhapsbecausetheyarelesslikelytobefamiliartoallreadersorviewers,but
thoseinterviewedwerecertainlycognizantofthepotentialforapplyingbetter
knownculturalmyths,suchasthetaleofRobinHood,andmoremodern
mythologies(inBarthes’terms)suchasthespeedoffootballerMichaelOwen.
Itisundeniablethatadvertisersseektoachieveaspecificcognitiveeffectand,in
ordertodothat,produceanappropriatestimulusasdescribedbySperberand
Wilson(1995),i.e.onewhichwillachievetheintendedeffectwhenprocessed.
Inthecaseofadvertising,however,thestimulusisfrequentlynotonethatis
directlyconnectedtothechiefaimoftheadvertiser.Itmaybeargued,for
instance,thatanadvertisementwithatickleelementmayhavetwodistinct
conativeaims.Thefirstoftheseisthatofattractingandsustainingattentionto
theadvertisementitselfor,asSubjectE’sagencywebsiteexplainedit,“grabthe
public’sattention”.Thisisaccomplishedusingcontentwhich,onthesurface,
appearsdistantfromitsmainaim,specificallytoencouragetheconsumertobuy
theadvertisedproduct.Accordingly,theambitionofapractitionerwhen
confrontedwithabriefwouldbetoapplyhisorhercreativeskillsprimarilyto
thetaskofdesigninganeffectivestimulus,andthisstimuluscouldbepictorial,
suchasa“wokchariot”fordogs(SubjectE),linguistic,asin“Rhubarband
Custody”(SubjectyE)orcrypticasin“Playlessgolf”(SubjectE).Asoutlined
above,practitionersalsodependedheavilyupontheencyclopaedicknowledge
ofconsumerstomakesenseoftheadvertingtheyproduced.Advertiserswere
awareoftheadvantagesofcombiningimageswithlanguageandhowthis
combinationboostedthemessage;oneinterviewee,SubjectC,statedthis
explicitlyasshowninChapter6.5.3.Barthes(1957)demonstrateshowimages
invokeculturalmythsreferenceto“ayoungNegrosoldierinaFrenchuniform
…saluting”(Subchapter2.7)andthebagofPanzaniproductswhichprojectthe
notionhecalled“Italianicity”(ibid)justasSubjectAsawthispossibilityby
utilizingastatueofRobinHood.Imagesmaybeusedasameanstoprovide
context,insomecasestoachievelittlemorethantoindicatetoareaderofa
94MentionedinChapter3.6
270
magazinethattheyarelookingatacommercialandnotjournalism,ortoreduce
thereadingburdenontheviewerandtherebymakethemessageeffortlessand
instantaneous,suchaspictureofasofawiththewords“nowonly£499!”.
Alternatively,animagemayitselfconstitutethetickle,actingasthestimulusas
describedbySperberandWilson(1995)bydepictingsomethingamazing,or
comicalsuchaspeopleplayingtenniswithwoks,orfamiliar,suchasthefaceofa
well-knownfootballer.
5.Whataretheimplicationsfortheoryfromthisconfrontationbetweentheory
andpractice,andwhatimplicationsarethereforprofessionalpracticeand
training/education?
Fromtheperspectiveoftheoreticalandacademicsemioticians,advertising
offersanalmostinexhaustiblebankofdatathatillustrateculturalsemiotic
principles.Barthes(1957)himselfusesseveralexamplesofadvertisinginhis
worksandsomeofthesewereknowntotheintervieweesinthisstudy.
Multimodalapproaches,suchasthoseadvocatedbyKressandvanLeeuwen
(2001)andvanLeeuwen(2005),areillustratedwithexamplesfromadvertising.
Moregeneralsemiotictextbooksaimedatstudentsofmediastudies,
communicationorphilosophyalsoexplainprincipleswiththeaidof
advertisements.
Modernadvertisingoperatesatahighlevelofsophisticationandappliesan
arrayoftechniquestoconveymessageswhichrangefromdetailedandspecific
tolooseandimpressionistic,whilemakingfulluseofliteraryandpsychological
devicestoachieveitsaims.Semioticapproachesarecertainlyinsightful,butthey
areboundtofallshortintermsofbeingabletoaccountforallofthese,andso
otherframeworksmustalsobeconsideredtoachieveacompleteunderstanding
ofthecommunicativeandcognitiveprocessesinvolved.Pragmaticsarguably
offersamoremodernapproachandonethathasdevelopedconsiderablysince
itsinceptionasaspecificdisciplinearoundthemiddleofthetwentiethcentury.
Itaccountsforthegenerationandcomprehensionofcommunicativeactshaving
regardtocontext,i.e.thosefactorsoutsideoftheutteranceortextsuchas
271
speakerintention,aspectsrelatedtotheimmediateenvironmentandthe
assumedsharedknowledgeofparticipants.Thisstudyhasarguedthat
RelevanceTheory,withitsdistinctiveconceptsofinformativeintentionand
communicativeintention,anditsconceptionoftheroleofencyclopaedic
knowledge,mayofferanespeciallyinsightfulframeworkforexplainingthe
processinvolvedinmeaningcreationandrecoveryinadvertising.
However,theresearchdescribedinthisthesissuggeststhatthesetheoretical
modelsarelesssuccessfulataccountingforthecreativeprocessesinvolvedin
theproductionofadvertisementsbyordinaryprovincialadvertisers.These
modelsmaybeinstructiveinunderstandingunconsciousinfluencesinthe
formationofideasinadvertising,buttheyweredesignedforthedeconstruction
ofmessagesratherthanfortheirconstruction;theyareessentiallytoolsfor
analyzingratherthansynthesizingsignsandthisishowtheyareusedin
textbooks.Consequently,theteachingofsemioticstoadvertisingpractitionersis
limitedtocloseexaminationsofexistingandselectedinstantiationsof
advertising,identifyingcertainfeaturespresentanddeducingorspeculatingon
theirintendedinterpretations.Ifsemioticsand/orpragmaticsaretofeaturein
thetrainingofstudentsofadvertisingandmarketing,andifitissuggestedthat
theprinciplescontainedwithinthesedisciplinesshouldbeadoptedby
practitionersintheircreativeprocesses,thebenefitstotheindustrymustbe
clear.Whileitwasrevealedintheinterviewsthatpractitionersmanagedtheir
processeswithoutanyconsiderationoftheories,preferringinsteadtorelyupon
theirprofessionalinstinctsandlifeexperience,aconcernwasexpressedthatthe
industrywasbecomingde-skilledasclientsweremorewillingtoproducetheir
ownadvertisingin-house,therebysavingthecostofcommissioningagencies.
Thatsaid,evidenceemergedwhichindicatedeffortstoprofessionaliseboth
marketingandadvertisingthroughtrainingofferedinhighereducation,upto
andincludingMaster'slevel,andaccreditationthroughprofessionalbodiessuch
astheInstituteofMarketingandtheInstituteofPractitionersofAdvertising.
SubjectF,thecommercialsemiotician,alsoprovidedevidencethatthereisscope
toapplysemioticsinthecreativeprocessesofdesigningadvertising.Indeed,the
insightsandtechniquesofindividualslikeSubjectFcouldformthebasisofa
272
practicalsubdisciplineofsemioticadvertisingthatwouldincorporateamethod
andprocessparticulartothatfield.Somerecommendationsonhowthiscould
beachieved,andhowthefieldofpragmaticscouldbedevelopedtohave
practicalapplicationsinadvertisingdesign,arepresentedinthenextandfinal
chapter.
273
CHAPTER8–CONCLUSION
8.1CHAPTERINTRODUCTION
Thisfinalchapterbeginsbyreviewingtheprocessoftheresearchunderpinning
thisthesisincludingtheprimaryandsecondarydatacollection.Itbriefly
describesthemethodofdatacollection,followedbyanassessmentofthe
processofresearchintermsofitsefficiencyandthevalidityofthefindings,
includinganylimitationsof,andshortcomingsarisingfrom,themethod.The
valueofthefindingstotherelevantdisciplinesisalsoassessed.Suggestionsfor
futureresearcharemade,alongwithrecommendationsinrespectofthe
advertisingindustry,andthethesisendswithsomeconcludingremarks.
8.2REVIEWOFRESEARCHPROCESS
TheresearchquestionslistedintheIntroductionofthisthesiswereformulated
todescribeanddelimitanexaminationofthecreativeprocessesinvolvedin
advertisingfromtwodifferentperspectives.Thefirstofthese,explainedin
Chapter2,wasbasedontheassumptionthatdesigningadvertisementsis
essentiallyamatterofcoding-selectingandcomposingsignifierstoproduce
desireddenotationsandconnotationsthatwillgenerateaneffectinthosewho
encounterthem,andthisisdoneforthepurposeofmodifyingtheirbehaviour.
Advertisementsaresyntheticsigns,composedofcontinuouslinguisticsignifiers
operatingatalllevelsoflanguageandthesearemostlyjuxtaposedwithnon-
linguisticmodes,suchasselectedimages,typefaces,colours,musicandsound,
dependingonthemediumthroughwhichtheyaredelivered.Attheculturallevel,
thesesignssummonculturalmyths,ancientandmodern,intothemindofthe
receiver.Thisperspectivearisesfromthefieldofsemioticsandthereisan
establishedacknowledgementofanassociationbetweensemioticsand
advertising.Thesecondperspective,discussedinChapter3,considers
274
advertisingasconsistingofcommunicativeactswhichdependupon,generate
andmanipulate,context.Itexaminedprevailingpragmatictheoriesthatattempt
toexplaincontextincommunicationgenerallyandconsidershowthesehave,in
thepast,beenappliedinthedeconstructionofadvertising.Havingcompileda
summaryofthebroadertheoriesandhypothesesfromsemioticsandpragmatics,
thefourthchapteroutlinedamethodologybywhichresearchwasundertakento
establishwhataspectsofsemioticsandpragmaticsweretaughttostudentsof
advertisingandmarketing,andthecontentofsemioticsandpragmaticsin
advertisingtextbooks.Thereafter,asecondlimbofthisresearchconsistedofa
smallnumberofadvertisingcopywritersbeinginterviewedandtheirknowledge
ofsemiotics,theircreativeprocessesandotheraspectsoftheirworking
practicesandexperience,beingrecordedandanalysed.Researchasdescribed
wasconductedandtheresultssubjectedtoacloseanalysisasoutlinedin
Chapters5and6.InChapter7,theimplicationsoftheresearcharedirectly
comparedtoandcontrastedwiththetheoreticalapproachesfromsemioticsand
pragmatics.Broaderconclusionsastotheroleofbothdisciplinesinadvertising
weresuggestedandasummaryoffindingsastheyrelatedtothethesis
questionswereproducedattheendofthispenultimatechapter.
8.3RESEARCHEVALUATION
Theextenttowhichtheresearchquestionshavebeensuccessfullyaddressed
hasbeenoutlinedinSubchapter7.7above,sothissubchapterexploresthe
limitationsoftheresearchaccordingtotheperceptionsoftheauthorandthe
possiblevalueofthestudytotheadvertisingindustry,tothosetrainingfuture
practitionersandtoacademicswithinterestsinthetheoreticalfieldsmentioned.
Tocompletetheresearchunderlyingthisthesis,itwasnecessarytoadoptan
interdisciplinaryapproachtosomeextent.Tworelated,butdiscrete,areas
relatingtocommunicationandlanguageusehavebeeninvestigatedandapplied
275
inrelationtoadvertising,namelythecode/signbasedapproachofsemioticsand
thecontext/inferenceapproachofferedbypragmatics.Thiswasessentialin
ordertocomparethetwoandanswertheresearchquestions.Inaddition,
marketingandadvertisingarespecializedfieldswithwhichtheauthorhadno
previoustrainingorexperienceandsoitwasnecessarytobecomeacquainted
withthese,andtheirrespectiveterminology,toatleastabasiclevel,inorderto
conductthestudy.Itwouldhavebeenbeneficialtohaveperformedthis
researchinpartnershipwithascholarofmarketingwhowasabletoprovide
insightsatanearlystageasitwouldlikelyhavesavedtimeandenabledthe
studytobemorefinelyfocused.Suchapartnercouldhaveassistedinexplaining
thetermsused,thevariousrolesofindividuals(e.g.copywriter,graphicartist,
artdirectorandcreativedirector)anddevisingthequestionnaireatthedesign
stageoftheresearch.Thiswouldhavemadetheresearchprocessmoreefficient.
Heorshemayalsohavecontributedtoknowledgeaboutthetrainingofthose
workinginadvertisingandmarketing,sothatinitialassumptionsthatall
workinginthesefieldshavereceivedformalmarketingeducationwouldhave
beendispelledatanearlystage;theinterviewsshowedsomeoftheinitial
assumptionswereincorrect.
Withregardtotheaspectwhichinvestigatedthetrainingofadvertising
practitioners,thedifficultyinobtaininginformationfromuniversitiesand
professionalbodieswasunder-estimated.Inthecaseoftheformer,outofthirty
universitiescontacted,onlytenatmostcouldbedescribedasinanywayhelpful.
Therewasatendencyforthosecalledtoeither'passthebuck',bynaming
anothercolleaguewhotheysaidmightbeabletohelp,ormakingpromisesto
respondtoemailsandfailingtokeepthem.Insomecases,anoff-the-cuffand
non-committalanswerwasgivensuchas“Iamnotawarethatwecover
semiotics”,andthisgaverisetothesuspicionthattherespondentdidnotknow
forcertainanditwouldbetoomuchtroubleforthemtofindout.Inhindsight,
andwiththebenefitoftheexperiencefromthepresentstudy,thisaspectofthe
researchwouldhavebeenmoresuccessfullycompletedbymaking
appointmentstomeetuniversityteachersanddirectorsofstudyinthefleshand
tohaveinterviewedthemwithapre-preparedquestionnaireasoccurredwith
276
thecopywriters.Itwouldthenhavebeenpossibletohaveobtainedfromeachof
themcomprehensiveliteraturelists,andthereaftertohavemadeadetailed
inspectionofalltheworksmentioned.Thiswould,however,havebeen
immenselytime-consumingandnotfeasibleas,asidefromthefiveface-to-face
interviewswiththecopywriters,theresearchforthisthesiswasconductedin
SwedenandnotintheUK.Itshouldalsobenotedthatmanyoftheuniversities
didnotcoveranythingrelatedtothisstudyandinsuchcasestheinterviews
wouldhaveprovedfruitlessandsotimewouldhavebeenwasted.Althougha
moresystematicstudyasdescribedwouldhavesuppliedmorerobustdatain
thisrespect,theoneconductedservedapurposeofprovidingatleastanotional
insightintothetrainingofstudentsofmarketingandadvertisingandwas
adequatelyinformativeintermsofdesigningthequestionnaire.
Afurtherlimitationintermsofthescopeofthestudyisidentifiedasbeingthe
smallnumberofcopywritersinterviewedevenforaqualitativestudysuchas
this.Whiletheintervieweesworkedwithinagenciesofverydifferentsizes,
rangingfromSubjectA,asoleoperator,toSubjectE,adirectorofamedium-
sizedcompanywithsubsidiariesandemployeesnumberingindozens,andthey
werediverseintermsofthekindofadvertisingcommissionstheyundertook,
theywereallmale,andallhavetheirbusinessesintownsandcitiesinthenorth
ofEngland.Itmayormaynotbesignificantthatnonewerefemale;itisknown
thattherearesomewomenworkinginadvertisingatalllevelsandthe
possibilitythattheircreativeapproachmaydifferfromthatofmencannotbe
discounted.Further,itmustbenotedthatnoneoftheinterviewees,asidefrom
SubjectF,thecommercialsemiotician,werefromtheprestigiousagenciesin
London,withtheirmulti-millionpoundbudgetsand“highconcept”approaches.
Theresearchundertakenforthisthesiscommencedwithareviewofthe
trainingofadvertisersandtheinputtheyreceiveonsemioticsandpragmatics.
Itthenpresentedoriginaldatawhichcomprisedasnapshotoftheworkofa
smallnumberofadvertisingprofessionalsintermsoftheirbackgrounds,
trainingandapproaches,astheyexplainedtheminpre-arrangedandrecorded
interviews.Itwasdiscoveredthatpractitionerswhohavenoformaltrainingin
advertisingormarketingwerecommonplaceandareapparentlyoperating
277
successfullyintheindustry.Indeed,aswasrevealedintheinterviews,an
applicantwhopossessedsuchtrainingmaynothavebeenthefirstchoicewhen
agencieswerelookingtorecruitthenextgenerationofcopywriters.Owingto
therangeofpractitionersintermsoftheirrespectiveagesandvaried
educationalandcareerbackgrounds,andthefactthatsomehavegained
knowledgeofthetheoriesthroughotherkindsoftraining,orevengeneral
interestreading,furtherresearchintothecontentofadvertisingcourseswould
notyieldareliableassessmentoftheknowledgeofpractitionersoftheoretical
frameworks.
Inspiteofthelimitationsmentioned,itisexpectedthatthisstudywouldbeof
interesttothoseworkinginthefieldofadvertising,tothoseresponsiblefor
designinganddeliveringtrainingtoadvertisersandalsotoacademicsin
disciplinesrelatedtocommunicationandlinguisticanalysis.Copywritersand
otherswhoareemployedindesigningadvertisementsareinvariablyawareof
theneedtostimulateandretaintheinterestofconsumersandtoconveydesired
messagesiftheirworkistobeeffective,andthisthesishas,perhapsforthefirst
time,shoneatheoreticallightonthecreativeprocessoftheadvertising
practitioner.Itcomparedandcontrastedsemioticideas,ofwhichtheymay
alreadyhaveatleastsomesuperficialknowledge,withamoderncognitive
approachtounderstandinghowintendedmeaningisrecovered,andhowa
consumer'sexistingknowledgeandmemoriesareinvokedincommunication
andcouldtherebybeefficientlyexploitedinconstructingandrelayingmessages.
Itprovidedabroadoverviewofwhatistaughtinasampleofuniversities'
advertisingandmarketingcoursesintermsofsemioticsandthecourse
materialsused,highlightingissuessuchasthelackofconsistencyastowhat
aspectsofthistheoreticaltopicaretaughtandtowhatlevel.Ithasfurther
suggestedanapproachfrompragmaticswhichmayoffervaluableinsightsinto
howadvertisingmessagesaremaderelevanttoconsumersandunderstoodas
intended.Thefindingsoutlinedinthisthesismaybeofinterestto,andof
practicaluseto,studentsandacademicsofmediaorsemioticsasitaddstothe
existingbodyofworkinthisfieldbyscholarsmentionedinChapter2.
Researcherswhohaveaninterestindevelopmentswithinpragmaticsand,in
278
particular,howRelevanceTheorycanbeappliedinunderstandingthecognitive
processesinvolvedinproducingpublishedandbroadcasttexts,mayfindsome
aspectsofthisresearchuseful,especiallyasitexaminesthecreativeaspectsof
communicationfromtheperspectiveoftheproducerratherthanthereceiver.
8.4RECOMMENDATIONSANDFUTURERESEARCH
Whenenteringanyprofessionthatrequiresaperiodoftraininginaninstitution
thatisremotefromthefinalworkplace,thereisariskthatadisparitymay
emergebetweenwhatistaughtintheformerandwhatactuallyhappensinthe
latter.Thishasbeenobservedinoccupationsasdiverseassportsmedicine
(Reider,2011)andeducationalresearch(AlHijji&Fadlallah,2013)andithas
previouslybeendiscussedinthecontextofmarketingeducation(Tregear,2010).
Ashasbeenoutlinedinthisthesis,advertiserswerenotalwaystrainedinthis
fieldbeforehandwithinuniversitiesandcolleges,butoftenenteredthe
professionobliquely,havingstudiedsubjectsinhighereducationthathadlittle
orevennoobviousrelevancetotheirdailywork.Thisisnottodiminishthe
valueoftheirpreviousstudiesasthesemaywellhaveequippedthemwith
broadertransferableskillsthattheywereabletoapplywhenworkingas
copywriters,artdirectorsandcreativedirectors.Suchskillsmighthave
includedresearchmethods,criticalthinkingandproblemsolving,creative
thinking,presentation,andknowledgeofbusinesspracticesandfinance.For
whatappearstobetheminorityofpractitionerswhohadcompletedspecific
advertisingcoursesatauniversity,thetheoreticalcontentmayormaynothave
includedsemioticsand,whenithad,thetextsusedwouldhavetendedtooutline
somesemiotictheoriesanddeconstructedselectedpastadvertisementsto
illustratethese.Professionalbodiesappearedtohavenointerestinsemiotics.
However,thisdoesnotmeanthatcopywriterswereignorantoftheoretical
principlesanddidnoteverapplythemintheirwork;theresearchhasshown
279
thatthereweresomepractitionerswhowereatleastvaguelyfamiliarwiththe
theoriesofsemiotics,althoughnonehassaidtheymadeadeliberateattemptto
applythemsystematicallyintheirwork.Theresearchalsorevealedthatthe
advertisingprofessionalswerekeenlyawareoftheculture,valuesandlifestyles
ofthosetowhomtheiradvertisementsweredirectedandtheywereableto
invoketheseaspartoftheirdesignpractices.Similarly,whilepragmatic
principlesdidnotfeatureinanyaspectofthetrainingofthepractitioners,and
therewasnoapparentawarenessoftheoreticalpragmatics,theyappearedto
haveaninnateorexperience-basedunderstandingofcontext,itskeyrolein
communicationandhowtheirmessagescouldbecontextualizedbyrelying
heavilyonempathyandencyclopaedicknowledge.
Lookingtothefuture,amoreexpansivestudyofasimilarnaturetothisone,but
involvingagreaternumberofpractitionersfromacrossallpartsoftheUnited
Kingdom,andespeciallythecapital,wouldbeofvalue.Suchastudywouldonly
bemeaningfulifitweretobeconfinedtotwogroups;bothgroupswouldconsist
ofpractitionerswhohadstudiedadvertisingormarketingatuniversity,butone
wouldincludeonlythosewhohadreceivedinputonsemioticswhiletheother
wouldincludestudentswhohadnotstudiedsemiotics.Onthatbasis,a
judgmentcouldbemadeastotheroleanunderstandingofsemioticsplaysinthe
creativeprocesses,dependinguponwhetheranindividualhadbeenexplicitly
trainedinitornot.Afuturestudyoughtperhapstobeundertakenbyoneor
moresemioticiansandlinguistsworkingalongsideoneormoremarketing
specialists.Itwouldalsobeadvantageoustocomplementthedataobtained
duringtheinterviewswithobservationofthepractitionersintheirnormaldaily
work,e.g.duringtheperiodwhentheyareattemptingtoformulateideas,
discussingthemwithcolleagues,designingstrategiesandperformingother
workinrelationtothem.Thiswouldoccurwherearesearchercouldwitness
andrecordtheentireprocessofadvertisingcampaignsfrominceptionto
completion,orbepresentatcertainpointsincampaignswhenadvertising
strategiesarebeingconsideredanddecisionsmade.Aclosedissectionofsuch
observationaldatawouldtendtoconfirm,orpossiblycontradict,thatwhichis
obtainedthroughinterviewsandenableprocessestobeobservedofwhichthe
280
intervieweesarenotconsciouslyaware.Whetheraccesstothedeliberations
andconversationsinadvertisingagenciesandcompanymarketingdepartments
wouldbepermittedisuncertainowingtofactorssuchascommercial
confidentiality,orsimplybecausesuchpractitionershaveotherprioritiesand
thepresenceofresearchersontheirpremiseswouldbeadistraction.
Studyingadvertisingfromtheoreticalperspectivesmaybebeneficialinthatit
offersframeworksthatcanbeexploitedbyadvertisersthemselvesinadvancing
theircraft.Suchanoutcomecouldonlybeachieved,however,iftheinsights
gainedweretobetranslatedintoworkingprinciplesthatcouldbereadily
understood,andfromwhichmethodologiescouldbedevelopedandapplied.It
cannotberationaltoteachstudentssemiotictheoriesanddemonstratehow
theycanbeusedtodeconstructselectedinstantiationsofpre-existing
advertisementsinthehopethat,indoingso,theywillsomehowbeableto
constructadvertisementsoftheirownusingsemioticprinciples.Itistherefore
recommendedthatamoresystematicapproachshouldbedesigned,possibly
basedontheknowledgeandexpertiseofcommercialsemioticianssuchas
SubjectF.Fromthis,abodyofknowledgecouldbecollatedandwhichcould
formthebasisofaconsistentsetofprocessesbywhichthosetrainingtoworkin
advertisingwouldbeequippedtostarttheprocessofidea-formingfromthe
perspectiveoftheory.Inotherwords,the“blue-skythinking”and“blankpieceof
paper”approaches,asdescribedbytheinterviewees,wouldhaveatthevery
leasttheadvantageofatheoreticalstartingpoint.
Foranyadvertisementtobecomprehendedasintended,thecontextmustbe
indicatedorembodiedwithinit,otherwisethenecessaryimplicaturesmaynot
bedrawn,causingittofailinitspurpose.Asshowninthisthesis,such
implicaturescanbenarrowandspecific,aswhenaproductisbeingpromotedat
anexceptionallylowprice,implicatingthatthisistypicalofthedealstheretailer
offers.Alternatively,implicaturescanbevagueanduncertaininorder,for
example,toconveyageneralimpressionofabrandimageandthelifestyle
associatedwithit.Advertisementsmustalsosecuretheattentionofthereceiver
bywayofastimulus;thatmusttaketheformofaforegroundedelementwhich
hasrelevancetothem,andconvincesthemthatitisworththeirefforttoengage
281
withthecommercialinquestionandrecoverthecoremessage.Itistherefore
furtherrecommendedthattheeducationofthoseenteringadvertisingshould
includeatleastsomeelementaryinstructioninpragmaticsinordertoincrease
awarenessoffactorssuchascontextandimplicature,andhowthesecanbe
generatedinadvertisingtoproducethedesiredcognitiveeffects.
Appliedpragmaticsiscurrentlylimitedinitsscope.Therehavebeenattempts
tomakepracticaluseofpragmatictheoriesinthefieldsofspeechtherapy,
especiallyintermsofdevisingstrategiesfortreatingaphasias(Marangoloetal,
2013)andthepedagogicalaspectsofsecondlanguageacquisition(e.g.Barron,
2011).Itisrecommendedthat,iftheteachingofpragmaticsweretobe
introducedintotrainingcoursesforprospectiveadvertisingcopywritersand
creators,thoseresponsiblefordesigningcoursesshouldbeginbydrawingupon
theexperienceofspecialistsworkinginthefieldsmentioned.Theteachingof
pragmaticstostudentsofadvertisingshouldconsistofmorethanjustpragmatic
deconstructionsofadvertisementsmadebyothers.Instead,itmustalign
theoreticalprincipleswithpracticalproceduresandinsuchawaythatstudents
wouldseetheirrelevanceandidentifyapplicationsintheirwork.Acourseof
thistypemightincludeaspectsofRelevanceTheory,exploringthepossibilities
offeredbytheprocessofenrichmentasdescribedbyWilsonandSperber(2012).
Aunifiedpragmatic/semioticapproachcouldconceivablybeadoptedbywhich
theenrichmentisviewedasoperatingintandemwiththesemiotictheoryof
culturalmyths.Complexandmulti-facetedmeaningscantherebybe
transmittedandinterpretedasintendedalmostinstantaneouslybythe
appropriatechoiceandcombinationofsignifiersandstimuli.Studentscouldbe
madeawareofhowadvertisementswhichrelyuponencyclopaedicknowledge
thatareceiverdoesnotpossess,orenvironmentalfactorswhicharenotreadily
manifest,areunlikelytoachievetheirgoalandmayevenantagonizeconsumers,
andhowsuchpotentiallycostlyerrorscouldbeavoided.Inthecourseoftime,it
wouldbepossibletoconductresearchandcollatedatawhichwouldindicate
whetheranawarenessofpragmatictheoriesandframeworksmightaidthe
creativeprocesses,andifsohow,andasystematicpragmaticmethodfor
practitionersofadvertisingwouldeventuallyemerge.
282
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Appendix1
ListofUKuniversitiescontactedinconnectionwiththisthesis:
AberystwythUniversity
AngliaRuskinUniversity
AstonUniversity
BirminghamCityUniversity
BournemouthUniversity
BrunelUniversity
BuckinghamshireNewUniversity
CardiffUniversity
CityUniversityLondon
CoventryUniversity
DeMontfortUniversity
EdgeHillUniversity
Heriot-WattUniversity
KeeleUniversity
LancasterUniversity
LoughboroughUniversity
NottinghamTrentUniversity
SheffieldHallamUniversity
TheUniversityofHull
TheUniversityofNottingham
TheUniversityofSheffield
TheUniversityofWarwick
TheUniversityofYork
UniversityofAberdeen
UniversityofBirmingham
UniversityofBristol
UniversityofChester
UniversityofEastAnglia
UniversityofLeeds
UniversityofSouthampton
293
Appendix2
QUESTIONNAIRE
Part A – Interviewee Background;
1. By what route did you enter the advertising industry?
2. Did you study advertising at university? If so, which one?
3. What texts do you recall using when training in your field?
4. To what extent did you learn about semiotics, including cultural semiotics such as myths etc? (Will explain this further if necessary)
5. What, if any, texts do you refer to now in your work when constructing ads?
Part B – Forming Ideas
6. Explain the process of forming ideas for a new ad. Please briefly describe your general creative approach/philosophy daily work technique when you have to devise ads.
7. When devising an ad, do you visualize the completed ad from the start, or is this a building process?
8. To what extent does your approach differ according to whether you are promoting a brand or advertising a specific product?
9. How do you see the role that semiotics plays in your own process of forming ideas in designing advertisements? (if it does play a role. Explain if necessary and probe)
Part C – Strategy - Your Last Advertisement
10. Describe in detail the routine and/or process by which the last advertisement was devised and say whether you were working alone or working in collaboration with a colleague or other people.
11. Give as much information as you can about where the advertisement was to appear (e.g. magazine, newspaper etc), its size and distribution (geographic and numerical)
12. What did you aim to do? What was your brief? Was there a creative brief from a client, or did you have a free hand?
13. To whom was your advertising directed (e.g. a particular group of people)? How did you identify them?
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14. Summarise what else went on during the design process. What were the main considerations?
15. How did you ensure a reader/viewer would readily understand/make sense of the advertisement? What thought/elements went into ensuring this aspect would be successful?
Part D – More Generally
16. Describe how, if at all, you try to use symbolism and icons in your advertising.
17. Describe how, if at all, you try to use cultural phenomena, stereotyping or aspects of folklore in your advertising.
18. If you are advertising a specific product, how do you try to appeal to the audience’s pre-existing knowledge? How do you ensure it is immediately relevant to your target audience? ’
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Appendix3
Transcriptsofinterviewswithcopywriters.
(NOTE:Preliminaryintroductionsoftenoccurbeforetherecordingbeginsandtheintervieweemayappeartostarttheexplanationunprompted):
SUBJECT A
SothefirstquestionIhavegotis,[0.10]wellIhavegotthemallinakindofanordersoeverybodygetsaskedthesamequestion.Thefirstoneisbywhatroute
didyouentertheadvertisingindustry,whatwasyourwayin?
SUBJECTA:WellPR.AndIwent,IdidadegreeincommunicationatBournemouth
University,erm…andmyoriginalintentionwastodojournalism,andIdidalittlebitof
journalismworkexperienceandatthetime,erm…thejournalistsweregettingthese
pressreleases,andtheydidn’tevenhaveaPCtheyhadakeyboardwithatinylittlestripandtheywouldjusttypeupthesepressreleases,andIthoughtwellthisisnotwhatI
imaginedjournalismtobelike,wherearethesepressreleasescomingfrom.Andthat
gotmeintothinkaboutPR,erm…afteralittlebitoftoingandfroingandtryingto[0.58]
voluntaryworkandthingslikethatIeventuallyworkedforaBradfordPRagency.Idid
abitofeverything,andwithin6monthsIhadleftthereandgonetoabiggerLeedsagency,andthenIwasthereforacoupleofyearsasaPRguyandthenerm…thenI
wenttoBrahmandeventuallywhathappenedwasIwasworkingonaToyotatheir
industrialequipmentdivisionandmostoftheagenciesIworkedatwerefullservice
agenciessotheywoulddoPRandadvertising,andtherewouldalwaysbealittlebitof
crossover,erm…IwasthinkinginpreparationfortodayactuallyIwasthinkingoneofthe,aguywhoerm…Iusedtoworkwithhewasacopywriterthatwashissortofallhis
job,andhesaidthathisjobwastotakethebullshitandcondenseitandminewastogo
theotherway.Andheerm…asaresultofworkingonToyota’sadvertisingcampaign
theagency,theyaskedmetogetinvolvedwiththePR,inordersotheycouldgetbothsidesofthebusiness,whenIlefttheagencyItoldtheclient,theclientsaidwellwecan’t
makeanyguaranteesbutwewouldliketogowhereyougo,whichwasveryflattering.
SoIendeduptravellingtodifferentplacesandasaresultofworkingonthatparticular
client,theyhadadealerstructure,andIwoulddoworkforthemaincompanybutalso
fortheirdealersandthedealerswouldsaytomeerm…wouldyoudosomeworkforus,andthenIdecided,theyweresayingifyouworkedforyourselfwewouldgiveyousome
worksothatiswhatIdid.Iwenttoworkformyselfandthenitwastheirrequirement
ofdoingotherthings,designwork,webwork,advertisingwork,thatkindofnotforced
me,butledmetogo,tosortofbecomealldifferentthingssoallmarketing.Somycore
isIamaPRguybutactuallyovertheyearsthathassortoftakenabitmoreofabackseatandIdoamixtureofeverythingnow.
296
Right,
SubjectA:That’sagoodanswer.
Yessomynextquestionreallyyousortofhalfpre-empteditbecauseIaskedyou
didyoustudyadvertisingatuniversityandthatyoutoldmeBournemouthand
youstudiedcommunicationstudies?
SubjectA:Noitwasjust,notcommunicationstudies,itisactuallycommunication,
withoutthes.Thereisasubtledifferenceinthatitincludedthingslikeerm…erm…editingandpublishing,itwassortofmoreakintothejournalismdegreesthattheydid
andthattherewasadvertisinginvolvedinthatbutitwasn’tadvertisingoraPRcourse
actuallyitwasabit,itwassortofabitofeverythingandnothingyouknow.Itwasjust
broadenoughtoget,catchalotofotherpeoplewhowere,thePRcoursestherethe
mediaproductioncoursestherewereverypopularandIthinktheystartedthiscommunicationdegreetocatchsomeoftheotherpeopleandsorryyoucan’thave,we
arenotgivingyouthePRcoursebutwewillofferyouthisandthat’showalotofpeople
fromdifferentbackgroundswentintoit.Myfriends,endedonthesamecoursesome
wentintoIT,somewentintojournalismyouknowitwasabitofabroadmix.
Ok,doyourecallusinganyparticulartextrelatingtoadvertisingwhenyouwerestudyingthataspectofyourdegree?
SubjectA:YesIhavestillgotsomeofthemactually.Erm…
Doyourememberwhichonestheywere?
SubjectA:EffectiveuseofadvertisingmediaIthinkisoneofthem.Andallabout
erm…whichitseemslikeareferencebooknowbutitisalltodowithyouknow
productiondetailswithsortofbillboardsizesandyouknowallthatkindofstuff.AndI
thinkwhatIlearnt,wellwhatIfeelIlearntfromworkingwithadvertisingpeopleyouknowandmediaproductionpeopleandthatkindofthingwasthatoftentheerm…the
thingsthatthetextbookswilltellyouabouttheeffectivenessofadvertising,andwhere
toplaceadvertisingallthatkindofstuff,isfineandIamsureatsomelevelsitisvery
importantbuttheclient’sopinionoftenoverrulesitandsoyouknowifyouare,for
example,(05.00)choosingalotoftheworkthatIhavedoneovertheyearshavebeen
297
involvedinthematerialshandlingtrade,so[05.08]andtradepressandtherearetwo
orthreemagazinesthatareverysimilar,somethinkthatoneisthemagazinetobein,
somethinkthattheotheristhemagazinetobeinandtheyhaveverystrongopinionseitherway.Don’tletthefactsstandinthewayofagoodstory.Sothe,youknowthose
kindofbooksandreferencesandthingslikethat,havehelpedbutonlysofar.
Sofar,yesIcanrelatetothat.Thenextquestionistowhatextentdidyoulearn
aboutsemioticsincludingculturalsemioticswhenyouweretraining.
SubjectA:Yesitwaspartoferm…whatIdid.Erm…atleastIthinkitwas.Itisalong
timeago((laughs)).Erm…IrememberwedidthingsonChomskyandallthatkindoflanguageuseoflanguageandparticularlyerm…thingslikeerm…Istilltellpeopleabout
this,butIwastoldinalecturethaterm…signpostwentupatarailwaycrossingin
YorkshirethatsaidwaitherewhilelightsflashingandtheYorkshireguydrivesup,
waitsuntilthelightsflashandthengoesandgetshitbyatrain.Erm…andIremember
atthetime,mebeinganortherneronthesouthcoast,everybodytherewasquiteyouknowwelloffcomparedtomeandtheywouldgoIdon’tthinkIhaveanaccent,Idon’t
haveanaccentandIwouldbetheonewhowouldgo,listenatyou,youknow((laughs))
soitdidcomeintoit,butIdon’trememberagreatdealofdetailaboutittobefair.
YoumentionedChomskyIamajustcuriousbecausereallyitwouldn’tcome
undersemiotics,whatwouldyou,whatChomskydoyouremember?
SubjectA:Itisalongtimeagonow,butIjustremember,IrememberthatasectionofthedegreecoursewasinvolvedinthekindofIamsureitwassemioticsandlike
languageandliteratureandallthatkindofstuffwasputintoitbecauseitwas,sucha
broadyouknowtherewaselementsofEnglishliteratureinitaswellso,erm…Iforget
now.
DidyoutalkaboutforexampleSaussure?
SubjectA:No
OrBarthes
SubjectA:No
298
RolandBarthesoranyofthatculturalmyths?
SubjectA:Yes,yessomeofthat.Someofthaterm…onlytouchedonitthoughIthink.
Yes.Imeanwearetalking20oddyearsagonow.
Iappreciate…
SubjectA:((laughs)).
Doyouactuallyrefertothosetextsnowwhenyoudoadsorisitjust…
SubjectA:NobecauseIthink,IthinkIwouldlookatmyselfasfromtheoutsidelooking
inIwouldlookatmyselfasprobablymoreerm…theworkthatIdoisbasedin,thepeoplethatIworkwithorworkfortheyareverymuchdowntoearth,Iamfrom
Doncaster.IambasedinDoncaster,Iamnot,IdidgrowmybusinesswhereIhad5staff
atonepointbutnowIhavecutbackanderm…Ihaveworkedinbiggeragencies.Ifelt
thatunlessImovedtoLondonthenIwasalwaysgoingtohaveacertaintypeofpeople
thatIwasgoingtoworkfor.Thereisonlycertaintypesofbusinessesbasedinourarea,whowouldbewillingtoworkwithsomebodylikeme.So,Iverymuchlookatthework
thatIdoassortofapractical,onapracticallevelanditisnotthatsortof,Ifeelanyway,
itisnotsortofthatrefinedlevelwhereIwouldprobablyrefertoatextlikethat.
Oknothatis…
SubjectA:Ifanybodydoes.
((laughs))that’sok.Erm…soyouwouldn’tpickupabookbyOgilvyoroneofthe
bigshots?
SubjectA:Iwoulderm…formyowninterestanditwouldcomeouteverynowand
againyouknowerm…andIwouldprobablyreferbacktothemeverynowandagain
andIdotakeaninterestinthatsortofstuff,particularlyseenasIdofeelasthoughIam
abitofanimposterinthatwaybecauseIhavegotaPRyouknowbackgroundandI
299
movedintosortofdoingthis.Buterm…IknowIhaveworkedwithsomeverysortof
erm…somegoodadvertisingpeople,Ihavehadagoodbroadbackground,youknow
whichhasstoodmeingoodstead,IthinkandIrespectsomeofthethingsthatIhavelearntovertheyears,andbutatthesametimeyouknow,Idorecallbeinginbig
agenciesandgoingtopeopleandsayingIcan’tbelievethisadvertisingisrunningyou
knowhowterribleisthisad,what’stheagencylikethatproducesthissortofwork,and
thebossessayingyoucanonlydoaswellastheclientwillletyou.Itisagoodcop-out.
Itisyes,
SubjectA:((laughs))
[09.38]Justimagineyouhavegotanewad,youhadtoformanideafromthequestionispleasebrieflydescribeyourgeneralcreativeapproachorphilosophy
fordailyworktechnique,whenyouhavetodeviseanewadfromscratch.
SubjectA:Erm…wellyou,onatechnicallevelorpracticallevelyouprobablywanta
brief,youwouldwanttostartwiththebriefandtry(10.00)andinterpretthebriefin
thebestwaythatyoupossiblycould.But,thatdoesn’talwayshappenyouknowandpeoplewillbeawareofanadortheywillbererunninganadandyouwillsaylook,you
knowIneedto,Ithinkyouneedtoimproveonthisanddosomethingdifferent.And
erm…mytakeonitis,Iwanttotryandboildowntheessenceoftheadasmuchas
possibleandactuallysometimesintheworkthatIdo,becauseoferm…PRanddesign
andwebworkandallthatkindofstuff,isalittlebitmore,thereismoredetailtoit,focussingonanadandcomingupwithstraplinesanda,andacoremessageis
sometimesagoodwayoftryingtodemonstratetoaclientwhoisnotoverlybothered
aboutadvertisingorperhapshasn’taskedforthat,itisagoodwaytotryand
demonstratewhatthemainmessageis.SoIwould,Iamagreatbelieverinthaterm…I
thinkyouareatyourmostcreativewhenyouareprobablysubconsciouslyprocessingthesethingsandyousortoftryandimmerseyourselfinthedetailbutnottryandforce
ittoomuch.IronicallywithPRIfindsometimestheoppositeworks,isthatyouforce
yourselfintowriting,youmightbeginsomethinganditisnotquiterightbutcarryon
andthencomebacktoit,that’sagoodway.Erm…soIwould,Iwouldtendtotryand
boildowntoitsessence,andtryandgetakeythemeacrossandtheneverythingthatthelayout,thelayoutthedesign,thewayitlooksshouldinsomeway,itshouldfollow
onfromthemessagethatyouaretryingtodo.So,anditsoundspettysimplistic,butyou
knowIoftenIwouldsaytosomebody,youwantthecorevaluesofthebrandacrossyou
don’twanttosay,ifyouareamoderncompanygoodoldfashionedservice,ifyouaretryingtobeatechnologicallyadvancedorsomethinglikethatandyouwouldexpect
thatthelookandfeeloftheadtoreflectthosethemesaswell,so,erm…Itis,Iwouldsay
itisdifferenteverytime,butIwouldprobably,maybetheprocessesIgothroughare
300
thesameIwouldtryandcomeupwithsomemessages,focusonthemessagethatit’s
puttingacrossandthendodifferentversionsofthat,thatmessage.
Ok,soyouhalfansweredmynextquestion.Imean,whendevisinganaddoyou
visualisethecompletedadfromstartorisitabuildingprocess?
SubjectA:Thatisagreatquestion.Erm…Ithinkit’sdefinitely,Ithinkit’sabuilding
processonthewhole.Ithinkyoumayhaveaconceptthatyouconsidererm…for
example,Iusedtodoalotof,IhadDoosanforklifttrucksareaworklineandtheydo
trademagazineadvertising,andIcameupwithanideaforsomeadswhichwere
basicallyaroundthethemeoferm…doingmore,thecompaniesnameisDoosananditwasdomore.Andthethemebasicallywaserm…likesomebodywithafishingline
catchingagiantsquidorjust,andironicallyIhaveseenacarcompanysincethen,Iseea
lotofmyideas((laughs))Iamjustrecyclingotherpeople’sideas,butIseealotofideas
thatIthink,Ihadthatidea.Anderm…IhaveseenlikeaTVadwithawomanwateringa
gardenwithagianthose,andyouknoweverythingisgigantic,andthat,thatcameasasortoffullyerm…formedidea.IronicallywhenIputthatdownonpaperandlookedat
it,Ididn’tthinkitdiditjustice.Itdidn’tseemtomatch,probablymygraphicdesign
skillsmightn’thavebeenuptoit,oryouknowthewaythatIvisualiseditdidn’tlookso,
erm…occasionallythathappensbut,Iwouldsaymostofthetimeitisabuilding,you
arechippingawayatit,youaretryingtoshapeitintosomethingthatlooksright,andIwouldsayoneoftheadsthatIdoneatthemoment,onethatisrunningatthemoment,
iserm…thiscompanyhasnowgotbranchesacrossthecountry.AtthepointwhenI
startedtothinkaboutthisad,theydidn’tbuttheyhadanaspirationtodothat.AndI
kindof,wefocussed,Isaywebecausetherewasmorethanmethen,erm…wefocusseduponaphrasethattheycameoutwithwhenweweretalkingtothemontheprevious
adcampaigntothis,whichwastheysaid,erm…weunderstandlocalbusinesses
becauseweareone.Andweactuallyusedthatastheline.Andso,theadcampaign
beforethis,waswetriedtomakeheroesofthepeopleinthedifferentpartsoftheworld,
andputtheminfrontoferm…somethingthatwassymbolicofthatpartoftheworld.So,theguyfromNottinghamwasstoodinfrontofthestatueinNottinghamofRobin
Hood,theguyfromHullwasstoodundertheHumberBridge(15.00)weweredoing
thattosortofhavethelocalelement.Butthentheybecomealittlebitbiggerandwe
wantedtoexpressthisasa,asanationwidething.So,thisadcametogetherasmejust
sortofexperimentingwitherm…theUKandcomingupwithallthepicturesaremadeupoftheirworkobviouslyandthatidea,camefrommelooking,thumbingthrougha
bookoncreativeideasanditwasoneoftheideaswasmaps.Andthat,Iknowforafact
thatthatiswherethatideafirstcamefrominmymind.
Canyourememberwhatbookthatwas?
301
SubjectA:Ihavegotthebook.That’sit.
Thankyou.SotheA-ZofvisualhowtosolveanycreativebriefbyJohnIngledew.
SubjectA:ItisactuallytheA-ZofVisualIdeas.((laughs))Failedonthatonehasn’tit.
Thankyou.That’sgreat.
SubjectA:Yesjust...itisAtoZandIwasonlyflickingthroughit,erm…andthereisagreatthingaboutmaps,kindofstruckachordwithmeandthat’swherethatideacame
from.Itseems,itseemslikeacopynowbut((laughs))
No,noyouhavegotthecontrastingwordslocalandnationwide,aswell.
SubjectA:WellyesImeanthat,thaterm…wassomethinglocalservicenationwidewas
thetagthatIkindofcameupwith,atthesametimeandIwastryingtocomeupwitha
visualrepresentationofthat,thatideahencethe…
Hencethe…yes.
SubjectA:Hencethe[16.47]
Greatstuff.Anderm…towhatextentthendoesyourapproachdifferaccordingto
whetheryouarepromotingabrandoryouareadvertisingaspecificproduct.
SubjectA:Anothergoodquestion.Ithinkerm…overtheyearsthatIhavebeen
involvedinthecompaniesthatIhavedoneadvertisingfor,Ihavetendedtotryand
pushthemtowardsbrandthanproduct.Erm…becauseerm…intheworkthatIdo,the
sectoriserm…therearelotsofdifferentproducts,withinaforklifttruckcompanyforexample,withintheirrange,theyhavelotsofproductserm…andthendealers,ofthis
type,wouldoffermultiplebrands.Erm…whilstIwasdoingtheadvertisingforthe
manufacturererm…wetriedto,Itriedtotakeoutthepushthebrandnamebecause
erm…theyarecompetingagainstotherwell-knownbrandnamessoToyota,isa
302
competitorintheforklifttruckmarket,erm…Mitsubishi,Nissan,thesewerewell
knownnames,andwewantedtoraisetheprofileofthebrandsoIhadactuallyadvised
themagainstpromotingaparticularproduct.Ithinkiftheywereinsistentonthat,ondoingaparticularproductthenyouwould,youwouldautomaticallygothrougha
similarprocess,Ithinktotryandwhereasthecompanyyouaretryingtoidentifythe
corevaluesofthebrand,onaproductyouaretryingtoidentifythecorefeaturesand
benefitsoftheproduct,andpromoteitinthesamesortofway.ButmyIfeelthat
brandedadvertisingis…canbemoresophisticatedandmakeabetterimpressionthanaproductad,personallythat’smy,myfeelonit.BecauseIthinkproductschangeallthe
time,andunlessyouarejustdoingastraightforwardyouknow,itis99porit’s£100or
whateverthentheproductisgoingtochangeandpeoplearegoingto,takeaslightly
differentviewonit,asopposedtoabrand.AndallthetimethatIhavebeeninvolvedin
thisworkIhavealwaysencouragedpeopletotryandtalkuptheirbrand,asopposedtoyouknowfocusontheproduct.
Thatisinteresting.Howdoyouseetherolethatsemioticsplaysinyourown
processinformingideasifitdoesplayarole?Doesyourmindgotosemiotics
thinkingornot?
SubjectA:IwouldsaynoactuallyIwouldsayno.UnlessIdoitwithoutrealising
((laughs))youknowit’snota,asIsaidtobeginwithIam,Iamlookingforapracticalanswertoaproblem.IfithelpedmegettotheanswerthenIwoulddoit.
Ohthatmakessense.Erm…youworkonyourownmostofthetime?
SubjectA:Mostofthetimenow.
Okwhatisthesortofdailyroutinethenifyougeta,ifyougetacontractfroma
clientwhatwouldbethefirstthingyouwoulddo?
SubjectA:((laughs))erm…tryandgetonamassivefee((laughs)).Erm…infroman
advertisingperspectiveor…
Nojustyourdailyroutinewhatwouldyoudo,youhavegotacommissiontodoanadvert,forsomethingyoutalkeditoverwithyourclient,andyouwalkthrough
thedoorwhatisyournextstep?
303
SubjectA:Erm…(20.00)Ithinkyouprobablytryandputdownonpaperoratleastget
settledinyourmind,aboutallthedifferentanglesofwhatwearelookingat.Youare
tryingtocomeatitfromadifferentapproachandoftenyouwillthrowoutlotsofideasorthrowyouknow,youjust,it’sprobablymorerelevantwhenworkingwithother
peopletobefairbutyouknowIamnot100%boughtinbytheideaofbrainstorming,
butsometimesyoujustwanttodumpalltheideasdownasmuchasyoucanandtryand
getasmanydifferentideasforitandthenjustgiveyourselfabitofspaceandtimetotry
andletthemsettleandseewhichonesworkandwhichonesdon’t.Erm…fromthatpointofview,thenIwanttotryandvisualisethem.Intheolddaysitwouldbescamps
youknowtherewouldbepeopletherethatwouldbe,theirdrawingwouldbefantastic,
youknow.Nowpeopledon'tmakeadistinctionatleastwithme,betweenerm…
creativeworkwhichisanidea,andthefinishedarticle.Sotheykindofwanttoseeit.In
theolddaysyoucouldgetawaywithwhenIworkedontheToyotastuffIremembertakingthemintoroomswherewewouldhave100sofdifferentdrawingsaroundthe
room,verybasicpieceofwhitepaperandyoubasicallydumpedalltheideasinfrontof
them,andgonethereyougowhatdoyouthink.Andwewillworkuptheonesthatyou
like.Erm…nowthatjustdoesn’titdoesn’tworkandyouhavegottotryandgetasmanyof,althoughhavingsaidthatyouknowIhavegot,thiswasanold,Ihavejust
realisedthatIhavestillgotthese,theseweredifferentideasaroundthesamethought
processeswhereIdidexactlythatbutitwasobviouslyfinishedandweputthemin
frontoftheclient,presentedthemandsaidyouknowwhatdoyouthink.Hereisone,
thatconceptstartedwiththeideaaplayonwords,becauseerm…itwasascrappagescheme,10yearsold,theequipmentormore,andwewerecominguptotheendofthe
decade,soweused…
Usedahomophonedecadedecayedyes.
SubjectA:Andthat’swherethatideacamefromandthenasaresultofthatlayoutand
thatdesignwewentandshottheimage.
Clever.
SubjectA:ThisisonethatIdonealongtimeagoanditwasalltryingtoreallyerm…
squarethecirclealittlebitwiththeclient’serm…preferenceonproductfeaturesandbenefitswhereyouaretryingtopushabrand,youknow.Soherewehavegotalistof
sortoffeatures,whicharehopefullysomebenefitandpickingthemoutandtryingto
sortofusethat.Ihaveseenthisactuallysince,((laughs))Ihaveseenthisdone,byFord
asasimilarsortofTVadwheretheyhavegotalistofandIthinkthatisprobablythesamesortofideaasyouaretryingtopushthebrandbutsatisfytheclient’sdesiretoget
across,wellwehavegot,youknowwehavegotlights,bigdeal((laughs))wehavegot
brakes.So…
304
Thankyouthatisinteresting.Erm…Itakeitthenyouonlydo,youtendtodo
printoutsyoudon’tdoanythingonTV,radio,internet?
SubjectA:NoIhavenotreally,that’s,noIhavedone,Idosomeerm…on-lineadsbutit
ismoreofanextensionofprint.Ihavedone,Ihavedoneapostercampaign,erm…but
youknowIthink,itis,ledbythesectorthatIaminorpredominantlyin.YouknowIdo
someotherworkfora,erm…aSwisscompanyandtheyaresortofrelatedtoforklifttrucksbuttheyare,it’serm…automatedhandlingsoitiskindoftakingthetrucksout
anddoingeverythingwithrobots.Sothatisasimilar,andIhavedoneabitwiththose
butyes,ittendstobe,it…dependsonyourinterpretationofitbecausesomeofthe
thingsthatIdoIconsidertobesortofonthefringesofadvertising,likeerm…sayaPDF
whichisintendedtobesentyouknowovere-mail,butitispresentingmessagesalmostlikeanad,aninteractivead,almostlikethat.Itisonthefringesofit.
Itispersuasiveaswellasinformative?
SubjectA:Yesitisnotyesitisnot…yesitisintendedtogiveasortofamix,ofyou
knowgettingpeopleinterestedandthengivingthemthedetail.
Yessothenyouaregoingdowntheproductlinetosomeextentaren’tyou?
SubjectA:Erm…yes,yesIguesssobutithasbeen,Ihavedonethatforerm…tryingto
sell,wellifIgiveSwisslogasanexample,thisSwisscompany.They,theysellsolutionsreallyortheyseeitassellingsolutions.Erm…becausetheydon’tmanufacturea
product,theyputittogether,withtheyhavedesignersandadvisorsandtechnical
servicepeopleandtheyputitalltogether(25.00)erm…andtheyareverysuccessful,
verybigatitandsotheycametomeandsaidwearetryingtoboildownourbrand
values,youknowourcorevaluesandthatwasapigofajobbecausetheyjustcouldn’t,theywereunclearaboutwhattheywantedittookforever.ButIsettledondesign,
develop,deliver,asanideaandsothisiswhatwedo,design,develop,deliverwhich
theylikederm…andthenweproducedworkinordertoputthatacross.Soitwasn’t
specificallyaboutaparticularproductoraparticularserviceitwasaboutthewhole…
Ethos.
SubjectA:Yesthewholeethos,likeacorporatebrochurealmost.
305
Yes.InyourcasenowIamaskingthisquestiontowhomisyouradvertising
directed.Isitaparticulargroupofpeopleandhowdoyouidentifythem?
SubjectA:Goodone.Erm…well,thebecauseIaminbusinesstobusinessstuff,erm…
we,alwaysmyexperienceworkingwithbiggeragencies,oratbiggeragencies,really
taughtmethatwearetalkingtomorethanonelevelofpeople.Erm…andbecauseof,in
thecaseofa[26.09]handlingequipmentyouwanttoattracttheguywhoisusingthekitbutoftenheisnottheguywhoisspecifyingthekit.Andoftenheisnottheguywho
ispayingforthekitsoyouaretryingtoattract,aimyourmessageatmultiplelevels.
HencepartlymybrandingsortofethoswiththatandIthinkthaterm…we,wehave
veryspecifictradepressdesignedthattheyareaimingatthosekindofpeople,the
logisticsmanagersanderm…managingdirectorsandfinancialdirectorsandspecifiers.But,thenyouwillhaveaswatheoferm..publicationswhicharespecificallyintendedfor
asectorandyouwouldquitesimplyjustlookatitandsay,wellwhatsectorisusingSIC
dataIguess,whatsectorsuseerm…forklifttrucksinthisinstance,morethanothers
andwhicherm…magazinesshouldwegofor.Now,Iremembererm…workingatacompanycalledCharlesWallsinLeedsandwe,theydidanexerciseforToyota,
preciselytosaytothem,attheendofit,ifyouwanttoreachthemostnumberofyour
targetmarket,youwouldgoinRadioTimesorSkymagazineyouknowwhichwouldbe
ridiculoustohaveanaditwouldcostthemafortune.Soitwasallabouttargetingand
boilingdownanddecidingwhichonehastheleastwastage,ratherthanthemosteffectiveIguess.Erm…Ithinkthat’sprobablywhytheamountofbillboardadsIhave
doneislimitedbecauseithashugewastagebutitisdoneforthetacticalpurpose.Isay
once,IhavedoneitafewtimesnowIamthinkingaboutotherbillboardsthatIhave
done.Erm…yeslikeforDoosanandDaewooaswasIdidbillboardadstosupport
exhibitions.So,youareexpectingthepeopledrivingintoseetheadandthat’s,youknowtheyaregoingtoaninventwhichisintendedforthem,erm…thenwindow
displayadsaswellwhichIhavedoneforthemerm…andagainit’salltiedaroundan
eventsoyouareexpectingthemtobetherightpeople.YesasIsaidtobeginwithitis
difficulttogetclientsinterestedinyouknowthenuancesofwhoisgoingtoseeitas
opposed,
[28.35]
SubjectA:Theirmindsaremadeup,[28.38]
Ohright.Ok,Erm…nextquestionistosummarisewhatelsewentoninthedesign
processes,isthereanyotherconsiderationsthatyouwouldliketomentionwhen
youareactuallydoingthedesignprocess?
306
SubjectA:Erm…wellobviouslytheactualmediumitselftakesa,isaveryimportant…
willdictate,howyouproducetheadsanderm…youknowIwouldtendtolookatfull
pageadvertisingbecausethatiswhereyouwanttopushyourclientintohavingthe
impactorevendoublepagespreads.Erm…andthat,thatinitself,sortofdictatessome
ofthewayinwhichyouwouldapproachit.Erm…thenthereisthingslikeerm…abellywrapwhichwasasanexampleweoncedida,anadinaplasticspipemagazineor
something,andithadabellywraparoundthemiddleofthemagazine,whichwasapipe
anditstucktoadoublepagespreadwithinthemagazine,soyouopenedupitupatthat
ad.Andsothatwouldobviously,thewholedesignofthatwas,wascameabout,the
wholeconceptcameaboutbecauseofthedesignandIdaresaythatthewholeideacameaboutbecause(30.00)themagazinesaidwecannowdothis.Sosometimesyou,
sometimesyoulookattheideaandlookfortherightplaceforittogoandsometimes
youlookatwhatisavailableandwhatispossible.Andthathelpsyoupush,theidea.
Youknow.Didamock-upofaflieronceerm…amailerinthedesignofapaper
aeroplane,youknowerm…becauseIknewitwaspossible,thatkindofthing.
Yes,theartofthepossible.Doyouactuallythinkintermsof,Ithinkyouhave
alreadyansweredthisoneorpartlyansweredthisone[30.33]itsaysherecan
youdescryhowifatallifyoutrytousesymbolismandiconsinyouradvertising.
Doyouthinkintermsofsymbolic…
SubjectA:YeswellIwouldsayIdoyes.Iwouldsayerm…Iamverymuchawareof
themesinadvertisinganderm…becauseIguessmydegreecourse,becauseoftheworkthatIhaveseenIsee,IwasverydisparagingwhenIwasworkinginbigagenciesabout
advertising,becauseerm…workingwithPRatthetime,itwasverymuchsegmented.
SoIwasinaPRpartofBrahmerm…andIwouldjustsayit’sjustanad,apictureanda
wittybitofcopythat’sallitis.Thereisnotmuchmoretoitthanthatandobviously
thereisbut,youknowIdidapresentation,aspartofmytraining,youknowadsarebad,includingthisone,andpresentedanadandjustexplainedwhyitwas,thatIfeltthat
advertisingwasn’tasgoodasPR.Erm…andIthinkthat,erm…Iuseadvertisingasaway
toleveragePReditorialcoverageinawaythatprobablysomebodywhosebackground
wasmoreadvertisingwillprobablydotheoppositetheywoulddoanadcampaignand
wanttoleverageitforPR.Erm…Idotellmyclientsoftenthatif,orperspectivenewclientIsayifyougotoaPRagencyandaskthem,tellthemthatyouhavegotaproblem,
theanswerwillbePR,ifyougotoanadvertisingagencytheanswerwillbeadvertising.
Andiftheonlyerm…iftheonlytoolyouhaveisahammer,youtendtoseeevery
problemasanail.
That’sright,exactly.OneoftheseareasIamlookingatrelatestohowmuchdoyouuseculturalphenomena,stereotypingfolklore,nowImean…
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SubjectA:Theadcampaignwherewediderm…liketriedtouseerm…localsymbolism
itkindof,itkindofrubbedoffonthaterm…
RobinHoodstatueand…
SubjectA:RobinHoodstatue,theBullintheBullRing,it’stryingtorepresenttheplace
wheretheyarecomingfrom.Itwasaverydeliberateattempttodothatbuterm…I
thinkonthewhole,thepeoplethatI’ve,youwillbeabletoaskthemyourself,butthepeoplethatIknow,thatworkinadvertising,Idon’tthinktheythinkthatsophisticatedly
andIthinkbacktothisfuroreovertheerm…thewoman’sbody,thebeachbodyadthat
hasjustbeen,youknowareyouabeachbody…
Yes
SubjectA:AndIcanvisualisehowthatadcameaboutandIamalmostcertainthatthey
probablydidn’tthinkitwasgoingtocauseabigfussandassoonasitdidtheyprobablythinkthat’sthebestthingeveryouknow.
Yespublicity
SubjectA:ItwasjustdoneautomaticallybutIthinkbackyes,becausethereisnosuch
thingasbadpublicity,theoldthing.Buterm…youknowIthinkbacktoagainatcollege
Irememberitverywell,thembeingshownadvertisingwherewomenwereshownas
bits,youknowsoyoudon’tseetheheadoryouknowanderm…andshowingtheworstexamplethelecturercouldfindwaserm…anadvertisementforcarpetunderlaywitha
womaninunderwearanditsaid,becausewhatmattersiswhatyouhavegot
underneathanditissuchatenuouslink,andalsoyouknowitjustseemedpointless.
AndIthink,IamawareofallthosethingsandItry,oneofthethingsthatIoftensayto
theclientsbecauseitisquiteanarrowfieldbut,youknowyoudon’twanttolooklikeeverybodyelse,thewholepointistostandsodon’tlookatwhateverybodyelseis
doing,tryandavoidthosekindofthingsbutthesymbolismofthelocalareasIguesswe
trytouseasashortcuttosaying,weareinyourpatchsortofthing.
Ohthatispuresemioticisn’tit?
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SubjectA:Yes
Absolutely.
SubjectA:Ifyousayso((laughs)).
Thelastquestionreallyisifyouareadvertisingaspecificproduct,ifthat’sthe
caseyouhavegotthebriefthisistheproduct,notforgetthebrandtellusabouttheproduct,howwouldyoutrytoappealtotheaudiences’existingknowledge,
howdoyouensureitisimmediatelyrelevanttotheir,toyourtargetaudience?
SubjectA:Erm…that’sadifficultonebecauseIthinkoftentimesyouaretryingto
challengetheirexistingknowledge(35.00)orchallengetheirperceptionofwhatthey
alreadyknowbecause,erm…theywillhavemadeuptheirminds.Erm…andIcangiveyouanexampleofanadthaterm…Ididthatdidn’tgetchosen,andactuallywhenIlook
atitnowIthinkIcanunderstandwhyitdidn’tgetchosenbutatthetimecomingfresh
toanaccounterm…thecompanyDoosantookoverDaewooandDaewoowerewell
knownerm…intheUKatleast,forgoingbusterm…theircarcompanysideofit.This
wasadifferentsideofthebusinesstheyhadanelectricforklifttruckthattheywantedtolaunch,theytoldustodoanadcampaignonitandoneofthethingsthatIcameback
tothemwithwaserm…apictureoferm…Seoul,anditsaidSeoullikeTokyoonly
cheaper.Nowtheywerefrightenedtodeathofanythingtodowithmoneyanditsteered
themawaybutmyideatherewastosaythatthebrandleadersinthatsectorwere
Japaneseforklifttruckmanufacturers,andIwastryingtosaytothemwewereasgoodasthembutcheapererm…theydidn’tlikeit((laughs))theydidn’tdoit.Erm…but
therewereawholeseriesofthembasedaroundthatkindofideaofchallengingerm…
whatthepeople’s…andoneofthecampaignsthatIdidrunapostercampaignsaidBe
Surprised.And,thiswasagaintheKoreantheyhavesometimesasmallchipontheir,
probablyachiponbothshoulders,thatyouknowweareasgoodastheJapanesebutyouknowwedon’tgettherespect,andpeopleseeJapanesecompaniesandthinkthey
arebrilliantandpeopleseeSamsungandLGandthinktheyareJapaneseandtheyare
not.So,erm…oneofthethingsthatIdidtherewastohaveathemeofbeingsurprised
andthenyearslater,KiaaKoreanforklifttrucktheyhaveaverysimilarstraplineofyou
knowlet’ssurpriseyouallit’ssimilarandIthinkIwonderiftheyarecomingatitfromthesamestandpoint.Intermsofactuallytryingtosortoferm…confirmwhatpeople
wouldthinkIdon’tknowhowyouwouldprobablydothatsomuchotherthanIdon’t
reallyknow.
No,notsurprising.
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SubjectA:Itwouldbeaninterestingexercisebeaskingtheclientwhywouldtheywant
todothat,why,youknowiftheyalreadythinkthatwhyareyouadvertisingatallyou
knowtotryandconfirmtheirpointofview.
Okyes
SubjectA:UnlessIguess,unlessyouareMcDonaldsorFordoryouknowerm…
Ithinkaparticularproduct,averyspecificonewhereyouhavegotsomethingyou
knowweknowthebrand,butnowwewantyoutopromotethisparticularthing.ItmightbetheSamsungS6phonethelatestonethathasjustcomeout,youknow
everyoneknowswhoSamsungis,buthowareyougoingtosellthisphoneto
peoplethatknowwhatSamsungis,theyknowwhataniPhoneiswhatisgoingto
makeyoubuythatSamsungthatparticularmodel.NottheS5,buttheS6.
SubjectA:Wellfunnilyenougherm…againharkingbacktomyDoosanworkbuterm…whatIdidtherewhenIfirststartedwiththemisIwentandsurveyedtheemployees,
theerm…theirdealernetworkandIdidthiswithToyotaaswellactuallyandoriginally
withtheToyotaguysIdidthetradepressaswellIhadtheeditorsIwentand
questionnairedthemandsaidtothemwhatdotheyknow.Erm…oneofthethingsthat
camebacktomewithDaewooatthetimetheywerebuildingequipmentforCaterpillaryearsago,anderm…oneoftheguyssaidtomeifwehadeverythingthesame,ifwehad
thesameequipment,thesameprice,thesamesupport,butwejusttookofftheDaewoo
badgeandputCaterpillaronit,wewouldsellmore.Isaidwellifthatisnotabranding
issue,Idon’tknowwhatisandso,Italkedtothemaboutwhattheywantedandwhat
theylikedandtherewerethreethingsthatIfocussedon.Onewastheequipmentinthatmarketwassimplecomparedtootherpeople’s,becausethereisanissueregardingthe
complexityofengines,anythingwithanenginenowitneedsamanagementsystemonit,
whichprobablymeansyouneedadiagnosticstool,alaptoptofixit,theirswerevery
simple,andtheywereknownforthat.Theyhadbigenginesinthemsotheywere,abit
ofgruntyouknow,thatiswhatpeoplearelookingforinthissectorsotheywerepowerful.AndIsaideverybodywantsto,itwasabitofanaspirationforthematthe
timebecausetheydidhavesometechnicalissues,buteverybodywantsaperformance
outofit,soIcameupwithsimple,powerfulperformanceandthatwasthestraplineand
everythingthatItriedtodo,wasfocussed(40.00)ondeliveringthatmessage.Simple,
PowerfulPerformance.Itwasinallthethings.TheKoreansstrugglewithPs((laughs))soactuallysayingitwouldbedifficultbutwhenyoustartedtohearpeoplesayitbackto
you,erm…thenyouknewthatyouhadprobablystartedtohitachord,strikeachord
withit.Andtheyarestillusingitnowitislike10yearson,erm…andIthinkerm…one
ofthethingsthatInoticedaboutthatwasthat,wewereabletousetheadvertisingin
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tradepress,todeliveramessagethatalthoughonthesurfacewasaimedatanenduser
wasactuallyinthedealerstructure,wasprobablymoreeffectivewiththedealersand
theystartedtobelieveit,andthathelpedthecompanytoerm…havegainconfidence,gaintheconfidenceoftheirdistributors,andIoftenusedtosaytothemunlessyouhave
gotamillionpoundstospendonamassiveadcampaignyouarenotgoingtobeableto
getacrossthemessagesthatthelikesofToyotabecausetheyhavegotsuchawayahead
start,soyouneedtogetitatthegrassrootslevelandtheonlywayyouaregoingtodo
thatisbygettingthebuy-inofyourdistributorsandsothismessaging,thissortoffocussingonthat,wasawayofussayingtothedistributorsohlookhowmuchweare
doing,wearedoingallthis,butactuallyitwasasmuchfortheirbenefitasanybody
else’s.Youknowsellingtothem.Doesthatansweryourquestion?
Itdoes,noitdoesthankyouforthat.Iamgoingtostoptheinterviewthereifthat
isalrightwithyou.
SUBJECT B
CanIaskyoubywhatroutedidyouenteradvertisingtheindustry?
SubjectB:Erm…myfirstjobswereinadministration.And,Ierm…thecompanyI
workedforwhichwasBritishCoalatthetime,wasgoingthroughprivatisationsothe
early90s,andtheysetupafledglingmarketingdepartmentandIwasinterestedin
doingthatbecauseitwasdifferenttowhatIwasdoing,justlookedmoreinteresting.So
IwenttonightschoolanddidmyCharteredInstituteofMarketingqualifications,gotajobinthemarketingdepartmentandfromthatthenwent,workedfor10yearsin
marketingonclientside,soIworkedmostlyinthegamesindustryafterthatinitialjob
atBritishCoal.So,thecomputerandvideogamesindustry,andthenerm…thenImade
theswitchtoerm…workingforanadvertisingagencygroupcalledMediaSquare,which
wasaPLCwhichnolongerexistsinthatform,erm…andsothatis,andthat’showIgottoworkinadvertisingIwasbasicallytakenonasanaccountdirectorfromworking
clientsideasamarketingmanager,takenonasanaccountdirectorerm…andthenmet
mybusinesspartnerhere,whoisthecreativedirectorandaswithmanyagencieswe
ranawayandsetupthiscompany.Thatwas10yearsago.
Right.So,Imeanthenextquestionreally[02.12]Iamsayingdidyoustudyanyadvertisingatuniversitylevel?
311
SubjectB:No.Ididmymarketingqualificationswereatcollege.Idon’tknowwhatlevel
theyareat,theyareprofessionalqualificationsbytheCharteredInstituteofMarketing,
soIoriginallyhadthecertificateandtheAdvancedcertificatetheywerecalledthen.Butadvertisingwasn’tactuallycoveredinthatatall.
Ok,thatisinteresting.Soifyoudidn’tcoveranyadvertisingatallthenyouwill
havecoverednotextthatinvolvedadvertising?
SubjectB:No
Rightok.[02.45]ItakeitonthatbasisthenyouhaveneverlearnedortellmeifI
amwrongaboutsemiotics.
SubjectB:No.No.Ihaven’tbeenno.Notatall.
Rightok.Doyouuseany,whenyouareconstructingadsdoyouactuallyrefertoanytexts,anytextbooksormanualsoranythinglikethattoguideyou?
SubjectB:ThisisinterestingbecausethisiswhatIamdoingmyMastersdissertation
on.Notonthecreativedevelopmentprocessbutonaverysmallpartofit,thecreative
decisionmakingprocess.Erm…wefollowerm…akindofcreativeerm…briefing
process,howdowegettothepointwherewearereadytostarttalkingaboutthecreative,itisthiskindofwell-wornroute.Erm…Iwouldhavetorefertothetextbooks
butyoucanfindtextbookexamplesofhowyoudevelopthecreativeerm…briefifyou
like,makingsurethatyouarecoveringwhotheaudienceis,erm…coveringwhothe
competitionis,whatisthepurposeoftheadvertisingerm…andthenwhatthe
propositionis.Andthatisbasicallytheculminationofaninsightthatbringsallthosethingstogether.Andfromthat,thatcreatestheverysmallstartingpointforwhatthe
creativeideascouldbe.Andthentheremightbesomeotherconsiderationsthat,there
mightbesomepracticalconsiderationsaboutbudgetormediathatyouneedtobe
awareof.Soyeswefollowthatprocessandthat’s,itisnotreallyanacademicprocessit
isanindustryprocessandifyoulookatsay,theIPA,thatisaprocessthattheysuggest.IfyoulookatthetextbooksIcan’trememberthenameoftheauthorswhichisterrible,
becauseIhavebeenteachingitthisyear,ontheadvertisingmodule,aspartofthe
marketingdegreeatHallam.Erm…thatprocessisreferredtoinmoreorlessthesame
detail,insomeofthetextbooks,thatyouusethereaswellsowefollowthatprocess.
Theactualdevelopment,creativedevelopmentprocesswedon’tmapoutanyfurtherthanthat.Soitisthenablankpieceofpaperandit’showdowewantittodevelopfrom
there.
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Rightokthatwillleadtosomemorequestionsatthemomentbecausethatis
quiteinterestingthingyoumentionedthere.Erm…so,(05.00)youmentionedthe
blankpieceofpaper.Soyouhaveablankpieceofpaper,youhaveabrief,froma
clientwhatsortofjusttalkmethroughtheprocessthatyougothroughto
generatetheideasforthead.
SubjectB:Ok,itdependsonthe,itdependsontheproject.Butifitwassayforexample,Iwillgiveyouanexampleofaclient.OneofourclientsisCostcutterthesupermarket
group,andthey,wedoalltheirpressadvertising,theirdigitaladvertising.Andthey
haveaskedustolookattheirTVadvertising.Sotheywanttomakea,theywanttomake
astepchangeinhowtheydothings.Atthemomenttheydothingsataveryentrylevel,
sotheypresenttheiroffersandthatisit.Voiceoverandanicebitofmusic,andhereisthetinofbakesbeansandthisishowmuchwearesellingitfor.Theywanttomove
towardsadvertisingthatismoreemotive,thatbuildsthebrand,hasmoreengagement
withit,andfromourpointofview,wewanttomakepeoplewanttogotoCostcutteras
ashoppingexperienceratherthangotherejustbecauseoftheproducts.Sothatisourstartingpoint,soweareoverherewithwewanttomakepeoplegotoCostcutter,the
clientisoverherewiththebriefsayingweneedtoselltheseHeinzbakedbeansbecause
theypaidustoputitonTV.Andthen,thestartingpointissomewhereinthemiddleof
that.Sohowweapproacheditonthisoccasionitisnotalwayslikethis,butthiswould
betheidealoccasion,isfortheaccounthandlertowritethecreativebriefbasedontheclientbrief.AndsothatcoversthethingsImentionedbefore.Whotheaudienceis,what
theobjectsare,whatthepropositionis,andthatpropositionisthenchecked,bymeso.
NowIwrotethebriefandIwascheckingitaswell,sosometimesthereisacrossover,
sothebriefischeckedbeforeitgetschuckedinwiththecreativeteam.Butwhatwedid
inthiscase,becauseitwasanewclientwithanewopportunity,thewholeoftheagency,anditisnotabigagency,thereisonly6ofus,allsatroundthetablebehindyou,andwe
wentrightthisisthebrief,andinveryshort,inveryshorttimewesummarisedthe
brief.Thisiswhatwewantpeopletodoandhowwewantthemtofeel,howcanwe
bringthattolifeandthenwediscussedideasandwechuckedthemroundandwedid
whatwecallleapfrogging,whichiswedon’tdiscussthequalityoftheideas.Thereisaphrasethatweuseandit’scalledgettingtheshitout,soyouhavetosaythemost
obviousandthemostbanalstuffyouhavejustgottogetitout,becauseifyoudon’tthen
itdoesn’tleadtoanythingelse.Sosomeonemightsaysomethingthatisreallycrap,and
verypoorandwewouldneverdiscussinfrontofaclientbutthatisfinebecause
withoutremovingthatbarrieritdoesn’topenthefloodgates.Soweusethisrathercrasstermgettingtheshitout.
Abitlikebrainstormingthatkindof…
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SubjectB:Itislikebrainstormingyes,itisthrowingideasaroundandthensomeone
pickinguponawordthatsomeonehassaid,wellwhataboutifwedidthis,andthenwe
mightbepluggedintotheinternet,wemightlookatwhatSainsbury’saredoing,didanyoneseethatJohnLewisad,andjumparoundandthenandbygoingupdifferentcul-
de-sacsandkindofmindmappingandwritingideasdown,onbitsofpaperwithpencils,
wewillstartbuildingupaflowandwewillfindthatwewillprobablyhave,weended
upwithprobablyabout12routes,12ideas,12veryhighconceptsofwhatwecoulddo
withit.Andweknowfromexperiencethatcertainthingswouldbeveryexpensive,certainthingswillbeverycheap,certainthingswillbeverychallenging,certainthings
were…hadbeendonebeforebutmaybebysomeoneelseinadifferentmarket,soyou
areborrowingideasorstealingideasifyoulikefromotherpeoplebutthatisthe
process.Andthenitisfiltereddown,andweprobablywanttogettoabout5or6that
wewillpresenttotheclient,andsowewillleavethat,andwewillthen,thereisa,justtobeacademicaboutit,theprocessthatwehavethereisakindofamessynatureto
creativedevelopment.Thereisanareawhereyoudon’tknowwhetheryouhavegotit
right,sowhatwedoiscreatethoseideasthenweleaveitwewalkawayfromit,wego
andworkonsomethingelse.AndthentheleadteamsothatismeandChristhecreativedirectoronthisproject,willthencomebackandreviewallthose12/15ideas
andwewillgono,no,yesthathasgotlegs,no,nosoweletthemsettleandlettheideas
developandsitinyourbrain,becauseyouareworkingonitwithoutthinkingaboutitas
well.Andthenfromthatwewillthendeveloptheideasmore,wewilldoalittlebitof
scriptwriting,bitofcopywriting,dosomevisualresearch,wemightspeaktoaproductioncompanyaboutcostifwearesuggestingsomethingerm…thatmightbe
quitecostly.Wemighthaveachatwithafewsuppliers,andthenfromthatwewould
presenttheconceptstotheclient.
Right,thenextonereallyyouhaveansweredalreadyformebecauseIamsaying
whendevisinganaddoyouvisualthecompletedadfromthestartorisita
buildingprocess.Whatyouaretellingmeitisclearlyabuildingprocessinaseriesofstagesisn’tit?
SubjectB:Yesbecauseotherwiseyougetcaughtupinthecraft,(10.00)andthecraftis
differenttotheconcept.Erm…andwhatyouweretalkingaboutearlierabouterm…we
don’thaveartistsinthesamewaythatweusedto,weusedtohavecommercialartists,
whohadcraftwhocoulddoanamazingofsomeoneridingabikeforRaleighanditwouldbelikeapieceofartbutitwouldbetosellaproduct,commercialcraft.Nowthe
firstthingyouhavegottodoisdecideerm…whatisthescenewiththebicyclein,what
doesthepersonlooklike,whyaretheyridingandtellthatstory,makesurethatyouare
comfortablewiththat,andthatyoucansellitaswellithastobeappropriate.Andifthe
appropriatenessboxistickedcanwesellit,canweaffordit,erm…dowewanttodoitaswellthatisimportant,erm…becausethereisalotofpaininadvertisingsoyouhave
gottobemotivatedtowanttomakeithappen.Thenoncethoseboxesaretickedthen
youendupwithashortlistandthentheyarefurtherrefined.Andfurtherrefined.And
furtherrefinedasyougothroughthekindofclientengagementprocess.
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Right.Thenextonereallyagainyouhavepartlyansweredit,butIwouldliketo
getyourcommentsonthisone.Iamaskingyoutowhatextentdoesyour
approachdifferaccordingtowhetheryouarepromotingabrand,youarebrand
advertisingorjustaparticularproduct.
SubjectB:Itdoesn’tatall.Itdoesn’tintheslightest.Thatisourapproach.Our
approachiswearealwaystryingtotellastory,whichisthekindoflanguagethatyouwillhearalot.Butforexample,erm…Iamjusttryingtothinkof,erm…some
advertisingthatwehavedonerecently.WehavejustlaunchedLincolnCastle.Lincoln
Castlehasjustspent£22million,onadevelopmentandithasgotcertainproducts.The
productsaretheyhavegotawallwalkyoucanwalkroundthemedievalwalks,youcan
gotoaMagnaCartaexhibitiontheyhavegotaMagnaCartaanditisinavault,theyhavegotaVictorianPrison.TheyareproductsandLincolnCastleisthebrandthatbrings
thosealtogether.Wehavethesamecreativedevelopmentapproachwhetherweare
talkingaboutvisitLincolnCastle,orwearetalkingaboutvisittheMagnaCarta.Soitis
exactlythesamecreativedevelopmentprocess.Thereisnodifferenceforusbetweenabrandandaproductbecausetheyhavethesameattributes.Theyhavetohavesome
personality,theyhavetotalkinacertainway,intermsofadvertisingtheyhavetotake
youthroughthesameprocess,ifyouusetheAIDAprocess,attentionInterest,Desire,
Actionyouhavestillgottotakethemthroughthatprocesstogetsomeonetoengage
andthenactbasedontheadvertisingsoitmakesnodifferenceatall.Althoughpeoplewillrefertobrandadvertisingversussayaproductadvertising,anditmightbeabrand
advertising,itmightnottalkaboutpriceorplace,itwilltalkmoreaboutwewantyouto
wanttobuythisbrandorengagewiththisbrandandmaybethepriceisn’tthat
importantatthatpoint.Thatwillbetheonlydifference,butthatisacraftdifference,
executionaldifferenceitisnotacreativedevelopmentdifference.
Isee.YesIwaserm….oneofthethingsIhadinmindwasifIlookataVersacead,itisnottellingmeanything,itisnotgivingmeanyinformationwhatsoever.
WhenIcontrastthatwithsomethingIseeintradejournals,very,very,very,very
detailed,intermsofwhattheyaresellingforwhatkindofprice.Butwhatyouare
tellingmeitisstillthesameprocessthatyouarefollowingthrough?
SubjectB:Wellifyougorightbacktothebeginningonhowyoudevelopthecreativebrief,andifyouhaveunderstoodtheaudienceandyouhaveunderstoodwhatthe
purposeisofthebrief,andthenyouhavedevelopedtheproposition,ifatradeadis
talkingtoaspecialistaudience,whoknowsthattheyaregoingtobuythiswidgetthis
electricalpumpthentheirinterestisaboutwhatisthevoltage,whatisthewattagehow
manyhaveyougotinstock,canIgetittomorrow,howdoIfitit,haveyougotthetechnicalplansbecausethatistheirmotivation.WithVersacethemotivationisdoesit
makemelookgood,doesitmakemefeelgooderm…doesitreflecthowIwantother
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peopletoperceivemeitisstillatickbox,ofthingsitisstillthesameprocess,itmightbe
deliveredinadifferentway,erm...anditmaywellnotobviouslysayanythingbut
actuallybynotdoingthatitissayingquitealot,quitealotaswell.Sointermsoftheprocess,thereisverylittledifference.Andifsomeonewastocomealonganddoatrade
adthatwaslikeaVersacead,thenyoucouldarguewellhaveyouunderstoodthe
audienceproperlyforthat.ButyoumaywelldoaVersaceadasatradeadbecauseyou
gowellthatgivesusapointofdifference.ThatcreatestheattentionpartoftheAIDA
modelandmakesitstandout,makessomeoneengagewithitandmaybewillthenpushthemouttothewebsiteforthatdetail.Sotheyarethekindofconsiderationsitisnot,it
isnotblackandwhite.(15.00)ButIcanseewhy,whyatradeadmightbeseenasmore
working,moreaverageitisbecausetheaudience,thatiswhattheaudiencewantto
consumetomakethemreacttoit.
Yes.Thankyouthatisinteresting.ThenextoneIdon’tthinkyouwillbeabletoanswerbecauseIamsayingtoyouwhatroledoessemioticsplayinyourprocess
offormingideasbythesoundofit,itdoesn’treallybecauseyouhavenotengaged
withsemioticsyoucomefromadifferentbackgroundtosomeofmyother
intervieweessounlessyouhavegotanycommentstomakeonthat.
SubjectB:Wellyoujust,welljustexploreitabitfurtherwhatdoyoumeanby
semioticsthenintermsofadvertising.
Thenotionofsignification,Iamgoingbacktosomeofthetheorystuffthatsome
oftheadvertisershavedoneonmarketingandadvertisingcourses.Wherethey
arelookingatstructuralism,theyarelookingaterm…Saussure’snotionofwhat
constitutesasign,goinguptoengagingwithculturalmythsfolkloreandsoon.I
amguessingthatthatisnotsomethingthatyouthinkaboutparticularly?
SubjectB:Wellwemightdowithoutrealisingit.AndIthinkprobablypeopledoengagewithsemioticsandsymbolismandaddcoloursbutwithoutactivelythinking
aboutit.Thereisalotofimplicitprocessesincreativedevelopments,thataren’tmade
explicit.Butintermsofprocessno,wedon’tgo,thisisaredadvertbecauseitsignifies
this.Wemightmakeitaredadvertbecausedeepdownculturallythatworksforusand
sowouldn’tinIndonesiaorsomewherelikethatwhereitmeanssomethingelse.So,soyesandnotothatanswerIwouldn’t,IthinkifyouweretodigdeepIbetyouwouldbe
abletofind,ifthereisatruthaboutthatsubjectareaifthereisanunderlyingtruththat
itexists,naturallythenIbetwedoinsomeways.
Butitisintuitiveratherthanfollowingsomekindoftechnical…
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SubjectB:Exactlyyes.
ThatismorewhatIwouldexpect.Yes.Erm…youtoldmealittlebitaboutyour
processeswhatwasthelastadvertisementthatyoudid,doyourememberwhatit
was?Orhaveyougotseveralongoingatonetime.
SubjectB:Yeswehavegotloadsgoingon.WehavejustplacedsomeadsforCostcutter,
forsomeoftheirbarbequeproductsmeatsandstufflikethat,andsaucesandstuff.Pressadvertising.Andwehavejustplacedaradioadforthemaswell.Erm…once
againitisenteringbarbequeseasonbutthatwasacompletelydifferentapproach
becauseitwasadifferentaudience.ItwasonTalksportRadioerm…andwehavejust
placedaloadofadsforLincolnCastleaswell,sothereis,thereisanumbergoingonat
themoment.
Right,erm…whenyougetbriefsfromclients,Itakeit,Imeanwhatisthesortofvariationinthatthenfromtheclientaretheyveryspecificastowhattheywant
ordoyougetalotoffreedomtocomeupwithwhatyoufeellikecomingupwith
orisitsomewherein-betweenordoesitvary?
SubjectB:Itvaries.Itdependsontherelationshipyouhavegotwiththeclient.Most
clientswespendalotoftimeintryingtoshapehowtheythinkabouthowtheybriefusandwhatwerequire.Whatwerequirefromtheclientandthesearetheconversations
thatwehavewiththemisthingssimplyaroundwhataretheobjectivesoftheadverts,
andthenweworkbackwardsfromthatandaskquestions.Whoistheaudience.Doyou
understandtheaudience.Doyouhaveanyinsightfortheaudience.Doyoucurrently
haveapositioningforyourselvesthatyouwanttoreinforce,andsomepeopledoandsomepeopledon’tandsoyouare,youarecreatingthatsoitisverydifferent.Some
clientswillsendyou,thisisaslightexaggerationforeffectbuttheywillsendyoua10
pagebrief,thatisuselessandtheconversationthatyouhavewiththeminthecorridor
isthemostusefulconversationthatyouhaveasyouareleavingthebriefingmeeting.
Otherclientswilljustringup,wedidsomeforanautomotivecompanycalledRingAutomotivebeforeChristmas,theyrangup3daysbeforeChristmastosayweneed
someads,andthisiswhatwearetryingtodo.Andwedidtheadsanditwasdoneand
thatworksjustaswell.Becausewhatevertheychuckatuswegothroughourprocess,
soitdoesn’tmatterhowitstartswebreakitdownintoourcreativebriefingprocess.So
itisarealmixbutthoseclientswhoweworkwithovertime,startbriefingusontheobjectives,thetone,thetheme,thisiswhatwearetryingtoachieve,thisiswhatwe
wanttododifferently,orwewantmoreofthesamesowetryandmakeitreallysimple.
Ihaven’thadaclientsaytomeIwantanadthatlookslikethisanddoesthatandthisis
theheadline.
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Youhaven’thadthat?No.
SubjectB:Iwasgoingtosaynotforalongtime.IrememberwhenIwasayoung
productmanager,thatwasinmyearly20sandIwasbriefingagencies,thenwhichwas
20yearsago,erm…(20.00)thenprobablythatwaswhenalotofthathappenedandI
wasprobablydoingthatwhereyouwouldgothisistheproduct,thisiswhatitlooks
like,canyouputittogetherforus.Erm…butIcan’trememberthelasttimethatpassedmydesksomeonedoingthat.Butthatmightbebecauseofhowweinitiallyengagewith
clientsandweareveryupfrontabouthowweworkanditisimportantthatwework
likethisway.Maybethatiswhatattractsclientstoappointusandwhentheyare
lookingattheworkthatwehavedoneinourcredentialsandtheysaywellhowdidyou
dothatandweexplainthentheygoohokwellwewillbackoffthenandwewillgiveyouwhatyouneedtoachievethat.Soyesthathasn’thappenedforafairlylongtimeso
thebriefingis,justtogobacktotryandanswerthequestionmoreclearly,thebriefing
isquitewideranginginhowithappensbutitisveryrarethatpeopletelluswhattodo.
Wetryandgetthemtotelluswhattheywantittodo.
Andthentheytrustyoutocomeupwithsomethingthatyouthinkisgoingtowork?
SubjectB:Yesandnormallyerm…ifweareenteringnewground,oritisanewclient
wewilldomultipleoptionswewillinvestigatedifferentareas,wewillgotothe
extreme,ofeitherendwewillgosafe,wewillgosomewhereinthemiddlejusttoshow
thatwehavecoveredtheground.Erm…ifweareinaverystrongrelationshipwiththeclientwherewecanreadeachother’sminds,wecanbriefwithouttalking,thenwe
mightjustturnitroundveryquicklyandgothereyougoandbecauseweknowwhere
weare,erm…soitalldependsontheclientrelationshipandtheneedsoftheirbusiness.
Right,erm…youhavealreadyansweredalargepartofthisone.Iamsayingto
youtowhomisyouradvertisingdirectedandofcourseyourcaseyouaredealing
withCostcutterthenobviouslyitisthegeneralpublicasopposedtoanyparticularaudience,oramIwrongaboutthat.Doyouactually,areyouableto
identifyaparticularaudienceandthinkweareaimingthisatyouasopposedto
someoneelse?
SubjectB:Yes,yesonceagainthereissubtletieswithinthatforexamplewehavejust
donesomeradioadvertisingforCostcutter,andwehavegot,theyhaveaverystrongerm…alcoholandbarbequemeatofferatthemomentsothatsaystousinbroad
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brushstrokesthatcouldapplytomen,appealtomen.Itcouldequallyapplytowomen
planningfoodaswell.Themediabuyerwhoisaseparateorganisationwentwellwhy
don’twelookatsomeerm…maleradiostationslikeTalksport.Wellthatisagreatidea,theclientsaidyeslet’sdothat.Soweputtogetheraverymaleorientatedadthatwas
verytongueincheek,aboutbarbequemeatsandstufflikethatandalcohol.Andsowe
identifiedtheaudienceveryclearly.Andyoucandothatifyouhavegotaroutetothat
veryclearaudience.Ifforexampleifweareadvertisinginthetabloidsorbroadsheets
theDailyMailortheDailyMirrororsomethinglikethatyoucanpicksectionsofthatwhereyoumightgointoalifestyleorafoodsection,soyoumightbeappealingmoreto
women,erm…youcouldgointothesportspagesoryoucouldgorunofpaper,whereit
istoeveryone.Andso,ononelevelyesyoucanidentifytheaudience,butyouarenot
identifyingtheaudienceinaverygranularwayitisreallyitismen((laughs))women,
womenwhoshopforafamilythenitbecomesabitmoredetailed.Menwholikesportwiththeirmatessoitbecomesabitmoredetailed.Andoccasionallysayifweare
workingsaywitherm…wedoworkwithDestinationsaswell,likeVisitPeakDistrict,
youmaywellgowellwearegoingtotalktofamilieswithyoungchildrenunder6,who
needacertaintypeofaccommodation.Orwanttofeelasthoughthereissomethingforthemtodoifitrains,itbecomesmoredetailedthenandthenwemightwritepen
portraitswhicharen’tscientific,sometimestheyarepseudoscientificinthatthereis
organisationsthatidentifydifferentaudiencesandwhatmakesthemup,andwemight
usethoseandthenrewritethosepenportraitssothatwecanjustgetintothemindof
theconsumer.Butalotofthatisaboutshowingtheclientthatwehaveunderstoodwhattheirneedsare,ratherthanjusttheconsumer.Erm…so,onceagaintoanswer
yourquestiondowehaveaparticularaudiencesinmindyes,sometimestheyarevery
broadmen,sometimestheygetabitmoredetailed.Erm…yes.
YesImeansoclearlythenit’sIsupposeunavoidablethatyouwillhavetoengage
insomedegreeofstereotypingofpeoplebecause...
SubjectB:Ohabsolutelyyes.YesImeanthewholepurposeofmarketingismasscommunication,becauseyoucan’tselldirectlybecausethereisn’tthetime(25.00)or
themoneyformetositdownwithyouandfindoutwhatyoureallywantandhowyou
wanttobesoldthisproductsoIhavetotakebroadbrushstrokes.Andthatistheway
thatthecommunicationchannelsaredevelopedaswell.Weareacutelyawareofthat,
andyouhavetobecarefulsometimesabouthowyoucreateyourstereotypesinyourownmind,butwehavealwaysgottheconsumerinourmindandwearealways
discussingandarguingaboutwellwouldhousewives,anditisterribleword,
housewiveslikethat,whatdoyoumeanbyahousewife.Wellsomeonewhoisshopping
forthefamily,okmightnotbeawomanthen,mightbeaman,itcouldbeanywaysoyes
itcanbecomequitecomplicated.
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Okobviouslyyouareusingimagesandyouareusingwords,howdoyouensure
thatwhatstepsdoyoutaketomakesurethatwhatyouaredoingisactually
understood,theyaregettingit,whatyouaresaying?
SubjectB:Okintermsofcomprehension.Wellsometimeswetestcreativesowedofocusgroups.Atthemomentwehavegoterm…erm…apieceofresearchbeingdoneby
Costcutteronourcurrentcampaignthatisrunningwithanorganisationcalled
MillwoodBrownwhodoalotofconsumertesting.Andtheytestforeverythingfrom
comprehension,throughtobrandrelevanceandlotsandlotsofdifferentdetailsandtheydothison-linewith100–150differentpeoplelookingattheadvertising.
Previouslywithcampaignssaylastyearwedidsomefocusgrouptesting,notjustofthe
campaignsbutjusttogetagreaterunderstandingandusethecampaignsasamirrorto
holduptothataudience,sothatiswhenthereisthebudgettodoitanditisworth
doingitaswell.Soifyouarespendinghalfamillionpounds,onmediathenitisprobablyworthdoingsometesting.Erm..ifyouarespendingamillionpoundsover
yearthenitisprobablyworthdoingsometesting.Erm…ifforexamplesaywithLincoln
Castlewhodon’thavesuchlargebudgets,thecreativitywedidforthemwasnewand
innovativeforthem,thenwejustworkwiththeclienttomakesurethatthe
comprehensionwasthereandpeoplewithintheclientteamandweknewfromourcraftnottheconcept,abouthowanadshouldworkproperlyandhowitis
comprehendedandsoitisarealmixagainbetweenpeoplespending£20,000on
researchtopeoplegoingupanddownthecorridorwithitandaskingpeoplewhatthey
think.Andbothare,bothareequallyasvalid,ifnotasrobust.
Yes,Ok.Ihaveaskedthisisoneoftheseagain,itisasemioticsoneIwasIsayinghowifatalldoyouusesymbolismandiconsIthinkyouhavealreadysortof
prettywellcoveredthatforme.
SubjectB:Goodifthathas.I,I…Ibetifyoubrokedownourprocessesandourifyou
couldlookintoourheadsIbetwewouldbeusingsemiotics,insomewaybutnot
actively.Ornotexplicitly.
IwillgiveyouanexampleofoneIspoketoyesterdayheisachapinDoncaster,he
wasatradeadvertiser.Andhewasdoinga,waspreparinganadaboutfromalocalfirmthatactuallynowcoversnationwide,andsoheshovedinpicturesofthe
statueofRobinHoodinNottingham,oftheHumberBridge,ofTrafalgarSquare
showingdifferentpartsofthecountryallmadeintoacollageshapedlikethemap
oftheUK.Sothatwashisattemptatusingsymbolismtoshowthenationalnatureofitall.Sothatisthekindofthing,andIwouldimaginethatyouwouldgofora
similar…
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SubjectB:IfyouwanttoholdonforasecondIwilljustgetsomeonetograbanadandI
willshowyou,andIthinkthatwilljust,justholdononesecond.
Iwilljustshowyouoffourwebsite.Isaidearlierwedidsomeadvertisingjustbefore
Christmasforanautomotivecompany,and…thiswasaveryquickturnaroundbutwe
wentthrougherm…wewentthroughourcreativeprocess,thereyougo.Right,
FirstAidforcars(30.00)andtherewehaveadiagnosticmachinewireduptoacar.
SubjectB:Theheartofacaralmost.
Yes,yes.
SubjectB:Andsoyoucanseethatweareusingthiskindofsymbolismtoshowthe
importanceofthisproduct,butwearenotgoingthroughaprocesswhereweare
activelyengagedwiththatsoweareusinginthisinstanceanywaysymbolismvery,very
strongly.
Yesyouhavegotaparalleltherewhichis[30.23]interestingthankyouforthatyes.
SubjectB:Sohopefullythat’sshownwherefromwhatyousayIthinkwedodoitbut
wearenot,wearenotkindofbreakingitdownandusingitexplicitly.
NoIcan’tseehowyoucan’tuseitbutanyway.Lastquestionofallifyouare
advertisingaspecificproductyoutoldmethatyoudon’ttendtodothatsomuch,
erm…howdoyoutapintopeople’spre-existingknowledgeoftheproductorevenofthebrandisthereanywaythatyoucan,doyouthinktoyourselftheyalready
knowthis,howdoyouknowwhattheyknowandhowdoyoutapintothat?
SubjectB:Welleitherfromtheclienttellingusthatthisishowtheproductisreceived,
andisunderstoodandiscomprehended,andsometimestheytelluswhattheproblems
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arewithitandthatmightbederivedfromtheirownresearchoritmightbederivedjust
fromtheirownexperiencesowegettoldthat.Erm…sosayforexamplewiththis,
erm…Ican’t,thatisapoorexample.Soweeithergettolditorwemakeassumptionsthattheproductis,orthetypeofproduct,theproductcategoryisunderstood.Andifit
isabrandnewerm…productthathasneverbeenseenbefore,thenthatwouldbea
differentproblemtosolvethanifitisjustanotherproductwithinacategorythatiswell
understood.SoIthinkwearejustmakingassumptionsastohowpeopleunderstandit
unlesswearetolddifferently.
Yes.Righterm…Ithinkyouhaveprettymuchansweredallmyquestionsand
thankyouforthat.
SubjectB:Good.
SUBJECT C
SomyfirstthenisIwanttomovesequentiallythefirstpartisaboutyou
personally,whatroutedidyouentertheadvertisingindustry?
SubjectC:WellIdid,erm…Isupposeerm…thefirstpointwasbeinggoodatartat
schoolreallyso,erm…intermsofcopywritingIhavecomethroughanindirectroutein
asense,erm…andIstudiedthe,myAlevelswereEnglish,literatureandartandhistory.
So,Ialwaysintendedtodoerm…todoartandIintendedatquiteanearlyageIguesstogointographicdesign.Erm…whichIthenwenttoerm…collegeanddidafoundation
course,anartfoundationcourse,kindofspecialisedingraphicdesign,thenIwentto
theUniversityofHumberside,anddidadegreeingraphicdesign.Erm…atthatpoint,I
enteredtheindustryinsothisiserm…kindof1993,Ienteredtheindustryerm…asagraphicdesignersoinasenseIhadabsolutelynoresponsibilityforcopyifthatmakes
sense.Erm…throughthatIerm…startedmyownbusinessbecausetherewasnojobsat
thatpoint,verymuchlikenowinmanyways,althoughIthinkitishardernowthanit
wasthen.Erm…andquite,Isupposequitequicklyandasbeingagraphicdesigner,was
alwaysaboutwhatitwas,whatthemessagewas,formesoIwasn’t,Iwouldn’tsayIwasapuregraphicdesigneractuallyIwasalwaysmoreofanartdirectorifyouunderstand
thedifferencebetweenanartdirectorandagraphicdesigner.
Canyouexplainitformedoyoumind?
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SubjectC:Yes,agraphicdesignerIwouldsaytheremitofadesigneristomakethings
lookprettyandmakethemlooklegibleandadheretowhateverstyle,form,howeverit
needstoconformtowhateverstyle.Iamnotbeingveryclearhere.
Isthatthroughthebrief?
SubjectC:Iwouldsayadesignerisgivenasetofcopyerm…abriefaroundhowit
needstolookandwhattheaudienceisandthentheywoulddesignapieceaccordingly.
Whereasanartdirectorwould,wouldbemoreaboutsettingthestyle,andanart
directorwouldbemoreconcernedaboutthepieceasacommunicationratherthanjust
avisualstylekindof,asaflatpieceofpaperitwould,anartdirectorwouldbemoreconcernedabouthowthatkindofcommunicatestoanaudience.So,Iwouldsayfrom
theverystartIwasmoreofa,Ihadleaningstowardsbeingagraphic,anartdirector,
thanagraphicdesigner.AndoneofmyfirstjobsactuallyIwasaskedthatquestionby
thecreativedirector,areyouadesigneroranartdirector,andIdidn’treally
understandthedifferenceatthatstagebut,andIthinkthereisalotofoverlapinthataswellerm…butIthinkyesIwouldsay,designerispurely,isavisualartist,avisualcrafts
personwhereasIthinkanartdirectorismuchmorearoundthemessageandhowthat
worksasanadvertisingcommunicationifthatmakessense.
Itdoesyes.
SubjectC:So,erm…soImeanintermsofmyprogressionIstartedasagraphic
designer,Iworkedmyfirst,Isetupmyownbusiness,workedinthatforaboutayearandthenIgotajobwhichwasalwaystheintention.Myfirstjobactuallywasonerm…a
listingsmagazine,aWhat’sOnmagazine,whicherm…whichwasagainestablishedfrom
scratchsoIdidalltheidentityandallofthevisualofit,erm…anditwascalledBrag
Magazine((laughs))anditexistedforaboutayearbeforetheparentcompanyranout
ofmoneybasically,butitkindof,itdevelopedquiteagoodnameandareputationintheyear(5.00)thatitexistedandironicallyitbecome,itgottothepointwhereitwasat
leastcoveringitsexpensesbythetimeitwascloseddownbutithadincurredsomuch,
somanylossesingettingthere,theparentcompanydidn’thavedeepenoughpockets
anddidn’tunderstandthemagazineworldenoughreallytogointoasaventure,but
theylearntfromthatmistakebygoingbustbasically.SofromthatpointIthenenteredtheagencyworld,myfirstjobwasinacowboyoutfitquitefrankly,erm…andIthinkI
wasthere3or4monthsandthatwentunderaswell.Erm…butIjumpedshipquite
successfullyandIwasverymuchadesignerthereIwouldsay.AndthenIjumpedship
erm…andIjoinedquiteawell,quiteawell-knownagencyinLeedscalledOutsidetheBox,andthat,thatwasthefirstpointactuallywhereIwentintoanenvironmentthatI
wouldconsideraprofessionalagencyenvironment.Andtherewasadistinction
betweencopyanddesignandwhatweweredoingasdesignersandartworkersassuch
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andIwouldliketothinkIhavealwayspersonally,Ihavealwayshaderm…aneyeora
noseforcopyandbeingabletowritecopyandwriteheadlinesandthenactuallywrite
thejobasitgoesthrough.And,itwasnoticedquitequicklywhenIgottoOutsidetheBoxthaterm…Ithinkthestudiomanageroncequippedshesaidohitdoesn’treally
matterifyouarenotmuchofadesignerorartworkerbecauseyoucanwrite,andIwas
likeohthatisquiteanicethingtosaybutIalwaysconsideredmyselfa,adesignerart
directorfirstandawritersecond.SoatthatagencysoIthinkthisis,Ithinkthisis
probablykindofquiteindicativeofhowcopyistreatedintheprovincesassuch,sowedidn’t,thatagencywhichwasquiteabigagencyatthetime,andstillisquiteanamein
Leeds,erm…sortof20yearslatertheydidn’temployacopywriter,itwaskindof
cobbledtogetherquitefranklybytheaccountmanagersandtheclient.Andthefactthat
Iwouldthenactuallysortoflookatthecopyandtryanddissectitandmake
recommendations,wasalmostarevelationatthatpoint.Erm…again,intheearlypartofmycareerIflittedaroundalot,andsoughtother,otherbetteropportunities,and
quitequicklyIthinkIonlystayedthere6monthsandthecreativedirectorgot
headhuntedtogoandworkatMcCannEricsoninManchestersoIfollowedhimabouta
monthlaterandgotajobthere.Andnow,that,thatobviouslyMcCannEricsonManchester,Idon’tknowIyouknow,butImeantheywereatthetimeandIthinkthey
probablystillarethebiggestagencyoutsideLondon.So,basedoverinPrestburyjust
southofManchester,Ithinktherewerelike300peoplethereatthetime,andIamnot
surewhatthenumbersarenowbutIthinkitisquitesimilartobehonest.Andatthat
point,thatwasmy,thatwasthefirsttimeasadesignerbecauseIwasstilladesignerthenIwouldsaythatIencounteredcopywriterswhojustwrotecopy.And,erm…we
were,Idon’tknow,ifIamgoingintotoomuchdetaildoforgiveme.
Noit’sfine.Pleasecarryon.
SubjectC:Atthatpoint,erm…Iwentintoakindof,aself-containedunitreally,sothere
wasthecreativedirectorwhoIfollowedover,therewasacopywriterwhowasofa
seniorlevel,andthentherewasmeasthesortof,designerkindofartdirectorandthenwehaderm…adesignjunior,whowaskindofundermeassuchandthenerm…there
wasateamofartworkers,andaproofreaderactually,whichwasinteresting.Theproof
readerservedalotofdifferentunitsifthatmakessensebutweworkedwithaproof
readerforthefirsttimeandapropercopywriterforthefirsttime.Andatthatpoint,
havingalwaysusedtobeinggivencopyandcobblingittogether,atthatpointIstartedtoworkwithwhatIwouldcallapropercopywriterwhogave,whothoughtaboutthe
jobandthecommunicationpieceandgaveyoucopy.Andthenmy,itwasmyjobto
makeitlookprettyandcommunicateeffectivelywhatthepointoftheactualpiecewas.
Andweworkedonerm…weworkedonafashioncatalogue,whichwaslikeayoung
ladiesfashionpiece,anderm…anditwasaquitestructured(10.00)kindofcommunicationsortofprogrammethatwesortoffitintoreally,soIdiditforabout,
andtherewasacatalogueevery6monthssoyouwentthroughacyclefor6monthsso
youeffectivelydesignedthecataloguebutweonlydidthefrontbitandtheveryendbit
whichwasthecalltoactionandtherestofitwasdonebypeopledoingthattobe
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honest.Erm…sowewereliketheagencydoingthekindofcleverbitsatthefrontand
theendifthatmakessense.And,erm…andthecataloguewentoutandwedidsowe
workedonpress,withinthat,weworkedonTVwithinthatbutthenwealsoworkedonquitea,quiteacomprehensiveerm…sortofdirectmailprogrammeerm…combined
withmonthlystatementmailings.Soifyoubought,ifyougotacatalogueyougota
statementeverymonth,andifyouorderedfromthecatalogueyouwentintoacertain
mailingcycleandifyoudidn’torderfromthecatalogueyouwouldgointoanother
mailingcycle,soitwasquitekindofcarefullyplottedandthoughtoutandithadbeendevelopedasasystemovermany,manyyears.Erm…andawayofgettingtheoptimum
outoftheinvestmentofdoingthecatalogueandsendingitouttosomeonebecauseyou
knowitwouldcostmaybe£10toprintandpostthatcatalogueout.Soitwasaboutkind
ofpullingtheinvestmentoutofthatassuch.
Ididthatonce,quiteenjoyedit.IdiditagainthoughtokIamtreadingonwaternow,Ihave,ImeanIwas26atthispointsoIwasgoingthroughthesecyclesoflearningandso
Ididthefirstoneenjoyedit,didthesecondoneerm…enjoyeditlessaskedforakindof
move,becauseIdidn’treallywanttogothroughanothercyclehavingdoneitforyear,
askedforamovetoanotherkindofdepartmentintheagencyandtheydidn’tmove
veryquicklysoIagainIleft((laughs)).IcamebackovertoLeeds,missedhomeactuallysoIcamebacktoLeeds,anderm…thenjoinedacompanycalledWWAVNorth.Now
thereisWWAVwereabignameindirectmarketingatthetime,andWWAVnorthI
thinkwerethebiggestdirectmarketingagencyoutsideofLondon.SobasedinLeeds
don’texistnow,completelyfallenover.IthinkWWAVstillexistinLondon,itwas
WWAVWardledidiArnolddidiandquiteakindof,wellatthetimeIwouldsayabiggishnamein,wellverybignameindirectmarketingandareasonableagencyname
inLondon.SotherewasWWAV,IworkedinWWAVLeeds,erm…thentherewasWWAV
therewasliketheLondonoffice,therewasanEdinburghoffice,aBristolofficeanda
Leedsoffice,soitwasquiteabigagencysortofnetworkreallyatthattime.Erm…andit
wasverymuch,itwasverymucharoundthesortofthebigburstindirectmarketingthatkindofhappenedinthesortofIguessinthemid-80sandthentailedouttowards
the2000sandthentheinternetsortoftookoverreally.Erm…but,soIguessifIam,ifI
sitinfrontofyoutodayandyousaywellwhatisyourbackgroundIwouldsaywellitis
directmailreally,directmarketing.AndImeanIdon’tknowifyouknow,alotabout
directmarketingintermsofhowitworksandstufflikethat,buterm…itisquitethescientificalmostprocess.SoIwillgiveyou,Isupposeitisinterestinginlanguageterms
andIwishIhadacopytoshowyounowactually.ButwhatwewoulddoissoIwentto
WWAVNorth.NowIwouldsayWWAVNorthweremorescientificabouttheworkthat
weweredoing,intermsofdirectmarketing,thanwewereonakindof,inManchesteratabiggeragency.ButIthinkWWAVweremoreinvestedindirectmarketingasa
conceptandasasortof,asaskillsetreally.Soweworkedforerm…theydid,theywere
builtontheGrattonbusiness,theGrattoncatalogueanderm…didalotofsortof,alotof
thecatalogueswithintheGrattongroupsoIwas,whenIjoinedWWAVNorthIcame
andworkedonGratton’sversionoftheyoungfashioncataloguethatIhadworkedoninManchester.So,Idroppedstraightintothataccount.Andthatwasmyrolewastosort
ofservicethataccount.Soasaforinstance,wetalk(15.00)aboutcataloguegoesout6
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monthcycle,cataloguegoesout,bunchoffollow-upmailingstosortofbasicallygetthe
recipientofthecataloguetopurchase.Soalotofthemailingswereaboutgettingthe
erm…theperson,gettingthecustomertokindofgolookbackintothecatalogueonamonthlybasisbecauseitwouldsitthereandgetputinabunchofnewspapersand…
Remindthemit’sthereand…
SubjectC:Yesexactly,yes.Andaspartofthiswholecampaign,sowedidtheerm…
therewas,therewasthe,sorrythereisnamesforit,therewasactivationwhichwas
gettingthemtokindofgobackintothecatalogue,andthentherewasrecruitment
essentiallysoitwasprospectingandgettingnewcustomers.Sowedidalotofdirectmailintermsofyouknowsendingittokindofidentifyingaudiences,buyingdata,
sendingmailingsout,tothataudience,enticingtryingtogetthemtotakeacatalogueon
basically.Soaspartoftheprocesswasconcerned,nowIthinkyouwillfindthis
interestingandIamprobablygettinggoinglikethattoomuch.
It’salright.
SubjectC:Whatwewoulddoiswewouldhavea,wewouldhaveasellmailing,andthentherewouldbeatestagainstit.Sotherewouldbeamailingthatwaslikethebest
performingmailingforthatparticularerm…briefsoitmightbe,itmightbetakea
catalogueorlookbackatthecatalogueorwhateverthebriefwas,sotherewouldbea
sellthatwaslikethebestperformingmailing.SoquiteoftenwhatIwouldget,isIwould
gettherewouldbeasellmailingandIwouldgetabrieftobeatthatmailing.AndthenthatmailingwouldmytreatmentandtheoriginalsellwouldgoouttoanA/Bsplit
audienceandthatwouldperformatlike0.5or.5%andthatwouldwellitwaslikethat
wouldperformatlike1.12%andthatonewould,ifthatonecameinat1.15%thatthen
becamethesell.Soyouwereinaconstantprocessoftestandrefine.Anditwas,anda
lot,sometimesitwasofferbased,sometimesitwaslanguagebasedandquiteoftenitcouldbelike,erm…likeweirdlittlethingsthatyouwouldjusttryandputinthere.So
therewasalotoftestingonlikedidanalarmclockworkbetterthanatowelincentive.
Didmoneyoffworkbetterthanapercentageoffetc,etc.Sotherewasalotoftestingof
thatkindofthinggoingonaswell.Erm…so,youknowasyouwouldexpectanalarm
clock,whichwasahighoratoasterwhichisahigherperceivedvaluethanatowelwouldworkbetter,butmoneywouldalwaysworkbetterthananykindoflikematerial
incentive.Erm…soevenifyouhadsomethingthatwasworth£50itworked,offering
£10offwouldworkbetterthanahigherperceivedvalueitemifthatmakessense.And
moneyhardcashalwaysworkedbetterthanpercentage.Andweworkedoutthattheaverageordervaluepersaytheaverageordervaluepererm…orderwas£100we
testedthingslikegivingthema£10offvoucherorgivingthema15%offvoucher,and
£10alwaysworkedbetterthan15%.And£10alwaysworkedbetterthan20%aswell.
326
Youhadtokindofescalateitmassivelyandwecouldn’tworkoutwhetherjustpeople
justvaluetheideaofhardcashmore,ortheydidn’tworkoutthattheyareactually
ordering£100therefore20%voucherwasbetter,sotherewasalotof,Idon’tknowifthatisinterestingyoufromalinguisticsperspective.ButImeanpeople,wewondered
whetherpeoplecouldfounditeasiertotake£10offtheirorderthanworkoutwhata
15%offwaseventhough15%mightequatetolike30quid,etc,etc.Butquitealotof
teststhatwedidwerebasedaroundlanguageaswellinthesensethat,erm…inadirect
mailpieceandyouwillhavereceiveddirectmail,sometimesthetheoryisthatifyouareinterestedinasubject.SorryIwillgoback.Sothefirstthingistheouterenvelopeand
normallytherewillbesomethingonthatouterenvelopethatwillenticeyouin.Now,
that’sthefirstbarrierforadirectmailpiece,ifthatenvelopeputsyouoffforwhatever
reason,itgoesstraightintothebinsoitdoesn’tevengetopenedsothefirstbarrieristo
sortofgetthemtoopentheenvelopeandsometimes,(20.00)dependingonhowerm…whattheperceptionaroundthebrandis,ifitisakindoflowgradebrandyoudon’t
featureitbutifitisahighgradebrandyouwouldfeatureit,ifthatmakessense.
Erm…butquiteoftenwewoulddotestsonenvelopesaroundyouknow£15offvoucher
inside,15%voucheroffinsideandthingslike,testthingslikethat.Andthen,therewasaverysortofalmost,erm…quiteastrictkindofrationalearoundhowpeopleopened
directmailandhowtheyreadit.AndthiswasformulisedbyProcterandGambleas
well.IlaterworkedonProcterandGamble,inanotheragency.And((laughs))ifyou
havegottimeIwillyouaboutthataswell.
Yes
SubjectC:Buterm…essentially,soyougetyourmailpiece,youhavegotmaybe3or4secondsforsomeonetolookatitanddecidewhethertoopenitornot,iteithergets
binnedoritgetsopened.Sothefirstthingtheydoistheywilllookattheletter,and
normallyinamailpacktherewillbe,therewouldbealetterandatleastoneleafletand
maybe2leaflets.Andthefirstthingtheydoistheywilllookattheletterandseeifitis
addressedtothem.Soifitispersonalisedtothemandithasspelttheirnamecorrectly,whattheywouldthendoiserm..scanthelettersowhattheywouldtypicallydoisscan
theheadlinesandthesubheadsandthinkisthisrelevantifitisn’t,binifitwas,then
theywouldreadfurther.Atthatpointtheywouldputdowntheletter,andtakeupthe
leaflet.Andreadtheleaflet.Now,normallyatthatstageyouwouldn’thavenormally
personalisedtheleafletsbutnow,atechniqueweuseandtheartworkIwasjustsending,wasamailpackactuallywhichwedon’tdoagreatdealofanymorebutitwasa
simplelettermailingwithamessageontheouter,apersonalisedletter,butthenthe
leafletispersonalisedaswell.Andthejoboftheleafletintermsofwasreinforcement
intermsofwhatthepointofthemailingwas.Sotheletterwouldoutlinewhatwewant
youtodoandwhatthesubjectis,andtheleafletsimplyregurgitatesthatinaslightlydifferentformatbutperhapsinamorevisualwayaswell.And,andthetrainofthought
wasthatoncetheyhavegottheleafletintheirhandtheywouldlookattheleafletand
scantheleafletandtakeavisualmessagefromit,andtheniftheywerestillinterested
theywouldgobackandreadtheletter.Now,therewasobviously,therewasdifferent
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theoriesoflettersaswellintermsoftherewasalongletter,therewerelongletter
treatmentswhichwerelike2pagesofdensecopytalkinginintricatedetailaboutthe
benefitofthisgizmowhateveritwas.Oryoucoulddoashortletterwhichwaspunchierandmaybehadmorevisualsonit,sowewouldtestlonglettertreatmentsto
shortlettertreatmentsaswell.Soitwasquiteerm…intermsofdiscipline,itisasfar
awayfromthekindofartydesignerpieceasyoucanimaginereallybutthatsortof
thingreallyappealedtomeandreally,Ireallyfounditquiteinteresting.Anditwasvery
muchacraftratherthananartisticpursuitinasense,althoughmyjobwastooverlayasheenandabrandoveritetc,etc.Youknowso,yesIkindofmovedtoWWAVNorth
andgotinvolvedindirectmailinthatrespect.
NowatthispointIhadworkedwith,Ihadworkedwithanumberofcopywritersso
therewasacreativeteamofabout10generallyspeakingtherewasacreativedirector,
therewaserm…probablytherewasthecreativedirectorhadakindofMacguywhodidhisMacwork,becausehedidn’twanttoworkonMacsatthattime,andthentherewere
like5artdirectorsand5erm…copywritersgenerally.Soeveryonehadacopywriter.I
waslikethejuniormemberoftheteamatthatpoint,Iwasbyfartheleastexperienced,
andIdidn’t,Iwasn’treallyassignedacopywriterIgottoworkwithmaybe2or3
copywritersonaregularbasis,whichwasactuallyreallygoodbecauseIlearntdifferentthingsfromdifferentcopywritersandlearnttheirskillandlearntwhattheirindividual
strengthswas.OneguyIworkedwithwaserm…hewould,hisheadlineswouldbe30
wordslongandIwouldcomeinandrewritehisheadlinesandhedidn’tmindthat
becauseheknewIwassnappierthanhewas.Buthewrotelongdensecopyandhewas
almostlikeafinancialservicesexpert,andwehadalotoffinancialservicesclients,atthatpoint(25.00)andhewasalmostlikethe,hewaslikethefinancialguysowhenI
workedonafinancialclienthewouldgetassignedasthecopywritertothat.Sothere
weredifferentcopywriterswithdifferentstrengthsanddifferentstyles.Anderm…andI
meanatthatpointIwasanartdirectoratthatpoint,soIunderstoodthedifference,and
IknewIwanted,inManchesterIknewIwantedtobeanartdirector,notadesigneranymoreandthatwasajobwhereIwasanartdirector,andthatwasmyjobtitle.AndI
wasn’tevenrequiredtouseaMacatthatpointwhichwasincredibleforme,becauseI
hadgrownup,orIwaslikethefirstgenerationofusingAppleMacs,todesignonandat
thatpoint,erm…IcouldifIwantedtojustsitandscampandjustprovidescamps,and
thenartdirectdesignersandMacoperators.
Whatisascamp?
SubjectC:Scampisadrawingofthelayout.
Ok
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SubjectC:SoIwoulddrawoutalayoutandmarkitupintermsofIwantthatcolour
there,thisimagehereandIprovideanegativeoftheimage,andIwouldgiveittoanart
workerandtheywouldconstructitandthenIwouldgetit,makemyamends.And,thatwasquitenoveltome.Butthatwasoldpracticethatwasoldpracticewhichhasdied
outcompletelynow.WhereasIwasn’t,IwasthenewbreedwhowasveryMacliterate
comparedtoeveryoneelse.AndIkindof,wasquick,tobehonestIwasquickerandI
wasatleastasgoodastheotherartdirectorsatartdirectingatthatpoint.Soerm…yes
ImeanwithoutbeingtooIkindofrosethroughtheranksoftheartdirectorsvery,veryquicklyactuallyandImeanthesewereguyswhowerelike15yearsseniortomesoI
was,Imadethatwasat,atthatpointIwaslikehotpropertyasasortofanartdirectorif
thatmakessense.Apologiesifthatsoundsboastfulbut…
No,no
SubjectC:Butitwas,Iwaslikethenewbreedcominginwhowas,Iwasquicker,IwasI
hadhad,Iwasjust,Iwasprobablyquicker,Iwasprobablymoreambitious,andIworkedharder,anderm…
Yougotnoticed.
SubjectC:IgotnoticedandIquicklybecametheartdirectorthatalltheaccount
directorswantedontheiraccount.Erm…and,Iwas,quitea,Iwasquiteafirebrandat
thatpointactuallyIwas,Icouldbevery,verydifficultandveryargumentative,and
quiteegotisticalattimes,buttheyputupwithitbecausetheyknewIwoulddotheworkandIwoulddoittomybest,thebestofmyabilitiesandtakeitvery,veryseriously
whereacoupleoftheotherartdirectorswereabitmoretimeservedandabitmore
sortoflikeblaséandtheywouldlet,theywouldletthemselvesbeledbytheaccount
directorswhereIneverwould.ButtheaccountdirectorsrespectedthatIthinkandit
wasveryinterestingatthatpoint,becauseatthatpointafterbeingthereayearortwoIwantedtobeacreativedirector,IhadcomefromadesignertoanartdirectorandnowI
wantedtobeacreativedirector.Iamacreativedirectorme.AndIthinkatthatpoint,I
started,therewasverymucha,athemandusthingaboutcreativestudioandthe
accountandthedepartment.Youknow,weweretheartytypes,whowerearsyandgot
inlateandyouknowblah,blah,blahandtheywerethetightarsedsuits,theywerethebagcarriersforourworkkindofthingbutIthinkatthatpointIalmostkindofstarted
todeveloprelationshipswithaccountpeopleinawaythatthestudiopeopledidn’t
reallyandIthinkthatwasthebridgeformeactuallythentobecomeacreativedirector
andthensortofgoonassuchso.ButyessoImeanIsupposeatthatpointthatwasit,thatperiodformewasarealintenseperiodoflearningandIworkedwithsomevery
dourcopywritersandboringcopywritersbutverythoroughcopywriters.ButIworked
withoneguyerm…whocompletelyopenedmymindatonepointandhewasaboutthe
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sameageasme,hewasn’ttrained,hadn’tgonetouniversityhejusthadapure,hehada
pureknackforcopyandhewasprobablytheclosestIhavecometobrilliancein
copywritingintermsofotherpeopleIhaveworkedwith.Anderm…Imeanhewasworsethanme,ifIwasdifficulthewasanightmaretobehonestbuthewasbrilliant
andIonlyworkedwithhimforaboutmaybe6monthsandhecamein,Iwasgivenhim
wewerejoinedupasateam,sohewaslikemyfirstpropercopywriter,whowaslike
mycopywriterandunfortunatelyhegotheadhuntedafterabout6monthstogoandbe
acreativedirectorsomewhereelse,buthehadatotalabilitytocutthroughallthebullshit(30.00)aroundabriefbecauselikeinthosedayswewouldbegivenabrief
whichmaybelike5or6pageslongforajobandactuallyyouwouldreadthebriefand
youwouldthinkIhavegotnoideawhatyouwantmetodoandyouwouldreaditagain
andactuallyitwasaskill.Itwasaskillsetwasdecipheringabriefandpickingoutthe
pointsthatwererelevantandhehadagreatskillatcuttingthroughallofthebullshit,andhewasn’toneforlikewritinglonglettershewaslikepunchyandhewasshortand
hewasabrasiveandhewasverydirectandkindofsubversiveinwhathedidinterms
ofhiscopy.AndImeanatthatpointwewereallworking,IsupposeIwasworking12
hourdaysgenerallyspeaking,itwouldbelikeIwouldgetthereat9,leaveat9literallyandhisguywouldpissoffatlike5.30,butnoonecouldtouchhimbecausehewasso
good.SoIkindoflike,hemademelookatwhatIwasdoingandtheworkIwasdoing
quitekindofcarefullyandIsupposeinaweirdwayIhave,Ihavetakenalotofhisstyle
andtriedtoreplicatethat.AndIthinkifI,ImeanIwritealotofcopynowandfunnily
enough,copyisbecomingevermoreimportantintermsoftheexplosionoftheinternet.Erm..becauseitisallaboutcontentnowagain,ithasturnedroundtocontent.AndI
amfindingactuallyIthoughtmyskillsetwasslippingoutofrelevancequitefranklybut
actuallyIamcomingtotheconclusionthatitisbecomingmorerelevantthanever
becauseIhavegotthetrainingandtheexperiencethatalotofpeoplehaven’tand,andI
thinksointermsofcopyhewasarealkindof,hewaslikeablast,hewasanicyblastonawarmbeachImeanhisimpactwasincredibleonme.Buthewas,hewasbasicallyhe
wasnevergoingto,hewasnevergoingtohaveoldbonesthisguyandIthinkhediedin
hismid-30ssoandthatisprobablylike10yearsagonow.So,Imeanhedrank,he
smoked,hedrugged,hefuckedhedideverythinganderm…andIthinkitwasvery
interestingactuallyhewasn’t,hewasfromLeeds,hewasasortofLeedslad,hehadneverbeentouni,buthehadthisincredibleintuitionforcopyandImean,subsequently
Imeanheusedtosittheretalkingaboutallkindofrudethingsandwomenhewas
seeingandstufflikethat,andbasically3or4yearslaterhecameoutasbeinggayand
completelyturnedhislifearoundandlivedinadifferentwayandactuallydiedwhile
outjogginginwinterandhadaheartattackandslippedintoagutteranddiedfromexposure.
Sobuthewasaverykindofartisticcharacterwhoobviouslywashugelyconflictedat
thatpointbutitmadeforbrilliantwork.AndIfoundhimfascinatingreallyandhewas
arealsortofinfluenceonme.Soyes…
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TocutalongstoryshortIrosethroughtheranksatWWAVIwasmadeheadofart,
whichwasunderneaththeartdirector,IthinkIwasthere3.5yearsinallIwasmade
headofart,erm…becameabitofaplayer,Iwouldbetheonewhoworkedonallthepictures,didallofthatandIhadarecordofwinningpicturesatthatpointaswell
whichwas,Iwaskindofhotproperty.Igotheadhuntedthematthatpoint,erm…andI
wentandworkedforMcCannEricsoninLeedsthistimeascreativedirector,soatthis
pointIhadkindoflike,Ihadgotmycreativedirector’sjobIwantedanderm…andsoI
wentandworkedthere.Itwasalesswellrunagency,itwasasmallerdepartment,atthatpointIwasresponsibleforrecruitingcopywriterstoworkwithme,andsoI
probablywentthroughabout4or5.Iwasthereabout3yearsIthinkandIwent
through4or5peoplefreelancersandpermanentappointments,andagainhadthe
opportunitytoworkwithareallybrilliantcopywriterwhoemigratedtoAustraliaandis
quiteabigguninSydneyorsomewherelikethat.Andagain,qualityofwhatshedidreallysortofopenedmyeyesnotnecessarilyintermsoftheheadlinepunchbutmorein
thesortofqualityoftheactualbodycopy,andactuallydeveloping(35.00)astyleand
a…itwasalmostlikeinsteadofwritingcopythatwassellingshebroughtinadialogue
kindofstyleistheonlywayIcandescribeitanditwaslikeapersonalconversationwithmeandyouanditwaspersuasiveandyouknowhadempathyanditwasn’tit
wasn’tharshanddirectitwaskindofpersuasive.
Intimate?
SubjectC:ItwasintimateyesinawaythatIhadneverreallyseencopywrittenbefore,
erm…soshewasabrilliantsortof,shewasabrilliantcopywriterallround.Ihadthis
sparkyguywhowaslikeabrasiveandveryconceptdrivenandverysortofheadlinedrivenbutshewasmoreofthekindoftotalpackage,shewasn’tquiteassparkyashe
wasbutshekindofalmostlikeroundeditoffformeintermsofworkingwithpeople.
AndImeanIworkedatMcCann’sforabout3yearsandthenIsetupmyownbusiness
withanaccounthandlerbasicallyandatthatpoint,itwasa2manoutfitandatthat
pointIstartedhavingtowriteallthecopymyself,soIwentfrombeingacreativedirectorwithstudiopeople,withcopywriters,etcIstartedmyownbusinessandhadto
doeverythingmyself.SoatthatpointIreallystartedtosortofdoalotwithcopyand
workwithitinamorekindofingrainedway,andnow,Ican’tseparatetheprocess
reallyandIcan’t,Ican’timagineworkingwithacopywriterinsomewaysbecauseI
wouldratherdoitallmyselfbecauseit’saclearandcohesivepiece.AndIhaveessentiallyrunmyownbusinessnow,thisisthethirdbusiness,Iwasinonefor5years,
left,tookhalftheclientbasewithmestartedagain,withanotherguythatlastedayear,I
walkedouthewasanutterandIstartedthisbusinessanditwillbe6yearsoldin
September.Soagainlikebeinginbusinessyourselfandintheagencyworldinthe
middleofvariousslumpsandcreditcrunchesit’sbeenwhoalikethatandweareatourlowestebbnowthereis3ofusnowatthemoment.Erm…butthereisreasonsforthat
buterm…ImeanattheheightIhadcopywriters,andwehavegonedownagainandI
havewrittencopyagainanditisnowatthepoint,IamatthepointwhereIamthe
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copywriterforthebusinessagaininaseriousway.Soerm…soyes.Thatismy
background((laughs)).
Ok.WasitHumbersideyousaidyouwereatuniversity?
SubjectC:UniversityofHumbersideyes.ItwasHullcollegeofhighereducationwhenIapplied,itwasHumbersidePolytechnicforthefirstyearor2IwasthereandI
graduatedfromtheUniversityofHumbersideanditwasatthatpointsothiswaslike
90-93whenallthepolyswerebecomingunisbasicallyandthecollegeofhigher
educationbecameunisaswellorfurthereducationorwhateveritwas.SoyesIactually
itdidhave3differentnameswhileIwas,andIthinkitistheUniversityofEastLincolnshirenoworwhateveritisnottheUniversityofHumbersideanymore.
Ididn’trealisethat.Doyourecallanyparticulartextsthatyoustudiedthatdeal
with,Idon’tsupposeyoudiddidyoufromwhatyouhavetoldme…thatdealwith
advertisingor…
SubjectC:IdidImeanerm…Iwas,IreadRolandBarthesmythologies.AndIreadoh
therewasasuperbbookandIwishIshouldhaveremindedmyselfofit,WashingStainsbyJackieitwasaseminalkindofbookaroundtheuseoflanguageinadvertisingitwas
somethingtodowithwashingitwaslike,itwastheideaoflikehowdoyousellwashing
powderwhichessentiallywashesyourclothesandhowdoyoutalkaboutitandmakeit
seemdifferenttotheotherwashingpowders.
IsitcalledWashingStains?
SubjectC:IthinkitiscalledWashingStainsIwillhavetolookitupIwill,
Ifyoucouldjustdropmeane-mailthatwouldbegreat,thatwouldbesuper.
SubjectC:Iwilldoyes,yes.SoImeanaspartofmydegreeIthink20%ofitwas,80%
waspracticallikedoinggraphicdesignandtheotherpartofitwaslikeyouhadto
basicallywriteonthetheoryoferm…graphicdesignandwriteaboutthatkindoflike
mythologiesstylesortofthinking.SoIdidmythesis,myfinalthesisonerm…theonthe
languageandthelanguageandvisual(40.00)themesusedinelectionadvertisingsotalkingabouthowtheykindofwrite,therightofpoliticspartiesspokeandwhat
332
languagetheyusedandwhatlabourdidandthingslikethatandhowtheAmericans
havesortofsetthesceneandadvertisinginAmericainthe50s,hadsetthescenefor
stuffthatwashappeningoverhereinthe80setc,etcandthatsoitwasallaboutallthekindoflanguagearoundallofthosesortsofpostersandImeanandthiswasjustafter
the1992election,soIdon’tknowifyourememberittherewaserm…oneoftheTory
posterswaslabour’spolicyonarmsanditwasasoldierlikeinsurrenderlikethat,and
sostufflikethatreallyintriguedmeatthetimeandIwasquitepoliticalatvarious
pointsanditsortofintriguedmethatwholelanguageandIthinkit’syouknowit’sthosebarriershavenowbeenerodedreallyinthesensethatwealways,weunderstood
laboursupportedtheNHSbecausethatwaspartofthemythologyarounditwasn’tit,
semiotickindoflanguage.Whereasnowyouknow,theToriesyouknowyoucould
arguetheTorieshavedonegoodthingsfortheNHSbutbecausetheyareperceivednot
tocareabouttheNHSeveryonethinkstheydon’tcareandtheyaredoingit,andprobablythetruthissomewhereIthemiddleisn’titbut,erm…soitwasverymuch
aroundthepointlikeitwasn’tworthlabourtalkingaboutdefencebecausetheycould
neverwinbecausetheTorieswereperceivedtobethe…
Thepartyofdefenceandlawandorderandallthat.
SubjectC:Exactlyand,itwaserm…itwasalmostlikewell,youknowhowcouldlabour
everkindofwalkthat,howcouldlabourevertalkabouteconomicpolicyordefence,becausetheyweren’tperceivedtobetheirstrongpointssoyesitwasallaboutthat
reallyso,soyestherewasapartwherewehadkindofa,wehadaclass,wehadakind
ofweeklyclassthattalkedaboutallofthiskindoferm…youknowthesemioticsaround
advertisinglanguageandthingslikethat.
Socialsemiotics.
SubjectC:Yes,yes.NotverymanypeopletookitveryseriouslyinmyclassIhavetosay.
Really.
SubjectC:ButIwasoneofthefewwhodidanderm…yes,butIthinktheywere
designersyouseeandIwasanartdirectorandtherewasadifferencethereso,
Doyounowtoday,doyourefertoanytextanytheoreticaltextinthisarea,in
yourworkoristhisstuffinthepastyouknowitandyougetonwithyourjob?
333
SubjectC:Ithinkformetherewaslikeahugekindoferm…shockactually,acultural
shock,therewasaculturalshockwhere,
Anepiphany?
SubjectC:Yeswellyoukindof,yougotoUniandeveryoneistalkingaboutthehip
designersandtheseyouknowthesewritersandtheseculturalthingsthatareallgoing
on,andthenyougoandgetajob,andeveryoneistalkingaboutfootballandfightingandpornandlikebrawlingandbirdsanditis,andthatkindoflikeculturalintellectual
aspectoflifejustdoesn’texistinagenciesinthewaythatitdidatuniversitywhichis
sortofobviousIthinkbut,youknowImeanasapointofinterest,whendiscussingyour
appointment,mybusinesspartnerwhoisanintelligent,rationaledegreeuniversity
educatedman,sortofsaidheaskedmewhatsemioticswasandIamlikedon’tyouknow,hewaslikenobecauseheisnotfrom,hedoesn’thavethatkindofcapacity,he
doesn’thavethatbackgroundorlearning.Itisnotthatheisnotcapableof
understandingwhatitis.Butitisjustnotpartofhistrainingorconsiderationreally.So,
Couldyoujusttalkmethroughtheprocess,whenyougetabriefforanewadand
youhavegotalotofleewaytodowhatyouwant,canyoujusttalktomebriefly
aboutyourcreativeapproach,yourphilosophyandwhatgoesthroughyourmindwhenyougetthebrief?Startfromthebeginningofit.
SubjectC:Ithink,ImeanItalkedabouthowyoukindofcopewithabrief,erm…Imean
Irarelygetbriefsnowbecausewearenotthatkindofbusiness,butwhatIwilldoisI
willspeaktoaclient,anddragabriefoutofthem,((laughs))justusingmyexperience
really.ButIthinkthereisalways,thereisalwaysapointtoabrief,anditisaboutfindingwhatisrelevanttothecustomerortheprospectortheclienterm…Imeanwe
doyouknowalotofwhatwedoisn’tIwouldsayhowcanIputthis,thereisprobably4
or5agencies(45.00)inLondondoingallthekindofreallycleverheadlinedriven,high
conceptsortofmulti-millionpoundbudgetstuffandthenthereiseveryoneelseweare
partofthateveryoneelsemix.Imeanalotofourclientsarebusinesstobusinessclients,soweworkforerm…weworkforatheatreanddrapebusiness,whoareactuallyI
meantheyareinthetop5ofthattypeofcompanyintheworldbutwhenwedowork
forthemandwehavejustredonetheircatalogueandrebrandedthemandcreateda
newwebsitefromscratchanditisverymuchaninternationalfacingthingssoyoucan’t
affordtobetoocleverandtoosortofobtusewithyourlanguageoryoucan’tplayonculturalsortofreferencestoomuchbecausesomeoneinShanghaiprobablywon’t
understandwhatyouaretryingtogetat.ButImeanIthink,Ithinkerm…mostclients
havegreatdifficultyincondensingwhattheydointoasimplestatement.AndIseethat
asmyjob.Ialwayssay,Ineedtoknowyourbusinesstheclient’sbusinessenough,I
334
needtoknowitjustenoughtounderstandhowIneedtoexpressittosomeonewho
doesn’tunderstandit.Ifthatmakessense.Soforme,abriefisalwaysaprocessof
simplifyingsomethingtoitsbasicbroadestterms,butactuallythatisnotaneasythingtodoandespeciallyforaclient,whocan’tseethewoodforthetrees.Andusuallythere
is,abriefthereisapointtoabriefinthesensethatitmightbeIwanttosellmoreyards
offabricorIwanttodoerm…atheatrerefit,hereorsomethingofthatilk.Whereas
erm…youknowactuallygettingacrosswhattheydoinverybasictermsanderm…
wrappingthatroundintoasortofshortstatementisactuallywhat,that’swhatIdoreally.SoIthinkvery,veryrarelywillItrytodoanythingcleverwithlanguageonanyof
myclients.Becauseclientsdon’t,don’twantthat.Inmyexperience.Probablyatthis
highfalutingkindofinternationalcocacolaaccountlevel,althoughthelanguageincoca
colaisverystraightforwardaswellisn’tittobefair,erm…youknow,peopledon’t,
clientsdon’ttendtowantintellectualspinsonthingsintermsoflanguage,andintermsofconcepts.Sosomeclientsjustdon’twantconceptdrivenworkatallandyoujust
deliverit,youdeliverthemessagefortheminaverystraightforwardclearway.So,I
don’tknowifthathasansweredyourquestionbutIthinkitisaprocessofactually
strippingawayallthebullshitaroundabrief,drawingitdowntobrasstacksandtryingtogetintotheshoesofaconsumerandunderstandingwhattheirmotivationwillbeto
makeapurchase,orbuythatserviceorwhateverthepointoftheactualbriefis.Soitis
very,verykindoferm…actiondriven.Mymindisactiondrivenitislikewellwhoare
you,whatdoyousell,whatisthebenefitofthat,andwhatdoyouwantmetodo.SoI
thinkthereis,Igothroughthatprocessandcomeoutwithsomethingattheend.
RightthatisinterestingbecausemynextquestionIwanttocometo,youwillstarttoseewhereIamgoingwithitinaminute,butsomethingthatyousortofmainly
answeredIthinkforme,whenyouaredevisinganadvert,andvisualiseit,isit
sortofisyourmentalconcept,onceyougetyourbrief,isitacompletedprocess
fromthestartorisitabuildingprocessrequiringalotofchangesandrefinement
overtime?Ordoyouseeitfromthestart?
SubjectC:Erm…Ithink,IthinkIwouldsaymostthingsIcanseequitequicklybecause
Ihavedonethembeforelikeseveraltimesanditisadifferentspinonaslightly
differentproductordifferentcompanyetc,etc.SoItendtoknowwhatIamdoingquite
quickly.
Soyouhaveamentaltemplateinplace?
SubjectC:Yes
Anditvariesaccordingtotheparticular…
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SubjectC:Ihavekindof,yes.Ihavedone,ImeanIremembergoingtoWWAVthe
companyinLeedsandbeinggivenabrief,afinancialservicesbriefandIremember
beinginthisbriefandbeingutterly,utterlyconfusedoneofthefirstjobsIeverdidat
WWAVandIthoughtwhoawayoutofmydepthhere,Ihavenotgotacluewhatthey
aretalkingaboutanditwasfinebecausethecopywriterwentohyes(50.00)Iknowwhatthatis.Wentawayandwroteit,gavemethecopyandItookthecopyandlooked
atthebriefagainandthought,ohyesthatiswhattheymean.Andthecopywriterhad
donethatjobandIwas,asaninexperiencedartdirectoratthatpointIwaslike…andit
tookmeabout6monthstokindofgetwhatthatprocesswasandthenstartdoingitfor
myselfbutIwasverygratefultotheseveryexperiencedcopywritersthattheyshowedmethewayinmanyways.AndIthinkitisreallyinterestinglike,peopleatthatpoint,
peoplewereanyone,everyonecanwritecan’tthey,everyoneImeaninmyexperience
noweveryoneisadesigner,everyonecandodesign,noyoucan’t.Erm…buteveryone
canwritesoacopywriterwouldquiteoftenproduceareallynicelycraftedpieceofcopy,
andthentheaccounthandlerswouldcomeoverandmakealoadofamends,andthentheclientwoulddothesameandthecopywriterswerehugely,hugelyabusedinmy
opinionandIcouldn’tbelievethatthecopywritersdidn’tstandupfortheirworkmore
asIdidingraphicdesigntermsatthatpoint.SoIthink,like,andthatwasprobablythe
typeofcompanywhereIwasatthatthetimeofdirectmarketingverysortoflike
scientificandkindofcraftedandfocussed,andthecopywasalmostthebitthateveryonecouldhaveabitoffunon,whoweren’tinthecreativedepartmentbecause
everyonecanwritecan’tthey.AndnormallyatbestitwouldbelikeyousaypotatoIsay
potatotheyjustwriteitinaslightlydifferentway,butnormallytheywouldmakeit
kindofsignificantlyworse((laughs))andIthinkerm…copywhatImeancertainlymyexperiencewasabusedbymeddlers,madmeddlersalotbutittendedtobethesortof
morethebodycopyratherthantheheadlinestuff.Theywouldleavemealoneactually
toalevelbutthenreallystickthebootinwiththecopywriters((laughs))andchangeit,
whatwasyourquestionIcan’trememberyourquestion.
Yeswhetheryouseeitasacompletedfromthestartorwhetheritisabuilding
process.
SubjectC:YessoIsupposewhatIwassayingwasatthatpointItookthatbriefIwasoutofmydepth,Ineededthecopytoshow,Ineededthecopywritertoshowme.Nowif
yougavemethatbriefIhaveprobablydoneit,IhaveprobablydoneImeanIhavegot
20Iwouldhavegraduated23yearsIthinkinSeptemberornoroundaboutnowisn’tit
actuallywhenyougraduate,graduatedin93,no22yearssoIhaveprobablyseenthatbriefbefore,atsomepointbecauseIhavenever,Ihavenevertakenabreakfromthis
sectorIhavealwaysworkedinthisjob.So,theprocessnowisIhavealwaysgot
somethingtoreferencethatIhavedonepreviouslysothatkindofworkingoutthatthat
copywriterhadtodoforme,Ialreadykindofknowthatinmyhead.
336
Thatworkingoutthatyouhavejustmentionedthere,whatdoesitactuallyentail,
thatiswhatIamtryingtosortofreallydiginto.
SubjectC:IthinkitiswhatasIsaidbeforeitislikestrippingawayallthebullshit.
Totherealpurposeofit?
SubjectC:Yes,
Wasthecreativeprocess[53.30]
SubjectC:Quiteoftenwithaclient,Iamtryingtothinkofagoodexampleofaclientwe
havegot,theymight,soweworkwithashippingconsultancy,atthemomentwhoare
aninternationaloutfit,andagainwerebrandedthemlastyearanderm…wedidtheir
websiteandwehavejustactuallywhenIwasonthephone,wehavejustdoneane-mail
communicationthismorningouttotheirdatabasewhichhasgoneoutwhichIwroteanddesigned.And,erm…interestinglyiftheygiveyouabrieftheywillsayIwanttodo
acommunicationtomydatabaseandIwanttotalkaboutpre-purchasevessel
inspectionsandIwanttotalkaboutdrydockingandIwanttotalkaboutflag
administrationandIwanttotalkabout,andIwanttotalkabout,andIwanttotalk
aboutanddon'tforgettomentionthis.AndweareinShanghaiandinDubaianditislikewhoa,andIthinkpartofmyjobagainistosayactuallyifsomeoneisgoingtoread
ane-mail,atbesttheyaregoingtoglanceatit,inthewaythatpeopleglanceatthat
letter,thatdirectmailletterandthereisalotofsimilaritiesbetweenwhatdirectmail
didontheskillsIlearntthenandwhathappensnowinon-linecomms.Peopleatbestwillseeavisual,thatwillhopefullytellthemwhatthethemeis,theywillseeaheadline
thatwillsetitandtherewillbesomesubheadswithinthatletterthattheycanscan,
(55.00)andthentheywilldeleteitortheywillgotosomethingelse.Iftheyarereally
interestedtheywillthenreadthatletterandpressonalinkanditisaboutyouknowa
clientandaccounthandlersgenerallywillwanttodosomethingbuttheywillwanttotalkabout20things,itismyjobtosayno,noyouneedtospeakabout1thing,youneed
tobereally,reallyfocussedaboutoneaspectofthatcommunicationandgetacrossone
pointonthebasisthatsomeoneisonlygoingtotake3secondstolookatit.Soone-mail
forinstance,asacommunicationplatformthesubjectlineisreally,reallyimportant.I
meanobviouslythereare,ifyouusefreesexchocolatekindof,ifyouusethewordfreeorsexoranykindofovertlysalesylanguageinasubjectlineitwilljustgointoaspam
boxsoyouhavegottobecarefulaboutwhatyousaybutthatlinecanreally,really
affectwhetherthate-mailisdeletedoropened.So,thereis,itis,solanguageislike
vitallyimportanttothesuccessofacommunicationon-lineinthee-mailsenseandI
think,andthatisagainlikeyoucanonlywritewellaboutonethingIwouldsay,anditis
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aprocessofsayingwellthisiswhoyouare,thisiswhatyouaregoodat,thisiswhatyou
do,thisiswhatyouwanttheclienttodo,anditisonethinganditisasortof,buta
clientwillnaturallywanttotalkaboutall15thingstheydo.Andso,itisalmostlikeacorralling,itisajobofcorrallingtheinformationandusingtherightsortofthing.Sothe
programmewearedoing,thereis,thee-mailthatwentouttoday,isthefirstofa5stage
e-mail,communication.Sothereisane-mailgoingout,onceaweekforthenext5
weeks,andthatprogrammeisgoingtobuildupastoryofallthethingstheydo.And
workasakindofdripfeedintermsofallofthe15thingstheydoaregoingtobeencapsulatedinallofthesee-mailsbutnotatthesametime.
Sowhatdoyouheadlinethen?
SubjectC:What’swhat?
Goingbacktoyourheadlinethen,youhavegotoneshotreallytomakethat
immediatelyrelevant,tothereader.
SubjectC:Yes
Andifitisnotrelevanttothemitgoesinthebin.
SubjectC:Yesthatisdirectmailyes,whichisthesamewith…
Thatisveryinterestingtomywork,thatisveryinteresting.Iwillspeakmoreaboutthatlater.
SubjectC:Ok
ThenextonereallyandagainitisagenericquestionforalladvertisersIdon’t
knowifitappliestoyou,itpossiblydoesdo,towhatextentdoesyourapproach
differaccordingtowhetheryouarepromotingabrand,thatisyourmainissue,
gettingyourbrandknownoradvertisingaspecificproduct.
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SubjectC:Yeserm…
Isthereadifference?
SubjectC:Thereiserm…yesthereisadifferenceyes.Erm…becausequiteoften,erm…
quiteoftenyouknowproductswillbedefinedbyservicearoundit,regardlessofhowgoodornotthatproductis.Wehaveoneclientactuallywho,thisismoreabranding
thing,wehaveoneclientwhowedidaresearchpiecearounderm…itwasabout2
yearsagonow.Wehadmorestaffthen.Erm…andessentiallythey’reabusinesswho
areresellerforareallywellknownsoftwareproduct,inindustrialautomationboring
subjectbutbasicallyifyouhavegotaproductionline,andyouaremakingjamtartsthejamthatpopsintothemiddleofthetarthastobe56%Fahrenheithot,ifitis45itwon’t
setproperly,ifitistoohotitwillburnthepastryunderneathit,sotheirsoftware
automatesalltheprocessesinanindustrialprocess.So,that,seeIhaveexplainedthat
toyouin20seconds,theycouldn’texplainitinthoseterms,somyjobistounderstand
whattheydoandtellittoyouinareallysimpleway.Thedifferenceis,withthemisthattheyareoftentalkingtokindofprocessengineerswhounderstandalltheinsand
outsofit,butandIstilldon’treallyunderstandwhattheydo,butIunderstandit
enoughtotellyouwhattheydo((laughs))whichis,whichistheprocessthatIhadtogo
through.Buttheywouldstruggletotellyouthatinthoseterms.
Sotogobacktoit,sotheyareabusinessbasedinManchester,sortof20millionpoundturnoverbusiness,workinternationally,erm…gotthisreally,reallywellknownpieceof
softwarewhichisliketheindustrystandardinmanyways,oritisoneoftheindustry
standards.Itisnotquite,itisnotquiteacocacola,itisnotpepsi(1:00:00)butitis
probablyavirgincolatypeintermsofanalogy.Theyareactuallydefinedbythat
product.Nowthatproductisasoftware,itisapieceofsoftware,anditwilldocertainthings,butwhattheydoistheyprovidethesupportandthekindoftraining,todeliver
thisproduct.Thatthatmakesitislikethatproductbuythatproductfromus,wedoall
ofthisaroundit.Productsisagreat,productthereislotsofotherproductsthatare
greatproducts,thereislotsofotherbusinesseswhowillsellyouthoseproducts,butthe
reasonyoubuythatproductfromusistheservicelevelaroundit.So,itcanvary,butandthatwasanexampleofwhentheyhavetobeconnectedbecausesometimes,itis
like,itislikeshoppingatLidl,isn’tit.ShoppingatTescoIdon’tknowifyouhave
shoppedatLidlandTesco,intheUKrecentlyyougointoTescoeverythingisprobably
30%moreexpensive,andbutthereislotsofstaffonthecheckoutssoyoudon’thaveto
waitverylongandtheyareusuallylikequitetidyandcleanandpoliteandyouwalkouthavingpaid30%more.YougotoLidlitisalotcheaperbutthereisonecashieron,
thereisamassivequeue,gottopayforyourowncarrierbags,like,servicecustomer
serviceislikenon-existentalmostbutyouacceptitbecauseyouarepayingalotlessfor
it.So,Ithink,Ithinkthereisaverycleardifferencebetweenwhatyouareselling,and
whatthoseproductsare.Andthen,andthenthecompanywhodeliverthat.SoIdon’tknowifthathasansweredyourquestion.
339
Yes,Iwasjust,howyourapproachasadvertiserwoulddifferifyouwere…you
weretheretosupportabrand,wewanttogetoutbrandknowntothepublicout
thereversuswellwehave[01.01.52]newbakedbeanswithachillisauceonthem,
theyarereallyniceandwewanttogetthoseouttothepeople,wantpeopletogo
andtastethem.
SubjectC:Ithinkitvariesfromclienttoclienttobehonest.Imeanweworkforafurnitureretailerwhoareerm…again,theyarenot,thereisthebig5furnitureretailers
intheUKlikeDFS,SCSandpeoplelikethattheyarenumber6intheUK.Sotheyarea
bigoutfitbutnotnationallyknowntheyareveryregionalised.Andwhenwedowork
forthemitisallaboutproduct.Soitissofasbasically,anditisallaboutthissofaatthat
price,andthatishowmuchyousave,andisn’tthisagreatsofa.Liketheotherconcernsaroundtheirservicelevelsandtheirshopsbeingthisstandardorthatstandardis
irrelevant,totheminthatadvertising.
Sotheyaretransmittinginformationreally.Thatiswhattheyaredoing.
SubjectC:Basicallyanditisn’tandwehave,wehaveattemptedtosortofdobrand
buildingthingswiththemandwehaveattemptedtokindofyouknowwhywouldyou
goandbuyasofafromLauraAshley,becauseitisLauraAshley.WhydoyougotoIkea,becauseitischeapyoudon’tbragtoyourmatesyouhavegotanIkeasofa,doyouand
wehaveattemptedtodoanamountofbrandworkwiththem,andtheyarelikethey
havegotlikeasalesmentality,theyarenotinterestedatall.Soanyattempttokindof
deliverabrandedcampaignwithintellectualcontentitislike,apictureofasofa,pictureofasofa,apricepointandasavingpointandisn’tthisagreatsofa.Itismadeofthis
typeofleather,andithasgotthisprotractiblebit,isn’titgreatforthisprice,bangthatis
it.SoitcanvaryverymuchbutImeaninterestinglytheerm…themarineshipping
consultancyImentionedearlier,theyareallaboutqualityoftheservice,youknow
thereisotherpeoplewhodowhattheydo,butitisthoroughnessofwhattheydoandactuallytheirbigsellingpointistheclarityofthereportingaroundwhattheydo.So
speakingtopeopleinlayman’sterms.Sotheywilldothisbigcomplextechnicalship
inspection,buttheywere,theirpositionisthattheyworkforalotoflikefinancial
entities,sotheyneedtospeaktothefinance,thesepeopleinchargeofthesefinancial
entitiesinacertainwaynotinakindoftechnicalwayitisusinglayman’slanguageassuchsolaymen’sterms.Sobuttheyareallabouttheservice,aboutthekindof
standardsthattheykindofgetover.
Rightyouhaveansweredthatquestionthankyou.Doyouactuallyconsciously
thinkaboutsemioticswhenyouareactuallydesigningadsnowordoesitoccurto
340
you,doyoureflectbacktowhatyouweretaught?Orisitnowjustsecondnature
andinstinctiveandintuitiveandsoon?
SubjectC:Ithink,Ithinkitwouldbeintuitive,reallyerm…Ithink,Ithinkatthelevel
wework,Ithinkvery,veryfewclientswantasortofclever(1:05:00)semiotickindofapproachtowhattheydo.
Youdon’tpulloutBarthesor
SubjectC:NoIthinkthaterm…it’s,obviouslythisisanonymousisn’titassuch.
Ofcourseitisyes.
SubjectC:YesImeanIthinkthe((laughs))Iamturningroundjustincasethe
marketingmanagerwhoworkshereisinhere,erm…Ithink,Idon’tknowifthisisjust
megettingoldandgettingcynical,andbecomingbitterIdon’tthinkitis.Ithinkthelevelofintellectual,marketingusedtobeanexpensivethingtodoandbein.Likeinmy
WWAVdaysinLeedsinthesortoflatetomid90s,midtolate90slikeyouknowwe
weredoingprintrunsofhalfamillion,onaDMpiece.Youknowwewouldmaybe
charge10grandpermailing,forthecreativeitwasbig,itwasbigcost,itwasbigprint
runstherewasbigstakes,erm…Imeanmyerm…myrecordintermsofaprintrunis22.5million.ImeanIwouldsayIhaven’tdoneaprintrunbiggerthan1000forquite
sometimenow.Soyourentrylevelisvastlydifferenttowhatitwas,sowhereasitused
tobeanindustryfullofprofessionals,Iwouldsaynowitisanindustrythathas
professionalsatvariouslevelsbutisfull,isfullofpeoplewhodon’treallyknowwhattheyaredoingandthat,soIthinktheindustryhasbeendeskilled,de-intellectualised,
andthecontentisalmostbecominglessimpressiveandthatiswhyIthinkmyskillsare
actuallybecomingmorerelevantbecauseIknow,Ihavedone,Barthes,Ihavegot
BarthesIhavedone…JackieWalsh,IwillseekitoutandIwille-mailyou.Erm…andI
thinktheintellectualcontent,marketinghasbecomekindofitisalmostlikeIamgoingtosoundreally,reallypatronisingnow,butithasbecomethekindofchoiceofpeople
whoaren’thugelyacademicwhowantabitoffluffaroundwhattheydoandit’skindof
likethereisalackof,thereisareallackof,ofprofessionalrigourwithinmarketingasa,
andifanythingon-linehasmadeitworse.Anyonecanputupawebsite,anyonecancall
themselvesawebsitedesignernowtheydon’thavetobe,IcancallmyselfadesignerbecauseIwenttouniversityandIhavedonethejobfor20years,butIwillbeup
againstsomekidwhohasneverbeentoartcollegeorneverdoneadegreeindesign,he
willbelikeohyesIamawebsitedesignerandwhathedoesisknowshowtouse
WordPress.
341
Semi-skilled.
SubjectC:Heissemi-skilled.SoIthinktheindustryhasbeenmassively,massively
deskilled.And,erm…asa,asaforinstance,andthisislikelifeintheregionsIguessI
mean,Iam,weareprobablyabletochargeabouthalfwhatwewereabletocharge10
yearsagoforourtime,soImeandon’tgetmewrongitisstillaninterestingjobanditis
stillengaginginawaythatworkinginasupermarketisn’tbut,whereasyouknowIwouldsaythereisstillalotofmoneyinitforthebigfirmsdoingthathighfalutingstuff,
anddrivingtheworkwithbigbrands,buttherehasbeenarealmovetokindofin-
houseservicesnow.Soeventhesoftwarethatweusehasbecomeeasiertouseand,the
levelofknowledgetooperatethesoftwarehasbecomedeskilledanyonecanlikeknock-
outadoublesidedfliernowitis,sotheworkwetendtogetisactuallymorecomplicated,intelligentstuffnowthankfullyanddoingthatbrochurechurn,anyonecan
useword,youcaninsertapictureintowordandtypestuffin,peoplekindofalmost
thinkthatisdesignnow.SoIdon’tknowifyouthinkthat,orIdon’tknowifitisjustme
beingbitter…
No,nowhenyoulookatsomeoftheadvertsIseeinthenewspaperfromlikeAsda,IlookatthoseandthinkIcouldhavewrittenthatandIhavenoexperience
whatever,Icouldhavedonethat.
SubjectC:SoIthinkyourquestionaboutsemioticsisinterestingactuallybecauseI
thinkitisbecominglike,morebrainlesstobehonestasabusinessandasanindustry
andIthinkyouknowtherewillalwaysbethatrealtopechelonofstuffgoingon,(1:10:00)butIthinkthereisalot,alotofshitegoeson,alotofshiteanderm…yesthat
ismyprofessionalopinionyeswhichsoundsverybitterIknowbutthereweare.
Nothatisonlytruth.ThenextoneyouhaveansweredformesoIwon’taskyou
thatoneagain.Erm…wehavetalkedaboutthatonesoIammovingdown
quickernowerm…ifyouareadvertisingtogroupofpeoplehowdoyouactually
identifyyourtargetaudience,whatworkdoyoudoforthatorisitpartofthebrieforhowdoesthatwork?
SubjectC:Alotofitisarounderm…itisvery,very,veryrelevantandIthinkalotofit
isarounderm…wedoalotof,whenwedodirectmailalotofitisarounddataselection
andselectingtherighttypeofdata.Wetendtodomorebusinesstobusinessstuff,so
forinstanceIputadatabriefouttheotherdayforsomething,anditwilltendtobearoundseniordecisionmakers,sodirectorlevelpeopleincertainsectors,inbusinesses
342
ofacertainsize,inacertaingeographyandthatistheselectionsothat’sfroma
businesstobusinessperspective.
Yes,yeswellactuallythatisprobablygetting,whatweprobablydoissaywewantto
starttospeaktofacilitiesdirectmanagersandoperationsdirectorsinthesesectors,in
thesegeographiesandwhatisthedatacountpleasetypething.Ifyouaredoingkindof
moreerm…consumerstuff,Iwillgobacktoourfurnitureclientactuallywhenwedidabig,thelastbigmailingactuallywhichwasprobablyabout4yearsago,3yearsagothat
wedidwasforthemandIthinkitwaslike,itmighthavebeenacoupleof100thousand
ormaybehalfamillionorsomethinglikethat,itwasthelastbigjobwedid,anditwas
basicallyitwasbasicallyasalesleafletlikeadouble,wellalittlebookletIguessandit
wassentouttoaspecificaudience.Sothesofa,furnitureclient,itiskindoflikeitisnotLauraAshley,itisnotM&Sbutneitherisitsortofbargainbasementtheyarekindof
likeamiddleground.Theyareaffiliatedtotheco-opsothatgivesyouanidea.Theyare
nottoo,theyarenottoomuchthat,theyarevery,theyareactuallyrightinthemiddle
nowIthinkaboutit.Sotheir,thedataselectionaroundthem,wasaboutidentifyingpeopleofacertainage,orcertainageband,ofacertainsortoferm…acertainincome
level,livingincertaingeographies,socertaindrivetimesofthevariousstoresthatwe
werekindofpromoting,soitwasmoreitwaslessaboutthekindofintellectualkindof,
itwasn’taboutdotheyreadtheGuardian,ordotheyreadtheSunitwasmoreabout
welliftheyliveinthatkindofarea,andtheyareinthatkindofhouse,probablyeducatedtothatkindoflevel,andtheyareprobablythetypeofpersonwhobuys
furniturefromthisstore,soitwasmorearoundlifestyleandsortofthosekindsof
indicatorsratherthanbeingkindofmoremicrointhekindofculturalsenseintermsof
youknowlikelifestylechoicesandstufflikethat,itwasn’tthat.Butitistothepoint
where,youknowtherewillbeastreettherewhohasahouse,housesofacertainsortofsizeandyouknowyouwant3,youwanthouseswith2bedroomsetcbecausethat
indicatesfamilyblah,blah,blahincertainareasbutthestreetnexttoitmightbearow
ofcouncilhousesforinstance.Andyouwouldn’tnecessarilymailthatstreeteven
thoughitisnexttothatone,eventhoughtheyareinthesamesortofarea.Soitisdown
tothatkindoflevelreally.
Right.Erm…
SubjectC:ButsorryIwillgiveyouanotherexampleofstuffwearedoingatthe
momentandthisisreallyinterestinganditisagainitisaboutlanguage,wellitisabout
audience.Sooneofthebestplatformsatthemoment,oneofthebestplatformson-line
intermsoflikeadvertising,isFacebook.HowdoFacebookmaketheirmoney
Ihaven’tgotaclue.
343
SubjectC:OkFacebookok,soIamonFacebook.SoFacebookknowsthatIam44years
old,yesIam44yes.Ihadtothinkaboutthat.SoFacebookknowsIam44yearsold,it
knows(1:15:00)Ihavegotaninterestincricket,inliterature,infilm,indi,didididi,
anditknowsIlivewhereIliveaswellso,Facebookisverygoodatprofilingwhoyou
are.NowifyoudoFacebookadvertisingyoucanselectveryspecificagegroupsandaudiences,soweareatthemomentdoingacampaignwhichisprovingtobevery
successfulandveryeffectiveforauniversitywhodoacertaintypeofvocationaldegree
basedaroundthemusicandentertainmentindustrybasically.Andsowhatweare
doingatthemomentiswearetargeting17to18yearolds,whohavegotinterestsin
music,incertaingeographiclocations,whoerm…whoareprobablygoingtogoto,arethinkingabouthighereducation,furthereducation.Sowearedoingaverytargeting
campaignsoyouwon’tseetheseads,ifyouare22ifyouare18youwill.Sowehave
locatedanagegroup,incertaingeographiesaroundwherethisuniversityis,butalso
goneintowhattheirkindofculturalinterestsare,becauseweknowtheyneedtobe
quitetechnicalbecauseitislikeitisbasicallylikeerm…stagemanagement,visualproductionstypethings.Sotheyneedtobeabitarty,theyneedtobealittlebit
technicalaswelltheyareprobablygoingtobeinterestedinmusic,andentertainment
andfilmandthingslikethat,andweknowtheyneedtobetherightageinthis,andwe
knowthattheyneedtobekindoflookingtogotouniversityandstufflikethataswell.
Which,youknow,wearefunnellingthiscampaigntothatvery,verysmallsortofdistinctaudienceandthatcampaignisworkinglike[01.16.56]thesign-upsaregoing
very,verywell.So,andthatisavery,thatislikedirectmarketingsothatisaboutlike
writingtherightkindofad,andwehavecomeupwithacampaignconcept.Itisoneof
thenicestbitsofworkwehavedoneactuallyintermsofconceptdrivenstuffanditisallabouterm…thecampaigniscalled,itis#becauseitisallonlinenow.
#careerslessordinary.Anditisallaboutthemdoing,takingadegreethatwillendupin
ajobwheretheywillbeastagemanagerforatouringconcertthattourstheworld.So
itisverymucharoundwhattheiraspirationsare.Itisacareerlessordinaryitisnotan
officejob,itisgoingtobeontheroad,itisnotgoingtobe9–5,itisgoingto,youaregoingtomeetpopularartistsandrockstarsandroadiesandallthatkindofthing,you
arearoadieyoucanbearoadieyouknowasaresultofdoingthisdegree.Soanditis
verymuchabouttappingintokindofthataudiences’sortofaspirationsortoflikeI
don’twanttoworkatTesco,Idon’twanttoworkina9-5job,Iwanttodosomething
thatisgoingtoearnmelikeagoodamountofcashandbeaninterestingvariedcareer,soIthinkthatis,andencapsulatingcareerslessordinaryasaconcepttheme,theclient
boughtitabsolutelyboughtitstraightawayitwaslikemetellingthemwhattheir
campaignconceptisanditwaslikeandIpresentedit,inapitchitwasoneofthefirst
ideasIhad,ohyes#careerslessordinary,bang,thatiswhatthatisanditwasaboutand
theyboughtit,liketheydidn’tevendiscussittheyboughtitthereandthen.So,sothatisthebitthat,thatiswhat…
That’sasspecificasyoucangetisit…yes.Soaquickquestionaboutthis,could
youjusttellmehowdoyou,whatstepsdoyoutaketomakesurethatyou,the
344
intendedrecipientoftheadvertactuallyunderstandsitandgetsthefullpointof
whatyouaresaying?
SubjectC:Ijustthinkit’sabout,againlikeIsaidboilingitdowntoasimplestatement
thatyoucanunderstandreallyquickly.Italkaboutthat,industrialautomationsoftwareproviderwhatdoyoudo,well((laughs))youcouldsitherefor2hours,atechnicalguy
wouldsitherefor2hoursandtellyouwhattheydobutifIsayohtheycontrolthe
temperatureofthejamthatgoesinthetartsinanindustrialautomationprocess,the
softwaretheyprovidedoesthat,yougetitdon’tyou.AndIthinkitisaboutthatiswhatanadisisn’tit,itislikesayingwellwhatdowedo,whatisthebenefitofdealingwithus,
whathowarewegoingtomakeyourlifeeasierorbetterorhowarewegoingtomakeit
moreinterestinganditisalmostlike,boilingdowntothatverybasiccoredesire,you
know.Allthese17–18yearoldkidswhatistheircoredesire,itistohaveareallygreat
timeatworkandearnloadsofcash.Itisacareerlessordinary.And…
Iwasthinkingbacktoyourmythologieswhichiswhatyoumentionedthere(1:20:00)ImeanoneoftheexamplesthatBarthesgivesiserm…Italianicity
Idon’tknowifyourecallthatone.
SubjectC:Yes,yes
Where…
SubjectC:Usingred,yellowandgreen.
Italiancoloursthiskindofthingforthepasta.
SubjectC:YesdoyouknowthatisinterestingIrememberedthatfrommythologiesand
Iusedittoexplaintheconceptoferm…semioticstomybusinesspartner.Icouldn’trememberthetermItalianicitybutIuseditasasortofexample.
Yesitiswhathecameupwithisn’tit,andonedoeswonder,Iwondertosome
extendisdopeopleseethatItalianicityinthatadvert.Aretheygettingitthat
message?Itisverycleverlycraftedbutaretheygettingit?
345
SubjectC:Yes,yesIthinkitisinterestingisn’tit,itisnotjustthroughlanguageisit,it
isthroughvisuallanguageaswell,andImeanthis,thee-mailIdidthismorningforthe
shippingconsultancyithasgot,erm…a5point,thereis5pointswhytheirserviceisbetterthananyoneelse’s,andIwrappeditupasa5starguarantee,sotheopeningline
wasguaranteedby[01.21.07]thecompanyandthenIhavegot5starssoIamusing
visuallanguagetoreinforce…
SignifywhatBarthes…
SubjectC:YesandIverymuchdoubtwhetheranyonewillreadthroughthe5points
buttheywillsee5starguarantee,and5lovelylikesilverstarslookingniceandclassy,andtheywillgoohyes,yes.Ohyestheymustbegoodbecausetheyguaranteeit.What
dotheyguaranteewellweneveractuallysayreally((laughs))butitisjustgettingthe,
it’sjustgettingacrossreallyquicklythattheyaresomeonewhocanbetrusted.That’s
basicallyitislikeareyougoingtomakemelookstupidinfrontofmyboss,isoftena
corekindofconcernforpeoplebuyingprofessionalservices.YouknowitistheIBMthing,youknownoonegetsfiredforbuyingIBMdotheyanditislikeyouhaveto
almostpositionyourclientastheIBMofwhatevertheirworldis,so.ButasIsayitis
likeIsayitisthroughvisuallanguageasmuchaserm…aswordsandIthinkthat’s
whereyouknow,agraphicdesignerwouldjustthinkvisuallyIthinkandIthinkanart
directororacreativedirectorwouldthinkabouthowthatvisualcancombinewithamessagetomakeitmorepowerfulandworkharderandbeclearer.
Doyoumakeaparticularpointofusingiconsinfactyouhavejusttoldmeyou
have,haven’tyou,youhaveusedsomeiconsinyourstars.Obviouslyyouhavea
mentalcollectionofthesethatyoucancalluponand…
SubjectC:Ithinkyes,Ithinkyouknowifyoucanmake,ifyoucanvisualisesomething
andmakeitclear,Ithinkpeoplewillalwayslookatvisualsfirst,andthentheywilllookatwordssecond,soifyoucancombineanaptvisualwiththerightkindoflanguage
thenyouaredoingyourjobveryquickly.
Soyoumakeanassociationbetweenthevisual,andawordortwooraphraseor
somethinglikethat?
SubjectC:Yes,yes.
346
Andthetwooperatesasacombineunittocreateacombinedmeaning?
SubjectC:YessowhereasIthinklikeIgobacktomyolddaysofworkingwith
copywriterstheywould,someofthemwouldthinkvisuallyandtheguywhowas
brilliantbutburntoutwasvery,veryvisualintermsofthewayhethoughtbutacopywritersomecopywriterswouldjustwritewhatthebriefwasbutnotvisualiseitin
anyway.OnecopywriterIusedtoworkwithactuallyerm…did,reallyhewouldalways
provideascamp,adrawingofthewayhewouldthinkitwouldworkvisually,not
necessarilyintermsofstylingbutintermsofhierarchy,andhewould,hewasastick…hedidstickmendrawingsandtheywerehilariousreallybuthe,hewouldseekto
visualisewhathewastryingtogetacrossthroughthesereallyrubbishdrawingsbut
theyactuallyonceIsawthemandsawhiscopythatIknewinstantlywhathewasafter
andhewastheguywhowasinthatoriginaltheexamplewhereIdidn’tknowwhatthe
jobwas,andhegavemethecopyandIunderstoodit.HewasthefirstgoodcopywriterIworkedwith,hereallytaughtmealotoftheropesandyes.Soyeswhen,whenitislike
theItalianstuffisn’tit,whenitgetsvisualandcombineswith[01.24.31]thatiswhenit
isatitsmostpowerful.
Thelastquestionreallythen,becauseIthinkyouhaveansweredeverythingelse
erm…doyou,Ithinkyouevenhaveansweredthis,Iamjustitisaquestionreally
aboutpre-existingknowledgeofthecustomer.Andhowmanyassumptions,whatkindofassumptionsdoyoumakeaboutthatandhowdoyouverifythose
assumptionsarecorrect,becausetheymusthavesomeknowledgeotherwisethey
arenotgoingtounderstandyouradssurely.
SubjectC:Abouttheendconsumer?
Yes
SubjectC:Sorryjustrepeatthequestion.
YesIamlookingattheareaIwasthinking,(1:25:00)inordertomakesenseofyouradvertsyoumustassumesomepre-existingknowledge.
SubjectC:Yes
347
Andhowdoyousortofcheckthatoutordoyou,orwhatassumptionsdoyou
makeaboutthat?
SubjectC:Ithinkthatisagutfeelthingreally.Ithinkerm…Ithink,sometimes,
sometimesitisnotjustasellingjob,itisaneducationjobaswellanderm…wehavedonealotofworkwithahealthsupplementbusiness,overtheyearsanderm…and
theyarenottheBootsendofsupplements,theyarenotlikeyouknow3packsforafiver
sortofendtheydosomeverysortof,verytheyworkwithdoctorstoputquitekindof
sophisticatedproductstogetherforveryspecifickindofhealthconcernsandissues.And,oftentheissueswewillcomeupwithwhenhedoessomething,isthatnoone
knowsabouttheproduct,nooneknowsaboutwhyyoushould,thereisn’tanyinherent
knowledgeinthemarketoftheproduct.Heisatrailblazer,hewillputthisnewproduct
together,andeveryoneisgoingwhythefuckdoIneedthat,Idon’tunderstandwhyI
needthat.And,andwhenIdoworkforhim,thereisoftenaneducationjobtogowithit,whichmeansyoucan’tdoitasacompletesell,sell,sellbecauseyouhavegottoeducate
anaudienceabouttheparticularproductfirst.Soheworksin,hedoesalotoferm…
likeerm…soheworksinthefieldoffishoilsandomega3,anditislikeyoumight
understandwhatomega3isandwhyitisimportantornotbutmostpeoplehavea
vaguesensethatfishandfishoilisgoodforthembuttheydon’tknowwhy,andtheywillgotoBootsandbuy3tubsforaquidorwhateveritis,andwhattheyaretakingis
morefishfatthatomega3,buttheydon’treallyunderstandwhatbitoftheomega,what
bitofthefishtheyneedorthefishoiltheyneed.Sothatisaneducationalprocesserm…
buttodo,togetthatacrossandthensellisreallyhard,becauseyouhavegottokindof,
youhavegottodoitinastagedwayandunfortunately,thisclienthispocketsaren’tdeepenoughtodothatjobquitefrankly.Eventhoughhehas,hehascreatedasetof
productsthatareabsolutelybrilliantreally,buthejustitisjusttoodifficulttogetit
across.
Marketiteffectively.
SubjectC:Yes
Can’taffordtomarketit.
SubjectC:Exactlyso,Imeanhisfishoil,atubofhisfishoilwillbelike£25butitwillbe,itwillbelikeanindividualcapsulemightbe10timesmoreeffectivethantherubbish
thatyoubuyatBootsbuteveryonesees£25tub,3tubsforafiver,whatareyougoing
tobuy.So,yesthatisaninstancewhenthatyouhavetodotheeducationbitbeforeyou
startsellinganditis,thatisdifficultthat.Anditisthatisreallyhardtodo.Anderm…
andquiteoftenaswell,thereis,likethebenefitsoftakingfishoilaresolongandvaried,
348
thatitisnotaneasyconcepttogetacross,veryquicklyeither,soImeanIwouldliketo
thinkIhavedonesomegoodstuffforhimovertheyears,butitisreallyvery,heactually
valueswhatIdo,becauseIcankindofmyjobistosimplifyhim,istosimplifythebenefitsofhisproducts.Andthedoctorwhoisconnectedwiththatbrandheactually
calledmeageniusatonepoint,andIamlikeIamnotageniusyouareageniusandthis
doctorisascleverashell,andheislikehedealswithliketreatmentsforaddicts,that
arekindofbeyondtheunderstandingofmostGPs,andthereforeheislikeheisonthe
vergeofbeingstruckoffhalfthetimebecauseheissoadvancedinhisthinking,andhethinksIamageniusbecauseIcankindofboildowntheproductsthattheyaremaking,
intosimpletermswhereashehadgotthe28reasonswhyyoushoulddoitinhishead,
whileIsaynoyoucantalkaboutallthis.AndIamnotageniuswhatIamdoingisgoing
throughthatmentalprocessofsimplificationandcondensingitintoaparagraphbutit
appearsgeniusbecausehecan’tthinklikethat((laughs))inthatsense.Soyes.
Thankyouthat’sbeenabsolutelymarvellous,Ihavegotlotsof…
SUBJECT D
SubjectD:Sothethoughtprocessesisquiteaninterestingone.Everyonehasgot,I
don’tthinkthereisaparticularrightorwrongwayofdoingit,forastartpoint.Imeanmyerm…oldlecturererm…veryinspiringchapwholiterallyusedtoseeshadowson
thewall,andshapesandthingslikethatandsuddenlygoohifwedidthat,his,he
openedyourmindtothepotentialthatcouldbethere.SoIthinkthekeythingis,whatI
havelearntfromthatwasthatactuallyideascancomefromanywhereatanypoint.You
havetojustbeopenenoughtoacceptthatthereisanideathereorthatparkitinyourhead,writeitdown,somehowrecorditandmakeamentalnoteofit,thatthenwill
actuallycometolifeatsomepoint.Andthatmightbeatsomepointin6months,ayear,
6yearsyoujustdon’tknowandIthinkyouknowyourmind,whatIdonowwiththe
purposeofthedigitalworldIusedtoalwayskeepascrapbookbecauseascrapbookwas
justmy,mythingsthatinspiremeadsthatIthoughtwerefantastic,lines,imagery,colours,typography,allworldsofdifferentformsofinspirationerm…thateventually
unravelthemselvesatsomepointwhetherthatwasconsciousorsubconsciouswhichI
thinkthesubconsciousmindisplayinganawfullottodowhatwedo.Erm…youcan
actuallyIhavecaughtmyselfdoingonceortwicewhereyoucomewithanideayouthinkitiscompletelyoriginalandthenmaybewhatyouhavedonesubconsciouslyyou
haveseensomethingtwoweekspriortothatonaprogramme,caught5secondsofit,
andthathasregisteredinyourhead.Ithinkyouneedtobemindfulofwhatisgoingon,
intheworld,youneedtobeontrendandifnottryingtokeepaheadoftrend,erm…you
needtokeepyourselfuptospeedandalwaysneverthinkatwhateverstageyouareat,thisiswhatIhavealwayserm…taughtmyselfthat,youneverknowalltheanswers,
erm…thereisalwaysprobablyabetterwaytodosomething,surroundyourselfbya
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mixtureofyouth,energy,experienceandindividualsfromalldifferentwalksoflife,
erm…andthatlendsitselftoabeautifulmixofdifferentthoughtscomingintoplay.
Don’talwaysthinkyouareright,thatisacrucialthingis,sometimesyourgutfeelingisright,andthathasprovedmeverysuccessfulthroughthecourseoftime.ButalsoI
havebeenwiseenoughtounderstandwhentoactuallystepbackandrecognisethat
eventhoughmyideaisonthetable,abetterideaisdonebyaguyoverhereoragirl
over,itisjustbeingopenmindedenoughtothatparticularthought.Andthatidea
actuallywhatItrytosaytopeopleisyoucanthinkonemindcanthinkwell,2mindsalwaysthinksbetter,3mindsalwaysthinksbetteragain,ifyoubouncetheideasaround
itisabitlikeanurturingmachinewithinthebraintotryandfindthisholygrailofa
beautifulidea.TodothatsometimesitisactuallythenknowingwhentostopandI
thinkthat’s,thatisasecretandatipwithinitselfisdon’toverbakethecake.Don’tkeep
goingandgoingandgoingandifwedid,itisknowingthatthatpointtheskillistorecognisewhentheideaisperfect,it’speaked.Thisisitguysdon’tprocrastinateany
more,nowitisacaseoflet'sbedecisivelet'sgook,weallknow,thegoodthingis
everyonehasgotexcitedbythisideahere,let'snowwehavegotanideahere,thatwe
havegotlikeanexcellentsortofstartpoint,nowlet'sexecutewithexcellence,soitispointlesshavingabeautifulideathatthenyoudon’tcraftandexecuteaswellasyou
possiblycando.Soagainyouhavepeoplewiththedifferentskillsetstocomeinand
thenbuildthatbeautifulideatoconveytheonbrandmessageforwhatpeopleseein
magazines,on-line,onTVcommercialsoranythinglikethat.Butitisalotofrecognising
pointsandIthinkthatisthecrucialpartthatalotofpeoplearecapableoferm…comingupwithageniusidea,buthalfthetimetheydon’trealisetheyaredoingitorsayingit,it
isactuallyjusthavingthat,thatsortoflikeconfidenceinyourselftoactuallyknowwell
whatyousaidthere,nottheotherbitsIthinkifyougobackonestepandwhatyousaid
thereaboutthat,thatlittleinsightthatobservation,thatwasreallybeautifulwhatwe
didthere,ifwetakethatinsightandobservationandthenweactuallyapplyitoverhereanddoalittlebitofatwistalmostlikemirroringitaroundthenyouhavegotsomething
reallyoriginalandfresh.AndIthinkalotofthatisjustthepointbeingthere,thereisno
setwayofactuallycomingupwithanideainmyheadIthinkthereisanumberof
differentprocesses,sometimesyoucanbeinthemiddleofwatchingamovieinthe
cinemarelaxinglostinthemomentandthenyouseesomethingorsomethingjustcomesinyourheadandthenyouthinkwow,that’sitIneedtorememberthatorthat,
thatpointthere,that,thattransition,thatsortofwaythatthewaythelighthitthat
persontherethewaythatcolourways,thatanimationsequencewellwecouldapply
thattothecampaignIamworkingonrightnow.Soitisbeingmindfulofallthose
differenttouchpointsthatyoucouldjustbeatanypointitcouldbeinteractingwithyourchild(05.00)itcouldbeplayingagameitcouldbejustthemomentwhenyouare
probablymostresponsivetogreatthinkingisactuallywhenyourelaxandwhenyouare
actuallyletyourmindunwind.IfyouactuallysitinaroomandthinkIhavegottothink
ofsomethingIhavegottothinkofsomethingIdon’tthinkyouwill,Ithinkyouneedto
handlethatpressurethatmomentandtrainyourmindtobesusceptibletoopenitislikeit’sagiantspongeitisaspongeoflightthathasbeenimmersedinthousands,
millionsofimages,ofwords,ofsounds,ofcoloursanditisjustknowingwhentosortof
likehowyouactuallygetthatsortoflikeallgoingandmixingintherightway.Andto
dothatyouneed,youneedaveryclearbrief,youneedtounderstandthebrandorthe,theserviceyouaretryingtobringtolife.Erm…youneedtosortofhaveandbe
350
surroundedbypeoplewhoarelikeminded,inmanywaysbutatthesametimedifferent.
AndIthinkthatisthekeyisyouneedthedifferencesinthepeople,youneedpeople
whoareopenandrespectfulofoneanother,bouncingthoseideasaroundisreallycriticalandalotofpeopleerm…peoplesaythereisnosuchthingasabadidea,Ithink
unfortunatelytherearesomebadideas,butIthink,Ithinkitisthewayyourespondto
thatandyouactuallydon’thighlightthat.Youknowtheremightnotbeagreatideain
thatbutwhatyousaidthatwordingtherethatledyouimmediatelytosomethingelse,
soit’salllittlegentlesteppingstonesinthemindthatleadyoutotheactualgreatpointintheend.
Right.Thanksforthatyes.
SubjectD:Doesthatmakesense?
Itdoesindeed,yes.Ihavegotalittlebitofaquestionnaire,[06.34]notmiss
anythingoutandalsoforconsistencyofgoodresearchsoIaskeveryonethesame
questions.Someofthemyouwillhaveperhapsalreadyansweredorhalfanswered.
SubjectD:No,no,noIhaveliterallyjustsaiditasmymindsortofgoes.
Thatfine.Iwillletyoufreeflow,[06.49]Icanpickthebonesoutofthatlateron.
SubjectD:Wellhopefullythereisoneortwonuggetsinthere.
Definitelyyes,yes.Iwillstartoffwith,Ihavegotaquestionnaire,Iwillstartoff
withthequestionsaboutyoupersonallyifthatisalright.Myfirstquestionisby
whatroutedidyouentertheadvertisingindustrywhatisyourbackground?
SubjectD:OhmybackgroundIwastopofyearinadvertisinggraphics,erm…andIjustwonanationaladvertisingstudentaward,erm…soIwasencouragedbymylecturerat
20yearsoldtonotgoonanddoaBAironicallyeventhoughIprobablyacademicallyI
wantedtogetaBAbehindme,hesaidwhatyouneedtodorightnowiswhileyouhave
gotthisfootprintintoLondonandyouhavegotthebigguystakingnotice,youhave
beenjudgedbysomeverybignamesonthejuryoflikeandtheyhaveawardedyouavery,verygood,veryhighendstudentaccoladegonow,usethatasastartpointasa
351
catalystforyourcareerandbelievemeunfortunatelyashardasitisforalecturertosay
this,noonewilleveraskyouwhatgradeyougotinmylineofwork,Iknowitisslightly
differentifyouareanuclearphysicistorsomethinglikethat,butinthelineofworkwedo,yourwayforward[08.04]thethingthatformulatesanyjobisyourportfolioofwork.
Yourportfolioofworkcanbedone,Ihaveseenitbedonebysomeerm…not
necessarilyveryeducatedpeoplehighenddegreesortof,buttheyhavegotagreat
mind.Andtheyhavegotagreatwayofactuallycominginto,andthedepartmentthe
creativedepartmentismadeuplikeafootballteam,ofdifferentpeoplewithdifferentskillsetsyouneedpeopletoplaydifferentrolesatdifferenttimes,andIthinkyouknow
that,thattraditionalwayinofalotofjobswhereyouneedalawdegree,youneedthis
degree,sothatisabsolutelyappropriateandrightforthosecareersbutwhatIwas
advisedbytheguywhoheadedthecoursewasrightnowyouaretopofyourcourse,
youaregettingadistinction,youjustwonanadvertisingawardyouandyourpartnerrightnow,at20yearsoldneedtoreallygoforitandItookhisadvice.Really,really
hardslogmiddleoftherecessionin1992,butweeventuallygotitandwemadeour
firstjobbeforewewere21[09.30]soitwasgreat.
Whatwasthecourseyoumentioned?
SubjectD:ThecoursewasHNDinadvertisingandgraphicsatStockportcollege.
Rightokthatisinteresting.Doyourecallanyparticulartextsthatrelatetoadvertisingthatyouusedinyourstudies?
SubjectD:Erm…nottextIthinkwewereverymuchencouragedtodo,wedidalotof
arthistoryerm…verymuchIlovedallthesurrealistserm…movementIthinkthatwas
quiteinspiringthingforme,seeingDaliandallthoseguysverymuchalotoftheart
movementsarequiteinspiring.Erm…creativereviewcampaignthemodernartistI
guessastheyprobablyweredeemedtobe,erm…inspiredmemoreIthinkbecausewewereimmersedinaworldofadvertisingatthetimeitwasHaagenDazitwas,
Boddington’sitwastheseweretheartistsoftodayandIthinktheyweremymajor
inspiration.IwanttoemulatethoseguystheyweremyMessisoftheadvertisingworld
(10.00)ifyoulikeandIwanttobelikethem.
Rightok.Sointermsoftheactualartofcopywritingofwritingupadsisthereanyparticularbooksthatyourecallbeingused?
SubjectD:IthinkOgilvyandAdvertisingwasagreatone,erm…alltheanythingwith
Bernback,theywerefantastictoreadaswell,erm…thosesortofliteraturesideof
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thingswewereencouragedtonotnecessarilysitdownandreadlotsandlotsofthings
likethisbutjustimmerseourselvesintheworldofwhatweenjoyedandthatworld
erm…wascouldbeanythingfromlyricsfromtheHappyMondaystowhereyourinspirationcancomeyouknow.Ithinkmusicwasabigformofinspirationforme,
erm…thepopcultureitself,thesportingculturebecauseitwasmy,mybackgroundis
sport.Myinspirationwasnotlikeatraditionalliteraturejourneyitwasmoreacaseofa
culturaljourneyifthatmakessense.
Itdoes,yes,yes.Thatisgreat.Doyourecallyoulearntaboutsemiotics?
SubjectD:YeswewerelearntasmallamountaboutsemioticsbutIthinkmycareerasithasprogressedIguessIhavelearntmoreandmoreaboutsemioticsandthe
importanceofhowtheyareandwhattheydoandlikeyouneedtobemindfulofwhat
happenswiththoseanderm…andbetailoringthingsinto,tosuitthatinthewaythat
weare.
Whatkindofsemioticsdidyoulearnaboutthenordoyouthinkabouttoday?
SubjectD:Goodquestion.((laughs))Deepquestion.Erm…Ithinktheindividualculturalones,thewaypeopleare,thewaytheyreact,erm…youknowhowcultural
inferencescansortoflikeerm…impactonthose.Erm…thedifferenttrendswhichare
comingthroughallthoseneedtoinformhowyouactuallygoabouttalkingtopeople,
erm…inacertainwayfromwhenIadvertiseXboxyouneedtounderstandalltheEmos
allthedifferentsortoflikepeopleyouaretalkingto,itisnotjustoneaudienceitislikealldifferentwavesofpeoplecomingthroughandsometimesnoonemessagestrikes
everybodydoesitlet'sfaceit.
Indeednotandthatissomethingwearegoingtotalkaboutinalittlewhilethat
aspect,trytodevelopthatabitmorewithyou.Soyouareseeminglyfamiliarwith
culturalsemioticsandthiskindofthingdidyoulearnaboutBarthesandthiskindofthingRolandBarthes?
SubjectD:No,no.
Okdoyouuseanytextnowifyouare[12.41]adsdoyoueverrefertotextorisit
justyourexperience?
353
SubjectD:Ithink,unfortunatelywithover20yearsIguessofdoingIthinkIjusttap
intomyexperiencemorethananything.I,IamverymindfulIamvery,Ihavereadyou
knowliketheD&ADofthisworldhavebeenmybiblesthelikeIsaytheCraig(?)Reviewsunderstandingalltheawards,immersingmyselfinthatworldofwhatisgreat,
theEconomistadvertising,greatwordsfromthatpointofview,thattheyarethewords
thatinfluenceme.Readingbookserm…liketheOgilvyerm…Imeantheyarethe
influenceaswell.JohnHeggartyIreadhisgreat,youknowtheyaregreatbooksaswell
hislanguageheusesagainheisamassiveheroofmeerm…hewasliketheultimatesortofguywhenIwasgrowinguphewasliketheGodofadvertising,erm…andI
wantedtobe,Iwouldlovedtohaveworkedforsomeonelikethatbecausehestruckme
asacompletelyinspiringerm…veryreallywellmannered,verygifted,verybright,very
calmingsortofchapwhojustproducedgeniusandtheywere,theywerethebiggest
influencesformeandmygeneration.
Thankyou.Okyouhave,thenextpartofthisisaboutformingideasandIthink
youhavealreadysortofexplainedthatverythoroughlyformeerm…becausethe
questionwouldhavebeenexplaintheprocessofformingideasfornewadswhich
Ithinkyouhavejustdonethatanyway.
SubjectD:Yes
Therewasthebrainstormingprocess,thewaythatyouworkwithotherpeople,throwingideasaround,
SubjectD:Yes
SoIthinkwehaveprettymuchcoveredthat,erm…isthereanythingyouwantto
addaboutyourphilosophyofyourdailywork?
SubjectD:Erm…myphilosophyIthinkerm…constantlylooktostriveandbebetter
erm…don’tbelieveyouknowalltheanswersbecausenoonedoes.Lookatwhatis
happeningintheworld,liftyourheadupawayfromyourlaptop,awayfromyourcomputer.Erm…Ihavethreeyoungchildrenwhoare11,13and9seeingtheirworld
unravelandthewaytheyare,thewaytheyinteractwiththeirfriends,howtheirlifeis
changinghowtheyarelookingattheirworld,opensmyworldinadifferentway.So
beingaparentinfluencesmyworldandmythoughts.Istillhavealoveandapassionto
dogreatthinking.AslongasthatremainsIthinkIwillstrive,wanttobethebestbutIstillthinkthereisbettertocomeandmaybehopefully10,15,20years(15.00)down
thelineImightstillthinkthat,butthat,myphilosophyisdefinitelytryandlooktobe
354
better.Looktoimprove,lookatnewthings,neverstoplearning.IneverstoplearningI
havelearntsomethingneweverydayandlikeyouknowbutitisbeingmindfulenough
andopenminded,thatyoucanlearnevenfromayoungpersonwhocanjointheteamyoucanlearn,theycanteachmethingsIwouldneverevendreamof.LikeI,viceversaI
canteachthemdifferentthings.Itisthatmixofdifferentskillsetsanddifferentmind-
sets,cominginthatcreatesgreatgreatness.
Rightgreat.Whenyouaredevisinganad,yougetabrief,youhavegotanadisit
somethingthatyoucomeupwithfairlyquicklyorisitagradualprocessabuildingprocess?
SubjectD:Erm…thatisaverygoodquestion.Ithinkthereisnotoneanswer.Ithink
sometimesyougettherevery,veryquickly,someoneoncetoldmethisisaverytrue
sayingthedifferencebetweensomeoneoffthestreetandsomeoneprofessionalinthe
businessweareinisthatsomeoneoffthestreetcancomewithsomethinggenius,or
nothingsomeoneprofessionalcancomewithsomethinggeniusorsomething.Youliketothinkyouarealwaysgoingtocomewithgeniuseverysingletime.Certainbriefs,
certainrestraints,budgets,timings,thebriefbeingovercomplicated,havingseveral
propositions,notjustone,tryingtosortofleverageeverysinglepoint,touchpoint
insteadofhavingaprimarysortoflikething.Thesimplerthebrief,youwillalwaysget
therequickerandyouwillalwaysdofargreatercreativework.Modernbriefsnow,clientstendtooverthinkthem,erm…myexperience[16.40]thebetterclients
understandwhatweneedtodo,thebriefisaspringboard,acatalystforthecreative
imaginationifyouovercomplicateabrief,youactuallyovercomplicatetheendproduct
soerm…forwantofabetterphrase,ifthebriefisrubbishtostartwithchancesareyouareprobablygoingtogetsomethingquiterubbishattheotherend,orsomething
professional.Ifyouwantbrillianceyouneedtodoalotofworkwithstrategy,insight,
distillingalltheclientinformation,lookingatthe…lookingatallthethingsoutthere,
beingculturallyaware,beingawareofthelandscapeofthecompetitorswhoareout
there,soallthosethingsneedtobemashedtogethertocreateagreatbrief.Oncethatbriefisstartedthegreatbriefwillalways,youcanalwaystellagreatbriefwhenitis
briefedinbecausepeoplecan’twaitforthepeopletoleavetheroombecausetheyare
readytogo.Thatisthesecret.Ifyougetthatsortofbriefyouwillgetto,youwillgetto
greatsolutionsquickly.Evenwhilesomeoneistalking,andbriefingyouIamalready
thinkingaboutwhatthatcanbe,sothatisagreatbrief.Ifyougetabriefthatisreallyconvoluted,erm…thatiswhenyourproblemkicksinandthat’swhenitbecomes
harderandharder,itbecomeslikemoreofaconvolutedendproductwhichcantakefar
longer.Brillianceactuallymyunderstandingofbrillianceandmyexperienceofit,can
strikeyouvery,veryquicklyifyouhavegotreally,reallycleverpeoplebriefingyouwho
havedistilleditdown,whoarecleverplanners,whoarecleverindividualswhoknowwhattheyneedtofeedandseedintocreativetogetthemagicattheotherend.Thatis
hard,thatisthehardbit,towriteafantasticinspiringbriefisthesecrettogreat
creativity.
355
Sobasicallyitisdistillingitdown,totheactualcoreofit,getridofallthe
extraneousstuffanddevelopingthat.
SubjectD:Yesandthatisthehardbit,isthatpeopledon’tlikelettinggoofthingsitis
likeyouknowsometimesyoucanwrite,youseepropositionsandtheyaretwo
sentenceslongyouneedtowritemeapropositionthatisafewwordslongtoinspire
methatIcanthenimmediatelyIknowmy,myendproductthenismuchmoreclearandsimplerformeandyouwillgetamuchmoreamazingsortofadcampaignwhatever
therewillbeattheendofthat.Butthemagiconlytakesplacewhenthetwoarereally,
reallymarriedtogether.
Thatmakessensethankyou.Thisone,thisdoesn’tapplytoalladvertisingpeople
butIthinkitwillbeapplicabletoyourthingbecauseyouarequiteabigfirmaren’tyou?
SubjectD:Yesweareprettybigyes.
Thequestionistowhatextentdoyouapproach,isyourapproachdifferent
accordingtowhetheryouare,yourmainfocusisenhancingabrandorabrand
imageorwhetheryouaretryingtoflogaparticularspecificproduct.
SubjectD:Ithinkitcanvary.Imeanwe,inonedayIcanactuallyjustbefocussedon
oneparticularproductandabigofbrands.Thatcouldbe,aparticularfooditemwhenthereisabigfleetofdifferentfoodsthatmightbe,soIcanbeasfocussedandtailoredas
that,butothertimesyouareactuallydoingabrandideathatwillbemuchmore
extensive,bigger,moretimeconsumingandwewillprobablydialintodifferentpeople
withdifferentskillsets.SoIthinkagainyoutailoryoursolutiontowhateverisrequired
atthatmomentintimeandthat,andthatisthesecretinabigagencythatyouhaveanumberofdifferentskilledpeople,whoyoucanthenbuildthedreamteamto(20.00)
answerthatparticularproblem.
Iamthinking,ImeanIamdifferentaltogethertothissoyouwillhavetoforgive
meifIambeingIamthinkingintermsofIwasinadvertisingIwouldassume
thatifIamtryingtoflogVersaceasabrand,ontheonehandorontheotherhandIamCadburysandIhavecomeupwithawholenewchocolatebiscuitthatisall
newflavouredthathasgotchilliflavourinitorsomethinglikethat.Iwouldhave
356
thoughtthattheactualapproachtothetwowouldbequitedifferent.Thereisno
pointintellingpeoplethatVersacesmellsnice,or..
SubjectD:No,no,nosure.Ithinkthatthepointyouaremakingisamassivelyvalidone.
Youneedtounderstandthetwobrandsyouhavedescribedtherearequitepolarisingso,alotoftheparallelshoweverinwhatyouaresayingisabsolutelyrightbutisalsoat
thesametimethereisthethoughtprocessandapproachtobothwouldbeverysimilar
inmanyways.Whatyoubasicallywouldhaveisyoustillneedpeopletoimmerse
themselvesandgetundertheskinoftheclientbrief,understandthebrand,understandthecompetitorlandscape,ifitisanewproductlaunchlikeaCadbury,Cadburywillhave
awayofdoingit,anddesignedtoreach[21.14]andtheirworld.InVersaceweneedto
bemorefashionorientatedandlessmoreclassicadvertisingline.Youneedto
immediatelyrecognisewhatyouaretryingtodothereandtheaudiencesyouare
talkingtoandhowyouactuallyneedtoengagewiththem.Soyesthereare,lotsofdifferencesbutthereislotsofsimilaritiesbecauseeachwillhaveitsownunique
audience,itsownmarketplace,share,voice,brand,reasoningerm…itwilllikea
CadburywillhavedifferentissuescomparedtoaVersace.Soyouneedtodissectthat
particularissueandthenagaintailoritbuttherewillbealotofthethoughtprocesses
thatgoesintobothofthosethatwillbeveryapplicabletoboth.Youjustcomeupwithacompletelydifferentsolutionintheend.Butbycomingtothismagic,creativefunnel
andaskalotofverysimilarquestionsbutthentailoritasitgoesthroughandthenyou
comeupwithtwocompletelydifferentbutappropriateanswers.
Yes,doesbrandalwaysplayarole,ImeanifIinventedsomethingnewandmy
namewasunknownandIwaswantingtoflogthisparticularitemmyinvention,wouldIhavenobrandtooffer,Ihavenobrandtohighlight.
SubjectD:Yesbut,Ithink,myanswertothatwouldbebrandprobablydoesplayarole
realisticallybecausepeoplebuybrands,webuyintosomethingdon’tweImeanyou
knowweneedto,whetherthatbrandisestablishedlikeaCadburyoreventhestart-up
thatneedstohaveavoice.Youneedtostandforsomethingsothebrandhastostand
forsomethingthatcouldbevalue,thatcouldcompletepremiumnature,thatcouldbeeconomical,thatcouldbeforeverylikeaDove,likesuddenlyDovereinventedtheway
beautycameaboutandDovewaslikeacampaignforrealbeautythatitselfdefinedit’s
marketplace,share,amongstalltheotherbrandsdoesn’tit.Sowhatitdoes,itactually
defines,whoyouare,whereyouare,whatyoustandfor.
Howyoudifferfromtheotherones.
357
SubjectD:Howyoudifferfromtheotheronesbecausethatissortofwhatmarketingis
doing,isitisgivingyouauniqueplacewithinthatparticularsectorofmarketwhether
youareacar,youhavetobeatypeofcarformetobuyintoyou.SoyouareabrandwhetheryoulikeitornotIguessyouhavetounderstandthat…
Youcan’tseparateitoff.
SubjectD:Notreallyno.Imeanyoumightbeasmallbrand,withinagiantmarket
sharesosuddenlyyouarenotagainstaFordbutyournichewithinthemarket.We
havetocleverlyworkoutwhereyousit,whatmarketplaceyouareat,whoyouare
talkingto,whatdemographic,whatisthestrategy,whatistheuniquethingwecanactuallytryandunravelforyou.WhenSkodayouknowwhentheyactuallycamewitha
greatlineoflikethereisawaitinglistforaSkodathatwasunheardof.Butbecausethat
wasjustsuchagreatstatementthatthey[24.12]oflikespunSkodaasabrandonits
headandmadeitsomethingasifitwasabadgethatyouwantedtohavenowinsteadof
somethingyoudidn’t.Butthatwasreinventionofabrand.Sotherecanbesomanydifferentwaysthatultimatelywheneveryougetanyonecomingthrough,thinkingabout
itnowbecauseyouarereallymakingmethinkaboutit,Idon’tthinkthereisanythingin
myheadwhere,thereisnotoneclientthatcomesthroughthedoorthatisn’tabrandin
somewayshapeorform.Theymightnotbelievetheyarebuttheyareabrandbecause
thatiswhatwedo,Imeanlikeyouknowyoumightbeaservice,youmight,butultimatelyaserviceisanothernameofabrandisn’tit.Ifyouareabusservice,yourfirst
bus[24.55]youknowyouarestillabrandsoyouhavetobetreatedintherightway.
So,howareyouasabrandareyoucosteffective,(25.00)areyouefficient,areyou,you
knowareyousupertasty,areyoureallycheekyandlovableyouknow,allthosethingsthatunravelabrandyoupeelawaythebrandonionorlikeyoupinpointtothebrand
eye,allthesedifferentterminologiesthatpeoplewillhavethecleverbitwherepeople
payalotofmoneyforisactuallytogivethemareallystrongstanceinamarketplaceto
definewhatthebrandis.Onceyoudefinewhatthebrandis,whatitstandsfor.Play
StationstandsforsomethingcompletelydifferenttoFord.Fordstandsforsomethingcompletelyto…tolikeaFerrari.Youbuyintothesebrandsdon’tyou.Iamthattypeof
personwhetherwelikeitornotconsciously,subconsciouslyyoubuyintoit.
IliveinSwedenandofcoursethebigbrandofcarisVolvo
SubjectD:Absolutely
Andtheycertainlyarewellawareofhowtheirbrandisperceivedandthatiswhat
their,basicallytheonlybrandlessadvertisingprobablyisclassifiedads.
358
SubjectD:Yes
Everythingelsehasgotbrandon.
SubjectD:Igenerallywouldn’tgoanywherenearclassifiedadsbecause,Iamabig
brandthinkersoImeanIguessthat’swhatIhavemademycareerdoingisre-inventing
brands,givingthemapointofdifferenceinthemarketplacefromIhavebeenlucky
enoughtoworkforbrandsfromlaunchingLynxApolloLeaveamancomebackahero,toCadburystococacolaglobalIhavebeenfortunateenoughtoworkonsomeofthebig
world’sbiggestbrandsyouknowyoudefinecocacoladifferenttoDuluxpaintsto,the
wayIhavedefinedCadburybiscuitstoyouknowallthosebrands,theyallImeanthe
beautyofwhatwedo,iswhatIdoandwhatIloveisIlovethewaytobechallengedI
lovethefactthatIamlookingatablankpieceofpaper,andyoulookatitandthemagichastounravelsoIhavegottounravelthatsomehowbyimmersingmyselfinthe
internetsomepastwork,somegreatbrief,justlettingmymindlooseintothatworld,
andsolvingthatproblem.AndIlovethatchallengethefactthatyoujust,youdon’t
knowwhattheanswerisuntilitjustsuddenlymaterialisesandthenyoupushit,and
thenyoupushitagainandthenyousqueezeitthenyoustopthatisit,thatisan.
Itisrecognisingthatpointandthereissomanypeoplewhodowhatwedo,itislikeanythingyouhavegottheMessisofthisworldandyouhavegotliketheVauxhall
[27.26]andyouareallpeopletheyallwouldliketothinktheyareMessi,buttheyare
notitisunderstandingwhatyouareaboutandhowyoudoitandwhatyoudoandas
longasIhavegotthatbuzzandenergytocrackthingsandsolvethings.IamaproblemsolverattheendofthedayIamjustasophisticatedproblemsolverwhohasgotlotsof
amazingpeoplearoundmeandamazingthingsatmydisposaltosolvethatandengage
andmakesomeone’sbrandstandoutabovesomeoneelse.
Thenextquestionreallyrelatestosemiotics.IhaveaskedyouifyoucanexplainI
thinkyouhavecoveredthatinyourfirstanswersoIwillmoveonfromthere.
Erm…very,verybrieflyindeed,Idon’twanttostopverylongonthisone,ifyoujustdescribeformeyourroutineifyou,[28.14]youhavegotabrief,itis,you
havegotit,youhaveagreedit,youaregoingtodoit,whatisthefirstphysical
thingyouaregoingtodo.
SubjectD:ThefirstphysicalthingIamgoingtodo,isItrytoclearmyheadofanything
thathappensinyourlifeatthatmomentintime.Soyouhavegotto,IhavegotyoungchildrenIcouldhavewalkedoutofthehouseandmydaughterisdoingsatsthisweek,
359
mysonisoverhere,myotherdaughterisdoingthisoverheresoitisabusyworldwe
arein,thatismyworld.Myworldislikeadad,ahusband,comingtowork,Ihavethen
gottheproblemsomehowmybrainistrainedandprogrammedorwhateveritwillbetosomehowjustdepartmentalisethatpartofmyworld,atthatmomentintime.OnceI
actuallyreadthebriefandimmersemyselfinthebrief,IamthereIamlikeinadifferent
zoneitislike,itisthewaymybrainissortoftrainedtowork.Erm…Ihavetocutout
thedailygrind,thatweallhavelet’sfaceitsometimesitismoredifficultthanothers,
butIwilllookatthebriefinterrogatethebrief,toapointthatIwillaskthequestionsoftheaccountguysifIamnotclearonsomething,Iwillimmersemyselfintheworldof
thebrand.Iwilldosomeitcouldbeon-linesortofresearch,itcouldbelookingatthe
website,lookinghowthecompetitorisdoingstuff,lookatothersectorswhoaremaybe
doingsomethingsimilartosortofgetmymindinthat,intothatsortoflikestatewhere
itisstartingtoflowwithsomecreativethinking.MaybenotjustformtheideasjustyetbutIamstartingtogetmyselfthecreativejuicesinyourmindyoucanfeelthemflowing.
Thenyoustartunwindingyour,literallyscribblingdownsomethoughtsitcouldbeyou
findanimageon-lineitcouldbeaword,aphrasesomethinglikethatyouarejust
bouncingideasaround.Ithinkitisthat,thoughtprocessofbouncing(30.00)someideasaround.Everyonehasgotadifferentwayofworking.Somepeoplearequiet,theyjust
gettheirheaddowntheydoit,theylikeworkingstraightontoalaptop,somepeopleare
quitefreeandtheylikeworkingstraightintoapad,otherpeopletheyareverymuch
theytalkandtalkandtalk.ImeanmepersonallyIneedabitoffreeheadspaceIneeda
bitoftimetoconsider,thinkandreflect.OnceIhavedonethatIcanthenstarttalking.IfIgostraightintoitIdon’tfeellikeIhavehadthereflectivetime.Youneedabitoftime
toreallyabsorbandimmerseyourselfinwhatitisyouaretryingtodo,soyougetyour
headinareallygoodstrongthoughtprocess,andthenIaminthatworld,thenonceI
aminthatworld,themagicunravelsprettyquickly.Andlikemymindthinksvery,very
erm…very,veryfastinthatenvironmentthere,andIcandrillanumberofdifferentideasandbouncethemaroundandrecognisethingsinotherpeopleveryquickly.So
eveninamatterofhoursyoucancracksomethingquiteamazing,butthenthereisa
thingwhichisalwaysavery,verygoodtechniqueisalwaysdoanovernighttestonan
ideabecausewhatyoumightthinkisagreatideaattheendofplaywhenyouaretired,
andyourbrainhasprobablyhadabitofa,highlows,peaksofthedaymybestthinkingisalwaysdonemid-morning,between9.30/10o’clockand12o’clockthenIwillhavea
diptheIwillcomebackinmidtolateafternoonsowithinthatIprogrammemydayto
givemyselflittlepeaksbecauseyoucan’tthinksolidlyatalevelyourbraindoesn’twork
likethat,yougettired,yougetjadedyouneedabreakawaygoandgetacoffee,goand
chatwithsomeone,gointoanothermeeting,thengobackinagainsoit’shavingthosepeaksandrecognisingwhenyouthinkatyourbest.Mybestthinkingtimeisthe2or3
hoursinamorning,alwaysmybesttime.Everyone’sisdifferent.Somepeoplemight
thinkbetterlater.Recognisewhenyourstrongpointsofthedayare.WithinthatIthen
gobackinanddoanovernightersoifIlookatitfirstthinginthemorningagain,inthe
coldlightofday,anditstillworksthatistheproofofagreatideaandthatisalwaystheproofformeIhavealwaysdone.
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ThatisthesameadviceactuallyIgivetomyessaystudentsbecausetheyhavethe
samekindofupsanddownwiththeirthinkingprocesses.
SubjectD:Youcan’t,wearenotprogrammed,wearenotlikemachineswecan’tjust
thinkofthesamefrom,Iwouldlovetothinkthatbetween9and5.30Icouldjustthinkatthesameratealldaybutyourmind,Ihavegottogetinterestedyouknowthatisjust
thewayourmindworksisn’tit.
Itisyes,yes,that’sliketakethedogforawalk,ifyougetstale.
SubjectD:Youneedtorecognisegoandgetadrink,let’sgetsomefreshair,havea
break,reconvenein15minutes,justdoingthatthatiswhybrainstormingshouldreally
neverbelongerthan45minutesbecausepeople’s,youhavelostthemyoucanseethemtheattentionspanintheroomhasgone.Itisshortsharpout.Japanesegreatmeeting
ethicstheycomeinandthereisnochairs,youstand,youmeetyoufocus,youdon’thave
theseinthemeetingroom,youareinthemeeting,youareinthemeeting.Whatisit,
whatistheproblem,10minutesalrightokbrillIamgone.MuchmoredecisivethatwayandthatisthewayIliketobe.Iliketobedecisiveaboutthings.
Couldyoujusttellmesomethingaboutwhatyouaredoingatthemoment,what
advertsyouareworkingonatthemoment.
SubjectD:WhatIamdoingatthemoment,wearejusterm…wearedoingabig
campaignforSoreenMinionssotheMinionsmoviecomingout,itisanewonpack
promotionwinabigstarprizetogotoUniversalStudiostomeettheMinions.Sothatisreallyexciting.Erm…IamdoingasuperrateTVcommercialandsoreconveneofthe
commercialwedid6monthsago,somemore10secondcommercialsaddedtoitand
someslightnewtwistsonthe30,erm…IamdoingafantasticprojectforLeedsRhino’s
FoundationwhichisLeedsRhino’sthebigsuperleaguecharity.SoIamanhonorary
memberoftheirTrustee.
Isthattherugbyclub?
SubjectD:That’stherugbyclubsotheyarethechallengecupchampionstheyareoneofthebiggestclubsinthecountryreallyso,theyarejustonourdoorstep.Igotaskedby
theChairmanofthecommitteetogetinvolvedwiththecommitteeanderm…youknow
onthebackofthatwearedoingafilmforthemerm…andvariouscollateralforfree,so
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wearedoingacharitypiecefortheseguyssotheydoamazingthingsforthecommunity
andasanagencywearebackingthatanddoingsomegreatstuffforthem.Sothatisa
fewofthethingsIamdoingrightnow.
Goodthankyou.Whenyouare,justtalkmethroughtheprocessthenofhowyoudirectyouradvertisingtoparticulargroups,particularsegmentswithinthe
community,whatistheprocessofworkingthatout.
SubjectD:YesIthinkthe,unfortunatelyerm…weareallbracketedintodifferent
categoriessowhetherwelikeitornotweareA1,As,B1,C1s,Dsyes,withinthatIknow
Ihavetotalktopeopleinacertainwayinacertaintime.YouknowLeedsBeckettUniversityisoneofourbigsortofclients(35.00)anderm…theyhavetoposition
themselvesintherightway,theyarenotOxford,theyarenotCambridge,theyhaveto
sortofselltotheirstrengthsandplaytotheirstrengthsinthatarea.Theystillgetvery
brightpeople,butjustwantingmoreofavocationalapproach.LikeaSuperbreak
whichisoneofourclientstheyareslightlymoregreymarket55,bitmoremoneyinthebank,maybethekidshavefledthehome,therewillbemoredisposableincome,soyou
knowyoutalktothoseintherightway.Youthennotonlytalktothemintherightway
youreachthemintherightwayyouhavegottobookslotsthatreachthem,youknowto
understandwhattheywatch,whentheywatch,howtheytalk,howtheyinteractwhat
theyread,allthosethings,makeuphowyoucommunicatewithpeople.YouknowtotalktoaSunreaderwhoisabrickiewhois23yearsoldisdifferenttotalkingtoaguy
whoisconsultingsortofneurosurgeon,youhavegottorecognisehowpeoplereact.
Thatpeoplearevisualyouknow,75%ofpeoplearevisualanywayandbutthewords
youusehavetobeconsideredandrepresentativeofthepeopleyouaretalkingto,soyouknowthatplaysamassivepartinhowyouattackanything.
Doyoucheckupatallthatyouhavegotthroughtothemintherightwaydoyou
runfocusgroupsor…
SubjectD:Yesweerm…upuntilrecentlyweerm…hadprobablyoneofthebiggest
researchagenciesinEnglandwhowerejusthere,sotheywereabout40strong.They
areAsda’sresearchagencysoweusequalitativeandquantitativeresearchquite
frequently,youneedtoanalysewhatyouaredoingyouknowyouneedtobemindfulofthat,youneedtobeinformedandwhenyoudothingsagainyouaretheninformedasto
whatworksandwhatdidn’tworkwhatyouknow,andgofromthere.
Okthankyou.Wehavetalkedabitaboutsymbolisminadvertisingandicons,I
haveaquestionherebutIwilljusttellyou[37.08]someoftheadverts,someof
themoresophisticatedadvertsinmagazinesoftenalludetothingssuchaseven
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Greekmythologyandthiskindofthingyouknoworhistoricalevents,orart,that
Idowonderwhetherpeopleareactuallygettingitornot.Erm…
SubjectD:Yes,
Iwaslookingatoneadvertforaperfumeandtheanalysisinthetextbookofthisparticularadwastotheeffectthatitwasacomparisonbetweenthemodern
womanandtheDionysianlegendsofAncientGreeceandIwaswonderingif
peoplereallydogettheconnection.
SubjectD:Ithinkitisaverygoodquestion.Ipersonallydon’tgetthatdeepinto
mythologyandsymbolismandthingslikethat.Erm…Ithinktherearecertainpeople
whobelievethatitworks,erm…Ipersonallydon’tuseitverymuchasatechnique.Itisatechniquethatpeopleunravelerm…Ithinkwhatyoufindinadvertisingthaterm…
photographystyles,typefaces,colours,techniques,animation,illustration,icons,theyall
goincycles.Soatthemomentyoumighthaveacyclewherethisiscurrentlyontrend
anditisalltrends,andsoyouwillnoticethisasyougoandyoulookin3,4,5years’time,erm…Icanhaveanup-to-datecurrentbook,thisiswhereyouneedtoconstantly
keepontopofyourportfoliobecause,ifIdon’tdothatin4or5years’timefor
argumentssake,itcanlookverydated.AndIthinkthisisthething.Rightnow,itis
current,itisbrilliantbutthenifyoulookbackyouthinkwhoa,youlookatitnowweare
movingfromSkywillonlyacceptnowHDfilmssoyourcommercialnowhastobeHDreadytobesenttoSky.Erm…thatis,thequalityofeverythingthewayimageryisdone,
thewayphotographyiscapturedthewaytypefaces,whatlookedamazing5,10,15
yearsagoyoulookatitnowitlooksreallydatedandoutoftrend,becauseitislike
fashionitislikeeverything.Advertisingisafashionerm…youneedtotryandkeepon
thefashiontrend,rightyouneedtohaveyourownpersonalitybutyouneedtobeverymindfulofwhatisgoingonoutthereandIthinkthat’sthetrend,thatmightworkfor
somepeopledoesn’treallyworkforme.YouknowbutImean,itisapersonalchoice.
IremembertheFloraadisyourmanaFloramanandthehousewifebuyingthe
Floraforhimtoprotecthisheart.
SubjectD:Yes,yes
Youcouldn’tshowthatnowadaysitwouldbefoundjusthilarious.
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SubjectD:Yes,whatcanbedonethenisnotrightnowisit.Anditisjustbeingmindful
ofit.Imeanifyoulookhowcarshavechanged,lookhowtechnologyhaschanged,look
toafilmlikeanditisdoneinthe1980slookatthecomputerstheyhaveonthedesk.(40.00)Atthattimeitmighthavebeenastateoftheartcomputer,nowyounoticeitin
filmsaswell.IwaswatchingFriendstheotherdayandtheywerecapturingsomething
camera,peopledon’t,theycapturethecameraisonthemallthetimenowtheypickit
upandansweraphone,itisadifferentworldisn’tit.Itisbeingmindfulofallthose
thingsastheychangeconsistentlyandadvertisingisafashionandyouneedtokeeponit.
Yes.Doyouthinksometimestheyareabittoosophisticatedforpeople,
sometimestheymissthetargetbecausetheyarealittlebittooobscure.
SubjectD:Potentially.Thereisalotofcleverpeople,alotofcleverthinkerswhotry
andgetthingsrightbutthatdoesn’tmeantosayitisalwaysright.Ithinkyouareonly
toorightthere.
Doyouthinkthat,Isuspectthatyouaregoingtotellmethatyoudoerm…butitis
aquestionIhavetoaskyou,doyouthinkyoustillusethingslikestereotyping,in
youradvertisingor?
SubjectD:Ithinktherearedefinitelystereotypesyes.Imeanerm…youtrywhere
possibletoavoidthembut,therearenaturalstereotypes.ImeanyouwatchCarlsberg,
CarlsbergisaclassicifCarlsbergmadesupermarketsyouknowthereisaguywalkingoutwithabeeranditisalwaysbeerandsomeeggsorsomethingonablokesshopping
listforCarlsbergthatisastereotype.Itisquitefunny.Stereotypesareinherentandthey
alwayswillbe,erm…Ithinkitisjustusinganddeployingthemintherightway.
Theyaresemioticinonerespectaren’ttheybecausetheyareaculturalmythbut
youknowthetwohousewivestalkingoverthegardenfence,isaculturalmythreallyIamnotsayingitneverhappensbuterm…itissomethingthatwecansee
immediatelyandknowwhatisgoingon.Andknowwhattheyaretalkingabout.
SubjectD:ButIthinkthepointyouaremakingthereisavalidonethatsometimesit
helpsyouconnectAtoBquickerandthatisultimatelywhatadvertisingisabout,itis
communicatingthisbrandischeaper,bettervaluethanthatbrandor,youknowthis
oneisapremiumbrandcomparedtothatnotsopremium.Thatissometimesyouneedthemoststereotypicalway,toerm…tobringthattolifereally.
364
Yescanyoujustallowmequickly,thisisgoing[42.25]somethingwehaven’t
coveredthatoftencropsuphere,yourwordchoices,youobviouslyyouareoften
puttingwordswithimages,thiskindofthing.Doyouhaveanygeneralthoughts
abouthowyouchooseyourwordsordoyougoforpunsor?
SubjectD:PersonallyIreallydon’tlikepuns.
Youdon’t?
SubjectD:Punshavea,aplaceandtheyareacertaincharmtocertainpunserm…youknowthatgenerallyIwouldsaymyapproachandIagainthisisasubjectivething
becausewhatwedoissubjective,thereisnorightorwrongintheory,erm…Itryto
applyaclevernessthatIthinkactuallyerm…thewordsandthecraftinginthewords
arereallyimportanttome.Thatactuallymakesomeonestandupandtakenoticeand
think.Erm…likeforexampleIwonacopywritingawardawhileago,forarestaurantthatwasactuallyhousedinanoldpolicestation.Anderm…thelinewasrhubarband
custodyslightpunbutagainjusthadaclevernesstoit,sothatisasfarasIwouldliketo
go.Erm….withinthat,Igenerallythinkthebestwordsoutthere,thecleverwords,Ilike
theEconomistposters,thatreallymakeyouthinknatureversusyouknow,nature
versusnurture[43.45]thatistheclevernessofwordsforme.Ithinkthey’re,thatiswhereIwanttobe.ThatiswhatItryandgetoutoftheteam,mydepartment.Thereis
timeswhenyoupotentiallycouldbeabitpunnyandthereisafineline,butifitispun,
pun,punIthinkthatiswrong.
Ok,mylastquestionreally,erm…thereasonIamaskingforthis,thisisbasically
alinguisticsquestionifyouareadvertisingaspecificproduct,ifthatiswhatyourmainaimis,ratherthanfocussingonsomebrandpromotion,howdoyoutryto
appealtoyouraudiencespre-existingknowledgehowdoyousortofworkwith
that?Doyouhaveanythoughtsonthatone?
SubjectD:Well,ImeansayVolkswagen,Volkswagenhasgotahistoryoferm…being
reliable,alwaysstarting,alwaysbeingthingslikethatwhereyouhavegotapre-existing
templateifyoulike.
Yes,researchbasically.
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SubjectD:Yesyouneedtounderstandthebrand,understandthehistoryofthebrand,
whathasworked,whathasn’tworked,ifthereisaplethoraofthingsthatarethere,you
willberatherfoolishtoignore.SoIthinkyouneedtounderstandthestartpoint,beforeyougooffandignoreitcompletely.(45.00)Thatwouldbefoolishthingtodo.SoI
thinkifyouunderstandthehistoryofabrand,howitisworked,howithasmanipulated
itselfintothemindoftheperson,erm…thenyouinform,makeaninformeddecision
fromthere.
Yes.Rightsothatbegsthequestion,thesecondpartofthatquestionishowdoyoumakesurethatitisimmediatelyrelevanttoyourtargetaudiencebutIthink
youhaveprettymuchansweredthat.Therelevancepart.
SubjectD:Yes,
Howisitrelevanttoyou.
SubjectD:WellIthinkthekeyisyouaredoingadvertisingforsomeoneelsenotyou.
SowhenIgeta55–60yearoldclienttellingmethatwouldn’tappealtothemgoingto
university,Ihavegot[45.44]questionwellyouarenotgoingtouniversity,youhavegotsomeone40yearsyoungerthanyougoingtouniversity,soyouhavegottoputyour
mindintheirshoesnotyourshoes.
Yes,yes
SubjectD:Soinapolitewayitislikesayingitisnotmeanttoappealtoyouitismeant
toappealtosomeonefaryounger,likewiseifIdidanadappealingtoyou,itprobably
wouldn’tappealtothe20yearold.Soyouhavegottorecognise…
Theclienthastotrustyourtrustyourjudgementandexperienceinthatthenaswell.
SubjectD:Absolutelyyes.Yes.
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Wellthanksverymuchforthatyouhaveansweredallmyquestions,very
thoroughlyandIdon’treallyhaveanymoreforyou.Thankyou.
SUBJECT E
Rightsorrycarryon.
SubjectE:Iwasacopywriterforalongtime,butnowIdon’twrite,thoughIdoalittle
bit,erm…butIseealotofadvertisingandcritiqueitandbriefitandthatsortofstuffso
hopefullyIwillbeabletoansweryourquestions.ButIamjust,soyouknowsoIdidn’tspendyesterdaywritingads,thoughIspentmanyyearswritingadssoyouwillgeta
slightlydifferentperspectivefromme.
Butyouhavetheexperience.
SubjectE:Ohabsolutely.
Andyouworkintheindustrysothatisabsolutelyfine.Erm…Ihavegotasetof
questionshere,whatIamdoingthefirstpartisaboutyoupersonally,andthen
theotherpartsareabouthowyouformideasandyourstrategiesandsoon.Erm…someofthequestionsarebynaturerepetitivesoifIdofindusgoingover
stuffyouhavealreadytoldmethenIwillsortofmoveontothenextoneandso
on.Erm…soIwilltrynottomakeittoorepetitiveforyou.Myfirstquestionisby
whatroutedidyouentertheadvertisingindustrywhatisyourbackgroundprior
tothat?
SubjectE:Erm…IdidaPhDinAncientGreek.
Ohright
SubjectE:Soandso,thereweren’tasmanyobviousopeningsplusIlovewordsso
gettingintoadvertisinggavemeachancetoworkwithwordsandconceptsandthatis
howIgotinreally.
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Righthaveyouhadanyformal,Imeanintermsofuniversityeducationin
advertisingormarketing?
SubjectE:No
Ok,
SubjectE:Tobehonest,I…weoftendon’temploypeoplewhohavethoughinthe
creativedepartmentwedo,butpeoplewhohavestudiedmarketingdegreesnotthat
interestedinthemtobehonest.ThoughiftheyareagreatpersonalityandverybrightthenyesbutIprefersomeonewhohadstudiedhistoryorgeographyorsomethinglike
thatbecausesometimesthemarketingdegreeserm…thecalibreisn’tashighasitmight
bewith…
Right.Journalism,Ifoundthesamewithsomejournaliststheyprefersomeone
withagoodEnglishdegreeratherthanoneinjournalism.
SubjectE:Yesabsolutelythatisidenticalforus.Exceptwhenitcomestothecreativedepartment,becausethecreativedepartmentyouhavetohavegonethroughsomesort
ofstudyofhowtocomeupwithideas,whichanEnglishgraduatereallyhasn’thad.
That’sjusttoclarifythatforyou.
Yes,yesindeedthatmakessenseyes.Erm…sothenextquestionwillnotapplyto
youbecauseitiswhattextdoyourecallstudyingbutofcourseyouhavenotstudiedanythingtodowiththisintermsofuniversityeducation.SoIcanmove
ontothenextbitthen.Imentionedsemioticstoyou,youobviouslyknowwhat
theyare.
SubjectE:Yes
Wherehasthatcomefromhowdidyoucometo…
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SubjectE:Semiotics.OhImeanIdidabitoflinguisticsatunibutitwasonlyayear,and
thatisalong,longtimeagoerm…andIjust,Imaygetthiscompletelywrong,buttome
semioticsisthelinguisticsofimagesandpicturesandsignsand…butImightbewrongthere.
Noyouareontherightlinesyes.
SubjectE:Andlikeforexample,erm…thatis,Iremember,ohwhyhashisnamegone
outofmyhead,youwillsayitinstantlyerm…theNameoftheRoseauthor.
Thewhichauthor?
SubjectE:TheauthortheItalianwhowrotetheNameoftheRose.Thebook.
TheRose.
SubjectE:TheNameoftheRose.
Idon’tknow.Sorry.
SubjectE:OkheisaprofessorofsemioticsatBolognaorsomething,andIthoughtthatwasawonderfulbook,anderm…hisnamewillcomebacktomeveryshortly,erm…
UmbertoEco.
Ohyes.
SubjectE:Andit’sfullofimageryandvisualso,soIneverstudiedsemioticsbutIam
sortofawareofit.
Yes,myareaofcoursebeingalinguist,Eco’sareaismorethevisualthingssothat’sprobablywhyitdidn’timmediatelyringabell,nowIknowwhoyouare
369
talkingabout.Erm…soIwasthinkingmoreaboutpeoplelikeSaussure,Peirce,
Barthespossiblynotfamiliarwith?
SubjectE:Erm…Barthesprobablyishe,isit,
Mythologiesguy
SubjectE:Yes,whatishisfirstname?
Roland.
SubjectE:IwasgoingtosaywasitRolandBarthes,IthinkIhavereadsomeofhisstuff,
yearsagoerm…butjustonlybecausewhenIwasdoingmyPhDItookthetimetoread
widely,(05.00)andthensincethenIhavereadwidelybutthenofcourseyouretain
certainthingsandyouforgetotherthingsandwhatever.
Yes
SubjectE:SoIjustknowbitsandnotalot.
Okthatiscool.Sointhatcasethenwouldyoubefamiliaroftheconceptofamythintermsofsemiotics?
SubjectE:Youwillhavetotellmewhatitisthere.
Ok,erm…theclassicexamplefromRolandBarthesiserm…thebrokenbagof
shoppingontheItalianPastacompanyandhecameupwiththenotionof
Italianicity,soyouseethebrokenbag,youseetheerm…pastaingredientsin
thereandthefreshvegetablesandthetomatoesandso,thesamecoloursexistinthesamewiththeItalianflag,andthenotion,youseetheItaliannessofitandthe
ItaliannamePanzaniimmediatelyyouhaveaconceptoftheItalianfamilylife,the
sunshine,theolives,thetomatogrowingandsoon,yestheMammacookingthe
pastaforthefamilyandsoon,yougetthewholeItalianmythsurroundingthat
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eventhoughitisprobablynothowmostItalianpeoplelivetodayandthatwashis,
oneofhisideas.Andhewassuggestingthatwelookatsomethingveryquickly.
Whereasastopsignwejustknowthatmeansstop,whereasifyouseesomeonewearingacowboyhatandwearingawaistcoat,ablackwaistcoatandwithagun
beltandsoonwegetthewholecowboymythsurroundingthat,thatwashisidea.
Erm…andalotofadvertisingeducationerm…whenwetalkaboutsemioticsis
basedonthesuddenimageorafewwordsandyougetawholepicturethatwe
knowaboutalready.
SubjectE:Yesthatmakessense.Sowhatisthequestionoristhereaquestion?
NoobviouslymyquestionwaswereyoufamiliarwiththatconceptofmythsI
thinkyouarebutnotbythatname.
SubjectE:Notbythatname.
Nothatmakessenseokthat’sgreat.Doyouuseanyactualtextsthatyouregard
asseminaltextswhenyouaredevisingadvertstoday?Willyourefertoanother
writerOgilvyorSaatchioranybodyelse?
SubjectE:WellyouknowIhavereadsomeofthebooks,IhavereadOgilvyonadvertisingIhavereadsomeofcertainbooksonadvertisingbyacopywriterorsome
excellentessaysbycopywriters,oftenitwouldbemoretoreadwhattheyhadactually
writtenasanad,asopposedtowhattheywriteaboutadvertising.Erm…butgenerally
thereisafeelingthatyoushouldtryandcreateyourownstyleanderm…soandthereisabitaboutbreakingrulesthereiscertainrulesthatyoushouldn’tbreak,andthenother
rulesthatyoushouldbreak.Youknowtherearecertainrulesthataretherethatifyou
breakthemyoujustlooksillydonesomethingstupid.Erm…butothertimesyouwant
togiveyourselfasmuchcreativefreedomaspossible,sothatso,soIwouldn’thavesaid,
Iwouldn’tencourageacopywriterinhereerm…Iwouldn’tsayhere,readallthatstuffanddoitthatway.
NobutthereisnothingthatyouwouldthinktoyourselfIwillgotoOgilvyandsee
whathehasgottosayaboutthis,youwouldn’tor..
SubjectE:No
371
AreyounowsoexperiencedthatyouthinknoIwillgomyownwaynowIhave
gotallthat,thatisinthepast?
SubjectE:YesIwouldtryandgomyownway.
Ok.Couldyoujustexplaintomebrieflythementalprocessestheformingideasforadvertswhatgoesthroughyourmind,whenyougetabrief?
SubjectE:Wowright,wellerm…Iwouldprobablythinkwhatdoestheguy,youknow
orfemaleoutinthestreetthinkofthisparticularproductorservice.Whatisgoingon
intheirlifeerm…andthenIwouldtryandcomeupwithsomesortoftruththatwould
theywouldidentifywithandthinkohthat’sme.Erm…sothatoftenthenwouldmeanI
wouldn’t,asawritersometimesyouendupwithalittlewordplaysbutIwouldtendnottodothat.Sometimesthelittlewordplayerm…youhavecomeuponit,thatseemstofit
withtheproductbutitdoesn’tnecessarilyfitwithwhatthepeoplethatyouaretrying
topersuadeerm…soitisatechnique(10.00)overtheactualunderstanding.SoIoften
thinkthatthebest,hereisasimpleoneright.Ihavejustremembered,way,waybackwehadtheSkySportsCouncilaskedustopromoteoneoftheirgolftrainingcourses.So
erm…yougoalongtheywillteachyouhowtoplaygolf.And,oneoftheheadlinesI
rememberwritingitjust,andweputthisingolfmagazinesoitjustsaidbigbold,Play
LessGolf.NowmostpeoplereadingthatwouldthinkohIamgolferwhywouldIwant
toplaylessgolf.Butofcourseyoudoactuallywanttoplaylessgolfyouwanttogoroundin72shotsratherthan82shots[10.51]sothatwas,thatwasdesignedsoyou
askanygolferwouldyouprefertogoroundinfewershots,theywillsayyes.Thenthe
skillofthecopywriteristothencommunicatethat,communicateinawaythatmakes
thegolferleadonandthat,thatwasverysuccessfuladvertbecausegolferswhenyou
readplaylessgolfthinknoIwanttoplaymoregolf,butfundamentallytheyactuallywanttoplayless.Andthatishowtheadvert,thatadvert,thatparticularadvertworked
andwhatitwasdoingwastryingto[11.36],itisvery,verysimple,everygolferwantsto
goroundinfewerstrokes.Sotherewas,sothatwasjust,thatishowthatcameabout.
Yes,ifyourecallImentionedtoyouaboutoneofmyinterestswasin[11.51]
pragmaticsasopposedtosemioticsandthatisaclassicexamplebecause
pragmaticslooksatcontext,andthecontextbasicallymostofthemoderntheoriesonthatwouldsaythatitissomethinginordertoattractattentionithas
toberelevanttothepersonseeingit.Andplaylessgolfthenofcourseyouseethe
wordgolf,thenthatisrelevanttome,andIlookatthesentenceplaylessgolf,that
ispresentingmewithaconundrum,aquizwhyisthenwhichrewardsmedoesitnotbydecipheringwhatitmeansandnowIunderstandit.
372
SubjectE:Yesbecauseunderneathit,itexplainsit.Becausewewouldn’tleaveyouwith
justplaylessgolfandthenthelogobecauseyoumightn’tgetit.
Howlongagowasthis?
SubjectE:Ohthatisprobably20yearsago.
Rightok.
SubjectE:ButthatthoughtisanenduringthoughtImeanthatcouldbe,ifyoureadthat
nowitwouldstill…
Absolutelyyes,itwouldstillberightyes.Whenyouareactuallydevisinganad
thenlikethat,doyousortof,doyouhaveacompletementalpictureofwhereyou
aregoingwithitfairlyearlyandthenthatis,andyoudevelopthatorisitasortof
buildingprocess?
SubjectE:Erm…Isupposeitdependssometimesifitispartofacampaignso,where
youhavegotaproductthathasgotprobablyakeymessagebutdifferent,youcan
approachthesamemessageindifferentwaysandyouwanttoshowthatthe,person
thatyouaretalkingtothatthisproductismultifacetedandthereismore[13.30]tobe
hadfromtheproduct.Thisproductmaybeversusanotherandyouaregettingyourmoney’sworth.Sotherefore,erm…that,ifitwereforacampaignthenIwouldtryand
workoutwhatthekeymessagesare,andtheoverallfeel,youknowwhatisthetoneof,
generaltoneofvoice,amIbeingseriousor,amIbeingyouknowisthetoneofvoicelike
veryoptimistic,fullofbeans,erm…oryouknowwhat…soitishardtoanswerthat,
untilyouhaveactuallygottheblanksheetofpaperandthebrief.Sometimesthingsjustcomeveryquickly,becauseyou,youthinkaboutthepersonyouaretryingto
persuade,youputyourselfintheirshoesifyoucanandaninterestingwayoflookingat
itcomesquickly.Itoftenhappensthatyouare,youarewritingandthenyougetup,
walktothelooandbythetimeyouhavecomebackyouhavesolveditbecauseyouhave
movedawayfromyourseat.Ifoundthathappensalot,orusedtohappenalot.SometimesotherthingsIusedtodoerm…isifIwouldsometimeslistentomusic
(15.00)thatIthoughthadthesamesortoftoneasIwantedtogetacross.SoifIwas
beingquiteaggressive,Iwouldlistentoquiteerm…wellsayHolstPlanetsMars,bringer
ofwarsomethinglikethat,youknowIwouldthinkyesthat’sthewayIshouldandyou
knowandperhapsmyheadwouldthenfillwiththosetypesofthoughts.Thatkindofattitude.IfIwantedtowritesomethingquiteerm…sweetandyouknowImightputthe
PastoralSymphonyonorsomethinglikethatthere,whateverthatsometimesworked.
373
Thatsetsyourmoodready,butagainsomeoneelseIwastalkingtoaboutthis
saidthathewillwritedownideasandthengo,inanafternoonandthenputit
away,andnotlookatitagainuntilthenextmorningbecausehesaidonthenext
morningIwouldseeitdifferently.
SubjectE:Yes,yes.SometimesIusedtowriteonyellowpaperjust,itdoesn’thavetobe
yellowbutaslongasitwasn’twhite,sothatitmademefeeldifferently.YourpaperiswhitethereandmoststuffyouseeisonwhitepaperandafterawhileIjustthoughtit’s
abit,thesamewhereasifyouhavegotabitofyellowpaperandabitofBeethoven
goingoninthebackgrounditmightjustmakeyou,takeyououtofthehumdrumtake
yououtofthewhatyouareusedtoandthatisofcoursewhatIamalwaystryingtodo
isgetoutofwhereIusuallyamandputmyselfsomewhereelse.
Yes,thatissomethingelseIamlookingataswellwhichis,yesformalism.Erm…
yessomethingthatisinterestingaboutthisparticularlyisimagineyouhave,let’s
comparetwodifferentbriefs.Oneisbrandpromotionthatisyourmainaim,we
wanttogetourbrandbetterknown.TheotheroneisIwanttoadvertiseavery
specificproduct,somethingnewIwanttogivepeopletheinformationsothattheyaregoingtomakeachoicetobuythatone,andnotmycompetitors.
SubjectE:Yes
Isthereadifferentapproachthatyouusebetweenthetwokindofbriefs?
SubjectE:YesprobablyImeanwithoutknowingwhatthosetwothingsspecifically
were,itsplits,thenormalanswertothatwouldbe,thefirstonethebrandonewouldbe
moreemotionallybiasedandtheproductonewouldbemorerationallybiased.Sohere
Iamtryingtogetanemotionalattachmentbetweenyouandthebrandandmakethatbrandfeelasifitispart,thatthatbrandgetstooccupyaprivilegedpositioninyour
panoplyofbrands.Thoseonesthatdependingontheconsumerbutoftensome
consumers,meincluded,areveryparticularaboutwhatbrandsIbuy,andtoget,and
theyandIwillbevery,veryloyaltothemiftheycontinuetodeliver.Andthatisquite
emotional,okthereisa,rationalelementtoit,buterm…becausetheyperform,butIjustliketheassociationandIliketheemotionalassociationofabrand,thatwherethere
isanexpertiseinvolvedohtheydoitbeautifullyanderm…so,sothatiswhatIwould
tryanddowiththebrandoneIwouldsay,trytosaytothemthatisabrandforyou.
Andhereisthereasonswhy.Anditwouldtendtobequiteemotionallybased.Ifitisaproductthatdoesthejob,erm…thenIwouldgointothedetailofitbecauseIwouldsee
374
thatthepersonIamtryingtosellittoisinadifferentmode,wheretheyhavegota
problemthatneedssolvingandthissolvesitinthatitdelivers.Iboughtarucksacknot
thatlongagoandnotparticularlyerm…asaresultofanadvertisementbutifIweretoadvertisethatrucksackoneofthethingsIwoulddowould,Icyclealot,andcyclingto
worksoitisacommutingrucksack.And,itsproductbenefits,featuresareexcellentsoI
wouldbelistingthemandsayingwhytheyweresogoodandtotryandattractthe
personwhoisfindingthattheircurrentoneisn’tworkingaswell.Sotherewouldbe
twodifferentwaysofdoingthatIsthatthesortofthingyouarewanting?
ItisexactlywhatIamlookingforbecauseImeanIamthinkingbackto
Bernstein’snotionofReasonandTickle?
SubjectE:Sayagain.
Bernsteinisoneofthewritersinadvertisinghewroteaboutsomethingcalled
ReasonandTickle.
SubjectE:Reasonandtickle?
Yes.Thereasonbeingwhatyouhavejustsaid,whatyouhavejustgivenme.The
reasonsIamgoingtobuysomethingareherearethereasonsforit,Iamgoingtolistthemdownforyou,(20.00)thesearethe,andontheotherhandyouhavegot
ticklewhichisasyousaidemotionallybased,itisstimulatingyourinterestand
identifyingyouwiththeproductandgivingitanaura.Anexampleofthat,I
sometimestalktomystudentsaboutiserm…ifIwastoadvertiseVersacejustabrandnamedVersace,erm…orChannelperfumeeven,Iamnotsayingtopeople
howitsmells.IhaveneverseenanadvertyetforaChannelperfumethatgives
meanyinformationatallitisjustall,itisalljustimageandmakingthemostofa
particularmodelClaudiaSchifferorwhoeverhappenstobethere,isassociated
withitbutbeyondthatIamgettingnoinformation.Butifyouwanttosellmecomponentsforaerm…forklifttruckinatrademagazine,thenyouarenotgoing
touseClaudiaSchifferandthatkindofthing,andabranditisinformation.Soyou
havegotinformationandyouhavegotreasonandticklethatwastheideaandhe
suggestedthatboth,mostadvertsareamixtureofthetwotosomedegree.
SubjectE:YesIwouldneverhaveusedtheexpressionticklebutthatisuptohimifhe
wantstouseit,erm…butyes.WellIthinkthereis,thereisa…itis,itistherewillbesomeadsIsuppose,thatareprettydevoidofemotion,andsomethatareprettydevoid
ofanyrationalreason.Erm…butmostadshaveamixture.
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YeswhichiswhatBernsteinwassayingbasically.
SubjectE:Yesandtobehonestthatisprettyobviouswhichisfine((laughs)).
Noitisyes,yes.AnditisinterestingtomeaswellbecauseIwouldarguethatifwe
arebranding,weareusingsemiotics,more.Ifweareusingthereasonratherthan
theticklethenweneedtobeusingpragmaticsweneedtosetcontext.And,
advertisersmaybe,futureadvertisersmightbealittlebitbetteroffiftheywereawareofthatthetechniquesforattractingattentionbywayofrelevance.Sothat
is…
SubjectE:Yesthatmakessensetome.
Thatismyhypothesisanyway.Erm…youhaveexplainedtomehowyousortof
you[22.22]processofformingideaserm..canyousortofrelatetomearecent
advertisementthatyouwereinvolvedinitspromotionandhowitpannedout?
SubjectE:Arecentadvertisement?Well,erm…onethatIwasinvolvedinrecentlyitishappeningatthemoment,anditis,itdependswhatyoumeanbyadvertisement.
Yesbroadestpossiblesense.
SubjectE:Yesthisisquite,itisbroadish,butitdoessortof,itisgoingtoplayoutmore
inon-linecontent,butthatinitselfiserm…videocontent.Stillissortofanad.Oneof
ourclientsproduceserm…microwavablenoodles,erm…BangkokStreetNoodles,and
theyareexcellent,soitisasfarfrompotnoodleasyoucangetreally.Theyhavegotanewtechniquefordoingit,anderm…ifIservedyouthemupnoweventhoughittakes
90secondsinthemicrowave,youwouldthinkwow,howcanmicrowavablenoodlesbe
asgoodasthat.Sothatisagreat,thatisabitofafirst.So,thethoughtprocesshereis
howdowe,howdowegetoverthestigmathatmicrowavablefoodisabitmorelikepot
noodleerm…soweinventedtheverysimplephraseWokQualityNoodles.WhichisalittlebitlikeLaboratoiresGarniererm…SalonBeautifulHair.Soandwestartedwith
WokQualityNoodles,sowesaidohrightmicrowavebuttheyareWokQuality.Thento
sothattobehonestthatisalittlebitoftherationalandpossiblyabitofthepragmatic,
thattheyaregoingtotasteerm…reallygood.Sobecausetheyareaimedatabitofa
snackingmarketyoudon’twanttobeeatingsomethingthatdoesn’ttastegood.Sothey
376
arewokquality,Iamgettingatickthere,Iwillgivethematrythecaloriesaregood,as
fortheactualengagementofthepeopletomakethemsitupandtakethatinandenjoy
thebrandanddothesortofthingthatperhapsthatPeperamididinthatithadanattitudeaboutitsoyoubuyintotheattitudeaswellasifyoulikethe,thesortof
whateveritwas,salamiwhatevertheycalled.Whateveritissomesortofwurstor
othergoingon.(25.00)We,erm…wethencameupwiththeideaofyoudon’tneed
yourWokanymore.Ok.Soyoudon’tneedawokanymore,becausewokqualitynoodles
areavailablefromthemicrowavesomyideawasthisthingofwokcycling.Whatareyougoingtodowithyourwokhowareyougoingtorecycleyourwoknowthatyou
don’tneeditanymore.Soweareshootingsomelittlevideosofawokwithwheelson
beingusedtopullalittledog,alittledogalong,erm…itcanbeusederm…toplaytennis
withyoucanplaytenniswithwoksandit’sallthecampaignofnowthatwehavegot
wokqualitynoodles,fromthemicrowave,howareyougoingtowokcycle.And,sothat’s,thatisthesortofthethoughtprocessthere,thereisabitofpragmaticbut
actuallyquiteinterestingfunstuff,erm…goingonandofcoursepeoplecanthenadd
theirownversionsofthat.Erm…Ican’trememberthedifferentoneswearedoingnow
tobehonestbutthereislotsofthem.Youcanwearthewokasahat,justanythingsillyandthatishowthatworks.
Soagainaswiththeoneyougivemewiththegolf,peoplearehavingtolookatit
andthentheyarehavingtolookattryingtoworkoutthecontextfromit.
SubjectE:Correct
Aspartofalittlementalpuzzle.Andthentheyrewardthemselvesobviously…oh
yesIunderstandthat.
SubjectE:Yesthatisthetechniquebeingusedthere.
Yes.Erm…youdoTVadvertsobviouslydoyoudo,whatotherkindofadvertisingdoyoudohere?
SubjectE:Allsorts,anythingreally.
Magazinesor?
377
SubjectE:Absolutelyanythingwehavedoneandstilldo.
Andyoudonationwide?
SubjectE:Ohyes,andEuropeanandallsorts.TobehonestIspendalotoftimein
Swedenerm…theyareoneofthebiggestkitchenholdingcompaniesinEuropeiscalledNobiaitisheadquarteredinStockholmandtheyownMagnetkitchensherewhichis
Doncaster,andLeeds,andHygenawhichit’sjustsoldandvariousotheronesandthere
isabrandinDenmarkcalledHTHsowerunthatadvertisingoutofthisofficewellmost
ofit.
Right.SoyouarefamiliarwithStockholm.
SubjectE:YesIhavebeenontheArlandaexpressmany,manytimes.IloveStockholm.
Idoitisoneofmyfavouritecities.IlikeCopenhagenaswell.
SubjectE:YesIhavebeentherejusttheotherdayIwasthere,
Iamtheretomorrow.
SubjectE:Verygood.
Erm…rightsoIthinkwehaveansweredthenextcouplethere.Justageneral
questionyoumayhavecoveredthisalreadyIthinkyouhavebutifyouwantto
addanythingtoitIwouldbeinterestederm…itisabouthowyouactuallyidentify
towhomtheadvertisingisdirected.Doesanysortofapproachesgoingonthere,astowhothosepeopleare?
SubjectE:Wellerm…thatisusuallyworkedoutlessbythecopywriterandmorebythe
clientandtheaccountmanagerintheagencythatis,andthemediapeople.Becauseyou
cangetquitesophisticatedwaysofworkingouterm…whowearetryingtotargetand
particularlynowinthisverydigitalage,itiseasiertoworkoutwhoisconsumingwhat
378
typeofadorproduct.Thereisawholethinghappeningatthemomentcalled
programmaticmediabuyingandadvertisingwhichisacomputerisedhighly
sophisticatedverytargetedanswertothatquestion.SoifIwereyouifyouhaven’tseenthis,itisabigbuzzwordatthemoment.
Whatisitcalledagain?
SubjectE:Programmatic,soasinprogramme
Programmatic.
SubjectE:Programmatic,havealookatthat,thatanswersthatisawayofdoingthat
butitisonlyjusthere.Erm…onlyinthelast6months,reallyonpeople’sjustbecause
erm…withallthedatathatyoucanhave,andthecomputingpowerandtheerm…sophisticationofbrands,targetingpeopleontheinternetandfollowingyouround.You
willhaveseenyourselfbeingfollowedonceyouclickonaproduct,andthenyouthink
ohIdon’twanttobuythat,andthenyouareonanewssite,suddenlythereisanadfor
itnexttoit,thatisthemfollowingyoubecausetheyhavedroppedacookieonyouand
so,anywaythereisthatwholecomputerisedbitofit.ThepeoplethatyouaretryingtotargetI,(30.00)onceI,oneofthereasonsagoodcreativepersoninanagencytendsto
becausetheyhavetoworkoutwhatamIsellinghere,andwhatisthebestwayof
sellingit,theyoftenendupwiththesimplestandprobablymostaccuratewayofseeing
it,eventhoughtheclientandthemediacompanyandtheaccounthandlerspentmonths
tryingtoworkoutwhotheaudienceis,whattheyshouldsayandwhatever,itiswhenthepersontries,whoisresponsibleforhowdowesayit,itistheyhavetohaveitso
simple.Agoodwriterwillwantitsosimpleerm…sotheypareeverythingbackand
theythinkrightwhatismykeymessageandwhoamIsayingthatto.DoIunderstand
thosetwothings.Erm…soalthoughyouwillhavebeenpointedintherightdirection,
youhavetogetthatpersoninyourhead,erm…andyessoIwillhavethatpersoninmyhead,becausethat’showIstartedthiswholeconversation.YouaskedmehowIthink
upanad,IthinkofthepersonIamwritingitfor.
Soifyouhavea4or5pagebriefyouhavetodistilthatdowntotheactualcore
littleminisculepart.
SubjectE:Yesthat’sityes.Soweusedtohaveathingonourbriefitwasdividedinto
varioussectionsandtherewasonepartonourbriefpoint4,anditwaswhatisthekeythingwewanttosay.AndIwouldreadthatfirst.Erm…andbecauselikeforexampleI
remembergettingabrieffromaguyweusedtodoalotofadvertisingforUmbroand
379
erm…itwasthetimewheneverMichaelOwenwas,hadburstonthescenesoFrance98,
roundaboutthattimeheworetheirboots.And,ayoungladandIrememberseeing
point4inthebriefwrittenbyanaccounthandleranditwasprobablyabout3sentenceslong,andIlookeddownandlookedathimandsortofjokedwiththeguyandIjustsort
ofscribbleditoutinajokeywaybutstillmakingthepoint,allheneededtowritewas
andthesebootswerecalledlet'ssaytheywerecalledVelocity,thepointonthebriefhe
couldhavereplacedhis3sentenceswiththesewordsMichaelOwenislightningfast
becausehewasveryfast,andwewantedtosaythesearethebootsthatyoumakeforMichaelOwenheislightningfast,andlet’ssaytheyarereallylightandthingslikethat
soifyouareagoodfootballerandyouwouldliketobeasfastasMichaelOwenatleast
youcanwearthesamebootsashim,ifspeedisinyourgamethesearethebootsforyou.
Soinsteadofthesethreesentencesaboutormaybeonelongsentenceofover3linesthe
copywriterreallyjustneedstoseeevenjust2words,lightningfast.Andthenallyouthinkthenisrightspeed.Orjustonewordspeed.Youknow.
Yes
SubjectE:Youtryandpareitdown,ok.
That’sgreat,thankyou.Yes.Thenextquestionishowdoyouensurethereaderof
your[33.27]willunderstanddoyouhaveanysortofcheck-upstomakesurethat
peoplearelikelyunderstand.OneoftheissuesIhavewhenlookingatsomeadsisIcanseetheartistryindesigningthead,butIamnotalwaysentirelysurethat
theyaregoingto,everyreaderisgoingto[33.44]magazine[33.44]onTVisgoing
togeteverything.
SubjectE:Yesok.Wellthisisabitofa,erm..thereisacoupleofanswerstothis.We
havegotsomethinginhere,anderm…calledtheRacheltest.Nowerm…weusedto
haveareceptionistcalledRachel.Rachelisalovelygirlandshe,shewasn’tthebrightesttoolinthebox,andshemadelightofthat,she…oftenpeoplehavegotthejobsthatsuit
themandthereceptionistjobwasrightforRachel.Erm…itwasn’tafemalethingitwas
nothinglikethatbutthatwastherightjobforher.Shehadalwaysagreatsmileonher
face,andsheusedto,sheusedtomakejokesaboutthefactthatIdon’tknowwhatshe
wouldsaybutwhatever.Erm…butandshewasfullybehindthisandloveditbecauseIwouldsometimesbringherinanadandsayRachelwhatdoesthatmeanandshewould
lookatit(35.00)andshewouldtellmeandshewas,shelovedusdoingmeorwhoever
itwasdoingtheRacheltestbecauseifRachelgotitwewerefine,ifRacheldidn’tgetit,
weneededtoknowwhy.Andweneededtolookattheadagainasitwastoocleverforitsowngood.So,Idon’t,weweren’tbeingsexistoranything,becauseshereallyenjoyed
itandactuallythatformewasagoodwayofdoingit.Sometimesyoucanjustbetoo
advertisingforyourowngood.TheissueIoftensayandwhenwearecritiquingwork
380
intheagencyisallofyoupeoplewholikethisparticularadknowwhatthebriefis,and
havehadsomeonesellittoyou.Youknowsowewouldgetthecreativepeoplein,and
sayrightshowmewhatyourideasareandtheywouldsaywellwehavedonethisbecausewethinkitisreallygoodblah,blah,blahso,bythetimeyouaretheretomake
yourjudgementonit,youalreadyknowawholestackifyouhavegotthebackstory.
Whichisprettyobvious.So,weerm…wehavetotryandimaginethatsomeonedoesn’t
knowanyofthat.That’swhyIdon’tknowifyounoticedwhatthebigsignonour
receptionsaid,youmightn’thaveevenseenit.
Didn’tseeit.
SubjectE:Wellonyourwayoutyouwillseeitsaysthepowerofsimple.Sothatiswhy
wetellpeopletokeepitsimple.Sowhenevertheyare,asyousaid,consumersflicking
throughamagazineforexample,theyseeoneofourads,theygetit,erm….ortheyare
sufficientlyintriguedtoreadonabitlikeplaylessgolflikewhatyouknow,oritisreally
clearexactlywhatitmeansandwhyitisrightforthem.Sowedoaself-filteringthing,isitsimpleenough.WegiveitaRacheltest.Rachelisn’thereanymore,buterm…we
woulddoaMeenatestorwewoulddosome,wewouldtakeitroundandshowitto
people,takeithomeandshowittoourfamilies,andthenofcoursethereisresearch
youcando.
Focusgroupsandthiskindofthing?
SubjectE:Allofthosethings.Weprefernottodothosebutsometimesyouhaveto.
OneIwasthinkingofparticularlyitwasonethaterm…fromoneofthetextbooks
onadvertisingshowingClaudiaSchifferadvertisingBulgariisit?
SubjectE:BulgariisanItalianfashionbrand,thatdoesjewelleryitdoes[37.38]itdoes
jewelleryitdoesperfume,yes.
Thiswasforactuallyaperfumeanditwasapinkperfumewithagoldtoponit,
andtheshewassortofpositioning,youcouldn’tseewhatshewaswearingbutit
wassuggestingshewasnaked,butyoucouldonlyseeherfrom…obviouslyandthesuggestionofthetextwasthatpeoplewerereadilyrecognisedtheDionysus
connectionofancientRomewiththeRomanletteringofBulgariandIamthinking
381
tomyself,willthey.Willtheyreallyrecognisethatmythfromthat.Arethey
familiarwithit?IamnotsureIamnotconvinced.
SubjectE:Noerm…sosomebodyanalyseditthatway,
Yesthatiswhattheyaretellingthepeopleandthepeoplearegoingtounderstandthat.
SubjectE:Welltheyaren’tgoingtounderstandthatIdon’tthink.
NoIwouldn’thavethoughtso.
SubjectE:Erm…andIcanseetheBulgariBvbutaspecificmythwithwhich
particular…
Dionysus
SubjectE:WellDionysusisGreek,noheisnotheisBacchusisGreek,butDionysusisa
blokeandsheisnot.
YesbutitwastheideaofwithBacchustheideaof…
SubjectE:Bacchanaliaandthatsortofstuff?
Yesallthatkindofstuff,thatwaskindof…
SubjectE:Hedonismand…
382
Exactlyyes,thatwasthesuggestionandasIsayIwasn’tentirelyconvincedthat
thepublicwouldseethat.Iamnotevenconvincedthattheadvertisers
necessarilyhadthatinmindatthetimebut…
SubjectE:Notheywon’t.Butitdependswhatalltherestoftheadis,ifyoucanseebutagainerm…Isupposethat’s,erm…withoutgettingitisjustthefeelingyougetwhen
youseeit.
YesImeanIcouldseethelinktherewasalotofpinkintheadvertandthe
perfumewaspinksothefemininitywithClaudiaSchifferandthenyougotthe
goldwhichIunderstandagainIgetthegoldbit,theluxuryofawell-knownstarIgettheconnectionsthere,IgetthesignifiersbutIamjustsayingIthink[39.49]it
hasbeenoveranalysedwhentheyaresayingwearetalkingaboutyesDionysus.
Thatismysuspicion.
SubjectE:Yes,andyesIwouldguessthattherewillbeaverysmallproportionofthe
womenthatthatisaimedatthatwilllookatthatandthink,yestheyjustwon’t.Butthatisalayertobediscoveredbya[40.18]butthenofcourseyouoftenwouldthinkthatthe
personwhoknowsthat,youwouldn’tnaturallyassociatethepersonwhowouldknow
thatwithperhapssplashingmoneyon,onapremiumperfumebecausetheirheadtends
tobe,Iwouldsaythepersonwhounderstandsthat,headismoregroundedin
academiathanitis…(40.00)
In
SubjectE:Yesandluxuryandfrivolityandsuperficiality.
Erm…canyoujustgivemeafewwordsonhowyoutrytousesymbolismand
iconsforthingsinyouradvertising.
SubjectE:Yes,wellerm…iconsyouknowareoftenashortcuttowhatyouwanttosay,
sothereisawell-knowntechniqueinadvertising,orawell-usedtechniquein
advertisingwhereyoucombinetwosymbolstohelpyougetacrosswhatitisyouwant
tocommunicate.AndthishasbeengoingonforalongasIhavebeeninadvertising,anditisonethatIthinkworkswellbecauseyoudogeterm…quitealotoferm…enjoyment
outofseeingit.SoacampaignthatIsawtheotherdaythatweweredoinginhere,I
havenothingtodowithitbutitfollowsthis,isDreamsthebedretailer,andmattress
383
manufacturer.Erm…oneofourbiggestclientsandweareadvertisingtheirlatest
memoryfoamlatexmattresswhichinthesummerisquiteacoolmattresssooneofthe
messagesiscool.OkabitlikeMichaelOwenspeed,andwhatIhaveseenisapictureofamattressonalollipopstick,sotakingthetwothingsmattressandlollipoptogiveyou
coolmattress.And,whenyouseeitandprobablywiththeheadlinelet’scallitBritain’s
coolestmattress,thatwon’tbewhattheheadlinewasbutthatisthesortofthingand
youseethelollipopyouthinkwowyesIgetthat.Igetthatanditisdefinitelyamattress
becauseithasgotallthelittle,littlethingsonit,thatislightmattressbutitisonalollipopstick,sothatiswhereyoutakethetwoimages.Imeanyouwillbeawareofthat
thereisalotofthathappens.
Yesitdoes
SubjectE:Over,thereismanywonderful,wonderfulonesdoneinthisagencybutdone
brilliantlyinallofthebigagencies,anyagencythereislotsofthatgoeson.Andthen
yes,thereislotsofotherimageryweuselikefromyouknow,icons,butthat’swhattheyyouknow,thatisauniversalsortoflanguageiconographyandpictogramsandany
othertypesofimageryyouhaveinmindor…
NoIwasjustcurious.BecausewearetalkingsemioticsIcan’tdiscusssemiotics
withoutinvitingyoutotalkalittlebitabouticonsandsymbolsandsoon.Erm…
iconsandsymbolsinsemioticsaredifferentthingstechnicallybutasyouprobablyknow.Erm…
SubjectE:Idon’t,becauseIjustdon’t((laughs)).
Yeswellforexampleaniconlookslikewhatitrepresentstosomedegree.Sobut
ifyouseelikeasignfora,ifyouseeaknifeandforksignontheroad,itdoesn’t
meanthereisacutlerysaledowntheroad,weknowwhatitmeans.
SubjectE:Arestaurantorsomething.
Yesitisstillarbitrary,someonehasdecidedthatthatisasignforarestaurantbut
becauseitlookslikewhatitrepresents.Symbolsdon’ttheyare100%arbitrary.Thereisnothinginthemthatrepresents,sothattherewillbeasymbolbecause
thereisnothingintherethatsuggestswhyisthatgood,andnotthat,orthator
384
somethingorthatwhateveritisarbitrarysothereisthedifferencethere,that’sis
thepoint.
SubjectE:Okdidn’tknowthatinteresting.Ishouldreadabookonsemiotics.
Youmightnotneedtoerm…onelastquestionthenreallyjust,isthereanythingthatyoudospecificallyinmindwhenyouwanttodrawuponorgetyourviewers
orreadersorlistenerstoactivatetheirpre-existingknowledgetotriggerthemso
thattheymakesenseofthings.Becauseobviouslyyoumustrelyuponthatto
somedegreetheyknowstuffalready.AndIamgoingtotapintowhattheyknow
tomakesenseofthead.(45.00)
SubjectE:God.
Thatisatoughoneisn’tit.
SubjectE:Yes,so,wellImeanthisprobablyisn’ttheanswerorerm…thismightbe
answeringanentirelydifferentquestionbutsometimeswewillerm…referinanador
propanadwiththingsthatwewouldwanttheproducttobeassociatedwith.So,
kindredbrandsanderm…so,itisabitlikesayingyouwilllikethisbecauseitissetina
contextthatyouarefamiliarwith.Oryouwouldliketobewith.Familiarorassociatedwith.So,thatis,playingonthatbit.Erm…weprobably,ifyouaretalkingtooneof
thesespecialistaudience,orastheysometimescallthemverticalaudiences,[46.19]but
that’swhattheydo,erm…thenyoucanassumealotoferm…priorknowledge.That
person,thepeopleyouaretalkingtoknow.WedidalotofourearlyadvertisingwasforBerghausthemountaineeringpeoplesowewouldbetalkingtosometimethelast
thingyouwoulddoisgivethemJanetandJohnadvertising.OurspecificJanetandJohn
advertising,thesepeopleknowmoreabouttheoutdoorsthanwewilleverknow,erm…
soyou,Ioftenwheneverwewerewritingerm…BerghausadsIalwaysshowedthemto
myfriendsintheBritishMountaineeringCouncil,justtocheckIwasn’tpatronisingorerm…justyouknowjusttosaveuslookinglikesomeonewhodidn’tknow.Ithoroughly
enjoyedwritingaboutmountaineeringalthoughIdon’thaveaheadforheightsandstuff
likethatandIwouldhaveabashatit,IliketheoutdoorsbutIknewthatthepeopleI
metinthemountaineeringcouncilwerejustanentirelydifferentbreedtome,Iloved
theminalltheirgrubbinessandyoualwaysfelt[47.39]snowballandtherewasjustlovelythingsaboutthembuttheyweren’tme,butbecausetheyweren’tme,Ihadto
makesurethatwhenIamwritingadsforthemIdidn’term…look,thattheyhadthe
lookasiftheywerewrittenformountaineersbymountaineers.
385
Yesthatmakessense.Thatfitsinwell.Iamthinkingparticularlyofoneofthe
advertsinSwedenforVolvostheyarepredicatedonanassumptionthatyou
knowthatVolvohasareputationforsafety.Erm…andsoifyoudidn’tknowthat,thentheadvertwouldn’tmakeanysensetoyouwhatsoever.Youwouldthink
whataretheytalkingaboutthere.SothatiswhyIwas[48.23]thatonealittlebit,
erm…ifthatiseverbuiltintoit,inthedesign.
SubjectE:Wellyesbutoften,yesbutthatisbecauseyouthinkthatthebrandhashada
longheritageofadvertisingtodowithsafetyorwithVolkswagendidforalongtimewasreliability,andBMWisgreatengineering,andthenofcoursethesethingsmoveon
abit.Sowhenyouapproachthebriefyouapproachitwiththinkingthatallofthose
yearserm…ofindoctrination,haveplantedsomethinginthebrain,soIyesIamsortof
surprisedtosaythatbutthenIhaven’t,ImeanIsawtheJeanClaudeVanDammeVolvo
truckadvertwhereitsplitsandthereisabitofsafety,wellthereissafetyinvolvedinthatbuterm…IwouldhavethoughttheSwedeswouldallknow.
Theydoyes,theadvertsarepredicatedonthatsoforexampletheymightshow
twochildrenandtheymightsaydon’tforgetyourvaluables.Okweallpickupthe
[4941]fromthatohyesitisforsafety.
SubjectE:YesIcanseethat.
Whereasifyoudidn’tknowaboutVolvo’sreputationforsafetyactually…
SubjectE:Thatwouldn’tmakealotofsense.
Noitwouldn’tno,no.
SubjectE:Butthatisquiteanicelittleadthat,itsoundslikeanicead.
Yes.
SubjectE:ParenttomakesureyoubuyaboringsafeVolvoifyouhavegotkids.
386
That’sright.Thankyouverymuchthathasbeenextremelyenlightening.
SUBJECT F
SubjectF:Marketingandbrandingareverydifferentthingswheremarketinghas
becomemorelikebrandingovertheyearsinandofitself,butbrandingboth
commerciallyandtheguysinbrandconsultancyandthevisualidentitycompanywho
takeamassivesharefromadvertisingagencies,butalsointermsoftheacademia.The
shiftfromtransactionaltorelationalerm…paradigmsitdoesn’t…howweunderstandingmarketing,soitisnotjustaboutthetransactionitisaboutbuilding
relationshipsandthatiswhat,youknowsocialmediaisobviouslyinandofitself
contributedamassiveparttothedebateashasthewholenotionofyouknowconsumer
generatingcontent,prosumersallthesekindofbuzzwordsthatIguesstheykindof,theydisrupttheoldvalueequationofcompaniesuseagenciestocreatecommunication,
tobombardconsumersandthenthingshavebecomealotmorecomplexobviouslyas
weknowoverthelastfewyears.Buterm…firstofallIwould,Iwould,ifIwasto
describesemioticsIwouldn’tgothroughthelinguisticsarm,althoughImeanInever
studiedlinguisticssomyunderstandingofthisisverymuchinformedbymyreadingaroundit,althoughIobviouslyunderstandthefounderof,oneofthefoundersof
semioticswasalsothefounderofstructuralismandstructurallinguistics,Frederickde
Saussureandhisinsightserm…bothspawnsthewholeideaofscientificstudyof
languagesasakindofcomparativestudyoflanguagesandalsoasafootnotejustlike
RichardDawkinsspawningthewholefieldofmimeticsnotreallyintendingtoinakindofepilogueintheSelfishGene,SaussurehasthisphraseinhisCoursedeLinguistique
wherehesaysyouknowthereisthispotentialforthescienceofsemiotics,semiology,
whichwould,ofwhichlinguisticsisonesubset,andsemiologywould,wouldstudy,its
domainwouldbevast,itwouldstudyeverysignifyingentityanditsplaceisstakedout
inadvance,anditwouldstudythelifeofscienceandsociety,whichiseverythingfromflagstosemaphoretoyouknow,erm…youknowadvertisingandartandallsortsof
things.ButIguess,sorrythisisalongwayofsayingthough,thaterm…Iverymuch
thinkofsemioticsasmore,thinkofitintermsofthebranchofphilosophy,todowith
representation,Ithinkofit…becauseIthinkformethatwidensit,itsapplicationbut
alsoIthinkthatitiseasiertosee,Ithinkyouknowthenotionofthinkingofadvertisingasasortoflanguageoralanguageofcommoditiesisaverysortofnicely70s,80s
paradigm.Nottosayitdoesn’thavealotoftruth,butIthinkthat,becausethewhole
[02.40]communicationsareaissovisualnow,andwearemovingbeyondthevisual
intothehapticandthesensorialIthinkthatissofardivorcedfromwherelinguisticsis
intermsofpeoplethinkofglyphsandwriting,IthinkweliveinsuchavisualculturenowthatIthink,thinkingofsemioticsasabranchofrepresentation,abranchof
philosophytodowithrepresentationwiththerigouroferm…social,youknowsocial
sciencesandvariousyouknow,socialsciences,substrateslikegroundedtheorylike
adductionandotherkindofthingsthatgiveititsrigouranditserm…itssenseof
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systematisationitcanlookatthingssystematically.Ithinkthatformeis,isamore…it
makeswhatIdomoreexplicable.BecauseIthinkalsobecauseyouknowIwork,Iwork
withinthistraditionIthinkofculturalstudiesandIamquiteecumenicalintermsofthetheoriesIpick.WhereasIthinkifyoulookataFrenchsemiotician,theyareworking
withtheGreimasianframeworkthatusesthesemioticsquare,thatisadevelopmentof
structuralismintermsofbinaryoppositionsandlookingatcontradictionsand
contrariesandimplications.Anditismucheasiertoseewhattheydofromasadirect
resultofthelinguistickindofheritage.WhereaswhatIdocomesasmuchfromphilosophyandfromvisualcultureandculturalstudiesasitdoesthat,probablymore
soinsomerespects.Doesthatmakeanysense?
Yesitdoes,yes,yes,yes.YoumentionedthingslikeSaussureandthe
structuralist..
SubjectF:Yes
Iamwondering,seesomeuniversitieswhentheyareteachingthistopicthatisasfarastheygo,theylookatSaussure,lookatPeirceandsoon,oneortwowillgo
ontoBarthesandhisnotionsofmythologiesandsoon.Somegotoerm…Levi-
StraussbutI’vegotabitofasuspicionthatmostofthemdon’tgothatdeepwhen
theyactuallystartinthefieldofworkinadvertising.Isuspectthatthey,thatis
stuffatuniversity.AmIwrong?
SubjectF:Erm…I’mnotsureifIamgoingtoansweryourquestionbutIamgoingtotryandansweryourquestion.Erm…Ithink,thereprobablyarepeopleouttherethat
studythisstuffatuniversity,theyget…theyhaveasmatteringofwhattheythinkthey
needtodotodosemioticsandthenwhentheygetintothefield(05.00)theyprobably
forgetallofthat,andthenjustsortoffreestyle[05.06]diggingoutmeaningsthatthey
cometointuitivelyandsometimestheymayretro-activelyjustifythoseusingtheorysometimestheydon’t,sometimestheyjustleaveitandthinkofacademiaaskindof
somethingtheyhadtogothroughtogetthequalificationsandnowtheyare,nowthey
areinthefieldtheyjustpracticeit.Erm…Iamnotsomeonethat,thatyouknow,that’s
notwhatIpersonally,personallydoerm…Iamalsonotthatawareoftherebeingthat
manycourses,welltherearenotthatmanyqualificationsinsemioticsinfacttheremaybeonly1,thatIamawareof.Theremaybemorethan1.Wellnothat’snottrue,there
areprobablyafewbutahandfulandtheonesIknowofareinTartuwherethereisa
wholedepartmentinEstoniadedicatedtosemiotics.Thenyouhavegotplaceslike
AahusinDenmarkwhereyoucanstudycognitivesemioticsandplacesliketheCopenhagenBusinessSchoolwherethereissomeonewhoisveryestablishedin
semioticswhowillteach,Ithinkteachescourseswherethereisanumberofprofessors
teachingcoursesinsemiotics.Buteachofthoseplacestheywouldteacherm…a
388
numberofdifferenttheories,buttheywouldhavetheirkindofhometheoryortheir
kindofcoretheory,andinTartuitiskindofYuriLotmanandthekindofSovietSchool
ofSemiotics.InAarhusit’sPeirceandhiserm…thosewhohavetriedtokindofclearupsomeofthequandariesanduncertaintiesinhisvoluminouswork,((laughs))ofwhich
therearemany,manyyouknowheisobviouslyanamazingthinkerbutyouknowthe
ScandinavianstendtobereallyintothePeirce.PartlybecauseIthinkthegeekinesskind
oftiesinwiththatvery,verykindofindepth,very,veryerm…thatkindofcontinental
philosophicaltraditionIthinkitreallyPeircereallyplaysintothatbutalsobecauseoftheirinterestindesignanddesignthinking.ThatPeirceisareallyhelpfulwayof
thinkingyourwayarounddesignobjectsusingthingslikeiconic[07.03]indexicality
andyouknowhow,howtheperceptionofanobjectrelatestomeaningindifferentways.
So,erm…Imean,likeIamnotreallysurewhatyourquestionwasbutIguessmy
answeris,sothequestionIthinkyouareaskingissortofsayingitfeelslike,Iwas[07.21],itfeelslike,youweresayingthattherecouldbequiteasuperficialengagement
withsomeofthesethinkers,withoutreallytyingittogetheristhat?
That’smysuspicionyes.
SubjectF:Yes,yesyouareprobablyrightyes.
Yesoncetheystartinthefieldtheyjustbasicallybinmostofthestuff,thatis
universitystuff,thisistherealworld.
SubjectF:Absolutelywellthereis,thereisthatImean,andforgoodreasonbecauseImeanyouknowIhavehad,Iwasrecentlyworking,IamnowdoingsomeworkwellI
amontheBBCrosterwhichisgreat,soIcanpitchforwork.AndIsentthemabrief,I
sentaproposalforabriefrecentlywheretheresponseofthefairlyjuniorresearch
personwasohyouknow,whyareyoumentioningRolandBarthesinyourproposalthat
scarespeoplethatyouaregoingtocomeupwithallthisacademicverbiagewecan’tunderstand.AndIwaslikewell,yesImeanIamputtingthisintherebecausemyyou
know,youhavegotanoverallunderstanding[08.16]Ithinkformeit’sanadvantageto
showthatthereisatheoreticalrigourinwhatIdo,butyouknowIamnever,Iamless
andlesssurprisedwiththesortofanti-intellectualismalmostthekindof,thevicious
anti-academic,anti-intellectualismIfindinbusinesswhereevenif,anacademicreferenceshouldhelptheunderstandingorgiveyoucredibilitypoint,peoplejustreact
asifthere…theyareallergictoit.AndsoIcanunderstandwhythereissomepeople
thatthereforeeschewtheuseoftheoristsandnameslikethatinanydocumentthat
goestoaclient,becausetheyhavebeenburnttoomanytimes.Havingsaidthat,Ithinkthatisprobablyaminority,accountsfortheminorityofpeoplethatdon’tdoitinthe
field.Ithinkoftenmorelikelytodowithacombinationoflaziness,lackofrigour,lackof
knowledgedoyouseewhatImean?
389
Hmm
SubjectF:ButIthinkitcanbebecausepeoplehavetriedthat,andtheyhavebeen
burnt,becausepeopledon’twantthat,somepeopledon’twantthat.Or,youknow,
becauseformethewayIseeit,youknowItryand,Iwillconvey,Iwilltellyouwhatmy
methodologyisbasedonbecauseultimatelyotherwiseitisjustbasedonmy
interpretationyouknowwhichis,Ithinkisverysound((laughs))becauseIthinkpeopledon’tgiveenoughweighttowhatsomeone’spersonalinterpretationisifthey
haveamassive,massiveerm…groundinginafield.ItislikewhatMalcolmGladwellsaid
youknow,instinctsarerealthingstheyhappenyouknowandtheycanbetrustedso
someone’sopinionisworthmorethananother,itisjustthewayitis.Imeanthiswhole
egalitarianthingontheinternethasgonetoofar,youknowelitismyouknowisimportant.Imeanyouwouldn’t,youknowifsomeoneishavingastrokeyouwould
ratherhaveabrainsurgeontrainedinfacialcodingrecognitionlooking(10.00)atthem,
thansomerandomwhogoes,ohyesIhaveseenacoupleofadsonTVtheyareprobably
havingthiskindofananeurismorwhatever.AnywayIamjustmakingargybuterm…yesbutasIsaytherearepeoplethathavebeenburntandtheyhavedecidedtoneglect
it,butIthinkitismorebecausethereis,itisdifficulttounifytheseworldsandIthink
youknow,theotherthingthatisprobablytrueisalthoughtherearesomeverysmart
peopleinmarketingthereareprobablyalotofnone…alotofpeoplethataren’tthat
smartandthosepeopletheyyouknow,theywentthroughuniversitynotyouknowmaybeengagingwithcertainthingsandsonowtheyareintheworldofworkand
earningmoneyitistheiropportunitytonotyouknowtonotengagewithit.Imeanthat
ismoreofakindofa,aparanoiac,perhapsslightlyparanoiacviewbutImeanIthinkall
thosethingscomeintoplay.
Yes
SubjectF:ButthereareacoupleofpapersIcansendyouthatcan,thereisonebyDavidGlenMickwhichisallabouthowpeopledon’tusetheoryrigorouslyenoughin
thecommercialworld.ThereisalsoathesisIcansendyouonthewaysdifferent
traditionsofsemioticshavebeenusedinthecommercialsemioticsintheUKwhich
shouldbequiteusefulaswell.
Thatwouldbebrilliantyes.Yes.
SubjectF:Thereisprobablyanotheractually,thereisprobably3things,Idon’tknowifthelastone,IamnotsureIcandigitout,IthinkIhavegotitsomewhere,itisabout
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basically,itisareal,it’samassivelong,itisasemioticapaperit’sabout100pageslong,
andwhenitwaswrittenin2004itwaslikeasurveyofallthecommercialsemiotics
erm…projectsthathavebeenpublishedinacademia,andlookingathowrigorouslytheyusedthetheory,withquiteacriticalperspective.
Yes
SubjectF:SoIthinkifyouarelookingforthatsortoferm…todevelopinyour
perspectivethosecouldbequiteuseful.
Thatwouldbegreat.ImeanoneoftheproblemsIhaveisthatmybackground
well,sincecomingtoSwedenhasbeenacademicandthataspectofit,Iamfroma
differentdisciplinealtogetheroriginally,butIamalinguistnowandIamtryingtoreconciledifferentapproachestoit.Oneofwhichistherehasbeensome
recentworkdonebyaJapaneseerm…linguistcalledKayKoTanaka,erm…and
sheissuggestingthatweshouldbeconsideringusingadifferentbranchof
linguisticscalledPragmatics,whichisreallymoremyarea.Thatislookingatlanguageincontext.It’showweactuallyuseittoerm…togeneratemeaning
withoutusingtheactualwords.SoforexampleifIsaidtoyouisthereawindow
open.IcouldbeeffectivelyaskingyoutoclosethewindowbecauseIamcold,
openthewindowbecauseIneedfreshair,orlockthewindowbecauseweare
goingtogooutandaburglarmightbreakin.Soitisthemeaningunderlyingit.Whenyoulookatclassifiedads,theyarepureinformation,whichbringsusonto
anothersetoftheoriesaswellthatwearetalkingaboutthe,thereasonandtickle
notion.Thisguyerm…Idon’tknowifyouhaveheardofhimDavidBursteincame
upwiththisbookinthe1970s.
SubjectF:Yes
[13.00]advertisingandpartofthathetalksaboutreasonandtickle.Andhewassaying,[13.05]hestickstothesameviewwelladvertsareusuallyacombination
ofreasonoflogicandofticklewhichistoinspireinteresttoamuse,tosoonerm…
againIamtryingtoreconcilethatwithanotionofdifferencebetweenbranding
something,andcreatingcustomerloyaltyandsoon,brandrecognitionontheone
handandontheotherhandahardnosedelementoffloggingsomethingtopeople.AndanexamplethatIsometimesgivewithmyownstudentsisIsaytothem,well
youknowyouareallSwedishstudents,youareallfamiliarwithVolvocarsand
youarealsofamiliarwithVolkswagencars.Sowhatisthecriteria,whatisthe
sellingpoint.Whatisityouaregoingtobemaking,whatisgoingtomakeyour
minduptobuyaVolvooraVolkswagen.AndifitnotloyaltytothefactthatVolvo
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isaSwedishfirmthenitisgoingtohavetobesomethingabouttheproductthat
sellsit.SoitisthesekindofareasIamworkingin,inmypaper.
SubjectF:Yes,IwouldsayreliabilityandsafetyrespectivelyforVWandVolvo.Imean
historically,notmaybeonamodeltomodelbasisbutIthinkasamarque,asacarmarquethatiswhattheyarekindofknownfor.ButIthinkitisinterestingwhatyouare
doing,Imean,Iwouldsaythat,youknowthereis,therearevarioussemiotickindof
techniquesorideas,oneisthisnotionofconnotativeindexso,forexampleyoutakethe
Obamalogofrom2008wheneveritwas,erm…thathasgotveryhighconnotativeindex.Connotativeindexistheextenttowhichtherearedifferentpropositionsanddifferent
associationspackedintoaverysmallarea.Sothisideaofhope,theideaofagriculture
andfecundityandfertility,sothisideaofthesuncomingoverthekindofprairiewithin
theAmericancolourswiththesunkindofrisingerm…anderm…thattiesintoallsorts
ofthingsyouknowit’skindoftheresonanceofthe1940s,30sand40stheNewDeal(15.00)whichobviouslyforrightwingAmericansisnotthatcool,[15.02]butforalotof
Americansisverycoolbuteventhosethatdon’tassociatethepoliticswithit,itisatime
ofhope,atimeofprosperity,affluence,thebabyboomers,atimewhenAmericawas
suffering,sothereisallsortsofthingspackedintothat.
SoundslikeBarthesdoesn’tit?
SubjectF:Ibelievethatisbranding.ImeanobviouslyitworkstomarketObama,butIwouldarguethebrandingisoftenmoresubtleandmoreemotional,usuallyImean
againIdon’tthinkyoucancreateclear,acutanddriedbinaryoppositionsbetween
marketing.Ithinkoneismoretransactionalandoneismorerelational,brandingbeing
morerelational.ButIthink,youknow,thereisacombinationthere,butIthinktheidea
ofconnotativeindexforexample,perfume,spirits,luxuryproductstheyhavehigherdegreesofconnotationstheytendtobemarketingtoyoulessexplicitlybutmuch
strongeronbranding.Whereaswhatyoutalkedaboutinsurance,banking,classified
advertisingbecausetheyhavealowerlevelofconnotationstheirbrandingisless,there
islessdensityofmeaninginthere,theyareappealingtoyoumoreonarational,
rhetoricallevelbutyouknowonamoreexplicitlyrhetoricallevel.SoImeantherearethosethatwoulddisagreewithmebutIthinkingeneralmyexperienceissuch.SoI
thinkyoucouldlookatitintermsofconnotations,thatwouldbeawayofsemiotically
being,thatwouldbeoneindicatorofmarketingversusbrandingintermsoflookingat
advertising,oranysymbolic,anysymboliccommunication.Justasanexample.
Yes,ohthatwouldgoodyes,interesting.Youhaveprettymuchansweredmyquestion,whatexactlydoesyourfirmdothendoyouactuallyyoutakethebrief…
392
SubjectF:Ido,Imeanwhatwehavediscussedthekindofnittygrittyofanalysing
erm…advertisingandotherbrandcommunicationthatiswhy,that’sthekindof,that’s
thesortofbreadandbutterofwhatIdobutintermsofhowImakemymoneyisIwritereportsandIpresenterm…visuals,someinspirationdocumentsthathelpgive
companiesideasofhowtheycanmoveforward.Usuallybecausethey,theywanttodo,
theywanttocommissionanindependentviewontheirmarketplaceandtheirbrand,
thattheycanthengivetotheiragenciestomaketheiragenciesmoreeffectivein
communicating.So,soIcouldbedeliveringworktoadesignagency,toanadvertisingagency,toabrandconsultancy.Brandconsultanciesthereisthiskindofvery,youknow,
thereisnosurprisethattheycameintocurrencyalongwithspindoctorsinthelate90s
theyarekindof,thePeterMandelson’softhecommercialworldienoonereallyknow
whattheydo,buttheymakeshitloadsofmoney((laughs)).Youknowlike,Iamthinking
aboutWolffOlinsforexample,whocreatedtheOlympiclogoortheywouldrebrandDubaiforexample,orSingaporesotheyarecharginglike5millionor10million
whateverdollarsorpoundstodoit.Havingsaidthat,althoughpeoplegoohtheyjust
producedthatlogo,theamountofcheckingandrationalethatgoesintocreating
somethingthatisgoingtobereproducedmillionsandmillionsoftimes,couldlastyearsandyears,ithastoappealtoamassiverangeofstakeholdersfromemployees,to
shareholders,tothepress,toyouknowyounameit,alotgoesintothat,soyouknowI
amatpainstosayyestheydo,theystillprofiteeroverthetopbutprobablynotasmuch
asyoususpectbecausethereisahellofalotthatneedstogoonunderneaththehoodin
ordertobesure,gettotheinsideit’sallverywellyouhavemaybe5differentoptionsbutthentoworkoutwhichofthemdoesthebestjob,andguaranteethattheyminimise
risk,thatisawholeotherstory.Soanywayerm…butyessobrandconsultanciesIwork
withdesignagencies,andadvertisingagencies,andessentiallyIhelpinspirethemto
thinkindifferentwaysandthentoyesgivethemvisualevidenceforwhyIamsaying
whatIamsaying.Ifyougoontomywebsitethereareafewexamplesonthere.So,butletmesendyouthesedocuments.
Ifyouwouldthatwouldbegreat.
SubjectF:Theywillhelpyou,theywilldefinitelyImeanifyourquestionisyouknow,
thisdiscrepancyoryouknowhowdoesanacademicerm…trainingtranslateinto
commercialsemiotics,thenIthinkthesearethebestthingsIhavereadandIdo
continuallylookforthingsandtryandkeepuptodatesothereisnotthatmuch,probablythatIhaven’tread.ImeanIsaythat,itsoundsquitearrogantbutinEnglish
thereisIhavereadalot,let'sputitthiswayIhavereadalotofwhathasbeenwritten
onthistopic,becausethisiskindofwhatIdoandIneedtobuterm…andIhavealso
writtenapaperonhowtobecomeacommercialsemioticianwhichisasortofyou
knowerm…apaperthatIwrotefrommyownpersonalexperiencebutyouknowIusesemioticframeworkstoexplainwhatitisIdo,topeoplethatarecuriouserm…about
howandIguessoneofthethings(20.00)Iamsayingisactuallyalthoughitisimportant
tonottobe,nottosortofdiscardthetheoryandifyoucantobringitin,becauseIthink
itgivesmorecredibilityandvaliditytowhatyouaredoing,personallybutIalsothink
393
youknow,thisisonly…theoryisonlypartofwhyIamabletodowhatIdo,thereisa
lotoflateralthinkingandaptitudethatyouneedtocultivatelikeamartialart.Andthat
isnotlodgedinbooksandthatisnotabouterm…thefactthat,thatismore[20.32]thatismorehowtodosomethingratherthanaccessingfactoidsandgridsinyourheadof
thewayotherpeopledoit.Itismuchmorefreewheelinganditismuchmorecraftskills
andIthinkthatissomethingpeopleoftendon’trealise.ImeanitisnotthatIamthat
differentfromaforensicscientistorIdon’tknowanthropologistorwhoelsecouldbe
maybeevenapollsterlikeeveryonehasgotcraftskillstheyuse,butitisnotasifIwillreadBarthesandthenapplythis,rolloutthesametheories.No.Youknowsemioticis
objectbasedanalysisyouknow,appliedsemioticssowearenotmetaphysiciansyou
knowwe,weworkwithpackagingorweworkwithindustrialobjects,weworkwith
advertisingandeverythingweworkwithisdifferentandthereforeourtoolswillneed
tobedifferent.So,youknowthat’s,thatis,oneofthethingsthatis,hasanareaofcomplexityandmeansthat,erm…youcanneverjusttakeatheoryandgorightthat
theoryis,ifIjustapplythattheorysystematicallyitwilldothework,thatisnottheway
itworks.
No,no.
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