lHE PHENOMENON OF NSI (POISON): ITS IMPLICATIONS ON

HEALTH CN~E DELlVEF':Y SYSTEM OF HIE IGBO:. .A CASE STUDY OF IGBARIAM

BY

AJAKOR, EMMANUEL IKECHUKWU

REG. NO.: 2005096003F

A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF. .

RELIGION AND HUMAN RELATIONS, FACULTY OF ARTS

NNAMDI AZIICIWE UNIVERSity,

AWKA

M!\RCH;2008

"CERTIFICATION

I certify that this project. The Phenanenon Of Nsi (Poison): Its Implications

On HealthCare DeliverySystEmOf The IgOO: A CaseStudyOf Igbariamis an

original work of Ajakor, Emmanuel Ikechukwu (20050960031-) for the

award of Master of Arts Degree in Religious Studies Clnd Human

Relations in Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka. All references are duly

acknowledged.

Date _

AJAKOR, EMMANUEL IKECHUKWU(Researcher)

APPROVAL PAGE

This is tocertifythatthisprojecthasbeenexaminedandapprovedforthe

Awardof Masterof Arts(MA) DegreeinReligionandHumanRelalions

(AfricanTraditionalReligion)ofNnamdiAzikiweUniversity,

Awka- AnambraState.

By

.......~~.~~ .ProjectSupervisorName:Dr. JudeE. Madu

Date: C5~~0 ~s- (7%

,.

.......li\)~.\ .I leadof DepartmentName:Dr.JudeE. MaduDate: tJ\:, t- ~'!,.- ~~

11

DEDICATION,This research work is dedicaled 10 Almighty God for His 1I1sl'lfallol1,Hld

guidance and also 10 my parents Ven & Mrs J E Ajakor

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My humblethanksgo to AlmightyGod. who has seen me throllqhthis

researchwork. My heartfeltthanks"'.Isogo to my supervisor Dr Jude

Emeka Madu, Head. Departmentof Religious and Human Helations,

Sub-dean Facultyof Arts for his fatherlyadvice, love, encouragement

andassistanceingivingthisprojecta meaning.

My special thanks go to my lecturers,The Very Monsignor JPC

Nzomiwu,Very Rev. Prof. DC Okeke. Rev. Fr. BAC Obiefllna,Rev

Canon Benson Udezo, Dr LukeUgwueye,Dr. Nmah,Rev. Fr. Dr AB.C

Chiegboka,Dr Uche, Dr Mrs Ezenweke for their advice and lectures

whichhaveenrichedthiswork.

I cannot say enough thank you to Veil & Mrs Jonah Eziorachukwu

Ajakor, My lovingand caringparentswho throughtheir immeasurable

love, care and support raise me up to this heigh!. My ulICllloyed

appreciationgoes to mybrothersand sisters;Emeka,Chinedll Chroma,

Temple,Joy, my Uncles, Nephew,Nieces,and Aunts for theirloveand

supportthroughoutthe periodof the research.My special thanksand

regardgo to Ven & Mrs EzekielOnuikefor his immensecontributionto

theprogressof thiswork

Similarly,I appreciatethecontributior:ls,distractionsand companyof my

friends;Rev Alex Oforkansi,Rev ChidoOkoye,Mr ObinnaMadllabuchi,

Ifeyinwa1I0h,ChijiokeIgweneme,VictorAgu, FelixOforkansi,Ikechukwu

Nnubia,Mr & Mrs Okoyetowardstherealizaiionof thisgoal I amhighly

indebtedalso to theauthorswhosework I used and all the indiVidualsI

interviewedin thecourseof thiswork.

II

To all mycolleaguesespeciallyRe\l~f1owai,Rev Fr Jude Obldi~bo,Rev

Canon Emman Uzuegbunam,Ven': Mokah, Rev EkekwiI, I really

appreciateyourcompanyand intellectdiscussions

Finally, I cannot thank enough Emeka and Chinedu I\jakol for ttlCireffortsin typesetting,photocopyingandbindingthiswork,

Title pageCertification.....Approval ..DedicationAcknowledgementTable of contentsAbstract.

TABLE OF CONTENT?' i

II

iilIV

V

VII

ix

CHAPTER ONE1.0 Introduction1.1 Backgroundof the study...1.2 Statementof the problem..1.3 Purpose of thestudy...1.4 Significanceof the study..1.5 Scope of the study...16 Methodology ..1.7 Organizationof thework.1.8 Definitionof terms.

...~...

"

. ~

114557788

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE: REVIEW

Introduction.Health Explained...Originof traditionalmediCinein IgbolandClassificationof traditionalmedicineClassificationof traditionaldodors,

3.0313.2

3.3.13.3.2

2.0 Introduction. 102.1 The Nsi phenomenon 112.1.1 The brief reviewof theoriginof N:fi amongthe Igbos 132.1.2 DifferentDimensionsof Nsi . 1-12.1.3 Types of Nsi 202.2 Nsi withinthe Igbo culturaldiamet{ic. 212.3 Nsi in theviewof earlymissionaries 252.4 Nsi in theviewof Igbo Christians' . 272.5 Realityof Nsi..............- 2925.1 RelationshipbetweenNsi. Ogwu and AJa 3325.2 The Dlbia.. 35~5.3 Kinds of Dibia ... 3525.4 Attributesof a Dibia . 3G2.5.5 Roles of a Dibia in Nsi phenomenon. .... 3G2.6 Nsi in the perspectiveof Igbariam.'cuiture 372.6 Summaryof literature Review..._ . 39

CHAPTER THREE HEALTH CARE DELIVERY SYSTEM AMONGTHE TRADITIONAL IGBO OF NIGERIA

1\0

1\1

42431\4

\Ill

34 The roleof Agwu in healthcare deliverysystemof the Igbo 4534.1 The role of religiOusspecialistor funclionarlesin healthcare delivery

systemof the 19bo 463.4.2 Priest..... 4734.3 Medicine Men (DlbiaOgwu). 47344 Diviner(Dlbl3Afa) 4834.5Mediums 493.6 Traditional medicine. problem and prospect in Christi;]fl dominated

Igboland 493.61 Problem of TraditionalMedicine 4936.2 Prospects of TraditionalMedicine 513.7 Implications of tradilional health care delivery system ViSa-VIS Nsi

phenomenon. 53

CHAPTER FOUR NSIIN IGBARIAM TOWN.4.0 Nsi in Time Perspective 554.1 Ancientlgbo period. 5542 Nsi in contemporaryIgbo society. . 584.3 The futureof Nsi phenomenoninlgbo society 614.4 Nsi phenomenonvis-ii-vis the Pentecostaltrendof thepresentIgbo

Christians. 624.4.1Traditionaland Contemporarymethodsof deliverancefromNsi 654.4.2TraditionalMethodof DeliverancefromNsi . . .654.4.3ContemporaryMethodof DeliverancefromNsi.. 6644.4Personal Critiqueof these Methods. 67

~CHAPTER FIVE - IMPLICATION OF NSI PHENOMENON IN IGBO

SOCIETY WITH BRIE~ DETAILS ON SIGNIFICANCE5.0 Introduction . .........69

5.2 The implicationof Nsi phenomenoninlgbo familysystem 695.3 The implicationof Nsi phenomenonin Igbo politicalsystem 7154 The implicationof Nsi phenomenonin Igbo religioussystem . 735.5 The implicationof Nsi phenomenonin Igbo economicsystelTl 7456 The implicationof Nsi phenomenonin Igbo social system 75

CHAPTER SIX SUMMARY ~ND CONCLUSION

6.0 Summaryand Conclusion. 776.1 Principal Findings. 7762 Contributionsto knowledge 7863 Recommendations 7964 Suggestionsfor furtherresearch 81

AppendixA Bibliography 82AppendixB. List of informants 86AppendixC Questlonaire 87

1\

ABSTRACT.The researchworkInvestigatedtheori~in,meaning,types,functionsand

implications of Nsi phenomenon among the Igbo people Nsi

phenomenondevelopedas some peoplechose to transformthe power

of herbs, which God has put at the disposal of men, to wicked,evil.purposes.The Igbosays, 'Ajo mmadu"buajo mmuo' (An evilpersonis~an evil spirit).The studymadeuse,of, primaryand secondarymethods

of data collection whereby informationwere collected from people

throughinteractions,recordings,oral interviewsand publishedworksof

someauthors,The findingsrevealedthatNsi phenomenonis a realityas

far as the Igbo peopleare concerned.even thoughthisbeliefcannotbe

explained from scientificstandpoint,::~lso,the findings revealedthatwickedness,envy,strife,malice,jealo'l1syamongotherthingsgave rise

to the practiceof Nsi phenomenonOver and above this, the study

revealed the efficacy of the tradition?1health care delivery system

especiallyin treatingailmentattributedto Nsi phenomenonI.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION r':

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

From the earliest tnnes. lhe Igbo believed in some myslenous

phenomena that can harm. kill. cause sickness and mflict P

Igbariam community is one of the cornrnunilies that make lip I\namulil

East Local Government Area of A~ambra State Igbariam IS located in

the North of Anambra East Local Government Aren of I\nambra State It

could be reached by road througl'l.the Enugu-Onitsha express way via

Igbariam junction or through Nteje'-Otucha Junction The corllflllHlIty IS

surrounded by towns like Awkuzu, ~halla, Nando, Ukwulu

Furthermore, the Igbariam community is made up of sevcn villages

namely: Ubaru, Imendo, Ifite, Ana~~em, Eziama, Urualor and Eziafor,

The indigenes of Igbariam commun!ty are peace loving people and very

accommodative Their main sourc~:of income is through farming and.'fishing About seventy-five percent of her population are peasant

farmers, In addition, the Igbariam jf.ldigenes are very religiOUSpeople,

The two main religions in Igbariam community are Chnstranity and

African (Igbo) Traditional Religiof).:: In the area of education, the

indigenes of Igbariam are not left Qu't This is also true In the area of

commerce and skill acquisition J',

That phenomenon of Nsi IS still relevant and prevalent In tillS era of

globalisation, industrialization, uroaillZatlon coupled With med,c,ll,

biological and scientific breakthroughs calls for serious rcsealch II1Is IS

,because the materials that make Lfr:> Nsi when observed sClerlliflcnlly

appear to be mere assumption and superstition, in that the authentiCity

of the beliefs and practises cannot bosubjected to scientific or empirical

proof

It is on record that both the educateC}-Blltes,politicians, philosophers andr ,

even Christians patronize the service,S'of medicine men for one type of

Ogwu or another for different r3asons Such as protection, SCCllflty, to

harm or kill an opponent in the plac!=of work or polilical f1vahyetc The

fact that these are regular practices ,indicates the strength and tile~.position of Agwu in Igbo soclo-cultural a0d religious diametric

Also, the advent of Christianity has chilfJed the thought patterns of the

Igbo especially in the area of morality The bias of early Ctllistian

missionaries forbids and condemns her adherent from patronizing n;]\Ive

doctors not to talk of indulging in NS~,J)ractise Christianity In orderswords condemns mixing of any sort (Madu, 2006) It IS believed that

most of the Igbo people are Christians,'Bnd in this Christian donllnated.,

area, the practice of Nsi phenomenon i,s'highly prevalent

,Therefore, belief in Nsi phenomenon is still something that remains

persistent and strong in the minds ,ilf the Igbo despite the Inodern

breakthrough in science and technology Tills is attested by the rnanner

at which some academicians, politicians business moguls and even

religious leaders seek for such black ,power that can harm 1)(~')pl(JIf

these calibres of people who have acqu'ir'edmuch knowledge ailr)ut the

universe and life can turn round to patronize or partlcip;lte III tile

"condemned" Nsi practice, IS it not enough sign tllat Nsi phenomenon. 'still enjoys a high level of value or' ~Hention (whether positive or~.~negative) in the lives of the Igbos? " .

It is something that needs not to be ig"iiored Hence, the intention to

investigate the cause of these realitie6 'in our society conslltutes tile

background of this research.

..1.2 . STATEMENT OF THE PROBLE~

The background knowledge above. reveals that the belief III Nsi

phenomenon as a practice remains persistent and strong In the nllnds of

.,.'

the Igbo despite globahs

#Christians who form the large pro.p~rtionof the Igbo population see no,evils in the practice of Nsi phenome,non? Can it be said th;)t the current

trend of Nsi practice aligns with th~ Igbo world view? Or IS there

19bopeople will be made to know through this research that the value of

life is not to be compared with any other thing "Ndu bu isi" (life IS

supreme). With regard to thiS. we hqpe that the incessant loss of tlUlI1

which are on the verge of drowning 'll1'tseventually will sow the seed of

awareness which when mature and is delivered will give loom to

tolerance. unity. harmony. mutua!.. co-existence and unuogmatic

approach to Igbo belief and practice With emphaSIS on the IqlJo heallh

care delivery system

To this end. the beneficiaries of this' research are students who arc

interested in the area of African studi~s and African Traditional !{rJliglon

Also. the Department of Heliglous Studies of various hl~JIH~11I1,;11lutlons

and Colleges of Education In the country will benefit from Ihls IcsciHch

Furthermore. all Igbo will benefit frorn this research because II ,lIms al

promoting order. solidarity. unity. stab.ility,discipline and a paltr!lIleu way

of behaving in accordance with the.~bjectives and social values of IIle

Igbo.

15 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This study centres on Igbarian}'f;91,T)inunityin Anambra I ast Local.' .Government of Anambra State The

~and so on However. the pu~llshed materials consulted were the

works of African scholarsa~(lcolonial anthropologists

1.7 ORGANIZATION OF THE WORK

This work is divided into six chapters. The first chapter of the workIintroduced us into the concepts of Nsi phenomenon within a particular

region. Also, the highlight of what motivated this research was

mentioned In chapter two. the reiated'ilteratures were reviewed chapter

three deals with health care delivery system among the tradltlO/lal Igbo

of Nigeria. In chapter four, Nsi ph~omenon in time perspeclive (past

present and future) will be discussed Chapter five CXilrTlllleS the....

implication and significance of Nsi phenomenon In the lylJo society

Chapter six is the summary and '~.onclusion, recommendCltlons CllllJ

suggestions for further research. The. iilppendix which includes the lists

of informants. the pictures that will .~elpthe reader understand the Nsi

phenomenon was also enclosed.

1.8 DEFINITION OF TERMS...

Nsi - This is a deadly concoction/:ni9('~~'eprepared by the natrv(;doclol

in order to harm or kill a fellow individ'ual It IS also a type of mayic thai

uses evil spirits~: .

Health - This is state or condition ot'.a~sence of physical ailrTl(~ntsfrorTl..the body. Health for Africans IS far m~re social than biological It does

not entirely mean an absence of physjGal ailment That there IS a clear

unitary concept of psychosomatic., inter-relations IS an apparent

reciprocity between mind and mailer (Qri:unwain Madu 200424)

'I

Ogwu (Medicine)- The Igbohave,afilmbeliefin thepowerof IIHJdlCllle

(Ogwu) Making/preparingrnedlclli'eIS called Igwo Ogwulilis same

termtranslatesthe makingof everykind of mediCinewheth[~rcuralive,

protectivemedicinemade to secure good luck or offensivemedicine

However,the termIko Nsi (sorcery)or makingbad mediCineIS usedto

distinguishtheevil use of medicinefromitsgood uses 1\11 11H'[liclIle

III

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2 0 INTRODUCTION

The task of writing about Nsi phenomenonamong the Igbo with a

particularreference to Igbariam,communityin Anambra East Local,Governmentof AnambraState is done with utmostcautionbeallng ini;:'mindthe inadequacyof existingres~archmaterials.Be thatas it may,

theresearcherembarkson theprimary'andsecondarysourcesformore

informationon the subject Nsi ph~nomenonamong the I~JlJois a

mysticalpracticebelievedto havee~;;lvedand developedfromtile time

immemorialby our ancestorsin the,q6estto safeguardtheirb()longings,

commandrespectwithintheVillageclrc,lesand attracta senseof aweto

them.This phenomenonhas sincebeen used to protect,promoteone's

fame,scareoff people(especiallycr~i'rials)amongthe Igbo.l hesecan.......

be understood against the back~rop'that the adminls!ration and

knowledgeof Nsi IS obtainablethrouih'tile manipulationand knowled~w~'..

of Ogwu (mediCine)This has to b~":LJnderstoodWithreferenceto lilt!

cosmologyof the Igbopeople.FromlIie'cosmology,we undr~1stalldlhat

the Igbo have a unifiedview of re'ahtyIf1 the quest to filld out tile

mysteries of existence. For Ihis te~son Madu (1997 133) rightly

observedthatf' "

African early ancestors in /lloireffof1s /0 find ra/ionalexplana/ion /0 /Ile mys/enes:,of. ex/s/enco formula/erl/Ileir /hough/ in myths, legemJs, folk/alas, provorbs and, .wlse-saymgs

, "Therefore,the aboveassertionattests"ro the fact thattheseforrnulLileJ

',:'0

thought and practices sum up ttle~p,eople'sway of life which is

observable in Igbo (African) belief.system and practises It is als0". .importanttoemphaSizethaipeople'svelie!systemandpracliu)sa tUllOS

:' ~.

II

becomes difficult to understanqtf.fi:lndIJ1terpretespecially by people

outsidethecosmologicalbase

Thus, the use of Nsi thoughviewed.in the negativeaspectformone of

thepracticesof the Igbo It is mysticaland magicalin naturewhichaims

at controllingindividuals,inflictingharm.pam,diseases

I'

Igbo (African)were no foreignerin t~epracticeof mysticaland magical

phenomenon.There IS no Africansoqletywhichdoes not holdbeliefIn

mysticalpower of one typeor another The Igbo believethatthereIS

mysticalpower in wordsespeciallythoseof a seniorpersonto a JlHllor

one, in terms of age. social status or office position.The words of

parentsfor instancecarrypowerwhe'h spokento children.They cause

good fortunes,curse, success, peace, sorrowsor blessingsespecially

when spoken in momentsof crises, .Also,the words of rnedicllleman

workthroughthemedicinehe givesand it is this,perhapsmorethanthe

actualherb, which is thoughtto cause the cure or preventmisfortune

and in case of Nsi phenomenon,cau;;eharminflictsicknessanddeadlydiseases,

Mbiti(1967197)rightlyechoedthat ,0

There is myslical (magical) p~owe~wllicll causes peoploto walk on fire, to lie on Ihol175or lIalis 10 send cursesor harm. illcluding dealh froltF a e!lslallce (ie Nsi), tocllange inlo animals (lycantlilOpy) 10 spit all snakesand cause Ihem 10 sp1llopen and (!Ie Power 10 slupefythieves so that they can lJe.c'u'ug/llIcd Iwndee!, IJOIVL'Ito make IIwnimale objects "Iinn IIlto biological IIVII!'}crealures, these IS power flldt ellal)los experts 10 Sl'('into secrets, hidden informalion 01 tllC fulure 01 todetecl thieves and olher culpM;;. Tllis mystical POWOIis nol fie/ion' whatever il is. 'ii is rea1lly and one wIIIJwhich African people, have. 10 leckoll. Everyone isdirectly or indireclly affecled'. for lJetter or for worse, liybeliefs alld activities con{Jeclee!with Ihis POWOI,parlicularly in its mallifeslatrf1nas magic, sOlcery andwitchcraft "

,'" ~ ,4

Mbiti though not an Igbo scholar yet exposed the Igbo (African)

understandingof mysteriouspheno~e'110nofNsi The Nsi ph(~l1ornenon

cannotbe explainedbutitsrealitycannotbe denied.

I:

Nsi phenomenon which involves sen~ng sickness. curses and possibly

death will be concentrated upon with tHe mindse! to present the views of

scholars and non scholars towards the paranormal activity allirbuted to

:he Igbo

21.1 BRIEF REVIEW OF THE ORrGIN OF NSI AMONG THE IGBO"

The origin of Nsi phenomenon cannot ,be dated to a particular period It

spans for ages. What developed into this dreadful phenomenon IS clash

of power between individual to determine who is superior, wl10 is more

powerful and who should be respecteq A classical example frol11the

bible is Moses and Egyptian magician~.

Exodus 710-11 (RSV) posits

So Moses and Aaron went tQ P/wlDoh and did as 1/10Lord commanded. Aaron cast down his rod !Jefo/CPharaoh and his servants. l}(1d it !Jecame a smponlThen P/l8raoh summoned the wise men and the

sorcerers and they a/so. the nJagicians of Egypt. (lidthe same by their secret alts..

" \

Nsi is an age long issue and It is seem in otl1er cultures of Ille world

Though it mode of operation and types-may vary In Ille Igbo society, the.", .

origin of Nsi phenomenon cannot be dated to a parlicular era The

modern or present era is also ';Vitnessing the praclice of Nsi,phenomenon. By and large. Nsi origi~~ed from the transformation of the

power or herbs, which God has put althe disposal of men to wicked and

evil purposes. The knowledge 0( ogwu (medicine) its diabolic,.- .'-.

application/manipulation for selfish and wicked purposes gave birth to

Nsi phenomenon Simply put. Nsi is. ~{O-Og,u (8ad Medicine) (Cy"1Odeli, Personal Communicalion June:!?, 2007)

11

The etymology of the word Nsi was .derived from Nsi (Human excreta)

Nsi (excreta) which IS a solid and Iiq~idwaste passed from the body is.:.

repulsive in nature and as such considered poisonous by the Igbo

Serves no useful purposes such as feeding on it. playing with It, admirmg

It because of it repulsive and poisOhOUSnature

The word Nsi also acts as suffix to some Igbo words such as "I\wansi" -

translates magic but the word actually means manipulation of Nsi

Manipulation of Nsi can lead to vari:ous forms of magic "'he rllotlve of

the individual or specialist that manipulates the Nsi deterrT1lrl(~slIH~

outcome of the result In this context, Nsi can be said to be Ajo Ogwu

(Bad medicine)

Agwu - Igbo deity that is responsible for divination and mediCine. ThiS

deity is invoked to give power to medicine (ogwu) It is worthy to note

thatogwu is not just herbs It must t;J,~charged with spiritual power by the

use of rites, spells and invocatiorls"'(fv,~tUh,1999 rep 126) "Ofokansi -

Ofo (Justice) is greater than poison (I?jizu 1986 129).

212 DIFFERENT DIMENSIONS OF lIIsr

Nsi being an Igbo word has no E.r\glish equivalent but such English

wordslitems like pOlson,-sorcery, ri6"~fi11,spell, voodoo, witchcraft and

magic (black magic) are associatediW}thIt.

The reason for these terms rs bec'~"~seof the mystical nature 01 Nsi

phenomenon which cannot be adequately defined or descrrbed

\Encarta Dictionary tools (2006) dcfK1dPoi'son

t...~.,...-:

I', As toxic substance a sub~tarice that causes Illness InJlIIY or

,,'.,

death if taken into the body or:lJ,foduced with the body

Negative influence: something that exercises a powerful

destructive or corrupting force, especially in an insidious way

Hornby (2000) defines poison as a substance that causes death or harm

if it is swallowed or absorbed intoJti~;body

An idea, a feeling, etc that is extremely harmful.

Redmond (2006) defined Poison as':

Any subslance 117,81 produces disease

condilions. lissue inju'..or ol/Ierwise inlerruplsoJ.

nalural life processes 'when 111 contact wilh or

absorbed inlo Ihe b0G!Y Mosl poisons laken in

sufficienl quanlily are lelhal A poisonous".'subslance may origina/e as a mineral,

vegelable. or an animC!(and If may assume Ihe','form of a solid, liquid or gas. A poison,

depending on Ihe IYP&,,1uayallack I/Ie swfacc

of II)(~body or more seri~l:IS/y.inlernal organs of

Ihe cenlralnervous sys/fJn.1

Walker (ed) (2004) defined aforeme,ntloneuterms as follows

Sorcery as pretended employme,nt of supernatural agencies magic,

witch or any remarkable or inexplicable means of accomplishment.

witchery.

Necromancy - Divination by mear~sof pretended CqnHnWlIC

\10

characterisedby belief in sorceryand the use of charm,felishes,and

witchcraft

Witchcraft - The practiceor Po~(~ of witchesor wizard especially'.~ .

when regardedas due to dealings'with eVil spirit or the devils.bl,lCk

magic,sorceryalso an instanceof suchpractice~,.. ~.

Charm- Act or wordsbelievedto Ii~~emagicpower

Magic - Any supernaturalart,sorcefy,necromancy.

Black Magic - Any of the branc~esof magicwhich invokethe aid ofdemonsor spiritsas witchcraftor &,iabolism.It is importantto emphasize

-i"

that the meaning of these terms used in associating the Nsi,phenomenonoverlap Attempttodefineoneof thesetermswillinvariably

connectto theother.

A WatchTowerPublication(WTP)'(1980 298)observesthatmystellous

phenomenonconsistof spell,specialcurses and theeVileye thatbrlJ1g

harmtoone'senemy".Itcontinuesthus

Much of the concept of magic-working sorcery is I)i/se(/on the belief tllat evil spir~/can be induced either toleave or to enter a persort fllat tlley can I)e trickecl ;/1/(1deceived and tlley can be captured or lrappecl 11/ iIpiece of wood or a clay"image For example, If isclaimed that by making magic paths of honey orol/Ieragreeable things, the demons can be led around at 1/10will of the magician. .

Parrinder(1962116) being a European scholar in African Tradilional

Religion gave

phenomenon.a vague description of African (Igba) rnyslical

He is of theopinionthatmysticalphE.H10menanis muchfearedandmany

charmsare worn with objectsof defealinglt by the use of a stronyer

power. Babies are loadedwith br-acele!s-andcharms to protectthem

from evil influenceand witchcraft.Lovers protectthemselvesagainst

',::

17

their rivals or jealous husband, Farmers anu blacksmiths arm

themselves against accidents with their tools which may have been

caused by sorcerers Rings are worn against snakes sent by evil men

Against this backdrop. Parrinder (1962116) concluues

All manner of evil. thai might otherwise be cnllollacciden/al or misfortunes is altribu/ell /0 (/1(.'malfeasance of sorcerers, broken limbs, CI Will),in/ernal pains. s/illborn babies, twins and any unusualevents are taken as showing /hal sorcerers are on 1/1(]warpath.

Mbiti (1969:119) laid the matter to rest when he clearly slated Ihat:

Evil (black) magic involves Ihe belief in and praclice oflapping and using Ihis ,(evil) power 10 do Iwrm 10human beings or their propel1y. /I is here Ihal we ftndsorcery a/ work, in addilion /0 a/her relaled practiceswe mus/ poinl oul, however. Ihal a greal deal of beliefhere is based on or derives from fear. suspiCIon,jealousies. ignorance. or false accusalions, which lJOon in African wages People fear /0 leave around I/leilhair, nails, clo/hes or olher al1icles wilh which Ihey arenormally in direcl con/ael in case Iheir enemies will useIhem and work evil magic againsl Ihem The hair ornails may be burnl or pricked or olherwise used in aharmful way and Ihis cause infliclion on I/le person forwhom Ihey come. /I is feared Ihal an enemy mighl IJUIthorns on a person's fool prinl. alll/ihus cause IWIIII 10him. This is whal Jame's FlDzel dislll1guislws ns"Con/agious Magic" His, ol/wr useful calegOlY IS"Homeopalhic Magic" which in Aflic(Jn socie ''':'t.'rJ~,

be illus/mled with endless ,examples. Till> J'IOI\jtJ~tJD(~

belief /hal whal happens '10an olJjucl ft:h lo0't\irb~~ ..anolher will affecl he lalteI For ex rapI9"''t1f1''Cf1(]fllY ~

might make a doll wllluh. replesdlh a JXIII/cuJar ." )person. and by bUlI1l11gor pnckll1g Iha~()IPrt IS iJellOvp. /Ihal Ihe person would be I)almec! acc~~1J~7Iwo cajagories of magical belief and practices funcl/on,

however in both ;J>Jodand evil ways. /I is when usee/maliciously Ihar Ihis mystical power is condemned as"black magic", "evil magic" or "sorcery".

. '

IX

The lallerpartof thisassertionagraeswiththeearlierstatedfactthatthe

transformationsof herbswhichGod has putat thedisposalof menIIlto

wickedand evil purposesbrewthe.formationof Nsi phenomenon.The

Igbonormallysay 'Ajo mmadubu ajo mmuo' (An evilpersonis an evil

spirit).Furthermore,sincebadmedicine(Ajo Ogwu)transformsintoNsi,

amongthemostfearedpeopleiri thesociety(Igbo)are 'Ndi n'akpa Nsi

ma 0 bu Ndi na-agwo ajo ogwu' both terms translatesand meansorcerers,evilmenwhopreparemedicineto hurtothers

MostAfricanand Igboscholarsesp~ciallyscholarsinAfricanTraditional

Religion and African Culture take Nsi to mean sorcery rechnically

speaking,sorceryinvolvestheuse-of poisonousingredientIntothefood

or drinkof an individualwiththetargetto kill himor her ThiSdefinition

does not conveythe desiredunderstandingof what the Igbo take Nsi

phenomenon10 mean. For Igbo (African) people. Nsi phenomenon

standsforanti-socialemploymentof mysticaland magicalpowertoharm

a fellow individual People thatare a linkedwith Nsi practiceare tile

most feared and hated membersof their comrnunilles.It IS cor11/11011

knowledgefor the Igbo people that perpetratorsof Nsi ph(~l1omenon

employall sorts of ways to harmolher peopleor theirbelongrngs.For

example,theysend files, snakes,lions or otheranimalsto attacktheir

enemiesor carrydiseasesto theni,They spit and directtho spittleWith

secret incantationsto go and harilr~omeone They dig up graves to

removehuman flesh or bones which they use in theirpractices,The

Invokespiritstoallackor possessso[neone.'

In thecourseof thisresearch,Chime'zie(2007)narratedhowhiSmolher

wasallackeduSinga fly(insect)to killher He saidthathermothercame/ "back frommarketand on welcomin~her, an insectenteredher rnouth

'.

III

The insect refuse to go down to the belly and didn't corne out either l3ut

it continued whistling inside his' mother's throat lillie moment on, her

mother went pale and severe fever took possession of her They (I e

their family) went round with his mother to all hospitals, but all test

carried out her testified that she is normal. It took the intervention of anative doctor (Oibia ogwu) to sav'e her mother's life (Chllllelie Ezulke,

Personal Communication, Sept 2~i2007)Igbo people feel and behave

that all the various ills, miSfOrtl.i~es,Sickness, aCCidents, tragedies,sorrow, dangers and unpleasan.1.rnysteries which they encounter 01"

experience are caused by the use;of this mystical power in Ille hands of" '

perpetrators of Nsi phenomenon" Based on this, we may realize fOI:'

example, that a bereaved mother.whose child has died fmm malaria will

not be satisfied with the scientific,explanation that a mosquito carrying~malaria parasite slung Ihe child and caused it 10 suffer and die frolll

malaria, She will wish to know wt1y~I/le mosquilo stung her child and not

somebody else's child. The only~~atisfactoryanswer is IImt someone,;'tl''l

sent the mosquito or worked othe(mysterious deeds agamst her cl1ild.

This is not a scientific answer" buI,t is reality and most welcome for.majority of Igbo people. We ma'y easiJy get rid of mosquitoes and

prevent many diseases, bul there"will always be accidents, cases of

barrenness, misfortunes, and other unpleasant experiences, For Igbo

these are not purely physical expenence, they are Inystical and

experiences

Nothing harmful happens by chance, almost everything IS caused by

someone directly or though the use of mystical power. People in the

villages with portlcular reference to Igbanam community will talk freely

about them for they belong to thel'rworld of reality, whatevcl else the

educated cream of the sOCl(:ty:mghtsay does not really Illatt('1")I'..-

2 1 3 TYPES OF NSI

The Igbo have different types of N~i phenomenon They types of Nsi ale.'as follows:

(a) Nsi that is given as poison This kll1dof Nsi may hr> In liquid or

powdery form It IS also carried 111the finger tipS It IS given

through sharing of food, kola and drinks -Ihe Victim once

contaminated starts to witness severe heartburn, stomach ache

The stomach ache may g~adually develop into 'Mbekwu Afo'

(swollen stomach). 'N'anya~1ewelugo oji' ('The night has t8ken

kola) becomes a polite way of refusing kola for fem of being\

poisoned with the Nsi that i~carried in the finger tips

(b) Nsi that is sent through the~ir: pins/needles, leprosy, deadly flies,

madness etc are sent through air This kind of Nsi IS carried out

through mystical and magical powers in the hands of the black

(evil) magician

(c) Nsi that is tied and se~lkd with padlock to retmd people's.progress Being an evil phenomenon, it is mystical and magical in

nature, ,'"

(d) Nsi that is spread or burieq.,inside the ground. This type of Nsi is

in powdery substance for tb~ one to be spread on the surface of-,'the ground and also contajlied 111a small clay pot or tied together

for that which will be buried Irlside the ground The target of thiS

klrld of Nsi is to kill the intehdlng victim and tillS can be

'I

(e) Nsi that is used during Masq~erades to discredit or harm thell

opponent especially during festivals The Igbo normally say 'ka.asi si akona Nsi, asi si e'ena aju', (The law which forbids

poisoning others, does it mean that you may not cause 1I1cmat

least some dizziness), This statement to some extend permits the

use of ajo ogwu (bad medicine) during Masqueradc fcstlvals 1\

contradiction to Igbo worldview as regards the belief III cornrllunity

consciousness

(f) Nsi that is mysteriously give~'thtough eating in drcams For the

Igbo people, eating in dream -is not a good omen bccause of the

fact that one can be initiated or poisoned through eating in a

dream Ttlis category IS believed to be manipulated by witches

and wizcHd

"

2.2. NSI WITHIN THE IGBO CUL T,URAL DIAMETRIC.

Culture literally means peoples wa{ of life It can also me;1I1the custom

and belief, arts, and social organisation of a particular group Cultule

does not exist in a vacuum but is ,Principally situated wltllln tI\() people:-.perception of tile universe People's ,perception of the unlversc IS fuumJ

in their Cosmology or Worldview"

.t- "

The term cosmology equally has to'do With the totality of a people's'. ;. .

way of life, a people's way of ~r,ceiving, interpreting, relating and

responding to things around them 'Ekwunlfe (1993) is of the view that

cosmology is t,~~."

All allempt to give a unified meanmg illldullderslnlldillg to man's varro.us'eX(Jeriences of life nll

"This assumption can be ascrtained through myths, proverbs,

metaphors, customs, taboos, beliefs and practises that developed as a

result of day to day experiences ,'and observation of a particular race,

tribe or culture, Achebe in Mad~ d997 4) posits;

Different cultures have different ways of on1erillCjI!wirworld Each mode is a lens though which mall, in agiven culture vices his wOlk1 Each culture lens ellablesit to see only a certain pilst 'of tile worle1but albol/, onewhich gives meaning to' it exis/once, If ono wovo CJdifferent lens, he would seea different world;

The traditional Igbo cosmology 5ays EJlzu (1986143) is essenlially a

religions one Religion provided the baSIC and unifying vIsion through

which everything is perceived it;:is therefore not surprising ltwt the

traditional value system and atiitudlllal orientation of tile Igbo as

prevalently religious", The traditional value system and attitudinal..orientation of the Igbo as articul;t~(j by EJizu (1986 143) are~

A unified view of Reality -.,~.. A sense of community.

Human life its enhancement'!andcontinuity.,~:~_.

The above points can be enlarged"as follows-.~.;(A) That traditional Igbo cosmology'ls a religious one, a cosmology

"

which holds a unified view of 'reality This is understandable under

the back drop that all the spheres of Igbo cosine structure and their

inhabitants are in continuous interaction like a spiders web, any

break in the segment will affest the others

(B) Man is at the centre of everything But he is not alone He exists for

the community and the comm'unityexist for him, This IS echoed In

Mbiti's word "I am because we are and since we are therefore I am,

This bring out the community-,consciousness among Itle Igbo thus,of

.'1

he has be his brother'skeeper,and also relieson the p;.)tronageof

the gods and his neighbours This underscoreswhy neighbours

helpone to builda house.cultivateyam and harvestIt.participate

activelyinmarriageandburialrites

(C) Humanlife is supremeand everythingis done to keep ,t on Thus

sicknessdiminisheslifeand59 itcause mustbe diagnosedthrough

divinationand appropriateme',isuresto restoreIifelllUs, thisworld

is exhortedand valuedmore)han any otherworld,Man wantsto

live longand thushe keeps in touchpositivelywithspiritualpowers

who, as it were guaranteeh,i~secunty and continuedexistence,,',Thus childlessness is abhorrfi?dand must be guarded against.

Childlessnessimpliesextinctionof lineagewhichmustbe resisted

by marryinga secondwife.'Amuta nwa, nwa muta ibe ya'. (When

a child is born, he is expec..tedto give life I birthto others) (Madu

:19977)

Nsi phenomenonamong the Igbo has no footing or place in the

aforementionedtraditionalvaluescale and attitudinalorientallonof the

Igbo.This observationraisesa crilftalquestionas whereis theplaceof

Nsi phenomenonwithintheIgbocultlmil.diametric?,Profferinganswersto thisquestion,Meluh(198683)observedthus

"," .

African world-views share lIie belief tl1al tile 100ls ofmany physical evil lie in somQ moral evils. There wefour causes wl1ichfeature fi",que!ltly asthe expla!lationof pl7ysical evils God. evil $p'irits. wicked men usinqmagic powers or witchcr{lft powers for anti-socialplJIposes . African wOl1dvie~s;';Ire ileavily populated IJYevil spirits of various kinas./it1ostale spirits or Ille (lendwho have nol reached tile 'anceslral !lame. A few nIl.'non 11lImanspirit Some attack in groups. Ol/IOIS WI'single spiril. They all share [Jle COli/ilion cl18raclerisIIC.'ithat they attack people for.n9'just !CaSOI/S,..witcl/(:Iafland sorcelY are il/ustratioil of how, on one IWlld

physical evil dellve from moral evils, and IIIe SOCialdimensions of African sense of SII1on IIw ollwr JolIl

witches and sorcerers engage trJ IIw illicil IIse ofsupernatural powers10 harm IIleir fellow men

Collaborating with the above view.jArinze(197055) have Ihis to say

concerning factors (spirits) respong,iblefor Nsi phenomenon within the

Igbo Cultural Diametric

Who are these wiCKed ax-co/porate Iwnwn SII/IIPThey are spirils of SlIch "people as these s[I(:lIf/('I>(1persons, IIseless or lazy llj/nwl/ied people wi/a e//llll/(1their ea/thly life lime Iwd no c!lIh1ICn,no S

",

harm tllat is attributedto Nsi pllenomenon The act of II1voklnuthe

disembodiedspints on objects to e~,ecutedeslunatedfunclions falls

witllintile scope of E B Tylor'stheor~:.ofAllimism Animismdpalswltllthe 'beliefin spiritbeings' For Tylor,he saw the animaas a shadowy,

vaporous image animatingthe objed it occupiedand also have tile

capabilityof leavingtile bodyandenteringothermen,animalsor things

andcontinuingto liveafterdeath(Mbit~19697).

..The evilspiritsthatnow inhabittile Nsi materialscarryouttile functions

or actsattributedto Nsi The roleof the,evilspiritin Nsi phenomenonIS

clearly manifestedin the type of Nsi tllat is buried or spreCldfor

someoneinIontheground.At thepain'of preparingthistypeof Nsi, tile

nameof the intendingvictimis mentionedIn thrsway, theevilspiritby

the positionof knowingthe victim~swell as every individualin thecommunitycarries out the act OgbuhaJagu(2006)a nativedoctor in

Igbariamcommunitytestifiesthatthe~vilspiritsthatcarryout theactof

Nsi phenomenonis an act shroudedIn mysteryand secrecywhicll

cannot be fully grasp or undEit'Stand(OgbunaJagu I'(~rsOfiaI~...Communication24'"November2006)'~>

23 NSIIN THE VIEW OF EARLY Mf$SIONARIES

Anyanwu(1999152)rightlyobservedt11at

Tile European missionary to4lfJican (and Igooland Inparlicular) came with precon~:eivcd 110tiontilat tilclewere no religion at all in African or that it was entirely oftile DevIl The missionaries tlJe.reforeconsidered it thei,

duty nol only 10 converl tile Igpo'to Cllristianity out alsoto make them g~e up and for~ettheir past entftely al/(llive up to their new dignity 'F;/C planting of CllIisliilllityin Igbo land hit at the very',$oul of the society al/(linvariabty caused problems .vf varying magnitude IIIIgbo fife alief culture .-

t:,~. ~

;-, ,

The assertion above gave a true picture of how the missionaries took

Igbo peoples life pattern and religion They came solely to evangelise

and impact the gospel on our peoPle without any intention to study the,culture and religion of the people Owing to their lack of interPst to study

the belief and culture of the Igbo.people, the missionanes wrote out

culture off as evil, barbaric, pagC!,~ism,heathenism. fetish and have

nothing good in it. These derogatmg terms the early Illissionanes

labelled in the culture of the Igbo affected the perception lowards the

Igbo peoplet

..

This perception was clearly echoe~ by Bishop Ajayi Crowther in one of

his letters to their headquarters in Sierra Lone, "We need more hands

for all the Igbo land as the citadel t!f evil" (Madu 2006), This statement

clearly portrays the vie~ the ar-rly missionaries concerning the Igbo,:culture and religion, This missionar',ieshaving labelled most of Igbo life

pattern, culture and religion as evil" and wicked due to their lack of

interest to study the people. Nsi prtenomenon automatically is among

the wicked life styles of the Igbos, .'

What more can be said when the good aspect of Igbo culture was;labelled. evil. pagan. barbaric. fetlsl1, by the missionaries, flOW much

more the ones the Igbo themselves look at as evil and Wicked It is

worthy of note that the views of :early missionaries concerning the

culture of the Igbo (both good an~'bad) including Nsi phenomenon IS-..

that it must be abandoned, dropp~d and abolished because of their

preconceived notion that there is ri~thlllggood in it. This notion of eallyI,

missionaries underscores the f~cr,.why the concenlr ated rnore on

impacting the l\Jbo people WithCIH~tlanity which to thell ur)(Ii'lstLlrllJln9

in superior to the culture and rellgl0ti:of the Igbo

'", ,

24 NSIIN THE VIEWS OF TH~.IGBO CHRISTIANS ....

The present day Igbo Christianstto great extent inherited tile views of.'the early missionaries as regards to some of the IglJo cultures For

instance. Polygamy. Masquerade~'Chieftaincy titles (Ozo) ;Hld so on as

pagan lifestyle As It concerns the views of Igbo CIHlstians on Nsi

phenomenon, two critical question.comes to bare,

What effect or impact did th~'~arlymissionaries left for tile present

Igbo Christian with particular"referenceto Nsi phenOIlH?lloll?

What are the views of -tt)e present Igbo Christians as regards to.Nsi phenomenon? ~r'

f

In attempting to answer the above~lJestion, Nnubia (2007) said that the

notion of early missionaries cOr'cerning Igbo culture with particular,.

reference to Nsi .ph'nomenonre"mforcedor concretised the belief in" - '.

Nsi phenomenon by the presenLlgbo Christians as evil, wicked,

obnoxious and nefarious activities that constitute Igbo culture

(Ikechukwu Nwubia: Personal Communication: 18 November 2007)

Concerning the impact of early rnis~?naries on the Igbo Christians 1I0gu

(1985:230) posits. "

Therefore tile cllurcll is II/Oland gmw up, as It wuw.divided Away from tile cultural roots of Iboland to wowan additional loga of foraignncss olher tllan tllOforeignncss that belongs inlrlnsically to II/(] gospelltsolfas a "colony of heaven" on c{]f1h

. "The early missionaries haVing conderiHled the belief and CUItIIfCof tile

Igbo people as fetish, pagan ete tile present Igbo Christians sf(~ppcdin

their idea to further the campaign ~gainst the Nsi phenonll'lloll wlllch

has be over blown thereby reSul!l~~in ullwanted fear and SUSpICIOUS

among the present Igbo chnstens ar;1clt'hesociety at large

~,

.IX

Owing to the tension already created or Imparted by the early

missionaries to the present Igbo Christians, the slogan "Holy Chost Fife"

and stickers having words like "No weapon that is fastlioned ;](Fllnst me

shall prosper" I am covered by the blood of Jesus", "Back to sender" IS

mostly targeted to ward off the attack of eVil one, enemy or S;ltan which

may be sent through the air, buried jn the ground etc which IflVaflably

constitute part of the Nsi phenome60n

Anyanwu (1999152) assessment is very relevant at this POll1twhen het,said:

The history of Christianity is not just the history of whatmissionaries did, III our ~conlell1porary efforts torevitalize our traditional culture.:if it often asserted that

the missionaries uprooted d~tr:'culture and this explainsour undeveloperf and other failures

Though not promoting Nsi phenomanonas good, the above assertions

encourages the Igbo especially Igbo- Christians to stop seeing evil In

every part of our culture In answeringlhe second question, the views of

the present day Igbo Christians concerning Nsi phenomenon IS that iti s

evil which has nothing good to offer I~oChristians take Nsi to be usingcharm (diabolic) to kill, or inflict sickness or diseases on fellow human

.being.This act oppose to the laws or conimandments of God 'Love your.'neighbour as yourself" "do unto otherS as you want them do unto you".

Also, Nsi phenomenon is the view~:

"I

Thaugh the Christian teachingcandemnedand preach ;J(jClinstNsi

phenamenan,it IS very supervising:to..nate that the Nsi praclise IS

prevalentindenselypapulatedChrisfi('lnsacietyar eveninsocietywhere

everyindividualis linkedwithone sect af Christianityar Clnother,where

thereareno.shrines,whereno.deityis worshipedsincetheeXistinganes

havedieda naturaldeathdoe to lackof adherents,thepracticeof Nsi IS

still mentianed,The question now :is who are respansible:for such

condemnedacts? Fingerspointto IgboChristiansWtlata C(HlllillJlclron--------- .'

In otherwords, same ChristiansindtJlgein the veryact theyrC9ardas

evil,wicked,devilishandharmful

"1 t2,5, THE REALITY OF NSI PHEN6MENON ..;The Igbo believedoL--Mvea firmc~nvictionthatNsi phenomenonis a

reality EzekielOnuike(2007)illustr~teda storyto buttresstile bcliefin

Nsi realityamangtheIgba.The story.~entthus

Obubu (centipede)was accused.in ~hepresenceaf his in-lawthathe

indulgesin Nsi. His in-lawwas mad~ithObubuaccusersamJhe (thein-

law) firmlystaad to.defend Obubu. ~he'membersaf the meetlflgtold

Obubu's in-lawto.embracehim in ordt:rto.find aut the autlwntlcltyaf

theiraccusatian Immediatelyhis 1f1)~~embracedhim, Obubu struck

him and the in-law shauted,"0buru ila 0 na-ebu Nsi 0 na-cbu, 0. '.' .dighi ebu, ya ma"( if he partakesin Nsi, it matbe right,if he doesn't,

that is his business) (EzekielOnuike'(Ven) Persanal Carlll11llnication

Sept292007)

The shartstoryabave,thaughItdidn'~~ancludethatNsi is a w,llity,!Jut

itgavea clue thatleavesno.ane in dou~lthatNsi phenamenonIS a live

issue for the Igbo people It IS In tile Dbubu's naturcto slilku whocvel

andwhateverthatembracedIt

..-.'"

Also, Nwaosiafa Ike (2006). a self~'~rofessedtraditionalist and Native

doctor based in Igbariam attest to' tt;'~fact that Nsi phenomenon is a

reality for the Igbo When the reseafl:her interviewed him, he said thus

"ihe Mmadu n' amaghi ka ya nwa m. Ndi ajo mmaduna ndi dibia ajo

ji ike ha nwere were emebiobodo.Nwa m Nsi di ire, 0 na egbu.0 bu,eziokwu na agaghi akowacha otuosi egbu". (My son, wila! is not

known to man is beyond him Evil people amd evil native doctors use

their God given --l(0wer to a negative use Black magic is re;)1 It kills

though I cannot explain the p"nciple' behind it) (Mazi NwaosI

\1

Mbitithoughhe wrotefromKenyanb,ackground,he conveyedalso tile

feelingand understandingof Nsi ~e~ornenonas It is obtalfwbleIn the

Igbo society,The above assertionunderscoresthe fact that the Igbo.believe in the realityof Nsi phe~omenonA realitywhich GH1notbedenied This realityof Nsi phenor.1ennnas far as Igboare concelneelIS

suchthatneitherChristianity,modernity..urbanizationnoreducationcan

effectivelydismantleor erase A few.,examplesoutof numerouscasesof

Nsi pheno~enonwill buttressthe ~:.Iiefin the realityof Nsi

Unfortunately,he died the nextday on his bed. His relationin il bid to

unravelthe mysteriousdeathof the 'fOungman consulteda medicine

man/diviner.The medicineman told'rhemafter consultationsWiththe

spiritsthatNsi was laidfor Udekweat;(theenlranceof his compoundTo

prove this, the medicine man follo~ed them to the compoundan

uneartheda smallclay potthatcontainedall kindsof disgustingobjects

and tiedwitha redcloth~ithbloodstainsall over The smallpotburied

iNside the ground is the Nsi that killed Udekwe. Though it sounded

funny,the fact thatUdekwewas healthybeforehe carneto tile village

and mysteriouslydied after a night raises a one lhousand and one

questionsbeggingforanswers

"

Furthermore,a youngpriestpostedto ;;i:,communitywitllmI\gulu Ieglon

came and preachedseriouslyagainst r~ephenomenonof pin-c:lsting

(iyantutu),This phenomenonthatis parlof Nsi (blackmagic)in tileview

of thepriestis not real,powerlessand ~~ref1ctionor assumptionwhidl

should not worry the childrenof Go~..;'Four months later, the priest

becauseseriouslyill and almostat thepoilltof death.Plans wele made

to rush him to hospitalswhen some .'membersof his congregation

advisedthata medicinemanshouldbectinsultedfirstinordertobesureJ ; .

that it is not ntutu (pins). They gave',ihis advice because a person

inflictedwith pin should not be injecteJ.'~ithneedlesince it Will31din

killingthe individualThe advicewas aoc'eptedand itwas conflllnedthat

he was suffering from pin-casting.~~~ekielOnuike (Ven) Personal.,Communication:Sept 29, 2007) Treatmentof these examplesof Nsi

phenomenonwill be discussedin the next'chapterthatdeals on tleallh

caredeliverysystemof theIgbo

..

"

.. ".~-'.

!..251 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN' NSI OGWU AND AJA

Nsi can be said to be the diabolicarmeansof usingherbsor mediCine

(ogwu) invocationof evil spints or disembodiedspirits (a)o rnmuo)to

harm. inflictsickness and even krl~a fellow individual Nsi IS oqwu III

wrongfulapplication.In otherwords.,Nsi bu ajo ogwu (b;ld medicine)..that is used to harmother people Ogwu on its part IS extractedflOm

herbs.Ogwucan be said to be a ~?xtureor concoctiontlmtISextracted.,'fromvariousherbs.Makingor prep.t;lringmedicineis called l

'\

sacrifice to the evil spirits and to them only. Such sacrifices are offered

without love, the victims are most ugly and disreputable There is simply

no question of a sacrificial meal All the petitioner wants is to be left

along by these evil spirits Hence it is easy to understand the words of

Basden: fear is the driving force: the sacrifices do not spring frorn any

inherent desire to give, or from any spontaneous to render honour or

worship Sacrifices furnish the only way of escape from the evil df'sifjns

and activities of malignant spirits. Failure to perform propitiatory

sacrifices would make life unbearable: ~'verydepartment would labolll

under imminent threat of possible disaster These words are strong but

they are true and exact when applied tp this particular type of S

the body of the person doing it, it can equally affect the person while AJa

being a sacrifice is not affected by Nsi rather it pacify the

gods/spirits/land concerning the abomination that emanated from Nsi

phenomenon,

252 THE DIBIA .;Nsi phenomenon cannot be discussed w,~houtmentioning the role of the,dibia, A dibia is one who is a master of knowledge and wisdom of

esoteric practises, He is specialist who~tellsfortunes, seeks to discover

secrets, and gives spiritual advice a,Qout sacrifices as well as offer

sacrifices to the deities They are usua\fy seen as mediators betw{!(~nthe;,....

gods/spirits and man, f

2,5,3KINDS OF OIBIA

Traditional researchers and scholars have over the years presented

diverse opinions about the categories or class of dibia. There are

generally two categories of dibia - Madft (2006) gave the two categolles

as:

,. Dib,d Afa (Diviner) those wh,o specialize in div;"'tion and also

performs the various sacrifrces associ;:' tll d . "liltS and

shrines,

,. Dibia Ogwu (Herbalist) those who speciali'e in diagnOSing and

treating of diseases or disturbaflce with hero (.harrns, taLman,

rituals etc The dibia ogwu is an indispensable persoll In the

making of Nsi which IS called Igwo Ogwu (making / preparing

charm) Igwo ogwu ( '1 be also used as a I n in plOparing

herbs/medicine gene! 'whether guou or ball 'IlLISt lJ(~ noted

that not all dibia og\' perp~tllate in the act of milklllg bad.., .~

medicine (Igwo ajo ogwu) which invariably produces Nsi

phenomenon

25.4 ATTRIBUTES OF A DlBIA

A dibiais believedtopossessthefollowingattributes'

., Ifu uzo (seeingbeyondtheordinary/clairvoyance)

o Igwo oria (healinga sick person)or Aka ile (potenthand)with

whichsuch featsas the healingtouchekiri is effectedand ogwu

created.

o Onu ile (potentmouth)

o Igwo ogwu (makingmedicine)

o Igwo ajo ogwu (making bad medicine which produces Nsi

phenomenon)

Thoughnotall dibiaspartakesin this.The rolesof dibia both'dibia Afa'

and "dibia Ogwu" (Herbalistand Diviner)is a difficulttask to embark

upon.HoweverAgwu. beingthe patronspiritof divinationand diViners

and thatof makingmedicinechooses itsworshippersand endowsthem

withthe giftof divinationand the knowledgeof medicinalherbs(Metuh

1999rep96).

2.5.5ROLES OF DIBIA IN NSI PHENOMENON

A dibia is knownfor his wisdomand knowledgethatare morethanthe

ordinary-eyescan see andunderstandHe is notjustan ordinaryperson,

butone who knowsmuchin the mysteriesof life It is believedthatthe

leaves talk to them and with their eyes they can see into tile super

sensible reality With their mouth, they can communicateWith the

spirits/gods.

\7

Arm with these qualities,the dibia knows much as regardsto herbs,

making of medicine (Igwo Ogwu) and ordering the spirits through

incantations,

In Nsi phenomenon,therolesof dibiaare:

He knowstheherbsandobjectsthatare to be usedfora particular

typeof Nsi andatwhatproportionthatIS needed

He specializesin theactof mixingtheseherbsandobjectstoyield

the desired result.The act of mixingthese herbs is kl1owl1to be

'Igwo Ogwu' (makingmedicine)

He knows the adequatematenalsor case in which t11(~Inedicll1e

willbe carriedwithinothertoproducethedesiredresult

He knows the forceor spiritthatwill make the medicll1eeffective

and also has the knowledgeor power to invoke such spirit to

possessthemedicine,

He is the one especially"DibiaOgwu" (Herbalist)to be consulted

in themakingof Nsi of anykindbecauseit is believedthathe has

thepower.andknowledgetodoso,

It must be emphasized that not all dibia especially 'dibia Ogwu'

(Herbalist)partakesin the makingof bad medicine(Ajo Ogwu)which

producesNsi Havingsaidthese.itmustbe notedthatNsi phenomenon

cannotbe withouttheservicesof a dibiaand likeearliernoted,thedlbia

is an indispensablefigure in the act of making or preparing Nsi

phenomenon,Hence, the Igbo saying"Adi arapu isi aka agba uchu"

(youcannotproducesoundwiththehandwiltlOutthethumb)

2,6,NSIIN THE PERSPECTIVE OF IGBARIAM CULTURE.

Igbariamcommunityis one of the communitiesthatmake lip Anambra

East Local GovernmentAlea of AnambraState IgbariamIS IOGlted 111

theNorthof AnambraEast LocalGovernmentArea of AnarnbraState It

could be reachedby road throughthe Enugu-Onitshaexpressway via

Igbariamjunctionor throughNleje~Otuchajunction.The communityIS

surroundedbytownslikeAwkuzu,AchaMa,Nando,Ukwulu1J:'f~~

Furthermore,the Igbariamcommuni~:;iSmade up of seven villagesnamely;Ubaru, Imendo,Ifite,Anakw~, Eziama, Urualorand [liafor

).-'}:

The indigenesof Igbariamcommunity\r('? peace lovingpeopleandvery,..'"

.accommodativeTheir main source dfincome is throughfanningand~'1

fishing. About seventy-fivepercentof her population ale peasant

farmers In addition.the Igbariamindigenesare very religiOUSp(~ople

The two main religions in Igbariarn\~ornrnunityare Chnstlallltyand

African (Igbo) Traditional Religion.:ln the area of educallon. the~~..indigenesof Igbariamare not leftaui This is also true in the ;]reaof

commerceandskillacquisition

Nsi in the Igbariamcultureis viewIS poison. This is because It ISbelievedto have the power to kill ~f:iengiven to an individual The

administrationof Nsi in the Igbaria~tperspectiveis categOllled intothree:-

ThroughfoodandDrinks

. Throughsteppingon Nsi thatis:~laidor buriedin theground This

categoryis moreeffectivewhert(;le nameof the intendingvictnnis mentionedat thetimeof preparationof theNsi.

The Nsi used by the masqueradE;lsthatis called'Ekwuabo'. TillS

type of Nsi is normallyordered'by the Masqueradeto go and

harmtheintendingvictim

In the perspectiveof Igbariamcultur2,Nsi is not normallyseen With

ordinary eyes but its effects ar~:,G-?se.r.yedthrough signs of itsl;.>;'

~(;,.,'..'r,:' ...

manifestation on the victim. This manifestation can take the form of

swollen of legs, abdomen (mbekwu afar), vomiting that is mixed with

blood, blindness, insanity, body rci~hes,and eventually death When

this signs occur, they are not taken lightly as mere malaria. typhoid,

measles and so on because the treatments of these signs normally

defile modern kind of treatment and these signs are cOllnter!~dwith

the traditional means of treatillen! (Okafor Uehe 1'(~Js()nal

Communication 3'" April 2008)

27 SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW

The value scale and altitudinal orientation of the Igbo brew from their

perception of the universe which is, a religious one God/gods for

instance are not subjected to empirical proofs or observation hut the

Igbo strongly believe in the existencelreality In the same way, 3ncestors

to the Igbo belief are real and this explains why they (Igbo) pOllr libations

to them.

The phenomenon of Nsi as far as. the Igbo are concerned is very real,

though it mechanics cannot be subjected to scientific proof or stand

sound rational reasoning Although there is a tremendous influence of

external change agents in modern African today, still the belief of most

Igbo people irrespective of academic altainment and Christian influence

is deeply rooted in this mystical an~ magical phenomenon known as'Nsi"

III

CHAPTER,THREE

HEALTH CARE DELIVERY SYSTEM'AMONG THE IGBO.

Good health is the backbone of all human activities and the source of all

achievements Without good healtt1.:"life becomes IllC;lfllf1f)less.

unproductive drab. painful and a source of anxiety Just. as we profl1ote.a business to make it grow and prosp~:.so also we need to pr()'ll()t(~ourhealth

e;"

Right from creation. the worst enemy Q,f man is diseases and sickness-,. ..

Onunwa (199081) rightly observed t~}at"Among the unfriendly aqent

that threatens life here on earth is illrwss The other enemy wtllch theAfrican hates as much is death itself" .:,:

Shorter in Onunwa (1990:81) collaborated the above view wilen he

states that,..

Sickness for Ihe Africans is' a diminulion of life, aIhreal posed 10 life, and heali1g is an activity secondonly 10 Ihal of giving life. ~elilion for healing isprobably Ihe moslcommon subjecl of prayers.

".Commenting on the above assertions Madu (200424) clearly eellUcd

The observalion blings oul Ihe link IJelween life andhealth Life Iherefole for Ihe Igbo is healll, in Ill/eform. Since health for the fgbo is a cOlllposite of

material and spiritllal well being Ihen for one to IJealive. vis-a-vis healthy. bolll IIw spililllal ancl IIIemalelial aspecls of lIIan .1111151 be laken 11I10consideralion .

These assertions are correct when vlew~'dagainst tile backdrop lliat Nsi

phenomenon poses a threat to the life. .of.the Igbo This threal to life

caused by Nsi phenomenon can only. be restored through IH!allng

Health and healing are connected Just ~r~'thesame way they arc Wlltl the

fundamental theme of life They inv(,ike both rational and Illystical.! .;.'..

r:.~.... .

!" . \ .

II

process which aims at restoration of physical and spiritual harmony of

man which is shrouded in mystery 07religion and magic.

Healing is a part of that whole comp.iexreligious attempt by man to bring~"

the physical and spiritual aspect of'ttie universe as well as man who..'lives in it into that desired consistent harmony. The idea of "wholeness"

is therefore not alien to the African mind. Healing thus becomes a

cardinal religions practice because African cosmology which is world

affirming dema~ds that life in the w,?Jld must be kept free from problem

especially ill-health and obstacles which may hinder the fulfilment of the

desired goals. (Onunwa 1990:80)

3.1 HEALTH EXPLAINED.

Health for the Igbo is a composite on he material and spiritual well being

Health is life in its true form. Onunwa (199081) clearly stated that.Health as understoodby Africans, particularlytl10Igbo of Nigeria,is far moresocial thanbiological Itdoes not entirely mean an alJsence of pilysu;i11ailments There is a wear unitary conccpt ofpsychosomaticinterrelationshipstll8tis an apparentreciprocity between mhll;J and matter. Ileol/ll1I1ereforeis not an isolated'phenomenonbutpartofthe entiremagico-religio(;s;fabricfar more than [/nabsenccof disease.

Inspired from the experience of orth~doxmedicine in the west, Haring in

Onunwa (199081) has this to sa:laOO'Jt health

A comprehensiveundersl'andingof human healthincludcs the greatestpastibleharmonyof all n)[/n'sforces and energies.\ the greatest possilJlospiritualizationof man'sli:>dityaspectand the finostemboaimentof thespiritu;1J.Truehealthis reveatedin the sclf actualisatiof)"':ofthe pcrson WIIO I/[Is

l.

I'

attained that freedom which: Timrslwls all availableenergies for the fulfilmentof his,total vocation.

The aboveassertionis relevantin our(J.Qderstandingof the rnccl1;lIlics

of healing in Igbo traditionalreligio'rtespecially as concerns Nsi

phenomenon The nexusof relationshipor unitarynotionof beings Ir1

Igbocosmologyunderscorestheviews9fOnunwa and Haring.

Healthforthe Igbomeansa harmoniousexistencebetweenthe(Mfcrent

spheresof thecosmicorderinwhichmanis a member.For manto say

thathe is h~lIhy or alivethereforemei-~sthatmanshouldtune11Ifllsclf

withthe otherforces(especiallybenev(llentforces)of thecosmicorder

(Madu2004:25).

..~3.2 ORIGIN OF TRADITIONAL MEDICINE IN IGBOLAND.

The origin of traditionalmedicineis ~s old as the Igbo for our fore

fathershave been dependingon their~!raditionaldrugsand have beenlivingwith them. Traditionalmedicinef'as handeddown by our fore-

fatherswho studiedtheenvironmentamJexplorethepotentialsth:ltarc.latentin nature.

Osuafor in Otubah (200523) is qf the opinion that prevalilllg

traditionalistsviewof theoriginof meditineare constructedaroundthe. "::value man has placed on human life. Life is human most p[l7Cd'.'possession, for directlyand indirectly.>all his interestand activities

ultimatelycentreuponhisgratificationat'Jdpreservation. .Sequel to the above view, Mume \faced the origin and practiceof

traditionalmedicineto thejujupriestwhpalw,aysdirectedtheburningof

smellingsubstancesof herbalmaterial'sto.producesweet incenseto

appeaSethe gods of medicine He fuiler claimedthat most of the

',:fi,;;';,, ~.":~::~.~

". ,".

herbalproductused now by nativedoctofsand herbalistswereshown

to the medicinemen of old by their an'cestorsand these have been.'

transmittedfromgenerationtogeneration.(October200924)

The two views can be consideredac~ufatesince what gave rise to

traditionalmedicineis to ensurethathumanlife is protected.enhance

andcherish.On theotherhand,theefficacyof traditionalmedicinecan

not be if not for the role playedby the'traditional(native)doctors The

Igbo"proverbsays "Chi gboo mkpa, onu dibia adi ire" (when Godsolves a persons problem,the words of the dibia (medicineman)

ministeringto himbecomeseffectiveand real)

3.3.1. CLASSIFICATION OF TRAD.lTIONAL MEDICINE

Traditionalmedicinehas various clas!;les.Mume in Madu (200428)

classifiedthevarioustherapiesusedin traditionalmedicineas follows

Herbalism -: The system of treating~ the administrationof herbal

medicineincludingsomepartsof animal~.

Hydrotherapy-: The treatmentof disease'sbytheapplicationofwaterof.variousformsandtemperaturesthrough'\~~ldbaths,hotbaths,compress

.1

baths and the steam vapour baths ::withregards to ritual baths.

Onwukwe has this to say, Ritual washing is one of the acts that

punctuatethewholeprocessof makingihe patientwhole., .It is through

the performanceof the ritualthatmade the medicineman tries to re-

establishcordialrelationshipwiththedeitiesandancestors

Message -: This is the passive manip~lationof the soft tissue made

directly upon the nude skin in a methodicalmanner This is very

commonin Ijawareas

II

Cupping or blood-letting -: A method0;heatingdiseasebyabstraction

or lettingout to improveblood throughtI~euseof abstractioncups or

horns.

Faith healing Where patientsare persuadedto confess theirsins

whichtorturethem,and oncethis.isdone,such patientsfellemotionally

relieved.

Fasting -: Abstinencefromfood

Heat therapy -: Including exposure to sunrays (heliotherapy)and

exposur~!to thevibrationforceswhichemanatesfromfire.

Surgery -

..3.3.2.CLASSIFICATION OF TRADITIO\jAL.DOCTORS.

c',

The generalnameof traditionaldoctors,:.is'Oibia'.This same tcrlll also

translatesa nativedoctor. :i'l:.1',.

Ekechukwu in Madu (2004: 27) group~""theOibias into two broaddivisions

The Herbalists -: (OibiaOgwu)

The Diviner-: (OibiaAfa) " .

MumeinMadu (200427)identifieseighttypesof traditionaldoctorsas -

The GeneralPractitioners.

- The Herbalistand Nativedoctors,tbe'herbalistcenteringhis Illind~;~on the knowledgeof herbal applisation,taking care of viable

ailments,and curingthemwithherbalmedicationwhilethe native

doctor is more inclined to sLi~rlJijtural process and always

associatedhimselfwitha formofi/vto[lShip..

FaithHealers

- The BoneSetter

The NativeGynaecologistandMiO'1i;fii~~,.. . .~

. l':i\:',/4('/'"~~

!i..'.

I'

- The Witch Doctor who specialized in wizard-caused dlsc

II>

The person so possessed (Onye Agwu Walu) at once consults a

fortune-tellerwhoexplainsto himthat~~".'utakesno refusal The Agwupossessedpersonwill havethe option'lqchoose betweenacceptingto

be a dibia (Nativedoctor)or runmadtosay thelest,be a lillieinsane In

acceptingto be a dibia, he has to pe~m the preliminarysacrllice(ilu. '" .

Agwu) beforebeginninghis trainingacd initiation."lIu Agwu or IkpuAgwu" (tyingup or coveringup Agwur~ctsas a turningpointIII his life

..sinceitshouldnotonlybringthevictimbackto normalitybutshouldalso

harness the power of Agwu in him for the practiceof divinationand

healingwith herbs which is the core of the Igbo traditionalhealthcare

deliverysystem.

3.4.1THE ROLE OF RELIGIOUS SPECIALIST OF FUNCTIONALIST

IN THE TRADITIONAL HEALTH CARE DELIVERY SYSTEM OF

THE IGBO.

ReligiousfunctionariessaysAnyan~fu~t1999131)Are men and women set ap~t.for the service of Ihesupernatural beings. They ai"c~,'usually people wllhsound religious activities Really, Ihey are Iheembodiment of what is the best jn religion and act ascustodians of religion. They are those who becauseof their expertise religious know.ledge lead olhers inreligious activities. They serVe as inlermediariesbetween their fellow human bei/.1gson one hand andsuper sensible realities on Ihe other. Usually, theprofessional roles vary depaflUil7g on the skill andreligious knowledge they are trailled for.

Amongthereligiousfunctionariesin Igbotraditionalreligionare-

). Priest,. MedicineMen.,. Diviners.). Mediums.

'.."'1..~~".

3.4.2. PRIEST:

17

The Priest mediateshorizontallybetweenman and man and verlically

betweenman and the SupernaturalReality.He is a publicfunctionary

and usuallyallached to someculticcentre,a shrineor a templewhere

he performscertainprescribedfOfl}ls:of ritualson behalfof the people

whomsuchcentresaresupposedto serve.

The art of healingis a partof thatwholecomplexreligiousattemptby

manto bringthephysicaland spiritual,aspectsof theuniverseas wellas

manwho livesin it intothatdesiredcop'sistentharmony.The priestplays

thoserolesin traditionalhealthcare~tivery system:

The Priest offerssacrificeon bl:l~alfof the sick personin otherto

restoreharmonybetweenthespiritandtheindividual

The Priestassistsin offeringpraverson behalfof theSickperson

This kind of prayers boarders on restorationof health of Ifle

individual

The Priest also gives advice and counsels the sick Ifldlvldual

This advise/counsellingaids in quick restorationof IfH) IIHliviuual, .since it re-enforcesthe belief,,ofthe person in the efficacyof

Gods/gods/Spirits.

3.4.3 MEDICINE MEN (DIBIA OGW,U):

Medicinemen are peoplewho can'!Ie~ithermen or womenthatknow

the art of using the availablenatur~('(orces to preventdisease and. ,

restorehealth.Theyarespecialistsin,.lhemakingof medicine

In the 19botraditionalhealth care deliyery, the medicine men me

consideredextremelyimportantas they are the ones who can rescue

individualsin mattersof illhealth.

The rolesof medicinemeninhealthtaredeliverysystemof theIgboare:

,'.':

IX

Theycarryouttheworkof healingpeopleof theirailments

The traditional medicine man understands the psychological

backgroundof his patientas well as his worldvlewand tries to

meet him at that point of his needs He finds out the religious

causes of illnessor complaintsand prescribesa cure whichmay

include herbs. religious rituals and 'the observance of certain

prohibitionsor direction

The traditionalmedicineman acts as a counsellor;he Iislens 10

people'stroublesof allkindsandadvisesthem.

3.4.4DIVINERS (DIBIA AFA):

Divinersare thosewhose mainfunctionsare to findout hiddensecrets

or knowledgeand pass themon to peoplewho wish to know They can

be eithermenor womenbutmajorityof themareoftenmen Divinersare

regardedas importantmembersof thesociety

In thetraditionalhealthcaredeliverysystem.divinersplaylheseroles

They are consultedwhen decisions are to be laken, nol only

when decisionsare to be taken,but in all importantoccasionsin

thepeople'slife,for instancebirth,puberty,marriage,andevenat

deathso as to findadditionalhiddeninformationpertainingto the

event.

Theydiagnosea sickpersonto identifythecauseof thesickness

This act is whatMadu (2006)termed"SPIRITUAL DIAGNOSTIC

TECHNIQUE"

They referthesick personto themedicinemanthatwilltreattJim

and also prescribethe medicinethatwill be used in lreatingthe

sick individual.

spirits.

1')

In case of sacrifices.the divin,E;!rtells you the typeof sacrificetoembarkon as wellas victim&rieededfor the sacrificein orderto

restoreharmonyof theindividlJaL

It is importantto notethatin Igbosoejety,a personcan be bothmedicine:.manand Divinerandwherethisis th!t.case,he playsthedifferentroles.

;;~.~

3.4.5 MEDIUMS"r

Mediumsare peoplewho get in touchwiththe spiritworld Tlwy actasgo-betweenespeciallyin spiritualismandtheyclaimto be ableto receive

messages from the spirits of the ~ead. It is believed that mediums-.':'.-

communicatewiththespiritsatwillbUtmostoftenthisis donewhenthey

(the mediums) are possessed which is usually induced by ritual

drumming.dancingand singing.M~rity of mediumsarc WOlllcnwho"

workundertheleadershipof men i~"

In the health care deliverysyste". of the Igbo, mediumare usually

consultedor listenedto, to knowthe'fuessagesfromthe spiritualworld...;This act creates some form oi harmonybetweenthe livingand the..

.. :.1

3-.6 TRADITIONAL MEDICINE: PROBLEM AND PROSPECT IN..:f

CHRISTIAN DOMINATED IGP..QLAND

3.6.1 PROBLEM OF TRADITIONA[.fMEDICINE

There is no doubt.thatthetraditionafmedicinedespitethefactthatthey

affecta lotof cure in Igbotraditiona~healthcaredelivery To rmny Igbo.:.i',

Christians,traditionalmedicinepracti:seis seenas somethlllgassociatcu

withfeltishnessand as suchheldwihi indignationanddisbelief

efficacy especially in the treatment of human ailments. To some, it IS a

crude and ancient practices that should' give way to orthodox or

conventional medicine practice, convenient and conversant to modern

people and inconsonance with modernity or civilization

Among the problem of traditional medicine and practices include

a) Problem of Dosage~. The traditional medicine and practise is

handicapped with quantity of a particular concoction to be

administered to patient depending on their age. This according to

Onunwa (1990:89) "brings problem to the patient or some other

deadly side effects after some years".

b) Conservative Altitude - Igbo. traditional medicine IS rooted 111

secrecy. The knowledge goes' mostly from father to most favoured

son who makes use of the knowledge only at the death of his

father. Most native: doctor also are not willing to reveal their

therapeutic methods of healing. Most practitioners die With their,healing knowledge without exposing their healing knowledge to

the surviving generation. In +other words, death of the! skilful

medicine man, the skilful arts are lost.

c) Illiteracy of Traditionalists: : Igbo traditional health care delivery

system in Igboland is symtWlizedby the illiterate traditional

doctors and their medicine port'i"nsof roots, herbs, animals' parts,.

in some grotesque charms. Thi~{illiteracyproblem brings about the

problem of record keeping or deliberation and finances It brings

about inefficiency in writing and 'publication becomes difficult and

transmission of knowledge is gf~t1y inhibited.

d) Environmental problem - The tradimedicalists operate under very

poor hygienic conditions Most native doctors' c1inics/llOspltalsare

usually located in their compollnds Their compounds ~Hedilly and'Jj,~

:t\{..~...~:'::'\