emglsih

BAR-ILAN UNIVERSITY

The relationship between immigration, self esteem and depression and

cognitive and social functioning among young adult English speaking

immigrants in Israel.

NAOMIT ABEND

Submitted in partial fulfillment of requierments for the Master's

Degree in the Department of Criminology, Bar-Ilan University

Ramat Gan, Israel 2014

Nadav

Typewritten text

Yahli Bonchek

BAR-ILAN UNIVERSITY

The relationship between immigration, self esteem and depression and

cognitive and social functioning among young adult English speaking

immigrants in Israel.

NAOMIT ABEND

Submitted in partial fulfillment of requierments for the Master's

Degree in the Department of Criminology, Bar-Ilan University

Ramat Gan, Israel 2014

Nadav

Typewritten text

This work was carried out under the supervision of Dr. Sophie Walsh

Department of Criminology, Bar-Ilan University

Acknowledgments

Firstly I would like to thank Dr. Sophie Walsh, whose constant support, encouragement and

wisdom has kept me going through the entire journey that writing this thesis has involved.

Her patience, and persistence was continuous and her guidance and direction unfailing. In

particular, I want to thank her for believing in me and not letting me give up.

I’d like to thank all the participants for taking the time out of their busy schedules to fill out

the questionnaires.

And finally to Rany, for his never ending patience, encouragement, knowledge and love.

Contents Page:

Content Page

Abstract I

1. Introduction 1

2. Theoretical Background 2

2.1 The Experience of Immigration 2

2.2 Immigration and Self Esteem and Depression 3

2.3 Increased Coping Over Time 7

2.4 The Relationship between Self Esteem, Depression and Cognitive Functioning 9

2.5 The Relationship Between Self Esteem, Depression and Social Relationships 12

2.6 The Relationship between Acculturation Stress and Cognitive and Social

Functioning 14

2.7 Immigration from English Speaking Countries 16

3. Research Aims 17

3.1 Hypotheses 18

4. Method 19

4.1 Participants 19

4.2 Measures 20

4.3 Procedure 26

5. Results 27

5.1 Self Esteem, Depression and Cognitive Functioning across Groups 27

5.2 Effect of Self Esteem and Depression on Cognitive Functioning 27

5.3 Self Esteem, Depression and Social Relationships 29

5.4 Damage to Self 30

5.5 Damage to Self and Cognitive Functioning 31

5.6 Damage to Self and Social Relationships 31

5.7 Acculturation 32

5.8 Acculturation and Self Esteem and Depression 33

5.9 Acculturation and Social Relationships 34

5.10 Acculturation and Cognitive functioning 35

5.11 Predictors of cognitive functioning 36

6. Discussion 38

7. References 52

8. Appendix 62

8.1 Appendix 1: Demographic Questionnaire 63

8.2 Appendix 2: Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale (1965) 66

8.3 Appendix 3: Walsh’s Damage to Self Questionnaire (2008) 68

8.4 Appendix 4: Beck's Depression Inventory (BDI) 71

8.5 Appendix 5: Acculturation Scale 77

8.6 Appendix 6: Social Functioning Test 81

Hebrew Abstract א

List of Models and Tables

Models Page

Model 1: Model of Hypotheses 19

Model 2: Relationship between self esteem (x-axis) and scores on the Wechsler Symbol

Search test (y-axis). 28

Tables

Table 1: Average Age of Participants 20

Table 2: Socio-demographic data on participants (%) 20

Table 3: Correlation between Self Esteem, Depression and Wechsler Symbol Search

Test for all Three Groups Together 28

Table 4: Correlation between Self Esteem and Wechsler Maths for Group 2 Participants 29

Table 5: Correlation between Self Esteem and Depression and Social Functioning for all

Three Groups 29

Table 6: Correlation between Damage to Self and Intelligence Tests for Groups 1 and 2 31

Table 7: Correlation between Damage to Self and Social Functioning for Groups 1 and 2 32

Table 8: Correlation between Acculturation and Self Esteem and Depression for Groups 1

and 2 33

Table 9: Correlation between Acculturation and Social Functioning for Groups 1 and 2 34

Table 10: Correlation between Acculturation and Intelligence Tests for Groups 1 and 2 35

Table 11: Linear regressions using acculturation, damage to self and self esteem to predict

results on Raven 20 test. 37

Table 12: Linear regressions using acculturation, damage to self and self esteem to predict

results on Wechsler Symbol Search test 38

I

Abstract

Thousands of new immigrants migrate to Israel from all over the world, including

from a variety of English speaking countries. As a result of a sudden change of environment,

immigrants undergo a ‘culture shock’ which can result in a variety of psychological

manifestations. Indeed, in the initial phase following migration, an immigrant may be

considered to be emotionally vulnerable. The predominant feelings can include intense pain

and longing for all that one has left behind or lost, fear of the unknown, deep-rooted

loneliness, need, and helplessness.

Additionally, migration can pose threats to the immigrant’s sense of identity.

Differences in the new environment can be felt in many aspects of life, for example language,

as well as how to find his or her place, in the new community and acquire anew the social

position and professional status s/he enjoyed in the homeland. This can lead to a shake-up in

a sense of self and a decrease in an individual’s self esteem. Similarly, these changes can

result in a risk of mental health, in particular depression. Feelings of self esteem and

depression can add to a person’s mental workload, and this in turn can affect their cognitive

and social functioning.

Based on these understandings and previous research, this study examines whether the

immigration process influences a person’s levels of self esteem and depression, comparing

immigrants from English speaking countries who have been in Israel for two years or less, to

those who have been there for eight to twelve years, with Israeli born and raised. It then

examines to what extent these hypothesized changes affect levels of cognitive and social

functioning. Ninety five participants who fitted the criteria for each of the above groups, aged

from 23-47, took part in the study which involved carrying out a series of questionnaires

which examined their levels of self esteem (Rosenberg, 1965), depression (Beck's Depression

II

Inventory (BDI), 1996), damage to self (Walsh’s Damage to Self Questionnaire, 2008), and

acculturation (based on a larger study by Berry et al, 2006 adapted by Ben Shalom &

Horencyzk (2004)), as well as their levels of social functioning (Buhrmester et al’s (1988)

and Ryff's Scales of Psychological Well-being (1995)). They also took a series of tests which

examined various elements of cognitive functioning (Raven’s Advanced Progressive

Matrices (originally developed in 1936), and Wechsler Digit Span, Symbol Search, Maths,

Similarities (1997)).

The study found that levels of self esteem and depression did not differ across the

three groups. However differences in levels of acculturation and damage to self were found

between the two immigrant groups. Levels of acculturation and damage to self were also

found to be significantly related to self esteem and depression. Self esteem and depression

levels were significantly related to scores on the Wechsler Symbol Search test. Acculturation

and damage to self levels were significantly related to scores on the Wechsler Symbol Search

and Ravens Advanced Progressive Matrices tests. Self esteem and depression, as well as

damage to self and acculturation levels, were all found to be significantly related to social

functioning.

The study highlights some interesting finds with regards to the immigration process

for English speaking immigrants in Israel. Findings suggest that self esteem and depression

levels are not significantly affected by the process. However sense of belonging and identity,

as part of the acculturation process, in particular with regards to their relationship with Israel

(as determined by levels of acculturation and damage to self) do appear to be affected. This in

turn seems to influence levels of self esteem and depression. Levels of acculturation, in

particular control of the Hebrew language, appear to predict the immigrants cognitive

functioning on the Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices test as well as influencing their

levels of social functioning.

III

The findings of this research have several implications. It would be beneficial to

utilize the effect of self esteem and depression on certain cognitive functions, within

educational systems (such as schools and universities) in order to examine how far these

elements are effecting students’ abilities. Efforts should be made by host countries to assist

immigrants in adjusting to the new country in order to help increase their state of well being

and decrease the possibility of psychological distress. This in turn will assist in both their

cognitive and social functioning which will have wider implications in terms of finding work

and becoming active and contributing members of society. The importance of learning the

new language needs to be considered by the host country when providing assistance to new

immigrants, as does the need to provide suitably adapted matriculation and psychometric

tests.

Further research needs to be carried out in order to determine how far the findings of

this study are directly related to the immigration process, and how far they are influenced by

a person’s sense of self, as well as their cognitive and social abilities, before the immigration

process occurs.

1

1. Introduction

The Law of Return (1950) states that every Jew, his/her spouse, his children and

grandchildren and their spouses are entitled to immigrate to Israel. As a result, every year

thousands of new immigrants migrate to Israel from all over the world. In the year 2013,

19,558 immigrants moved to Israel, 7,732 from Eastern Europe, 4,689 from Western

Europe, 3,751 from North America & Oceania, 899 Latin America, 1,612 from Africa,

431 from Asia and 444 of whose origin is unknown (From the Israel Ministry of

Immigration website, www.moia.gov.il). The problems of adaptation are enormous and

range from cultural and religious to financial (Thranhardt, 2000).

In this study the effects of immigration on immigrants from English speaking

countries are examined. The study looks at how immigration may affect a person's sense

of self and feelings of self esteem. The effects this may have on an immigrant's cognitive

and social functioning are also examined. The study also examines how far effects are

temporary or lessen as time passes and the immigrant acculturates into the host society.

To the best of our knowledge, no previous research has been carried out on the

cognitive functioning of immigrants. Previous research has considered the relationship

between immigrants and low self esteem (Perkins, Wiley & Deaux, 2014) and between

self esteem and cognitive functioning (Baumeister et al., 2003, Makar, 2013), however

research has yet to be carried out which examines the cognitive functioning of

immigrants as a function of low self esteem. Such research can help us to understand the

experiences of immigrants when first moving to a new country. The research also has

social implications. It may enable relevant bodies, be it work places, universities and

colleges or schools to understand and to make appropriate allowances for immigrants. In

addition, little research has been carried out that considers the effect of self esteem on

social performance. Some research has shown a link between low social performance and

http://www.moia.gov.il/

2

self esteem (Erol & Orth, 2014, Lakey et al., 1994) but there appears to be little research

considering how self esteem among immigrants may affect social performance. Social

performance is a critical issue for new immigrants who have left behind family and

friends and need to start creating new social and support frameworks (Valentine, 2001).

Again results may enable those working with immigrants to help them in the

development of social networks.

2. Theoretical Background

2.1 The Experience of Immigration

Immigration occurs when an individual moves from one country to another or

from one region to another where the second is sufficiently distant and different from the

first, for a sufficiently prolonged period of time such that one would consider the person

as living in another country, there taking up the activities of daily life. This idea forms

the basis for the definitions found in most studies of migration: the action and effect of

moving from one country to another for the purpose of settling there (Grinberg &

Grinberg, 1984). Regardless of whether it is from one country to another or from one

region to another region of the same country, immigration can lead to what has been

termed "culture shock" (Oberg, 1960). Ticho (1971) has described culture shock as a

result of sudden change from an "average expectable environment" to a strange and

unpredictable one.

The intricate process that follows such a confrontation or a cultural encounter can

be rich in psychological manifestations, whose intensity, form and content may depend

upon a diversity of functional variables (Garza-Guerrero, 1974). Many models of

acculturation have been suggested but the large majority of them conceptualize the

acculturation process as potentially stressful because of difficulties which can include

3

language problems, perceived discrimination, perceived cultural incompatibilities, and

identity conflicts (Berry, 1997). Negative outcomes can occur when stressors of this kind

exceed the individual's coping resources, or protecting mediators (Liebkind, 2001). The

consequent anxiety challenges the stability of the newcomer's psychic organization

(Akhtar, 1999). Berry (1997) however points out that for some, the psychological

changes may be rather easy to accomplish. He suggests that psychological adaptations to

acculturation are a matter of learning a new behavioral repertoire that is appropriate for

the new cultural context. In fact, rigorous research and analysis has cast doubt on the

inevitability of an association between immigrant status and psychological disorders, as

several factors have been found to moderate the relationship (Berry, 1997).

In the initial phase following migration, an immigrant may be considered to be

emotionally vulnerable (Oppedal, Roysamb & Sam, 2004). Psychoanalytic literature has

suggested that in the first stage of the migratory process, the predominant feelings can

include intense pain and longing for all that one has left behind or lost, fear of the

unknown, deep-rooted loneliness, need, and helplessness. Paranoid, disorienting, and

depressive anxieties may alternate with one another, leaving the person prone to periods

of total disorganization (Grinberg & Grinberg, 1984). In summary, migration can be

considered as a potentially traumatic experience characterized by a series of partially

traumatic events and at the same time represents a crisis situation (Foster, 2001). The

crisis may trigger a decision to emigrate or, conversely, may reflect the impact of the

migration (Grinberg & Grinberg, 1984).

2.2 Immigration and Self Esteem and Depression

Self-esteem is literally defined by how much value people place on themselves. It

is the evaluative component of self-knowledge (Baumeister et al., 2003). High self-

4

esteem refers to a highly favourable global evaluation of the self (Baumeister et al.,

2003). Self reported self-esteem does not carry any definitional requirement of accuracy

whatsoever and is thus perception rather than an objective measure (Baumeister et al.,

2003).

Kernberg (1967) suggests that mental health involves the feeling of continuity,

consistency and confirmation in one’s self image or identity. Establishing a sense of

identity means maintaining stability in the face of changing circumstances and life cycles.

Events such as migration, which cause drastic change in a person's life, can pose threats

to the sense of identity (Grinberg & Grinberg, 1984). Victor Tausk (1919) who

introduced the term identity in psychoanalytic literature, maintained that just as a child

discovers objects and his own self, so an adult in his struggle for self-preservation

frequently repeats the experience of "finding himself" and "feeling like himself." The

immigrant in his struggle for self-preservation needs to hold onto various elements of his

native environment (familiar objects, music, memories, and dreams representing different

aspects of his native land) in order to be able to feel like himself (Akhtar, 1999).

However, the immigrant may need to re-negotiate elements of his identity, at least

temporarily, in order to become integrated in the new environment (Grinberg & Grinberg,

1984). These differences can be felt by the immigrant in many aspects of life, for

example language as well as how to find his place, his spot, in the new community and

acquire anew the social position and professional status he enjoyed in his homeland. No

one knows him, and feeling anonymous increases his inner insecurity (Grinberg &

Grinberg, 1984). Problems also arise when, owing to the more demanding requirements

in the host country, or to the inherent nature of his skills themselves, an immigrant

cannot resume the vocation he has practiced hitherto. Low self esteem and cynicism may

be frequent in such situations (Akhtar, 1999).

5

The need to give up a part of his or her individuality can result in the immigrant

feeling a sense of loss. In all object losses a simultaneous loss of parts of the self

accompanies the person's sorrow for the lost object (Grinberg & Grinberg, 1984). Any

sense of loss is accompanied by a state of mourning. Freud (1917, p.243) stated that

"Mourning is regularly the reaction to the loss of a loved person, or to the loss of some

abstraction which has taken the place of one, such as one's country, liberty, an ideal and

so on." Freud regarded such melancholic patients as having low self-esteem, which arises

out of the ambivalence felt for the lost object, and assumed that in an ideal model of

mourning the absence of hostility to the lost object accounted for the lack of low self-

esteem. Similarly, Bibring (1953) considered depression, just like anxiety, a "state of the

ego" and felt that low self-esteem was the common denominator of depression (Garza-

Guerrero, 1974). This therefore suggests that any immigrant who is forced to give up a

part of his sense of self will experience low self-esteem and depressive feelings as a

result.

Indeed research that has examined the impact of immigration on sense of self

confirms this. Ben David (1996) found that immigrants showed fewer feelings of

confidence in the predictability and explicability of one's environment, together with

feelings of confidence in one's inner resources. Walsh and Horencyzk (2001) examining

English speaking immigrants in Israel, describe the loss of feelings of competence and a

sense of belonging. In Walsh et al.'s (2007) research on the impact of immigration on

young adults the subjects described feelings such as shame, failure and a lack of

competence; injury to their pride, feelings of being unwanted, different and not

understood; and feelings of instability and a lack of sense of belonging, many of which

are feelings which are a part of or result in low self esteem.

6

How people think that others evaluate them has long been believed to influence

how they evaluate themselves, an insight that has been extended to people’s group

memberships (Deaux, 1993). How people think that others evaluate the groups that they

belong to (public regard) can influence how they themselves evaluate their groups

(private regard). Evidence supports an indirect link between how first- and second-

generation immigrants think that people in the heritage culture evaluate their ethnic

group (i.e., public regard) and self-esteem, via how immigrants themselves evaluate their

ethnic group (i.e., private regard) (Perkins, Wiley & Deaux, 2014).

Though the above suggests that the immigration process affects a person’s sense

of self, its direct relation to self esteem has yet to be examined. Noticeably most research

which concentrates on acculturation and self esteem has been carried out on adolescents

and students. In addition, most research looked at the effect of acculturation on self

esteem and not the other way around other. Any research that did test the effect of self

esteem on acculturation was not causal. The following study will therefore examine how

far the immigration process directly affects a person’s self esteem, in comparison to

Israeli-born counterparts.

Depression is often used as a common descriptor for feeling emotionally low, but

it may manifest as a severe chronic clinical condition (McTernan et al., 2013). The

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th

Edition, provides diagnostic

criteria for Major Depressive Disorder and Depressive Episodes as depressed mood or a

loss of interest or pleasure in daily activities for more than two weeks, impaired social,

occupational, and educational function with at least 5 different symptoms (e.g. depressed

mood, decreased pleasure in activities, weight change, insomnia, diminished ability to

concentrate). Sub clinical depression is when symptoms are not strong enough to warrant

a clinical diagnosis (McTernan et al., 2013).

7

The relationship between migration and mental health has been the subject of

studies for several decades and is considered a public health challenge in many countries.

In most studies, immigrants and their descendents have been found to be at greater risk

for developing mental illness than mainstream populations (Abebe, Lien & Hjelde, 2013).

Depression during the acculturation process has been reported as one of the most

prevalent health problems for immigrant women (Chae, Park & Sun Kang, 2014). Mental

health outcomes associated with migration may vary depending on factors such as socio-

cultural and economic contexts, gender, generation, acculturation or social integration,

and the conditions and reasons under which migration takes place (Abebe, Lien & Hjelde,

2013). Depressive symptoms have also been attributed to face demands for adaptation to

an unfamiliar system, as well as to discrimination and rejection from the host population

(Yu, Stewart, Liu & Lam, 2012).

Immigrants may encounter many stresses during the process of acculturating to a

new country. This acculturative stress may result in significant levels of depression.

Indeed acculturative stress has been positively associated with depression and suicidal

ideation and acculturative stress, perceived family dysfunction and nonhopeful

“expectations for the future” are significant predictors of depression and suicidal ideation

(Hovey, 2000).

Once again depression appears to be a result of the immigration process but there

appears to be a lack of research examining its direct link, and levels of depression in

comparison to Israeli born counterparts.

2.3 Increased Coping Over Time

The anxiety of the stressful situation that is migration can cause a person’s sense of

self to become temporarily disorganized. A person’s ability to return overcome this

8

situation can, to some degree, predict the success or failure of their migration (Grinberg

& Grinberg, 1984). If, because of his character predisposition or the conditions of his

migration, the emigrant's ego is too severely damaged by the traumatic experience of the

past or present crisis, it will be difficult for him to recover from the state of

disorganization into which he has fallen, and he may suffer any one of many forms of

mental or physical illness. If, however, he has sufficient capacity for working through,

not only will he overcome the crisis but there will be a quality of rebirth to his recovery

and a development of his creative potential (Grinberg & Grinberg, 1984).

Stability in the emigrant's family life is one of the factors that will assist in a

successful migration experience, as are professional skill and job satisfaction (Grinberg

& Grinberg, 1984). Kim & Grant (1997) state that success in reestablishing social

networks in their new society reduces the psychological distress and the detrimental

effect of uprooting experienced by immigrants. Past research suggests that factors such

as age at immigration, language preference, place of birth, generation level,

socioeconomic status, preferred ethnic identity and ethnic group social contacts may

influence the transition process (Jamil et al, 2007).

The phase of acculturation needs to be taken into account if stress and adaptation

are to be understood. That is, how long a person has been experiencing acculturation

strongly affects the kind and extent of problems (Berry, 1997). The classical description

of positive adaptation in relation to time has been in terms of a U-curve: Only a few

problems are present early, followed by more serious problems later, and finally a more

positive long-term adaptation is achieved (Berry, 1997). Alternatively, but with the same

end effect, Jamil et al (2007) found that acculturation stress amongst Iraqi immigrants in

the US decreased over time. Although many studies have demonstrated higher distress

among recent immigrants, there is little empirical evidence for such a standard course,

9

nor for fixed times (in terms of months or years) when such variations will occur (Berry,

1997). Many researchers support an initial euphoric phase and suggest that the distress

may last three months to seven years following immigration (Ritsner & Ponizovsky,

1999).

An alternative to a fixed, stage-like conceptualization of the relationship between

length of acculturation and problems experienced is to consider the specific nature of the

experiences and problems encountered as they change over time (e.g. initially learning a

language, obtaining employment and housing, followed by establishing social

relationships and recreational opportunities) and the relationship of such problems to the

personal resources of the migrant and to opportunities in the society of settlement (Ho,

1995). This approach emphasizes the high degree of variability to be expected over the

time course from initial contact to eventual long-term adaptation (Berry, 1997).

The current study examines two groups of immigrants: one group of immigrants

who immigrated within the previous two years and a second group of immigrants who

immigrated 8-10 years ago (together with a group of Israeli-born individuals) in order to

explore how time in Israel and levels of acculturation may impact on inner feelings (self

esteem/ depression) and functioning.

2.4 The Relationship between Self Esteem, Depression and Cognitive

Functioning

Levels of self esteem have been shown to have implications on many areas of life,

for example high self-esteem has been associated with greater well-being than low self-

esteem (Paradise & Kernis, 2002) and there is widespread agreement with the assertion

that the person's evaluation or esteem of himself plays a key role in determining his or

her behaviour (Brown & Mankowski, 1993). One interpretation of this is that whereas

11

possessing secure feelings of self-worth may provide the basis for functioning effectively

in various realms, fragile self-feelings may undermine effective functioning (Paradise &

Kernis, 2002). Baumeister (1984) suggests that attention to oneself decreases one's

attention to the task so that performance decrements are due to overlooking information

necessary to perform the task.

Cognitive psychology has extensively studied the processes underlying mental

workload and their consequence on human information processing (Croizet et al., 2004).

People are continually confronted with tasks that demand more or less cognitive capacity.

Some tasks are more difficult than others in that they require more attention and more

elaborated cognitive processing (Cowan, 1995). There is also ample evidence showing

that, under certain circumstances, the mental workload experienced by a person will

result in lower performance (Croizet et al., 2004). Such a performance decrement is

usually attributed to the limited capacity of working memory, either the limited pool of

attentional resources has been exhausted by task requirements (e.g. the task is too

difficult) or a finite workspace had to be shared between several tasks. In other words,

some extra peripheral activity (e.g. self related worries) can interfere with the processing

of a focus task (e.g. the resolution of logical problem) because it competes for the limited

resources. In such a situation, increased mental workload will reflect cognitive

interference and result in lower performance (Croizet et al., 2004). Indeed Croizet et al.

(2004) found that test scores in intelligence can be substantially influenced by situational

factors in addition to any actual differences in cognitive ability.

If Baumeister's (1984) suggestions are correct than the mental burden caused by

low self esteem would result in lower performance on intellectual tasks. Indeed, many

studies have found that high self-esteem is positively correlated with academic

performance. In an early review, Wylie (1979) concluded that the correlation between

11

self-esteem and students' grade point averages was about .30. She added that similar or

slightly stronger relationships had been reported between self-esteem and scores on

various other achievement tests. Similarly, Davies and Brember (1999) found a

significant positive relationship between self-esteem and academic performance, in a

large British sample. Most recent studies have yielded similar conclusions (Baumeister et

al., 2003). Applied to the world of work, the self-esteem hypothesis suggests that higher

self esteem is strongly associated with better functioning at work and greater work

satisfaction (Michon et al., 2008). Indeed, the results regarding the link between self-

esteem and job performance seem to echo what has been found with school performance;

high self-esteem is related to better performance (Makar, 2014).

Since it would appear that self esteem is related to cognitive functioning and that

immigration can often impact on self esteem (Perkins, Wiley & Deaux, 2014), the

following study will examine basic cognitive functions of immigrants as compared to

their Israeli born counterparts and will determine how far self esteem is indeed an

influencing factor in various cognitive functions.

Similarly, it can be expected that depression would in turn effect cognitive

functioning. Indeed research suggests that the majority of adults with major depressive

disorder suffer from significant cognitive deficits (Wagner et al., 2014), and that

improved mood state is often associated with improved cognitive performance and that

degraded mood is associated with impaired cognitive performance (Lieberman et al.,

2014). Similar to self esteem, the impact of depression is evident in lost productivity at

work (McTernan et al., 2013). Work capacity is reduced in persons with anxiety and

depression and this has greater influence on work performance than many other medical

conditions. Individuals with mental disorders report more frequent ‘‘extra effort days’’

than those with physical disorders. Work capacity is affected also in individuals with

12

subthreshold symptoms and in those who are in clinical remission (Bertilsson et al.,

2013). Depression has also been shown to have detrimental effects on students' studies

(Othieno et al., 2014). Indeed pediatric major depressive disorder seems to be associated

with an increased risk for poor academic functioning (Wagner et al., 2014). In adults

with major depressive disorder empirical evidence supports the existence of moderate but

significant cognitive deficits, specifically in executive functions, psycho-motor speed,

attention and memory. These deficits affect patient’s ability to analyze, plan, prioritize,

schedule, initiate and complete an activity in a timely manner. As a result the cognitive

dysfunctions lead to poor classroom performance. In addition, studies have revealed that

the performance in cognitive test procedures is related to the ability to regulate emotions.

Emotional dysregulation on the other hand is one of the central features of depression

(Wagner et al., 2014).

No research appears to exist examining the direct relationship between depression

and basic cognitive functions (as opposed to performance at work, in certain tasks etc)

among immigrants. The following study attempts to examine this relationship, as well as

to determine to what extent immigration has a role in functioning.

2.5 The Relationship Between Self Esteem, Depression and Social Relationships

Self esteem has also been linked to interpersonal relationships. It is certainly

plausible that high self-esteem would improve interpersonal relations (Baumeister et al.,

2003). With regards to social relationships self esteem has been found to be related to

relationship satisfaction (Erol & Orth, 2014), likeability, (Baumeister et al., 2003), higher

quality friendships, (Keefe & Berndt, 1996), positive social interactions, less stressful life

events (Lakey et al, 1994), and more social support (Marigold et al., 2014) better

workplace relationships (Frone, 2000), better, richer, and more satisfying social lives

13

(Baumeister et al., 2003), more reciprocal friendships (Bishop & Inderbitzen, 1995),

increased presence of conventional and peer-oriented groups (Glendinning & Inglis,

1999), longer lasting romantic relationships, (Hendrick et al., 1988), higher motivation

for a romantic relationship (Kindelberger & Tsao, 2014), less instances of unrequited

love (Baumeister et al., 2003), public self consciousness (Cho, Matsumoto & Kimura,

2009), and positive contribution to group work and group performance (Baumeister et

al., 2003).

Similarly, depression has been linked to interpersonal relationships. Depressive

symptoms often negatively affect individuals’ social network and cause interpersonal

conflicts. They are associated with negative feedback and excessive reassurance seeking,

negative attributions, ruminations and poor social skills (Joiner Jr., 2001). Depression

has also been connected to less instrumental social support (Bonanno et al., 2002) to

abusive relationships (Follingstad, 2009), interpersonal instability and dysfunction and

social withdrawal (Hammen, 2012), romantic relationship stress and lower relationship

quality (Whitton & Kuryluk, 2014) including withdrawal of support and an increase in

conflicts (Whisman & Baucom, 2012), low social support at work (Netterstrom et al.,

2008), decreased acceptance and support from peers (Dolphin & Hennessy, 2014), and

rejection (Stice, Ragan & Randall, 2004).

Self esteem is also important when looking at the social behaviour of immigrants

since it is thought to indicate comprehensive values of the self that are made largely by

comparing the self with others (Schnittker, 2002). Indeed, according to Negy and Woods

(1992) "Self-esteem or self confidence may interact with acculturation as it intuitively

makes sense that a healthy level of self confidence would assist individuals in taking

risks, such as initiating contact with members outside their ethnic groups" (p.243)

(Valentine, 2001). Several studies have shown that self esteem is a significant predictor

14

of general psychological well-being in ethnic minority adolescents (Rhee et al., 2003). In

Pham and Harris's (2001) study of Vietnamese-Americans they found that preference for

integration was positively linked to self-esteem. In a similar study by Valentine (2001) it

was found that Hispanics' self-esteem is positively associated with their assimilation into

mainstream American culture.

This study will examine how far low self esteem and depression, among

immigrants, affect a person’s social functioning on a broad level, in comparison to their

Israeli counterparts.

2.6 The Relationship between Acculturation Stress and Cognitive and Social

Functioning

Selye (1936) defined stress as the “nonspecific” result of any demand upon the

body, be the effect mental or somatic” (p.3). McGrath (1976) argued that stress involves

interaction between a person and his/her environment. Lazarus and Folkman (1984)

defined stress as “a relationship between the person and the environment that is appraised

by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his or her well

being” (p.21). While quite broad, these definitions clearly point to stress as an outcome

for individuals who face taxing situational demands. In this way, stress is perceptual, and,

for any given situation, is likely to vary from person to person (O’Connor et al., 2010).

Acculturative stress is often defined as stress that occurs in the process of

adaptation to the host culture from a person’s own culture (Mori, 2000). It is noted that a

higher level of acculturative stress is associated with many factors: socio demographic

characteristics (e.g., older age, female, longer years of education), a deeper level of

psychological distress, mode of acculturation, loss of social support, increased family and

cultural conflicts, personality, and different social values and norms (Jin, 2014).

15

Particularly, studies on international students in the United States identified that the more

discrepancy there is between the host culture and the culture of origin, the higher the

level of acculturative stress (Lee, Koeske, & Sales, 2004).

Similarly to self esteem and depression, stress has also been found to be related to

cognitive and social functioning. Those found under stress were found to experience

cognitive impairments (Robinson et al., 2003). Negative affects such as stress have been

shown to interfere with cognitive control and tasks, in particular verbal and spatial

working memory (Koric et al., 2012), and controlled task focused thinking (Kivimaki &

Lusa, 1994). High stress proneness is associated with the risk of a serotonin deficiency in

the brain. Serotonergic activity seems to be involved in the maintaining of control over

information processing and thus may result in reduced cognitive performance (Markus et

al., 1998).

With regards to social functioning, research seems to indicate that social support

can moderate levels of acculturation stress (Hovey & King, 1997). Previous studies have

shown that social support is a positive indicator of acculturative stress (Lee, Lee, Kim, &

Kim, 2009) and psychological distress (Gellis, 2003). Furthermore, research has shown

that there is an indirect impact of acculturative stress on intimate relationships of

individuals (Neff & Hoppe, 1992). Psychological problems caused by acculturative stress

affect an individual’s intimate relationships adversely (Karapanagiotis, 2008).

Little research seems to be available regarding the relationship between stress,

and in particular acculturation stress, on social functioning and most research that does

exists seems to examine the effect of support on stress levels and not vice versa. This

research will therefore examine levels of acculturation of immigrants and how far this

effects levels of self esteem and depression and in turn will examine the relationship

between acculturation and cognitive and social functioning.

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2.7 Immigration from English Speaking Countries

This study examines the experience of young people, from English speaking

countries, who have chosen to move to Israel. In the last two decades, approximately

100,000 people have emigrated from Western countries to Israel, including 40,000 from

North America (Central Bureau of Statistics 2012). These immigrants entered Israel

under the Law of Return, which permits the entrance of immigrants with at least one

Jewish grandparent (referred in Hebrew as olim) and grants them Israeli citizenship upon

arrival. Participants can be considered to have immigrated from a ‘diaspora’ population

to a ‘homeland’ (Walsh & Horenczyk, 2001). As a returning diaspora, the immigrants

who come to Israel feel an affinity with their new host society even before migrating and

frequently exhibit warm feelings of homecoming upon arrival (Amit & Riss, 2007).

Although the migration of Jews to Israel is classified as a ‘‘returning diaspora’’

(Semyonov & Lewin-Epstein 2003), Jewish immigrants are driven by a combination of

motives, among them proclaimed religious and ideological (Zionist) motives. In fact, the

few studies conducted on North American immigrants in Israel reveal that many of these

immigrants are religious Jews whose main motives for coming to Israel are religious

(Amit & Riss, 2007).

Western immigrants freely choose to come to Israel (Amit & Semyonov, 2006),

and are characterized with high levels of educational attainment and a high representation

of occupational professions (Rebhun & Waxman, 2000). They are often highly skilled;

many of them are professional, managerial and technical specialists (Amit & Riss, 2007).

Amit and Riss (2007) found that in their immigration process, immigrants from North

America tend to rely on social networks based on distant (weak) ties. It should be noted

that the geographic dispersion of American olim differs significantly from that of the

17

total Jewish Israeli population. Most salient is their greater tendency to settle in rural

localities as compared to their Israeli counterparts (Rebhun & Waxman, 2000).

3. Research Aims

This study takes as its starting point that immigrants need to renegotiate their

identity, at least temporarily, in order to become integrated into the new environment.

This along with other factors involved in the immigration process, in particular the

acculturation process, can lead to feelings of low self esteem and depression. This study

aims to examine how far this theoretical knowledge regarding changes to a person’s

sense of self and well being during the immigration process, actually occurs in reality.

Using Israeli born counterparts as a control group, the study measures the levels of self

esteem and depression of new immigrants (up to two years) from English speaking

countries in Israel as well as of more veteran immigrants who have been in Israel

between eight to twelve years.

Self esteem and depression have been found to be linked to levels of cognitive

and social functioning. This study will therefore examine how far new immigrants, who

are predicted to be suffering from lower levels of self esteem and higher levels of

depression, have impaired overall cognitive and social functioning, with an emphasis on

the predictive role of the self esteem and depression. The study also involved immigrants

who had been in Israel a substantially longer period of time (8-10 years) According to the

literature, these young people should have acclimated and returned to their original levels

of self esteem and depression with no effect on their cognitive and social functioning.

Furthermore the study examines the role of acculturation and its influence on self esteem

and depression and how and if, in turn, this effects social and cognitive functioning.

18

3.1 Hypotheses

1). The study hypothesized that immigrants would have lower levels of self esteem and

higher levels of depression than their Israeli born counterparts. In addition, newer

immigrants will have lower self esteem and higher levels of depression than those that

have been in the country for some time.

2). The study also hypothesized that those with low self esteem and suffering from

depression will perform less well on tasks testing cognitive functioning.

3). As a result of the above, the study hypothesized that immigrants would perform worse

on tasks of cognitive functioning than their Israeli born counterparts (with newer

immigrants performing worse than those that have been in the country for some time)

and that this would be mediated by levels of self esteem and depression.

4). The study also hypothesized that those with lower self esteem and higher levels of

depression will have lower quality social relationships. New immigrants will have lower

quality social relationships than their Israeli born counterparts, which will be mediated

by levels of self esteem and depression.

5). The study supposes that after a significant period of time immigrants’ self esteem and

levels of depression will return to the levels they were at before immigration and as such

immigrants who have been in the country for a longer period of time will perform to the

same standards on tasks testing cognitive functioning and will have the same quality of

social relationships as their Israeli counterparts. As such, the study hypothesized that

measurements of older immigrants on cognitive functioning, social relationships, self

esteem and depression will not differ from those of their Israeli counterparts.

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4. Method

4.1 Participants

The research was carried out on immigrants in Israel from English speaking

countries. The participants were divided into three groups: 1. Immigrants from English

speaking countries who had moved to Israel within the last two years (n =33), 2.

Immigrants from English speaking countries who had been in Israel between eight to

twelve years (n=31), and 3. A control group of Israeli born and raised participants (n=31).

Participants age was from 23 to 47 (see table 1). New immigrant participants were

gathered from Absorption centres and Hebrew learning centers (“Ulpanim”). Older

immigrants were contacted through immigrant networks. Each group consisted of

approximately 30 participants. Participants stemmed from various educational and

marital status backgrounds (see table 2).

21

Table 1 Average Age of Participants

N Minimum Maximum Mean Std Deviation

New

Immigrants

33 23 39 28.88 3.967

Veteran

Immigrants

31 26 47 32.1 4.308

Israelis 31 26 35 30.03 2.121

Table 2: Socio-demographic data on participants (%)

Of the immigrants, 56.3% were born in the UK and 31.3% in the USA, 4.7% in

Canada, 4.7% in South Africa and 3.1% in Australia. For group 1, the mean number of

years in Israel was 1.31 (SD = 0.79) and for group 2, 9.8 (SD = 1.45).

4.2 Measures

Participants completed an anonymous questionnaire containing the following

elements (each part was provided in English for the immigrant participants and Hebrew

for the Israeli born participants):

1. Demographic Questionnaire (Appendix 1). This section required participants to

provide basic demographic information such as age, education, marital status and level of

religiousness.

New Immigrants Veteran Immigrants Israelis

Male 57.6 61.3 38.7

Female

42.4 38.7 61.3

Bagrut only (or equivalent) 6.1 3.2 3.2

Partial Academic Education 3 16.1 9.7

BA 54.5 54.8 41.9

MA/Phd

36.4 25.8 45.2

Single 69.7 48.4 80.6

Married 27.3 51.6 19.4

Divorced

3 0 0

Fulltime Employment 51.5 74.2 74.2

Part time Employment 27.3 12.9 12.9

Unemployed 21.2 12.9 12.9

21

2. Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale (1965) (Appendix 2). The questionnaire

consists of 10 questions that measure participants’ levels of self esteem answered on a 4

point scale from 1 = strongly agree to 4 = strongly disagree. Questions relate to how a

person relates to himself (e.g. “On the whole I am satisfied with myself”) and his self

image (e.g. “All in all, I am inclined to think I am a failure” and “I feel that I am a person

of worth, at least on an equal plane with others”). Item scores are summed to a total score

(ranging from 10-40) with some questions’ scales inverted in order to achieve a score that

determines level of self esteem. The scale has previously been translated and used in Hebrew

(Sherer & Enbal, 2006). The scale has been found to be of high validity and reliability in

previous studies (Sinclair et al., 2010) and was also found to be reliable in this study, Cronbach’s

Alpha = 0.82.

3. Walsh’s Damage to Self Questionnaire (2008) (Appendix 3). The damage to

self scale explores the degree to which the emerging adult described a feeling of having

negatively internalized elements of the immigration experience. A total of 42 questions

are answered on a 5 point scale from 1= I don’t feel like this at all to 5 = I feel this almost

all the time. Some questions are inverted to allow a total score which reflects the level of

damage to self. Questions examine negative feelings regarding oneself in general (e.g. “I

feel helpless, sad, unstable, calm, lonely”), with regards to moving country (e.g. “I miss

places, scenery and weather”, “I miss home cooked food and food from my homeland”)

and with regards to living in Israel in particular (e.g. “I think that Israeli culture is rude”,

“I feel that Israelis accept me”). New immigrants were asked to fill this out regarding the

period since they moved to Israel and veteran immigrants were asked to fill it out both

regarding how they felt in the first two years after moving to Israel and again with

regards to how they currently feel. This questionnaire was only filled in by the immigrant

groups

22

4. Beck's Depression Inventory (BDI) (Appendix 4). Developed by Beck, Steer, &

Brown (1996). The questionnaire is a 21-question multiple-choice self-report inventory

with each question containing several sentences. Participants must choose the sentence

which best describes how they have felt (e.g. “0. I don't feel a failure, 1. I feel that I have

failed more than the average man, 2. When I look back on my life all that I see is a lot of

failures, 3. I feel that I am a total failure as a person”), or acted (e.g. “0. I make decisions

as I always did, 1. I try to postpone making decisions more than I did in the past, 2. I find

it harder to make decisions than I did in the past 3. I can't make decisions at all”) or

behavioural changes (e.g. “0. My appetite is no worse than normal, 1. My appetite isn’t

as good as it used to be, 2. My appetite is much worse now, 3. I don't have any appetite at

all any more”) over the last week with the higher point sentences suggesting higher levels

of depression. Scores on the scale can range from 0 to 63, with scores of up to 10

reflecting normal behaviours, scores of over 17 suggesting some range of depression and

over 40 suggesting severe depression. The BDI has been found to be of high reliability

and validity including for cross cultural populations (Joe et al., 2008).

5. Acculturation Scale (based on a larger study by Berry et al, 2006 adapted by

Ben Shalom & Horencyzk (2004) (Appendix 5). The questionnaire is divided into several

sections which examine various aspects of acculturation. The first section considers how

a person regards themselves, in terms of identity with a country. The first question in this

section asks for a general overview regarding identifying with a country (e.g. “I think of

myself as English/Israeli/English and Israeli”) and is on a 5 point scale from 1= not at all

to 5= very much. The second part of this section is made up of 15 questions regarding

feelings towards both the participant’s homeland and Israel (e.g. “Being past of English

culture is embarrassing to me”, “I feel that moving to Israeli was one of the most

important things I've ever done.”). Questions are on a 5 point scale from 1=strongly

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_choice

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-report_inventory

23

disagree to 5=strongly agree. The second section of the scale examines how important

people consider different aspects of themselves to be (e.g. “that I am English/Israeli”,

“that I am a male/female”, “that I am Jewish”). Five questions are answered on a 5 point

scale from 1=not at all, to 5= very well. The third section considers attitudes towards

various aspects of acculturation such as language (e.g. “It is more important to be to be

fluent in English than in Hebrew”, “it is more important to me to be fluent in Hebrew

than in English”), cultural traditions (e.g. “I feel that it is not important for the English

either to maintain their own cultural transients or to adapt to those of Israel”, “I feel that

the English should maintain their own cultural traditions but also adapt to those of Israel”)

and friendships (e.g. “I prefer social activities that involve Israelis only”, “I prefer to

have only Israeli friends”). 20 questions are answered on a 5 point scale where

1=strongly disagree and 5=strongly agree. The final sections concerns knowledge of

Hebrew and English with participants being asked to rate their levels of English and

Hebrew understanding, speaking, reading and writing on a 5 point scale from 1=not at all

to 5=very well.

Since the questionnaire considers various aspects of acculturation scores were calculated

for each section of the scale and participants were provided acculturation scores for

Identity of home country, Israel identity, no identity with Israel or home country, strong

Israeli and home country identity, control of Hebrew language, control of English

language, acculturated into Israeli society. This questionnaire was only given to the two

immigrant groups.

6. Cognitive Functioning. Cognitive functioning was assessed using five tests. 1) Raven

Advanced Progressive Matrices Test widely used to measure problem solving ability

(Raven et al., 1993), fluid intelligence (Cattell, 1963) and analytic intelligence (Carpenter,

Just & Shell, 1990). Participants are provided with a set of matrices to solve. Each

24

matrix contains a pattern and participants need to identify the missing matrix from a

choice of 8. Items are presented as one set of 12 (set I), and another of 36 (set II). Items

are again presented in black ink on a white background, and become increasingly

difficult as progress is made through each set. Participants received two scores for

carrying out the test, a score based on how many correct answers after twenty minutes

(proven to be an adequate predictor of the untimed score (Hamel & Schmittmann, 2006)

and another score for correct answers for the full test with no time restrictions. 2) The

remaining tests were selected from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (Wechsler, D.

(1997a). WAIS-III: Technical manual. Orlando, FL: Psychological Corporation). Tests

were chosen according to the various aspects of cognitive functioning they examine, with

the assumption (based on previous research) that these were the cognitive functions that

the mental burden of self esteem and depression would influence.

i) Wechsler Digit Span. This test involves presenting a series of digits orally at the rate of

one per second and the subject’s task is to repeat them sequentially, or for “digits

backwards” in the reverse order. The participant is required to repeat 3-9 digits forward

and 2-9 digits backwards with the length of each sequence of numbers increasing as the

participant correctly responds. Participants receive a score of one for each series of

digits they correctly repeat.

ii) The Wechsler Symbol Search test comprises of a series of items which contain various

symbols. Within a period of two minutes the participant must mark either yes or no in a

checkbox as to whether the symbols shown are present in the series of symbols provided.

The Symbol Search subtest is designed to assess information processing speed and visual

perception. It is one of three subtests that contribute to the Processing Speed Indices

derived from the Wechsler intelligence scales.

http://www.springerreference.com/docs/link/2163867.html?s=184062&t=Symbol+Search+subtest

http://www.springerreference.com/docs/link/2088416.html?s=184062&t=information+processing+speed

http://www.springerreference.com/docs/link/2076386.html?s=184062&t=visual+perception


http://www.springerreference.com/docs/link/2204414.html?s=184062&t=Processing+Speed

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iii) The Wechsler Arithmetic Test is comprised of Maths, 20 arithmetic problems similar

to those encountered in elementary math courses. Problems are administered orally and

must be solved without paper and pencil. In addition to math knowledge, test measures

concentration and systematic problem-solving ability.

iv) The Wechsler Similarities Test is made up of 19 items which require the participant

to describe how two given things are alike, for example what do ice and steam have in

common? Scores on each item vary according to the degree to which the response

describes a general property primarily pertinent to both items in the pair. The test

measures concrete, functional, and abstract concept formation.

7. Social Functioning Test (Appendix 6) – The questionnaire is based on two sources. 1)

Buhrmester et al’s (1988) 40 item questionnaire which is designed to assess five domains

of interpersonal competence: a) initiating relationships (e.g. “Asking or suggesting to

someone new that you get together and do something, e.g. go out together”), b)

disclosing personal information (e.g. “Revealing something intimate about yourself while

talking with someone you’re just getting to know.”), c) asserting displeasure with others

(e.g. “Saying “no” when a date/acquaintance asks you to do something you don’t want to do”),

d) providing emotional support and advice (e.g. “Helping a close companion get to the heart

of a problem s/he is experiencing”), and e) managing interpersonal conflict (e.g. When angry

with a companion, being able to accept that s/he has a valid point of view even if you don’t agree

with that view”). Participants are instructed to use a 5-point rating scale to indicate their

level of competence and comfort in handling each type of situation (1- ‘I’m poor at this;

I’d feel so uncomfortable and unable to handle this situation’ to ‘5- I’m EXTREMELY

good at this; I’d feel very comfortable and could handle this situation very well.’ The

questionnaire has been found to be reliable and valid (Buhrmester et al., 1988). This

questionnaire was translated to Hebrew by Ergov (1999).

26

2) Ryff's Scales of Psychological Well-being (1995) which includes a section on positive

relations with others. This section contains nine statements which the participant must

grade on a 6 point scale from "1-I strongly agree" to "6-I strongly disagree" with regards

to the participant’s relationships with others such as “I often feel lonely because I have

few close friends with whom to share my concerns” and “Maintaining close relationships

has been difficult and frustrating for me.” Participants receive a score from 9 to 54 which

represents their difficulties in forming relationships. Some questions’ scores are inverted

to provide the score. The scale has been found to be valid and reliable (Spring & Hauser,

2006).

4.3 Procedure

The study received ethics approval from the Bar Ilan ethics committee. Before

carrying out the research a pre test was carried out with 10 students, after which any

elements of the questionnaire that were felt to be unclear were improved.

Participants were met with on a one-on-one basis to fill out the questionnaire.

After signing an informed consent form, the questionnaires were filled out independently

whereas the cognitive tests required elements to be read aloud to the participants. Once

participants had agreed to take part in the research they were asked to fill out the

questionnaire. The participants were told that the purpose of the research is to study

functioning of immigrants. They were assured that all information obtained will be

strictly confidential and used for the purposes of this research only.

Once participants had completed the questionnaire they were informed of the

aims of the study and the reason for each part of the questionnaire. Participants were

given the option to be told their scores once calculated should they so desire. There was

no remuneration for taking part in the study.

27

5. Results

5.1 Self Esteem, Depression and Cognitive Functioning across Groups

The study hypothesized that immigrants would have lower levels of self esteem

than their Israeli born counterparts and that more recent immigrants would have lower

self esteem than those that had been in the country for a longer period. Analysis was

carried out using ANOVA with the group type as the independent variable and self

esteem as the dependent variable. No significant differences were detected

(F(2,94)=0.90, NS). Similarly, with levels of depression as the dependent variable, no

significant differences were found, (F(2,94)=0.53, NS).

In terms of cognitive functioning, ANOVA with the group type as the

independent variable and the Raven Advanced Progressive Matrices Test Full Score1 as

the dependent variable, yielded a near-significant effect of group, F(2,92)=2.52, p=0.086,

with the Israelis achieving higher scores (M=41.7) than both veteran (M=40.1) and new

immigrants (M=38.7). Post hoc l analysis revealed that the difference between the

Israelis and new immigrants was significant, p<.05.

5.2 Effect of Self Esteem and Depression on Cognitive Functioning

The study hypothesized that those with low self-esteem would have a larger

mental workload than those with higher self esteem, since more attention is concentrated

inwardly, and as a result would perform less well on tasks testing intellectual

performance. Using Pearsons correlations, significant correlations were found between

levels of self esteem and depression and results of one of the intelligence tests. When

examining the data of all three groups together a negative correlation was found between

1 Participants received two scores for this test; the score received after 20 minutes of carrying out the test

(Raven 20), and a full score after completing the test with no time restrictions (Raven Full)

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the scores on the Wechsler Symbol Search test and levels of depression. In other words,

the higher the level of depression, the lower the test scores. Additionally, the higher the

self esteem of the participant, the better they performed on the same test (see table 3).

Table 3

Correlation between Self Esteem, Depression and Wechsler Symbol Search Test for all Three Groups Together

(n=95)

Wechsler

Symbol Search

Self Esteem 0.444**

Depression -0.224*

Note: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01 (2-tailed).

As with the total population, when members of group 1 (New Immigrants) were

examined individually, a significant correlation between the scores on the Wechsler

Symbol Search test and self esteem was identified (r=0.42, p<0.05). The same was found

for members of group 2 (Veteran immigrants) (r=0.6, p<0.01) but not group 3 (see Model

2).

Model 2. Relationship between self esteem (x-axis) and scores on the Wechsler Symbol

Search test (y-axis).

Self esteem scores also correlated with results on the Wechsler Maths and

Similarities tests for members of group 2 (veteran immigrants) only. The higher the self

29

esteem of the participant, the higher the score they achieved on the tests (see table 4). No

such correlation was found with the other group members.

Table 4

Correlation between Self Esteem and Wechsler Maths for Group 2 Participants (n=31)

Wechsler

Maths

Wechsler

Similarities

Group 2

Self

Esteem 0.523** 0.376*

Note: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01 (2-tailed).

For the majority of the intelligence tests, no significant differences were detected

in the scores of the three groups.

5.3 Self Esteem, Depression and Social Relationships

The study also hypothesized that those with lower self esteem would have lower

quality social relationships. Pearson correlations were carried out among the sample as a

whole, and a significant correlation was found (p < 0.01). In other words, those who

demonstrated lower levels of self esteem expressed lower levels of social functioning

(see table 5).

Similarly, when carrying out Pearson Correlations, a significant correlation was

also found between levels of depression and social functioning on both of the tests used

to examine social functioning (Buhmester el al’s (1988) Social Functioning Test and

Ryff’s Scales of Psychological Well-being (1995) (see table 5). The tests showed that the

more depressed the participant felt, the less successful they were at creating social

relationships. In addition, those who scored high on the depression scale, were found to

have low levels of self esteem (r=-0.49, p<0.01).

Table 5

Correlation between Self Esteem and Depression and Social Functioning for all Three Groups (n=95)

Buhrmester et al’s Social

Functioning Test

Ryff’s Scales of Psychological

Well-being

Self Esteem 0.375** 0.435**

Depression -0.329** -0.436**

Note: ** p < 0.01 (2-tailed).

31

On examining the data of each group individually, members of group 1 (new

immigrants) also showed the same significant positive correlation between self esteem

and social functioning for both tests used (r =0.57, r=0.59, p <0.01), as did members of

group 3 (Israeli born) (r=0.38, r=0.41, p<0.05). This association, however, was not found

for members of group 2 (veteran immigrants). The same significant negative correlation

was found between feelings of depression and levels of social functioning for both tests

for members of group 1 (r=-0.38, p<0.05), r=-0.67, p <0.01) and group 3 (r=-0.57, r=-

0.48, p <0.01). Once again, this association, however, was not found for members of

group 2.

No significant differences in social relationships were noted between the three

groups for both the social functioning tests. When carrying out the Pearson Correlation

test, an additional correlation was noted between the scores of group 1 members on the

Raven 20 test and one of the social functioning tests (Ryff's Scales of Psychological

Well-being) with those feeling more socially adept scoring higher on the matrices test

(r=0.45, p <0.01).

5.4 Damage to Self

The level of damage to self for each of the two immigrant groups was measured

using a T-test for independent samples with the group type as the independent variable

and damage to self as the dependent variable. The group of immigrants living in Israel

for longer (group 2) expressed less damage to self (t(57)=4, p<0.001) than those living in

Israel for two years and under. Interestingly, on comparing the levels of damage to self

the veteran immigrants (group 2) reported retroactively during their first two years in

Israel with the level of those who recently immigrated, the veterans reported

experiencing higher levels than the new immigrants currently feel (t(62)=2.29, p<0.05).

As would be expected the level of damage to self that the veteran immigrants

31

experienced during their first two years in Israel is significantly higher than the damage

to self that they currently reported (t(28)=8.86, p<0.001).

The damage to self questionnaire contains questions regarding the immigrant’s

relationship with Israel (e.g. feeling Israeli culture is rude) and regarding the immigrant’s

relationship with oneself (e.g. feeling sad). On comparison of the scores of the two types

of questions using a dependent sample T-test with a within subject factor of type of

damage to self, participants show significantly higher feelings of damage to self with

regards to their relationship with Israel as opposed to with themselves (t(62)=5.43,

p<0.001). The same is found on considering the two immigrant groups separately (Group

1 – t(32)=6.06, p<0.001, Group 2 – t(29)=2.08, p<0.05).

5.5 Damage to Self and Cognitive Functioning

Similarly to depression, damage to self was also found to have a negative

influence on intelligence test scores. When carrying out Pearson Correlation tests, those

who expressed a current high level of damage to self, performed worse on the Raven 20

test and the Wechsler Symbol Search test (see table 6).

Table 6

Correlation between Damage to Self and Intelligence Tests for Groups 1 and 2 (n=63)

Wechsler Symbol

Search Raven 20 test

Damage to

Self -0.349** -0.257*

Note: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01 (2-tailed).

When the data was divided between the two groups, no significant relationships

between damage to self and intelligence were identified.

5.6 Damage to Self and Social Relationships

Pearson Correlations were carried out to examine the relationship between

damage to self and social relationships. In the total sample, damage to self was

32

negatively correlated with social relationships, with both of the social functioning tests

that were carried out (r=-0.26, r=-0.35, p<0.05). On examining the groups individually,

the same negative effect on social relationships was found with group 1. No relationship

was found between group 2 participants’ current damage to self levels and social

functioning however a negative effect on the social functioning (according to Buhrmester

et al’s (1988) questionnaire) of those who experienced high levels of damage to self

reported within their first two years of living in Israel (in group 2) was noted (see table 7).

Table 7

Correlation between Damage to Self and Social Functioning for Groups 1 and 2 (n=33, n=30)

Buhrmester et al’s

Social Functioning

Test

Ryff’s Scales of Psychological

Well-being

New

Immigrants Damage to Self -0.426* -0.445**

Veteran

Immigrants

Damage to Self,

(current) 0.079 -0.255

Damage to self

(first two years

in Israel) -0.186 -0.556**

Note: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01 (2-tailed).

5.7 Acculturation

The study also examined the levels of acculturation reached by each of the two

immigrant groups (groups 1 and 2) using a T-test for independent samples with the group

type as the independent variable and acculturation levels as the dependent variable. As

expected, members of group 2, immigrants that had been in Israel for between 8-12

years, felt significantly more acculturated than those who had been in Israel for less than

two years, (t (55)=3.31, p<0.01). This was demonstrated through several areas including

feeling a connection with Israel (t(58)=4.6, p<0.001), having a strong Israeli identity

(t(62)=2.52, p<0.5), feeling a part of Israeli culture (t(57)=2.2, p<0.1) and demonstrating

high levels of Hebrew (t(48)=5.43, p<0.0001).

33

5.8 Acculturation and Self Esteem and Depression

Pearson Correlations were carried out to examine the relationship between

acculturation and self esteem and depression. Significant correlations were found

between levels of acculturation and scores on the self esteem and depression tests for

group 1 (see table 8). Members of group 1 who felt a strong identity, either with their

home country or with Israel, scored higher on the self esteem scales. Those who felt an

overall strong sense of acculturation within Israel also scored higher on the self esteem

scales, as did those who felt a strong control of the English language. Those who felt no

strong identity with either their home country or Israel showed higher levels of

depression.

Table 8

Correlation between Acculturation and Self Esteem and Depression for Groups 1 and 2 (n=33, n=31)

Note: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01 (2-tailed).

Control of the English language also correlated negatively with depression, i.e.

those who felt they have high levels of English had lower levels of depression (r=-0.36,

p<0.05). Members of group 1 with low levels of acculturation and low association with

their home country, scored higher on the depression scale (r=0.48, p<0.01). For members

of group 2, no correlations were demonstrated between levels of acculturation and levels

of self esteem. A negative correlation was noted between those who felt they had

Identity with

home country Israeli Identity

Acculturation

into Israeli

Society

Control of

English

Language

No

Identity

with

Israel or

home

country

New

Immigrants

Self

Esteem 0.395* 0.500** 0.374* 0.386* -0.293

Depression -0.175 -0.212 -0.18 -0.359* 0.474**

Veteran

Immigrants

Self

Esteem -0.081 0.237 0.304 0.184 -0.146

Depression -0.013 -0.063 -0.322 -0.064 0.309

34

integrated well into Israeli culture and scores on the depression scale (r=-0.43, p<0.05),

i.e. those who felt more culturally integrated felt less depressed.

5.9 Acculturation and Social Relationships

Pearson Correlation’s were carried out to examine the relationship between

acculturation and social relationships for groups 1 and 2. A significant correlation was

found for members of group 1 between strong Israeli identities and higher scores on both

social functioning tests (r=0.35, r=0.36, p<0.05). Similarly those who felt they had a

strong control of the Hebrew language also demonstrated better social relationships.

Those who felt overall more acculturated scored higher on the Buhrmester et al’s (1988)

social functioning test, as did those who felt they had maintained both an Israeli and

English identity. For group 2 members, only those who felt a stronger control of the

Hebrew language, scored higher on the Buhrmester et al’s (1988) social functioning test

(see table 9).

Table 9

Correlation between Acculturation and Social Functioning for Groups 1 and 2 (n=33, n=31)

Buhrmester et al’s

Social Functioning

Test

Ryff’s Scales of

Psychological

Well-being

New Immigrants Control of Hebrew

Language

0.468** 0.418*

Strong Israeli and

home country Identity

0.445** 0.181

Acculturated into

Israeli Society

0.446** 0.344

Veteran Immigrants Control of Hebrew

Language

0.449* -0.097

Strong Israeli and

home country Identity

0.058 0.013

Acculturated into

Israeli Society

0.15 -0.065

Note: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01 (2-tailed).2

2 Due to the large number of variables measuring acculturation, only those that were seen to be significant

for one of the groups were included in the table.

35

5.10 Acculturation and Cognitive functioning

Pearson Correlation’s were carried out to examine the relationship between

acculturation and cognitive functioning for groups 1 and 2. Significant correlations were

found for the relationship between levels of acculturation and scores on the various

cognitive tests. Individuals in group 1 who obtained high scores on the acculturation test,

scored higher on the Wechsler Symbol Search test. The acculturation data was also

divided into separate factors. For example those that felt a strong Israeli identity, a

significant positive correlation was identified between these individuals and their scores

on the Wechsler Symbol Search test. Those who felt they had a strong command of the

Hebrew language scored higher on the Wechsler Digit Span test and the Raven 20 test.

Those who felt that they had both a strong English and Israeli identity scored higher on

the Wechsler Similarities test (table 10).

Table 10

Correlation between Acculturation and Intelligence Tests for Groups 1 and 2 (n=33, n=31)

Strong

Israeli and

home

country

Identity

Control of

Hebrew

Language

Acculturated

into Israeli

Society

Israeli

Identity

English

Identity

New

Immigrants

Wechsler

Symbol

Search

0.013 0.246 0.392* 0.443** 0.105

Raven 20 test 0.106 0.349* 0.223 0.227 0.074

Wechsler

Similarities 0.345* 0.316 0.244 0.226 0.3

Wechsler

Digit Span 0.127 0.370* 0.285 0.259 0.042

Wechsler

Math Test -0.003 0.218 0.077 -0.016 -0.077

Veteran

Immigrants

Wechsler

Symbol

Search

-0.035 0.027 0.105 -0.025 -0.209

Raven 20 test 0.068 0.369* 0.243 -0.028 -0.374*

Wechsler

Similarities 0.13 0.145 0.169 0.011 0.162

Wechsler

Digit Span -0.108 0.18 0.098 0.151 0.163

Wechsler

Math Test 0.119 0.073 0.254 0.154 -0.358*

Note: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01 (2-tailed).

36

Correlations were also found between acculturation and cognitive functioning

among group 2 members. Similarly to group 1, members of group 2 who felt they had a

strong command of Hebrew, received higher scores on the Raven 20 test. Interestingly

the remainder of the correlations were negative correlations between those who felt they

had a strong English identity and their results on the Wechsler Maths and the Raven 20

test (see table 8). In other words, those who still felt a strong English identity, despite

having lived in Israel for between 8-12 years, received lower scores on these two tests.

5.11 Predictors of cognitive functioning

Linear regression analyses were conducted to examine predictors of cognitive

functioning, using each of the intelligence measures for all groups together and then for

groups 1 and 2 together with the immigration measures. Since acculturation seemed to

have the most overall effect on intelligence and is most related to moving to Israel, the

regression model used first examined whether acculturation could be used to predict

intelligence levels, with steps being added to examine the additional influence of other

elements (model 1: acculturation; model 2: acculturation and damage to self; model 3:

acculturation and damage to self and self esteem).

Significant results were noted with regards to the Raven 20 and Wechsler Symbol

Search tests. When looking at the ability to predict results on the Raven 20 test it was

seen that overall acculturation would appear to predict success on the test. On further

examination it appears that the control of the Hebrew language (Hebrew) appears to

more significantly predict results on the test than acculturation into Israeli society

(acculturation). When adding damage to self to the predictors, the model (2) continues to

predict results on the test, albeit slightly less significantly. Once again control of the

Hebrew language is the most significant predictor. When self esteem is added to the

37

model, results on the test are no longer significantly predicted by the model (3) though a

clear trend can still be noted (see table 11).

Table 11

Linear regressions using acculturation, damage to self and self esteem to predict results on Raven 20 test.

R

R

Square

Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients

B

Std.

Error Beta

Model 1 0.336 0.113* 29.180 5.647

Acculturation

0.032 0.118 0.048

Hebrew

0.522 0.306 0.299

Model 2 0.352 0.124* 36.022 9.625

Acculturation

-0.021 0.133 -0.031

Hebrew

0.506 0.307 0.290

Damage to

Self

-0.033 0.037 -0.137

Model 3 0.362 0.131 31.788 11.503

Acculturation

-0.033 0.134 -0.049

Hebrew

0.527 0.310 0.302

Damage to

Self

-0.024 0.039 -0.100

Self Esteem

0.121 0.178 0.094

Note: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01 (2-tailed).

When examining the ability to predict results on the Wechsler Symbol Search test

it was seen that overall acculturation would appear to predict success on the test. On

further examination it appears that, in contrast to the Ravel 20 test, acculturation into

Israeli society appears to more significantly predict results on the test than control of the

Hebrew language. When adding damage to self to the predictors, the model (2) continues

to predict results on the test, even more significantly, with damage to self have being the

most significant predictor of results, followed by acculturation as the next predictor.

When self esteem is added to the model, results on the test are even more significantly

38

predicted by the model (3) however here self esteem is the only predictor of results on

the test, with the other factors having no influence on the results (table 12).

Table 12

Linear regressions using acculturation, damage to self and self esteem to predict results on Wechsler

Symbol Search test.

R

R

Square

Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients

B

Std.

Error Beta

Model 1 0.311 0.097* 16.257 8.765

Acculturation

.0339 0.183 0.328

Hebrew

-0.066 0.474 -0.025

Model 2 0.370 0.137* 35.922 14.700

Acculturation

0.187 0.203 0.181

Hebrew

-0.111 0.468 -0.041

Damage to

Self -0.094 0.057 -0.256

Model 3 0.532 0.283** 5.918 16.070

Acculturation

0.099 0.188 0.096

Hebrew

0.033 0.432 0.012

Damage to

Self -0.031 0.055 -0.084

Self Esteem

0.855 0.248 0.435**

Note: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01 (2-tailed).

6. Discussion

The study examined 95 adults between the ages of 23 and 47, in three different

groups (immigrants to Israel from English speaking countries who have lived in Israel for

two years or less, immigrants to Israel from English speaking countries who have lived in

Israel between 8-12 years and Israeli born and raised) and considered the extent to which

immigration influenced their self-esteem, depression and feelings about themselves and

how far this, and their level of acculturation, effected their cognitive and social

functioning.

As a result of a sudden change of environment, immigrants often undergo a

‘culture shock’ (Ticho, 1971) which can result in a variety of psychological

manifestations (Garza-Guerrero, 1974). Indeed, in the initial phase following migration,

an immigrant may be considered to be emotionally vulnerable (Oppedal, Roysamb &

39

Sam, 2004). Additionally, migration can pose threats to the immigrant’s sense of identity.

Differences in the new environment can be felt in many aspects of life, for example

language, as well as how to find his or her place, in the new community and acquire

anew the social position and professional status s/he enjoyed in the homeland (Grinberg

& Grinberg, 1984). This can lead to a shake-up in a sense of self and a decrease in an

individual’s self esteem (Akhtar, 1999). Similarly, these changes can result in a risk of

mental health (Abebe, Lien & Hjelde, 2013), in particular depression (Chae, Park & Sun

Kang, 2014). Feelings of self esteem and depression can add to a person’s mental

workload (Croizet et al., 2004, Bertilsson et al., 2013), and this in turn can affect their

cognitive and social functioning (Wylie, 1979, Baumeister et al., 2003).

The study hypothesized that, as a result of the immigration process, newer

immigrants would have lower self esteem and higher levels of depression than veteran

immigrants and those Israeli born. In practice no differences in self esteem or depression

were noted between the groups. Differences in levels of damage to self between the two

groups were noted, as were levels of acculturation, with newer immigrants experiencing

more damage to self and less acculturation than veteran immigrants. In addition, both

damage to self and acculturation were connected to levels of self esteem and depression

with higher damage to self and lower acculturation correlating with lower self esteem

and higher depression levels.

The damage to self questionnaire contains questions regarding the immigrant’s

relationship with Israel (e.g. feeling Israeli culture is rude, feeling excited to be in Israel,

feeling Israelis accept me, feeling I can’t relate to Israeli culture) and regarding the

immigrant’s relationship with oneself (e.g. feeling sad, confused, humiliated). On

comparison of the scores of the two types of questions, participants showed significantly

higher feelings of damage to self with regards to their relationship with Israel as opposed

41

to with themselves. This would suggest that the significant effects of immigration relate

more to a sense of belonging and connecting to the new country rather than affecting a

person’s relationship with himself. Similarly, immigrants that had been in Israel for

longer felt significantly more acculturated than those who had been in Israel for less than

two years. This was demonstrated through several areas including feeling a connection

with Israel, having a strong Israeli identity, feeling a part of Israeli culture and

demonstrating high levels of Hebrew.

As Grinberg & Grinberg (1989) point out, immigration is a stress-inducing

situation, often involving “mourning” over the loss of family, friends, language, music,

food, and so forth, which can involve a threat to the newcomer’s identity. The results

suggest that while the process of immigration does have a negative effect on the sense of

self, such as a loss of feelings of competence and a sense of belonging (Walsh and

Horencyzk, 2001) this is mainly related to adjusting to the new country rather than

changes with regards to a person’s relationship with themselves.

Indeed recent research seems to support these findings. Marcu’s (2011)

examination of immigrants notes that getting out and learning about a new country, job

security, and integration into society, were all critical in finding a place in a new country.

Additionally, the themes that emerged in the re-construction of identity were the sense of

language, the sense of home, the fluidity of identity, personal ties and the future. In his

research, Goldman (2014) found that belonging indicated a process by which immigrants

gained a sense of identification with and inclusion in the new society. Immigrants'

perception of belonging was affected by two themes, forming attachments and feeling

acceptance (a reciprocal process of acceptance that revealed a struggle to accept cultural

changes as well as the significance of feeling accepted as an equal member of society).

As such, the results of the study emphasized the centrality of feelings of belonging and

41

attachment in the immigrant experience. It seems that it is these feelings which are

threatened as opposed to the immigrants feelings toward him/herself per se.

With regards to depression, it is possible that although, as studies suggest,

immigration has an impact on psychological distress (Mirsky, 1997, Abebe, Lien &

Hjelde, 2013) this distress shows itself through other symptoms rather than depression

thus explaining the lack of significant differences in levels of depression between the

three groups in the study. Indeed immigration has been related to anxiety disorders

(Aglipay, Colman & Chen, 2013), emotional and behavioural problems (Derluyn,

Broekaert & Schuyten, 2008) and PTSD (Foster, 2001).

The findings suggest that neither the act of immigration itself, nor the amount of

time since immigration occurred, affect self esteem, rather it was a person’s sense of

identity and belonging with regards to the new country, in other words their levels of

acculturation, which was related to levels of self-esteem. The relationship between

acculturation, and in particular identity, and self-esteem has been found to vary in a

myriad of ways (Perez, 2011). In Sam’s (2000) study of immigrant adolescents in

Norway, immigrant ethnic identity and Norwegian (host culture) identity were found to

be positively correlated with self esteem. Benet-Martinez and Karakitapoglu-Ayguen

(2003) found that self-esteem among Asian-American college students was positively

related to American identity. Phinney et al. (1992) found that maintaining a positive

identification with both one’s own culture and the mainstream culture predicted higher

levels of self esteem. A long standing position in ethnic studies is that English

proficiency has a strong impact on self esteem among individuals in the US with

immigrant backgrounds (Jackson & Lassiter, 2001). Indeed the regular use of English is

thought to increase self esteem by promoting a sense of competence (Schnittker, 2002).

These studies help us to understand the relationship found between acculturation and self

42

esteem in this study and once again suggest that the significant factor in immigration and

its effects on individuals relates to their sense of identity and the changes the immigration

process causes to it.

Acculturation levels were also found to correlate with depression levels. Sense of

belonging is a concept which has been explicated and associated with mental health

(Hagerty & Williams, 1999). Hagerty, Williams, Coyne, and Early (1996) posited that a

lower sense of belonging is related to depression. It therefore stands to reason that those

who feel they no longer belong to their home country but also are not acculturated within

Israel would be more depressed. However research in this area appears to be sparse and

further research is necessary to consider how far a sense of belonging is a determining

factor in the depression levels of new immigrants. In summary, the research suggests that

immigrants, when they first move to a new country, go through a process of acculturation,

which relates to their ability to create a relationship with, and a sense of belonging within,

the new country, and that those who have trouble acculturating will experience lower self

esteem and higher levels of depression.

The study is one of the first to examine the effect of self esteem on cognitive

functioning. The study hypothesized that low self esteem would result in lower

performance on intellectual tasks as a result of added mental burden (Baumeister, 1984).

From the various cognitive tests the participants were asked to perform, a correlation was

found between scores on the Wechsler Symbol Search test and levels of self esteem, with

those with higher levels of self esteem scoring higher on the test. With all other tests, no

correlation was found. On further examination it was found that levels of self esteem

significantly predicted scores on the Symbol Search test. The Symbol Search subtest is

designed to assess information processing speed and visual perception. Cognitive

psychology has extensively studied the processes underlying mental workload and their

http://www.springerreference.com/docs/link/2163867.html?s=184062&t=Symbol+Search+subtest

http://www.springerreference.com/docs/link/2088416.html?s=184062&t=information+processing+speed


43

consequence on human information processing suggesting that increased mental

workload will negatively affect information processing (Croizet et al., 2004). It could

therefore be that self esteem indeed affects mental workload in a manner which

influences the ability to process information speedily, but does not influence other

cognitive functions, and this would explain the results. However since mental workload

was not examined directly it is not known if this is indeed the cause, or if some other

reason lies behind the results. Further research is clearly needed to further determine

which areas of cognitive function are specifically affected by a decrease in self esteem.

Interestingly, when each of the groups was separated out, it was found that the

relationship between self esteem and performance on the Wechsler Symbol Search test

was only present for the immigrant groups, not the Israelis. In other words, self esteem

appears to affect the performance of immigrants on the Wechsler Symbol Search test but

not the performance of Israelis. It’s possible that self esteem is linked to different areas

for those from English speaking countries opposed to Israelis. Perhaps, outside of Israel

more of an emphasis is placed on cognitive functioning (e.g. academic performance,

performance at work) whereas in Israel there are a greater variety of methods that cause

self esteem to be boosted, for example serving in the army or physical agility. As a result,

the self esteem of immigrants may have more impact on cognitive tests than for Israelis.

Indeed research has shown enormous cross-cultural differences in abilities to

comprehend text and to solve mathematical problems (Boehnke, 2005). Boehnke (2005)

proposes that high achievement value preferences can endanger performance by

increasing students’ anxiety levels: High achievement value preferences are assumed to

increase perceived achievement pressure from parents, which in turn increases anxieties

and lowers students’ self-esteem, which itself is central to good academic performance.

Boehnke (2005) compares the high achievement values of students in Canada, Germany

44

and Israel. He finds that in Canada the impact of high achievement value preferences on

mathematical self-esteem is substantially larger than in the other two countries, thereby

leading to a stronger indirect impact of values on grades. The role of parental

achievement expectations in Israel, however, differs from the other two countries. While

in Germany and Canada, high perceived parental achievement expectations are a hotbed

of manifest anxiety; this may not be the case in Israel.

This goes some way in assisting in understanding why self esteem for immigrants

would affect cognitive performance, whilst it doesn’t for Israelis, but further

investigation needs to occur to fully understand. Similarly, research has shown that

educational achievement increases as acculturation increases (Won, 1989), therefore it is

possible that in the period after immigration when acculturation is lower, and is

burdening the individual, self esteem is much lower and therefore has much more of an

effect on cognitive functioning. Alternatively the differences between the groups may be

due to the small number of participants.

A negative correlation was also found between the scores on the Wechsler

Symbol Search test and levels of depression for all three groups. In other words, the

higher the level of depression, the lower the test scores. This would suggest that, as with

self esteem, depression influences the cognitive functions of information processing

speed and/or visual perception. In adults with major depressive disorder empirical

evidence supports the existence of moderate but significant cognitive deficits (Wagner et

al., 2014). However recent research has expressed that, due to divergent findings, a

picture consolidating which cognitive domains and functions are affected has yet to be

elucidated (Hammar et al., 2010). Some studies have shown that depression interferes

with automatic information processing (Suslaw et at., 2004). Further studies are clearly

45

needed to determine why this particular test was affected by levels of depression whilst

others were not.

Since no differences were found in self esteem between the three groups, the

hypothesis that immigration effects self esteem which in turn affects cognitive function

was not proven. However differences in cognitive functioning between the three groups

were found, suggesting that other factors may affect the mental burden and in turn the

cognitive functioning of immigrants. Firstly, a difference was identified between results

of the Israelis versus the immigrants with Israelis scoring higher on the Raven Full Test

than their immigrant counterparts. The Raven test measures problem solving ability

(Raven et al., 1993), fluid intelligence (Cattell, 1963) and analytic intelligence (Carpenter,

Just & Shell, 1990).

Since this difference does not appear to be related to self esteem, the cause of this

difference needs to be examined. According to Kaniel and Fisherman (1991) there is a

consensus amongst psychologists that minority and immigrant groups score lower than

dominant groups in IQ tests. They explain this in two ways. One approach suggests that

ethnic differences and genetic makeup are a source of variation in the timing of cognitive

development. The other approach suggests that differences are due to differences in

culturally-induced psychological, cognitive and behavioral strategies.

Additionally, it may be that stress, in particular acculturation stress, is causing the

differences between the groups. Indeed stress has been found to be cause cognitive

impairments (Robinson et al., 2003), and interfere with cognitive control and tasks, in

particular verbal and spatial working memory (Koric et al., 2012), and controlled task

focused thinking (Kivimaki & Lusa, 1994). Alternatively, differences in education

systems and methods, of the various countries could also be of influence here. For

example the Israeli education system involves psychometric testing for entrance into

46

university which tests, verbal reasoning, quantitative reasoning and English. It is possible

that the training and preparation for these tests assisted the Israelis in performing better in

the Raven test. This area remains unstudied and requires further research.

Cognitive functioning was found to be effected both by damage to self and

acculturation. The results suggest that those will higher levels of damage to self perform

less well on the Wechsler Symbol Search test and the Raven 20 tests with those more

acculturated scoring better on these tests. On further examination it was found that levels

of acculturation are the most significant predictor of results on the Raven 20 test. In

particular the control over Hebrew language is the largest predictor of higher results on

the test. With regards to the Wechsler Symbol Search test, although levels of

acculturation and damage to self do seem to predict results on this test, it would appear

that self esteem is the most significant predictor here.

There are several possible explanations for the finding regarding acculturation

levels and results on the Raven 20 test. It may be that, as previously suggested, the

immigration process effects mental burden, which is turn has an effect of the areas of

cognitive functioning that the Raven’s test measures. Indeed Herrera (1998) found that

acculturation is an important moderator variable in relation to the Raven's Standard

Progressive Matrices even after controlling for education and age. As stated, further

examination of this area needs to be carried out in order to understand this relationship

better.

An alternative explanation may be related to language. The Raven’s Standard

Progressive Matrices is a widely used test of non-verbal reasoning ability (Stone, Wong

& Lo, 2000). Indeed the Raven’s Progressive Matrices epitomize one of the first and

most successful attempts to present inductive reasoning and analogical tasks in non-

verbal format (Cockcroft & Israel, 2011). However, some studies have shown that the

47

Raven Advanced Progressive Matrices include the assessment of a verbal-analytic factor

(Lynn, Allik & Irving, 2004). The verbal element measured appears to involve using

rules for analysis, coding and transforming relationships (Olson, 1986). Cockcroft and

Israel (2011) found a modest, but statistically significant relationship between verbal-

analytic ability and the Raven Advanced Matrices. It may therefore be that the results on

the Raven’s test are related to the participant’s language skills as opposed to their levels

of acculturation. Further research needs to be carried out to determine whether or not

results on the Raven’s test can be predicted by control of the Hebrew language as a factor

of acculturation or as a result of language abilities. In addition, since Israelis scored

higher on the Raven 20 test than both immigrant groups the connection between the

Hebrew language and this test definitely warrants further consideration. In summary, it

can be seen that those immigrants who have trouble acculturating and whose self esteem

is low as a result, and whose Hebrew is not of a high level, will demonstrate poorer

cognitive functioning.

As was expected a relationship was found between levels of self esteem and

depression and social functioning with those with lower self esteem and higher

depression levels functioning less well. Interestingly though, on further examination this

was only found for the new immigrants and Israelis but not the case for the veteran

immigrants. Similarly a link was found between damage to self and social functioning,

however for veteran Israelis this was linked to levels of damage to self in their first two

years in Israel as opposed to their current levels. With regards to acculturation, a

significant correlation was found for new immigrants between strong Israeli identities

and higher scores on social functioning tests. For veteran immigrants however, only

those who felt a stronger control of the Hebrew language, scored higher on the social

functioning tests.

48

The differences between the groups, with regards to the effect of self esteem and

depression, on social functioning, are difficult to interpret. It is unclear as to why the

veteran immigrant participants would function differently to the other two groups. Some

studies have shown that people’s own evaluations of their ethnic group are likely linked

to their personal self-esteem (Perkins, Wiley & Deaux, 2014). Another study has shown

that this is true of first-generation immigrants (i.e., for those born outside the United

States), but not of second generation (i.e., those born in the United States to at least one

immigrant parent), (Wiley, Perkins, & Deaux, 2008). Perhaps veteran immigrants are

closer in status to second generation immigrants, and their evaluation of their immigrant

group drastically changes over time, and therefore their levels of self esteem are

significantly different from newer immigrants in regards to how they evaluate those

around them, which in turn effects their social functioning.

It is possible that the small number of participants in each group accounts for the

differences. Or perhaps, having lived in Israel for a longer period of time, the veteran

immigrants have juggled enough trials and tribulations that their self esteem has

strengthened and is not in any way related to outside factors. Little if no research appears

to have been carried out examining this area and therefore further consideration of these

factors needs to occur.

With regards to damage to self, it is possible that levels of damage to self only

effect social functioning when damage to self levels are particularly low, as would be

expected in the first two years of immigration, and that once levels reach a certain point

there is no longer a link to social functioning. Since we found that self esteem is

connected to social functioning and that acculturation levels effect self esteem it is not

surprising to find that acculturation levels also effect social functioning. Indeed one

49

would expect that those who felt a strong identity with Israel and a better control of

Hebrew to find it easier to form relationships.

Migration scholars have paid little attention to the relationship between language

skills and feelings of belonging or exclusion for immigrants and refugees (Nawyn et al.,

2012). Some exceptions include Warriner (2007) who found that ESL instruction

neglected language learning that would help Sudanese refugee women engage with their

new surroundings, and Allen (2007) who found that in communities without sufficient

language support, refugees can experience significant social isolation. It is therefore

unsurprising that control of Hebrew language has an effect on social relationships,

however this area requires further examination.

The findings of this research have several implications. With regards to the effect

of self esteem and depression on certain cognitive functions, it would be beneficial to

utilize this information within educational systems (such as schools and universities) in

order to examine how far these elements are effecting students’ abilities. If educational

systems would take this into account and provide students with help dealing with their

self esteem and depression issues, not only would this positively affect their well being

but it would also enable them to advance rather than creating experiences of failure.

The research also has implications for countries that deal with a large influx of

immigrants, in particular Israel. Since the study suggests that an immigrant’s sense of

identity and belonging with regards to their new country, will affect their self esteem and

depression levels, efforts should be made to assist the immigrants in adjusting to the new

country in order to help increase their state of well being and decrease the possibility of

psychological distress. This in turn will assist in both their cognitive and social

functioning which will have wider implications in terms of finding work and becoming

active and contributing members of society.

51

Additionally, of particular importance are the effects of learning Hebrew when

moving to Israel as this appears to be a predicting factor in elements of cognitive

functioning. As well as ensuring that immigrants are assisted in learning the language,

this should also be a consideration with regards to any tests that new immigrants may

take, for example matriculation or psychometric tests as this may significantly affect

their ability to succeed. A program currently exists that provides alternative psychometric

testing for Ethiopian-Israeli students applying to Bar Ilan University. Similar such

projects should be considered for other immigrant groups. English speaking immigrants

may not usually be provided with such assistance since they are often from educated

backgrounds (Rebhun & Waxman, 2000). However this research suggests that they too,

may need additional assistance.

This study has several limitations. First and foremost the number of participants.

In order for the finds to be examined in more depth a wider study will need to be carried

out. Since the study is examining levels of self esteem and depression of immigrant

groups, it would have been beneficial to have been able to measure immigrant’s levels of

self esteem and depression before the immigration process as well as during, in order to

better identify the influential factors. Similarly for cognitive and social functioning, the

study would have more impact had the levels of cognitive and social functioning of the

immigrants been measured before and after immigration in order to determine how far

any differences are in fact related to the immigration process. Future research should be

carried out which examines immigrants over time, from before immigration until several

years after, in order to better determine which factors are influenced by the immigration

process and which are related specifically to the individual.

The study finds the control of Hebrew language is a significant predictor of

scores on the Raven 20 test. This is thought to be within the context of acculturation.

51

However it is possible that this is linked to a person’s language skills and their ability to

acquire a new language. Once again research that looks at immigrants before as well as

during the immigration process, in particular their scores on the Raven 20 test and their

knowledge and acquisition of the Hebrew language, would better assist in determining

the influential factors. It would also be beneficial to carry out similar studies with

immigrants from other countries and also to other countries in order to determine how far

these factors are characteristic of all immigrants and for all languages or specific to Israel

and to the Hebrew language.

In conclusion, this study has found that immigrants moving to Israel from

English speaking countries seem to be tackling the issue of creating a sense of belonging

with the new culture and environment, noted through their levels of acculturation. This

process appears to be affecting their levels of self esteem and depression, with those

struggling to acculturate experiencing lower self esteem and higher levels of depression.

In addition their levels of acculturation have an influence on their levels of cognitive

functioning in certain areas, as well as their social functioning. In particular, within the

acculturation process, success at learning Hebrew appears to have the most influence on

cognitive functioning levels. Additionally self esteem and depression were also found to

have a direct link with cognitive and social functioning, although this appears to be

unrelated to the immigration process.

52

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Appendix

Appendix 1: Demographic Questionnaire

Appendix 2: Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale (1965)

Appendix 3: Walsh’s Damage to Self Questionnaire (2008)

Appendix 4: Beck's Depression Inventory (BDI)

Appendix 5: Acculturation Scale

Appendix 6: Social Functioning Test

63

Appendix 1: Demographic Questionnaire

1. Sex: (1) Male (2) Female

2. Age: _________

3. Where were you born? (1) Israel,

(2) Abroad – state which country: _________________

4. How many years have you been in Israel? _____________________

5. Where do you live? (1) Kibbutz (2) Moshav (3) Community settlement (4) Town

6. What is the status of your biological parents?

1. Married

2. Divorced or separated

3. Only one of them is alive

4. Neither of them is alive

7. What is your highest level of education?

1. I didn’t study or Primary school

2. Secondary school

3. I finished secondary school and received a qualification (A-level,

Bagrut etc)

4. Partial academic education – no degree

5. Academic degree (BA)

6. Graduate level studies (MA/PHD)

8. Status: (1) Single (2) Married (3) Divorced (4) Separated (5) Widow/er

9. How many children do you have? _________________

10. Do you have a partner? (1) No (2) Yes. How many years have you been together?

____________

11. Who do you live with? (1) Parents/siblings (2) Partner (3) Friend(s) (4) Alone (5) Flat

mate/ Lodger

12. Occupation: (1) Full time (2) Part time (3) Unemployed

13. What is the nature of your occupation?

1. Professional

2. Manual Labour

3. Secretarial/clerical

4. Service Industry

5. Agriculture

6. Student

7. Other (please expand) ____________

14. What is your monthly income?

1. Up to 3000 shekels

2. Between 3000 and 4500 shekels

64

3. Between 4500 and 8000 shekels

4. Between 8000 and 10,000 shekels

5. Over 10,000 shekels

15. How would you define yourself? (1) Charedi (2) Religious (3) Traditional (4) Secular

16. How you ever suffered from depression? (1) No (2) Yes. When? ________________

17. How you ever suffered from hyper activity or attention deficit disorder?

(1) No (2) Yes. When? ________________

65

נקבה( 2) זכר( 1: )מין .1

: גיל .2

:ציין ארץ -ל"חו( 2) 5י לשאלה /עבר, ישראל( 1)? היכן נולדת .3

? כמה שנים אתה בארץ .4

יישוב עירוני( 4)יישוב קהילתי ( 3)מושב ( 2)קיבוץ ( 1: )מקום מגוריך .5

:מצב משפחתי של הוריך הביולוגיים .6 נשואים .1

גרושים או פרודים .2 רק אחד מהם בחיים .3

שניהם לא בחיים .4

? מהי השכלתך. 7

.דיס יסו"לא למד או בוגר בי .1 .ס תיכון"למד בבי .2

סיים תיכון וקיבל תעודת בגרות .3

.בלי תואר -השכלה אקדמית חלקית .4 .ראשון בעל תואר אקדמי .5

(שלישי/תואר שני)בעל תואר מתקדם .6

אלמן( 5)פרוד ( 4)גרוש ( 3)נשוי ( 2)רווק ( 1: )מצב משפחתי. 8

? _______כמה ילדים יש לך. 9

? _________כמה זמן אתם יחד. כן( 2)לא ( 1)? ה/בת זוג קבוע /האם יש לך בן . 11

דייר רחוב( 5)לבד ( 4)ים /חבר( 3)בן זוג /בת( 2)אחים /הורים( 1)? עם מי אתה גר. 11

לא עובד( 3)עובד במשרה חלקית ( 2)עובד במשרה מלאה ( 1: )תעסוקה. 12

?מה הוא סוג ה עיסוק. 13 מקצועי. 1

עבודה פיסית. 2

משרדית/מזכירותית. 3 נותני שרותים. 4

חקלאות. 5 סטודנט. 6

_________ אחר . 7

? מה ההכנסה החודשית שלך. 14

שקלים 3,111עד .1 שקלים 4,511ל 3,111בין . 2

שקלים 8,111ל 4,511בין . 3 שקלים 11,111ל 8,111בין . 4

שקלים 11,111מעל . 5

חילוני( 4)מסורתי ( 3)דתי ( 2)חרדי ( 1: )כיצד תגדיר את עצמך. 15

? __________מתי, כן( 2) לא(1) ? האם סבלת אי פעם מדיכאון. 16

? _________מתי, כן( 2) לא( 1)? האם סבלת אי פעם מהפרעות קשב וריכוז. 17

66

Appendix 2: Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale (1965)

Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly

disagree

On the whole I am

satisfied with myself

1 2 3 4

At times I think I am

no good at all

1 2 3 4

I feel that I have a

number of good

qualities

1 2 3 4

I am able to do things

as well as most other

people

1 2 3 4

I feel I do not have

much to be proud of

1 2 3 4

I certainly feel

useless at times

1 2 3 4

I feel that I am a

person of worth, at

least on an equal

plane with others

1 2 3 4

I wish I could have

more self-respect for

myself

1 2 3 4

All in all, I am

inclined to think that

I am a failure

1 2 3 4

I take a positive

attitude towards

myself

1 2 3 4

67

מסכים מאוד מסכים לא למסכם מאוד לא מסכים

ככלל אני מרוצה מעצמי 1 2 3 4

ת שאני בכלל לא /לפעמים אני חושב 1 2 3 4

ה/טוב

ה שיש לי כמה תכונות /אני מרגיש 1 2 3 4

טובות

ת לעשות דברים באותו /אני מסוגל 1 2 3 4

רמה של אנשים אחרים

ה שאין לי הרבה להיות /אני מרגיש 1 2 3 4

מה להיות גאה בו

ה חסר תועלת לפעמים/אני מרגיש 1 2 3 4

, הה שאני בן אדם שוו/אני מרגיש 1 2 3 4

לפחות באותה רמה של אנשים

םאחרי

הייתי רוצה שיהיה לי יותר כבוד 1 2 3 4

עצמי

יש לי נטייה לחשוב שאני , סך הכול 1 2 3 4

כישלון

ת גישה חיובית כלפי עצמי/אני נוקט 1 2 3 4

68

Appendix 3: Walsh’s Damage to Self Questionnaire (2008)

When you think about the period of 2 years after you made Aliyah, how far are the following sentences relevant to you?

5 – I felt this almost all the time 4 – I felt this often 3 - Sometimes I felt this 2 – I rarely felt this 1 – I didn’t feel like this at all

5 4 3 2 9 I felt lonely 1 5 4 3 2 9 I felt that there were things I wasn’t able to do that I

could do in my home country

2

5 4 3 2 9 I felt anxious and/or stressed 3 5 4 3 2 9 I felt excited to be in Israel 4 5 4 3 2 9 I missed home 5 5 4 3 2 9 I felt doubt about my abilities to succeed in Israel 6 5 4 3 2 9 I felt that I had arrived home 7 5 4 3 2 9 I felt helpless 8 5 4 3 2 9 I felt different 9 5 4 3 2 9 I felt satisfied 10 5 4 3 2 9 I felt sad 11 5 4 3 2 9 I felt unstable 12 5 4 3 2 9 I felt that there were things I wasn’t able to achieve

that I could achieve in my home country

13

5 4 3 2 9 I felt that I wanted to leave 14 5 4 3 2 9 I felt a type of calmness 15 5 4 3 2 9 I felt that people treated me with disrespect 16 5 4 3 2 9 I learnt Hebrew easily 17 5 4 3 2 9 I thought that Israeli culture is rude 18 5 4 3 2 9 I felt that people don’t know me 19 5 4 3 2 9 I felt happy 20 5 4 3 2 9 I felt depressed 21 5 4 3 2 9 I felt that I relate to Israeli culture and am learning it 22 5 4 3 2 9 I missed people 23 5 4 3 2 9 I was happy that I made Aliyah 24 5 4 3 2 9 I felt like I didn’t fit in 25 5 4 3 2 9 I felt confused 26 5 4 3 2 9 I felt humiliated 27 5 4 3 2 9 I felt lost 28 5 4 3 2 9 I missed places, scenery and weather 29 5 4 3 2 9 I felt that I couldn’t relate to Israeli culture 30 5 4 3 2 9 I felt that Israelis accept me 31 5 4 3 2 9 I felt that I had lost my status 32 5 4 3 2 9 I felt that I was capable of succeeding 33 5 4 3 2 9 I felt unwanted 34 5 4 3 2 9 I missed home cooked food and food from my

homeland.

35

5 4 3 2 9 I felt proud that I had made Aliyah 36

69

5 4 3 2 9 I felt ashamed to see the difficulties my parents were having

37

5 4 3 2 9 I felt angry towards Israelis and Israeli culture 38 5 4 3 2 9 I felt that Israelis value me and my Aliyah 39 5 4 3 2 9 I felt frustrated that I wasn’t able to speak Hebrew as

I would have wanted

40

5 4 3 2 9 I felt feelings of failure 41 5 4 3 2 9 I felt feelings of rejection from Israelis and Israeli

culture

42

How far are the following sentences relevant to you? 5 – I feel this almost all the time 4 – I feel this often 3 - Sometimes I feel this 2 – I rarely feel this 1 – I don’t feel like this at all

5 4 3 2 9 I feel lonely 1 5 4 3 2 9 I feel that there are things I’m able to do that I

could do in my home country

2

5 4 3 2 9 I feel anxious and/or stressed 3 5 4 3 2 9 I feel excited to be in Israel 4 5 4 3 2 9 I miss home 5 5 4 3 2 9 I feel doubt about my abilities to succeed in Israel 6 5 4 3 2 9 I feel that I have arrived home 7 5 4 3 2 9 I feel helpless 8 5 4 3 2 9 I feel different 9 5 4 3 2 9 I feel satisfied 10 5 4 3 2 9 I feel sad 11 5 4 3 2 9 I feel unstable 12 5 4 3 2 9 I feel that there are things I’m not able to achieve

that I could achieve in my home country

13

5 4 3 2 9 I feel that I want to leave 14 5 4 3 2 9 I feel a type of calmness 15 5 4 3 2 9 I feel that people treat me with disrespect 16 5 4 3 2 9 I learnt/ am learning Hebrew easily 17 5 4 3 2 9 I think that Israeli culture is rude 18 5 4 3 2 9 I feel that people don’t know me 19 5 4 3 2 9 I feel happy 20 5 4 3 2 9 I feel depressed 21 5 4 3 2 9 feel that I relate to Israeli culture and am learning it 22 5 4 3 2 9 I miss people 23 5 4 3 2 9 I am happy that I made Aliyah 24 5 4 3 2 9 I feel like I don’t fit in 25 5 4 3 2 9 I feel confused 26 5 4 3 2 9 I feel humiliated 27 5 4 3 2 9 I feel lost 28 5 4 3 2 9 I miss places, scenery and weather 29

71

5 4 3 2 9 I feel that I can’t relate to Israeli culture 30 5 4 3 2 9 I feel that Israelis accept me 31 5 4 3 2 9 I feel that I have lost my status 32 5 4 3 2 9 I feel that I am capable of succeeding 33 5 4 3 2 9 I feel unwanted 34 5 4 3 2 9 I miss home cooked food and food from my

homeland.

35

5 4 3 2 9 I feel proud that I had made Aliyah 36 5 4 3 2 9 I feel ashamed to see the difficulties my parents are

having

37

5 4 3 2 9 I feel angry towards Israelis and Israeli culture 38 5 4 3 2 9 I feel that Israelis value me and my Aliyah 39 5 4 3 2 9 I feel frustrated that I’m not able to speak Hebrew

as I would have wanted

40

5 4 3 2 9 I feel feelings of failure 41 5 4 3 2 9 I feel feelings of rejection from Israelis and Israeli

culture

42

71

Appendix 4: Beck's Depression Inventory (BDI)

This questionnaire contains groups of questions. Please read each group of questions carefully. After, please choose the sentence from within which group that best describes how you felt over the last week including today. Please mark with a circle the number next to the sentence you choose. If more than one sentence in a group is appropriate then please mark each one. Please make sure you read all the sentences in the group before you choose one of them.

1. 0. I don't feel sad.

1. I feel sad. 2. I feel sad all the time and can't get rid of this feeling. 3. I feel so sad or miserable that I can't bear it.

2. 0. I don't feel hopeless about the future.

1. I feel hopeless about the future. 2. I feel that I have nothing to look forward to. 3. I feel that the future is hopeless and that things will not improve.

3. 0. I don't feel a failure. 1. I feel that I failed more than the average man. 2. When I look back on my life all that I see is a lot of failures. 3. I feel that I am a total failure as a person.

4. 0. I enjoy things currently as I used to enjoy them in the past. 1. I don't enjoy things like I used to in the past. 2. I no longer get any real enjoyment from anything. 3. I don't enjoy anything or everything bores me.

5. 0. I don’t feel particularly guilty.

1. I don’t feel guilty a big part of the time. 2. I feel guilty a big part of the time. 3. I feel guilty all the time.

6. 0. I don't feel that I am punished.

1. I feel that I am likely to be punished. 2. I expect to be punished. 3. I feel that I am punished.

7. 0. I am not disappointed with myself.

1. I am disappointed with myself. 2. I disgust myself. 3. I hate myself.

8. 0. I don't feel that I am worse than anyone else.

72

1. I am critical towards myself as a result of my weaknesses and mistakes.

2. I blame myself all the time for my shortcomings. 3. I blame myself for every bad thing that happens.

9. 0. I have no thoughts of killing myself.

1. I have thoughts of killing myself but don’t carry them out. 2. I would like to kill myself. 3. I would kill myself if I had the opportunity.

10. 0. I don't cry more than is normal.

1. I cry now more than I did in the past. 2. I cry all the time at the moment. 3. In the past I could cry, but now I can't cry even though I want to.

11. 0. I am not more aggravated now than normal.

1. I get aggravated not much more easily than I did in the past. 2. I get aggravated all the time. 3. I don't get aggravated at all over things that would have

aggravated me in the past.

12. 0. I haven't lost interest in other people. 1. I am interested in other people less now than I was in the past. 2. I have lost most of my interest in other people. 3. I have lost all interest in people.

13. 0. I make decisions as I always did.

1. I try to postpone making decisions more than I did in the past. 2. I find it harder to make decisions than I did in the past. 3. I can't make decisions at all.

14. 0. I don't feel that I look any worse than I did in the past.

1. I worry that I look older than I am or that I am unattractive. 2. I feel that irreversible changes in my appearance have begun and

they are causing me to look less attractive. 3. I feel that I am ugly.

15. 0. I am able to work as I did in the past.

1. I need to make a special effort in order to start doing something. 2. I have to push myself a lot in order to do something. 3. I am not able to work at all.

16. 0. I am able to sleep as normal.

1. I don't sleep as well as I did in the past. 2. I wake up an hour or two earlier than normal and it is hard for me

to get back to sleep again.

73

3. I wake up a number of hours earlier than I did in the past and I can't get back to sleep again.

17. 0. I don't become tired more than is normal.

1. I get tired more easily than I did in the past. 2. I get tired without doing almost anything. 3. I am too tired to be able to do anything.

18. 0. My appetite is no worse than normal.

1. My appetite isn’t as good as it used to be. 2. My appetite is much worse now. 3. I don't have any appetite at all any more.

19. 0. I haven't lost a lot of weight, if at all, lately.

1. Recently I have lost more than 2 Kg in weight. 2. Recently I have lost more than 5 Kg in weight. 3. Recently I have lost more than 7 Kg in weight.

I am trying to lose weight by eating less: Yes No

20. 0. I am not worried about my health any more than normal. 1. I am disturbed by physical problems such as: aches and pains,

digestive problems and constipation. 2. I am very disturbed by physical problems and it's hard for me to

think about anything else. 3. I am so disturbed by physical problems that I am not able to think

about anything else.

21. 0. I haven't noticed any difference in my interest in sex recently. 1. I am less interested in sex than I was in the past. 2. I am much less interested in sex now. 3. I have lost all interest in sex.

74

.י בעיון כל קבוצת משפטים/אנא קרא. בשאלון זה קבוצות של משפטים אשר מתאר בצורה הטובה ביותר כיצד , י את המשפט מתוך הקבוצה/לאחר מכן בחר

.בשבוע האחרון כולל היוםהרגשת .הקיפי בעיגול את המספר שליד המשפט שבחרת/הקף

.כל אחד מהם הקיפי/הקף, אם יותר ממשפט אחד בקבוצה נראים לך מתאימים .ת באחד מהם/ה בוחר/י שקראת את כל המשפטים בקבוצה לפני שאת/אנא וודא

.ה/ה עצוב/אני לא מרגיש. 0 .9

.ה/אני עצוב .9 .ה לצאת מזה/ה כל הזמן ואינני יכול/אני עצוב .2

.ה לשאת זאת/ה עד שאני יכול/ה או אומלל/אני כה עצוב .3

.ת במיוחד ביחס לעתיד/אני לא מיואש. 0 .2

.ת לגני העתיד/אשאני מיו .9 .ה שאין לי למה לצפות/אני חש .2

.ה שהעתיד הוא חסר תקווה ושהדברים לא יכולים להשתפר/אני מרגיש .3

.ה ככישלון/אני לא מרגיש. 0 .3

.ה שנכשלתי יותר מהאדם הממוצע/אני מרגיש .9 .בהביטי לאחור על חיי כל מה שאני רואה הוא כישלונות רבים .2

.כאדםה שאני כשלון גמור /אני מרגיש .3

.ת מהדברים כעת כפי שנהניתי מהם בעבר/אני נהנה. 0. 4 .ת יותר מדברים כפי שנהניתי בעבר/איני נהנה .9 .ת עוד הנאה אמיתית משום דבר/איני מקבל .2

.או כל דבר משעמם לי, ת מדבר/לא נהנה .3

.ה במיוחד/ה אשם/אני לא חש. 0. 5 .ה חלק גדול מהזמן/ה אשם/אני חש .9

.ה חלק גדול מהזמן/ה אשם/ני מרגישא .2

.ה כל הזמן/ה אשם/אני חש .3

.ה את עצמי מוענש/אני לא חש. 0. 6 .ה להיענש/ה שאני עלול/אני מרגיש .9

.אני צופה להיענש .2

.ת/ה שאני מוענש/אני חש .3

.ת מעצמי/אני לא מאוכזב. 0. 7 .ת מעצמי/אני מאוכזב .9

.ת מעצמי/אני נגעל .2

.ת את עצמי/שונאאני .3

.ה יותר מאדם אחר/ה שאני רע/אני לא מרגיש. 0. 8

75

ת מאוד ביחס לעצמי בשל החולשות /אני ברקותי .9 .והשגיאות שלי

.ה את עצמי כל הזמן על החסרונות שלי/אני מאשים .2

.ה את עצמי על כל דבר רע שקורה/אני מאשים .3

.אין לי מחשובות להרוג את עצמי. 0 .1

.אך לא אבצע אותן, מחשבות להרוג את עצמייש לי .9

.הייתי רוצה להרוג את עצמי .2

.הייתי הורג את עצמי אילו היתה לי הזדמנות .3

.אני לא בוכה יותר מהרגיל. 0 .90 .אני בוכה עכשיו יותר מאשר בעבר .9

.אני בוכה כל הזמן עכשיו .2

ה לבכות למרות שאני רוצה /אולם עתה איני יכול, בעבר יכולתי לבכות .3 .בכך

.ת עכשיו יותר מאשר בדרך כלל/אני לא מרוגז. 0 .99

.ת עכשיו ביתר קלות מאשר בעבר/אני מתרגז .9

.ת כל הזמן/אני מרוגז .2

.ת בכלל בשל דברים אשר הרגיזו אותי בעבר/איני מתרגז .3

.לא איבדתי עניין באנשים אחרים. 0 .92 .ת עכשיו באנשים פחות מאשר בעבר/אני מתענין .9

.באנשים איבדתי את רוב התעניינותי .2

.איבדתי כל עניין באנשים .3

.ה להחלטות כמו תמיד/אני מגיע. 0 .93 .ת לדחות החלטות יותר ממה שנהגתי בעבר/אני משתדל .9

.אני מתקשה להגיע להחלטות יותר מבעבר .2

.ה להגיע להחלטוץ בכלל/איני יכול .3

.יץ גרוע יותר מאשר נראיתי בעבר/ה שאני נראה/אני לא מרגיש. 0 .94 .ת/ת מכפי גילי או לא מושך/ית מבוגר/שאני נראה ת מכך/אני מודאג .9

ה שחלים שנויים בלתי הפיכים בהופעתי והם גורמים לי /אני מרדיש .2 .ת/להראות לא מושך

.ת/ה שאני מכוער/אני מרגיש .3

.ה לעבוד כמו בעבר/אני יכול. 0 .95 .נדרש ממני מאמץ מיותר כדי להתחיל לעשות משהו .9

.משהו עלי לדחוף את עצמי מאיד כדי לעשות .2

.ת לעבוד כלל/אני לא מסוגל .3

76

.ה לישון כרגיל/אני יכול. 0 .96 .ה טוב כבעבר/איני ישן .9

.ת בשעה שעתיים מוקדם מהרגיל ומתקשה להירדם שוב/אני מתעורר .2

ה להירגדם /ת מספר שעות מוקדם יותר מבעבר ואיני יכול/אני מתעורר .3 .שוב

.ת יותר מהרגיל/אני לא מתעייף. 0 .97

.קלות מאשר בעבר ת ביתר/אני מתעייף .9

.ת כמעט מלא לעשות דבר/אני מתעייף .2

.ה מדי מכדי שאוכל לעשות משהו/אני עייף .3

.תאבוני אינו גרוע מהרדיל. 0 .98 .תאבוני אינו טוב כפי שהיה .9

.תאבוני הרבה יותר גרוע עכשיו .2

.אין לי יותר תאבון כלל .3

.לאחרונה, אם בכלל, לא הפסדתי הרבה ממשקלי. 0 .91 .ג ממשקלי"ק 2מעלה מ לאחרונה הפסדתי ל .9

.ג ממשקלי"ק 5לאחרונה הפסדתי למעלה מ .2

.ג ממשקלי"ק 7לאחרונה הפסדתי למעלה מ .3 .כן לא: י/אני מנסה להוריד ממשקלי על ידי אכילה פחותה סמן

.ת מבראיותי יותר מהרגיל/אני לא מודאג. 0 .20

קיבה לא סדירה , וכאבעם מיחושים: ת מבעיות גופניות כגון/אני מוטרד .9 .ועצירות

.ת מבעיות גופניות וקשה לי לחשוב על משהו אחר/אני מאוד מוטרד .2

ת לחשוב על /ת מבעיות גופניות שאני לא מסוגל/אני כל כך מוטרד .3 .דברים אחרים

.לא הבחנתי בשינוי כלשהו בהתעניינותי בנין לאחרונה. 0 .29

.אני פחות מעונין במין כבעבר .9

.מעונין במין עכשיו אני הרבה פחות .2

.איבדתי לחלוטין כל עניין במין .3

77

Appendix 5: Acculturation Scale

A. People can think of themselves in various ways. For example, they may feel that they

are members of various groups of immigrants (e.g. English) or that they are part of the

larger society, i.e. Israeli society. These questions are about how you think of yourself in

this respect. The questions refer to England, however if you are from a different country

originally please substitute in your country.

1. How do you think of yourself?

Not

at

all

A

little

Some-

what

Fairly

well

Very

well

a I think of myself as English. 1 2 3 4 5

b I think of myself as Israeli. 1 2 3 4 5

c I think of myself as English and Israeli. 1 2 3 4 5

d I think of myself as part of another group.

What group?______________________

1 2 3 4 5

How far do you agree or disagree with the following statements?

Strongly

disagree

Somewhat

disagree

Not

sure/neutral

Somewhat

agree

Strongly

agree

2 I feel that I am part of

English culture.

1 2 3 4 5

3 I am proud of being

English.

1 2 3 4 5

4 I am happy to be

English.

1 2 3 4 5

5 If I was born again I

would want to be born

English.

1 2 3 4 5

6 I feel that I am part of

Israeli culture.

1 2 3 4 5

7 I feel close to Israelis. 1 2 3 4 5

8 I am proud of being

Israeli.

1 2 3 4 5

9 I am happy to be

Israeli.

1 2 3 4 5

10 If I was born again, I

would want to be born

Israeli.

1 2 3 4 5

11 Being past of English

culture is embarrassing

to me.

1 2 3 4 5

12 Being English is

uncomfortable for me.

1 2 3 4 5

78

13 Being part of English

culture makes me feel

happy.

1 2 3 4 5

14 Being English makes

me feel good.

1 2 3 4 5

15 I feel that moving to

Israeli was one of the

most important things

I've ever done.

1 2 3 4 5

16 If I could, I would have

immigrated to another

country and not Israel.

1 2 3 4 5

B. People differ in how important they consider aspects of themselves to be. How

important are the following aspects of yourself to you?

Not

at

all

A

little

Some-

what

Fairly

well

Very

well

17 That I am English 1 2 3 4 5

18 That I am Israeli. 1 2 3 4 5

19 That I am a person/human being. 1 2 3 4 5

20 That I am Jewish.

21 That I am male/female. 1 2 3 4 5

C. Here are some statements about language, cultural traditions, friends etc. Please

indicate how much you agree or disagree with each statement by checking the answer

that applies best to you.

Strongly

disagree

Somewhat

disagree

Not

sure/neutral

Somewhat

agree

Strongly

agree

1 I feel that English people

should adapt to Israeli

cultural traditions and not

maintain those of their own.

1 2 3 4 5

2 I would rather marry an

English man/woman than

an Israeli.

1 2 3 4 5

3 I feel that the English

should maintain their own

cultural traditions but also

adapt to those of Israel.

1 2 3 4 5

4 I would rather marry an

Israeli that someone

English.

1 2 3 4 5

5 I would be just as willing to

marry an Israeli as someone

English.

1 2 3 4 5

6 I feel that it is not important 1 2 3 4 5

79

for the English either to

maintain their own cultural

transients or to adapt to

those of Israel.

7 I feel that the English

should maintain their own

cultural traditions and not

adapt to those if Israel.

1 2 3 4 5

8 I would not like to marry

either an Israeli or an

English person.

1 2 3 4 5

9 It is more important to be to

be fluent in English than in

Hebrew.

1 2 3 4 5

10 It is more important to me

to be fluent in Hebrew than

in English.

1 2 3 4 5

11 It is important to me to be

fluent in both Hebrew and

English.

1 2 3 4 5

12 It is not important to me to

be fluent either in English

or in Hebrew.

1 2 3 4 5

13 I prefer social activities that

involve both Israeli and

English members.

1 2 3 4 5

14 I prefer to have only Israeli

friends.

1 2 3 4 5

15 I prefer to have only

English friends.

1 2 3 4 5


involve Israelis only.

1 2 3 4 5

17 I prefer to have both

English and Israeli friends.

1 2 3 4 5

18 I don't want to attend either

Israeli or English social

activities.

1 2 3 4 5


involve English members

only.

1 2 3 4 5

20 I don't want to have either

Israeli or English friends.

1 2 3 4 5

D. The following questions concern your knowledge of English and Hebrew.

1. How well do you: Not

at

all

A

little

Some-

what

Fairly

well

Very

well

a Understand English 1 2 3 4 5

b Speak English 1 2 3 4 5

c Read English 1 2 3 4 5

d Write English 1 2 3 4 5

81

2. How well do you: Not

at

all

A

little

Some-

what

Fairly

well

Very

well

a Understand Hebrew 1 2 3 4 5

b Speak Hebrew 1 2 3 4 5

c Read Hebrew 1 2 3 4 5

d Write Hebrew 1 2 3 4 5

81

Appendix 6: Social Functioning Test

Please indicate your level of competence and comfort in handling the following type of situations

using the following scale:

1 – I’m poor at this; I’d feel so uncomfortable and unable to handle this situation, I’d avoid it is

possible.

2- I’m only fair at this; I’d feel uncomfortable and would have lots of difficulty handling this

situation.

3 – I’m OK at this; I’d feel somewhat uncomfortable and have some difficulty handling this

situation.

4 – I’m good at this; I’d feel quite comfortable and able to handle this situation.

5 – I’m EXTREMELY good at this; I’d feel very comfortable and could handle this situation very

well.

1 Asking or suggesting to someone new that you get together and do

something, e.g. go out together. 1 2 3 4 5

2 Telling a companion you don’t like a certain way he or she has been

treating you. 1 2 3 4 5

3 Revealing something intimate about yourself while talking with

someone you’re just getting to know. 1 2 3 4 5

4 Helping a close companion work though his or her thoughts and

feelings about a major life decision, e.g. a career choice. 1 2 3 4 5

5 Being able to admit that you might be wrong when a disagreement with

a close companion begins to build into a serious fight. 1 2 3 4 5

6 Finding and suggesting things to do with new people whom you find

interesting and attractive. 1 2 3 4 5

7 Saying “no” when a date/acquaintance asks you to do something you

don’t want to do. 1 2 3 4 5

8 Confiding in a new friend/date and letting him or her see your softer,

more sensitive side. 1 2 3 4 5

9 Being able to patiently and sensitively listen to a companion “let off

steam” about outside problems s/he is having. 1 2 3 4 5

10 Being able to put begrudging (resentful) feelings aside when having a

fight with a close companion. 1 2 3 4 5

11 Carrying on conversations with someone new whom you think you

might like to get to know. 1 2 3 4 5

12 Turning down a request by a companion that is unreasonable. 1 2 3 4 5 13 Telling a close companion things about yourself that you’re ashamed of. 1 2 3 4 5 14 Helping a close companion get to the heart of a problem s/he is

experiencing. 1 2 3 4 5

15 When having a conflict with a close companion, really listening to his

or her complaints and not trying to “read” his/her mind. 1 2 3 4 5

16 Being an interesting and enjoyable person to be with when first getting

to know people. 1 2 3 4 5

17 Standing up for your rights when a companion is neglecting you or

being inconsiderate. 1 2 3 4 5

18 Letting a new companion get to know the “real you.” 1 2 3 4 5 19 Helping a close companion cope with family or roommate problems. 1 2 3 4 5 20 Being able to take a companion’s perspective in a fight and really 1 2 3 4 5

82

understand his or her point of view.

21 Introducing yourself to someone you might like to get to know (or

date). 1 2 3 4 5

22 Telling a date/acquaintance that he or she is doing something that

embarrasses you. 1 2 3 4 5

23 Letting down your protective “outer shell” and trusting a close

companion. 1 2 3 4 5

24 Being a good and sensitive listener for a companion who is upset. 1 2 3 4 5 25 Refraining from saying things that might cause a disagreement to build

into a big fight. 1 2 3 4 5

26 Calling (on the phone) a new date/acquaintance to set up a time to get

together and do something. 1 2 3 4 5

27 Confronting your close companion when he or she has broken a

promise. 1 2 3 4 5

28 Telling a close companion about the things that secretly make you feel

anxious or afraid. 1 2 3 4 5

29 Being able to say and do things to support a close companion when s/he

is feeling down. 1 2 3 4 5

30 Being able to work through a specific problem with a companion

without resorting to global accusations (“you always do that”). 1 2 3 4 5

31 Presenting good first impressions to people you might like to become

friends with (or date). 1 2 3 4 5

32 Telling a companion that he or she has done something to hurt your

feelings. 1 2 3 4 5

33 Telling a close companion how much you appreciate and care for him

or her. 1 2 3 4 5

34 Being able to show genuine empathetic concern even when a

companion’s problem in uninteresting to you. 1 2 3 4 5

35 When angry with a companion, being able to accept that s/he has a valid

point of view even if you don’t agree with that view. 1 2 3 4 5

36 Going to parties or gatherings where you don’t know people well in

order to start up new relationships. 1 2 3 4 5

37 Telling a date/acquaintance that her or she has done something that

made you angry. 1 2 3 4 5

38 Knowing how to move a conversation with a date/acquaintance beyond

superficial talk to really get to know each other. 1 2 3 4 5

39 When a close companion needs help and support, being able to give

advice in ways that are well received. 1 2 3 4 5

40 Not exploding at a close companion (even when it is justified) in order

to avoid a damaging conflict. 1 2 3 4 5

83

Please indicate how much you agree or disagree with each of the following statements: Strongly Moderately Slightly Slightly Moderately Strongly Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6

1 I don’t have many people who want to listen when I need to talk

1 2 3 4 5 6

2 I enjoy personal and mutual conversations with family members and friends

1 2 3 4 5 6

3 I often feel lonely because I have few close friends with whom to share my concerns

1 2 3 4 5 6

4 It seems to me that most other people have more friends than I do

1 2 3 4 5 6

5 People would describe me as a giving person, willing to share my time with others

1 2 3 4 5 6

6 Most people see me as loving and affectionate

1 2 3 4 5 6

7 I know I can trust my friends, and they know they can trust me

1 2 3 4 5 6

8 Maintaining close relationships has been difficult and frustrating for me

1 2 3 4 5 6

9 I have not experienced many warm and trusting relationships with others.

1 2 3 4 5 6

84

ברצוננו לשאול אותך לגבי הערכתך את . בהם נתקל כל יחיד, ישנם מצבים שונים החיים החברתייםהאם אתה מעריך שאתה טוב מאוד בזה או שמא –כמו היכולת ליזום קשר –עצמך במצבים השונים

.גיש שאתה חלש התחום הזהאתה מר

:הדירוג הוא כדלקמן ממצבים עשאני מנסה להימנ, אני מרגיש כל כך שלא בנוח בתחום הזה, אני חלש בתחום הזה – 9

.כאלו .אני מרגיש קושי בהתמודדות המצב כזה, אני די חלש בתחום הזה – 2 .אני מרגיש קצת אי נוחות וקצת קושי –אני בסדר התחום הזה – 3 .אני מרגיש בנוח ומסוגל להשתלט במצב –אני טוב בתחום הזה – 4 .אני מרגיש מאד בנוח ויכול להשתלט באופן מאד טוב על המצב –אני מצוין בתחום הזה – 5

אנא הקף בעיגול את . אנא ציין את הערכתך את יכולתך המצבים השונים ובמשימות השונות, כאמור .לעצמך המספר המציין את הדירוג שאתה נותן

:היכולת שלך

כמו לצאת , או לעשות משהו ביחד שלבקש או להציע למישהו חדש להיפג 9 ביחד

9 2 3 4 5

5 4 3 2 9 .לומר לידיד כי הדרך שהוא נוהג בך אינה מוצאת חן בעינך 2לגלות משהו אישי על עצמך כאשר אתה משוחח עם מישהו שאתה רק 3

.מתחיל להכיר9 2 3 4 5

בקשר ( או שלה)לידיד קרוב להתלבט במחשבות והרגשות שלו לסייע 4 .מגמת לימוד, בחירת קריירה, לדוגמא, להחלטה חשובה בחיים

9 2 3 4 5

להיות מסוגל להודות שאתה טועה כאשר אי הסכמה עם ידיד קרוב 5 .מתחילה להתפתח לריב רציני

9 2 3 4 5

ראים לך מעניינים למצוא ולהציע דברים לעשות עם אנשים חדשים הנ 6 .ומושכים

9 2 3 4 5

5 4 3 2 9 .כאשר ידי מבקש ממך לעשות משהו שאתה לא רוצה לעשות" לא"לומר 7 5 4 3 2 9 .לראות את הצד החלש יותר שלך( או לה)לתת אמון בידיד חדש ולתת לו 8" מוציא קיטור"להיות מסוגל להקשיב בסבלנות וברגישות לידיד כאשר הוא 1

(.או לה)עיות שיש לו על ב9 2 3 4 5

כאשר ( מאוס, או סלידה)להיות מסוגל להתעלות מעל תחושת של כעס 90 .מנהלים מאבק עם ידיד קרוב

9 2 3 4 5

5 4 3 2 9 .לנהל שיחות עם מישהו חדש שאתה חושב שתרצה להכיר אותו 99 5 4 3 2 9 .לדות בקשה בלתי סבירה של ידיד 92 5 4 3 2 9 .רוב דברים על עצמך שבהם אתה מתביישלומר לידיד ק 93 5 4 3 2 9 .מתנסה בה( או היא)לעזור לידיד קרוב להגיע על לב הבעיה שהוא 94את " לקרוא"להקשיב באמת לתלונות של ידיד קרוב ולא לנסות רק 95

(.או לה)המחשבות שלו 9 2 3 4 5

5 4 3 2 9 .ם לראשונהלהיות אדם מעניין ומהנה בזמן שאתה מכיר אנשי 96 5 4 3 2 9 .כאשר ידיד מתעלם ממך או מתנהג בחוסר התחשבות ךלעמוד על זכויותי 97 5 4 3 2 9 .שלך" האני האמיתי"לאפשר לידיד להכיר את 98 5 4 3 2 9 .לסייע לידיד קרוב להתמודד עם בעיות של המשפחה 91איתה /מן מריבה איתולהיות מסוגל לראות את נקודת המבט של ידיד בז 20

(.או שלה)ובאמת להבין את נקודת המבט שלו 9 2 3 4 5

5 4 3 2 9 .להציג את עצמך למישהו שאתה רוצה להכיר 29 5 4 3 2 9 .עושה משהו שמביך אותך( או היא)לומר לידי שהוא 22 5 4 3 2 9 .ולתת אמון בידיד טוב" הקליפה החיצונית"להסיר את 23 5 4 3 2 9 .ין טוב ורגיש לידיד מוטרדלהיות מאז 24 5 4 3 2 9 .מלומר דברים שיכולים לגרום לכך שאי הסכמה התפתח לריב גדול עלהימנ 25 5 4 3 2 9 .ולעשות משהו שלטלפון למישהו שהכרת לאחרונה כדי לקבוע זמן להיפג 26 5 4 3 2 9 .הפרו הבטחה( או היא)להעיר ידידך באופן ישיר כאשר הוא 27 5 4 3 2 9 .לספר לידיד קרוב על דברים שגורמים לך באופן אישי לחוש חרדה או פחד 28או )להיות מסוגל לומר ולעשות דברים כדי לתמוך בידי קרוב כאשר הוא 21

.במצב רוח רע( היא9 2 3 4 5

85

להיות מסוגל לברר בעיה ספציפית עם חבר מבלי לגלוש להאשמות כוללות 30 "(.שה את זהאתה תמיד עו)"

9 2 3 4 5

5 4 3 2 9 .עשו דבר מה שפוגע ברגשותיך( או היא)לומר לידיד שהוא 39 5 4 3 2 9 .ליצור רושם ראשון טוב על אנשים שאיתם אולי תרצה להתיידד 32או )ואכפת לך ממנו ( או אותה)לספר לידיד קרוב עד כמה אתה מעריך אותו 33

(.ממנה9 2 3 4 5

אמיתית גם כאשר הבעיה של הידיד תוגל להראות דאגה אמפטילהיות מס 34 .איננה מעיינת אותך

9 2 3 4 5

כאשר אתה כועס על ידיד להיות מסוגל לקבל שלידיד יש נקודת מבט משלו 35 .איתה/המתקבלת על הדעת אפילו אם אתה לא מסכים איתו

9 2 3 4 5

טוב את האנשים כדי לצאת למסיבות או מפגשים שבהם אינך מכיר מספיק 36 .להתחיל הכרויות חדשות

9 2 3 4 5

5 4 3 2 9 .לומר לידיד שהוא או היא עשו דבר מה שהרגיז אותך 37לגעת איך לפתח שיחה עם ידיד מעבר לדבור שטחי כדי באמת להכיר זה את 38

.זה9 2 3 4 5

לעזרה להיות מסוגל לתת עצה באופן שתתקבל היטב כאשר ידיד קרוב זקוק 31 .ולתמיכה

9 2 3 4 5

לא להתפרץ על ידי קרוב אפילו כאשר זה מוצדק כדי למנוע קונפליקט 40 .מזיק

9 2 3 4 5

:אנא ציין כמה אתה מסכים או לא מסכים עם מההצהרות הבאות

ם מאודמאוד מסכים קצת קצת לא מסכי מסכים במתינות מסכים לא מסכים במתינות לא מסכים

9 2 3 4 5 6

6 5 4 3 2 9 .אין לי הרבה אנשים שרוצים להקשיב כאשר אני צריך לדבר 9 6 5 4 3 2 9 .אני נהנה משיחות אישיות והדדיות עם משפחה וחברים 2לעיתים קרובות אני מרגיש בודד כי אין לי הרבה חברים קרובים שאני 3

.יכולה להשתתף בדאגות שלי9 2 3 4 5 6

6 5 4 3 2 9 .ראה שלרוב אנשים אחרים יש יותר חברים ממנילי זה נ 4אנשים היו מתארים לי כבן אדם נותן שמוכן לחלק את הזמן שלי אם 5

.אחרים9 2 3 4 5 6

6 5 4 3 2 9 .רוב האנשים רואים אותי כאוהב ומביע חיבה 6 6 5 4 3 2 9 .אני יודע שאני יכול לסמוך על החברים שלי והם יכולים לסמול עלי 7 6 5 4 3 2 9 .לי היה קשה ומתוסכל להחזיק קשרים קרובים 8 .אני לא חוויתי הרבה קשרים חמים ומעמינים אם אנשים אחרים 1

9 2 3 4 5 6

א‏

תקציר

כתוצאה . שונות כולל מארצות דוברות אנגלית, אלפי מהגרים מגיעים לישראל מכל רחבי העולם

. העלול לגרום לתופעות פסיכולוגיות שונות' הלם תרבותי'המהגרים חווים , משינוי פתאומי בסביבה

העיקריות התחושות . המהגר נתפס כבעל פגיעות רגשית, בשלבים הראשונים שלאחר ההגירה, ואומנם

, בדידות עמוקה, ועפחד מהלא יד, כוללות כאב עצום וגעגועים לכל מה שנעזב מאחור או אבד בשלבים אלה

.מצוקה וחוסר אונים

החדשה שינויים בסביבה . הגירה עלולה ליצור איום על תחושת הזהות של המהגר, בנוסף לכך

או למציאת המיקום האישי בחברה , לדוגמא בהקשר לשפה, עשויים להשפיע על תחומים שונים בחיים

אלו עלולים . י שהוחזקו בארץ המוצאהחדשה ורכישה מחודשת של המיקום החברתי או המעמד המקצוע

השינויים עלולים לסכן את , כמו כן. של המהגר בהערכה העצמיתלפגיעה לזעזוע בתחושת העצמי ו להוביל

ודיכאון יכולים להעיק על כהנמו הערכה עצמיתתחושות של . ובמיוחד לגרום לדיכאון, בריאות הנפש

. והחברתי יבריאות הנפש ובכך להשפיע על התפקוד הקוגניטיב

הליך תעבודת מחקר זו בודקת עד כמה משפיע , תובנות אלה ומחקרים קודמיםבהתבסס על

והדיכאון של המהגר על ידי השוואה בין מהגרים שהגיעו לישראל לפני ההערכה העצמית רמותההגירה על

ו וגדלו ואלה שנולד, שנתיים או פחות ומהגרים שהגיעו לישראל לפני שמונה עד שתים עשרה שנים

עבודת המחקר בודקת גם עד כמה השינויים המשוערים הללו משפיעים על תפקודים . בישראל

י "ע( 32-74טווח גיל )ל "משתתפים שתאמו את ההגדרות הנ 95במחקר לקחו חלק .קוגניטיביים וחברתיים

Beck) Depression דיכאון, ( (Rosenberg, 1965הבוחנים את רמות ההערכה העצמית מענה על שאלונים

Inventory (BDI ,6991) ,העצמיבתחושת פגיעה (Walsh’s Damage to Self Questionnaire ,3002) ,

Ben Shalom & Horencyzkי "והתאמתו ע, Berry et al (2006)בהתבסס על המחקר של )ואקולטורציה

-Ryff's Scales of Psychological Well -ו Buhrmester et al (1988))וכן רמות תפקוד חברתי , ((2004)

being (1995) .)כל המשתתפים ביצעו מבחנים הבוחנים אלמנטים שונים של תפקוד קוגניטיבי , בנוסף

(Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices (6921-פותח במקור ב, Wechsler Digit Span, Symbol ,

1997, Search, Maths, Similarities.)

אינן שונות בין שלוש והדיכאון ההערכה העצמית רמותצאה שכפי הנראה עבודת המחקר מ

תוצובק יתש ןיבנמצאו תהעצמי הערכההאקולטורציה והנזק ל רמותב םילדבה, עם זאת .הקבוצות

הערכתל קשורות באופן מובהק ואצמנ תהעצמי הערכההאקולטורציה והנזק ל תומר ןכ ומכ .הריגהה

-מבחן הלתפקוד ב קשורות באופן מובהקוהדיכאון נמצאו ההערכה העצמית רמות. עצמי ולדיכאוןה

ב‏

Wechsler Symbol Search ,מבחני הלתפקוד ב קשורותעצמי נמצאו הערכתוהאקולטורציה והנזק ל-

Wechsler Symbol Search and Ravens וה-Advanced Progressive Matrices .ההערכה רמות

כולן קשורות באופן נמצאו , והאקולטורציה תהעצמי ערכהה רמותכמו גם נזק ל, דיכאוןהו העצמית

.חברתיהתפקוד רמת הל מובהק

עבודת המחקר מעלה מספר ממצאים מעניינים הקשורים להליך ההגירה של מהגרים דוברי

באופן ותמושפע ןוהדיכאון אינ ההערכה העצמית רמותש מצעים מראה הממצעים. ישראללאנגלית

במיוחד ו, כחלק מתהליך האקולטורציה, תחושות השייכות והזהות, עם זאת. הליךתעל ידי המובהק

נמצאו , האקולטורציה והנזק לכבוד העצמי רמותכפי שהם מוגדרים על פי , בהקשר ליחס למדינת ישראל

רמת,כמו כן. והדיכאון תהעצמי הערכהה רמותונראה שאלה בתורם משפיעים על , ותמושפע

כפי התפקוד הקוגניטיבי של המהגרים רמת את מנבאת , ובעיקר השליטה בשפה העברית, האקולטורציה

התפקוד רמתעל משפיעהואף Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matricesמבחן ה ידי-שנמדדת על

.החברתי

ניתן לנצל את הקשר שבין רמות ההערכה , ראשית. לממצאי עבודת מחקר זו מספר השלכות

בכדי לבחון ( כגון בתי ספר ומוסדות להשכלה גבוהה)העצמית ודיכאון ותפקוד קוגניטיבי במערכות חינוך

על מדינות אליהן יש הגירה רבה לעזור. האם משתנים אלה משפיעים על יכולות הלימוד של התלמידים

שלהם ולהוריד את (well-being)למהגרים להסתגל לארצם החדשה בכדי להעלות את רמת הרווחה

פעולות אלה יסייעו לתפקוד הקוגניטיבי והחברתי של המהגרים . הסיכוי שלהם לסבול ממצוקה נפשית

. תכגון מציאת תעסוקה והפיכה לחברים פעילים ותורמים בחברה המאמצ, ויובילו להשלכות רחבות יותר

כמו גם , על המדינה המארחת לקחת בחשבון את החשיבות של למידת שפה חדשה בזמן הסיוע למהגרים

.את הצורך בהתאמת מבחני בגרות ומבחנים פסיכומטריים

יש צורך במחקר נוסף על מנת להסיק עד כמה לממצאים שנתגלו בעבודת מחקר זו יש זיקה ישירה

העצמית של המהגר ויכולתו הקוגניטיבית הערכהמתחושות הועד כמה הם מושפעים , להליך ההגירה

.והחברתית לפני שהחל הליך ההגירה

של לקרימינולוגיה המחלקה מן וולש סופי ר"ד של בהדרכתה נעשתה זו עבודה

.אילן-בר אוניברסיטת

אילן בר אוניברסיטת

ותפקוד קוגניטיבי ודיכאון הערכה עצמית, הקשר בין הגירה

.בקרב מהגרים בוגרים צעירים דוברי אנגלית בישראל, וחברתי

נעמית אבנד

מוסמך תואר קבלת לשם מהדרישות כחלק מוגשת זו עבודה

אילן בר אוניברסיטת של לקרימינולוגיה במחלקה

ד"תשע גן רמת

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