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![Page 1: Embryonic Development of the Brain 3 rd week – ectoderm thickens to form neural plate, which is later flanked by neural folds This neural groove deepens,](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022070407/56649e0e5503460f94af8abe/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Embryonic Development of the Brain
• 3rd week – ectoderm thickens to form neural plate, which is later flanked by neural folds
• This neural groove deepens, forming a neural tube by 4th week—differentiates into the CNS = brain development begins
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Embryonic Development of the Brain
• Between ectoderm and neural tube a neural crest forms, and the 3 primary brain vesicles appear:1. FOREBRAIN, or prosencephalon [pros-en-sef-uh-lon]
2. MIDBRAIN, or mesencephalon [mes-en-sef-uh-lon]
3. HINDBRAIN, or rhombencephalon [rom-ben-sef-uh-lon]
• The rest of the neural tube becomes the spinal cord
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Embryonic Development of the Brain—figure 12.3
• Week 5 – Secondary brain vesicles arise• Forebrain divides: telencephalon [tel-en-sef-uh-lon, -luhn]
(“endbrain”) and diencephalon [dahy-en-sef-uh-lon] (“interbrain”)
• Hindbrain constricts: metencephalon [met-en-sef-uh-lon] (“afterbrain”) and myelencephalon [mahy-uh-len-sef-uh-lon] (“spinal brain”)
• Eventually the endbrain sprouts two lateral swellings – like Mickey’s ears– This eventually becomes the cerebrum
• The other brain structures form the midbrain, pons, cerebellum and the medulla oblongata [ob-lawng-gah-tuh]
• All but the cerebellum form the brain stem
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• Brain continues to grow rapidly; positions change– Midbrain & cervical flexures develop– Surfaces crease & fold = convolutions• Increase surface area = more neurons
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Brain--major parts
• Brain stem- continuous with spinal cord– Medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain
• Diencephalon [dahy-en-sef-uh-lon] - above brain stem– Thalamus, hypothalamus & pineal gland
• Cerebrum- at top and largest part– Surface covered with gray matter- cortex– Beneath is cerebral white matter
• Cerebellum- back of brain stem– Means “little brain”
• Cranial meninges [mi-nin-jeez]- dura mater, arachnoid [uh-rak-noid] mater & pia mater
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Figure 10.6b
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Ventricles of the brain-filled with cerebrospinal fluid
• Lateral ventricles, one deep within each hemisphere are large C-shaped chambers
• They are separated by a thin membrane, the septum pellucidum
• Interventricular foramen allows comminucation between the lateral ventricle and the narrow third ventricle
• The third and fourth ventricles are connected by the canal-like cerebral aqueduct
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The Cerebral Hemisphere
• 3 basic regions:1. Cerebral cortex2. Internal white mater3. Basal nuclei (gray matter within white matter)
• Surface folds = gyri• Shallow grooves = sulci• Deeper grooves that separate brain= fissures• Longitudinal Fissure- divides it into left & right
hemispheres• Connected by corpus collosum• Transverse fissure- separates cerebral hemispheres from
cerebellum
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Cerebrum- Structure (cont)
• Each hemisphere has 4 lobes– Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital
• Central sulcus separates frontal & parietal– Precentral gyrus anterior to sulcus= primary motor area– Postcentral gyrus = primary sensory area
• Each hemisphere is concerned with the sensory and motor functions of the opposite side fo the body.
• The two hemispheres are not equal in function.
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Figure 10.11a
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Figure 10.10
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Figure 10.13
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Function areas of Cortex
• Specialized areas anatomically located• Sensory areas receive input and responsible
for perception• Motor areas- initiate movements• Associative areas- complex integration: e.g.
memory, emotion, reasoning, etc.
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Motor Areas
• Mainly from anterior part of hemisphere• Primary motor area- precentral gyrus• Broca’s speech area- – interacts with premotor area & primary motor
area to regulate breathing and speech muscles
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Sensory Areas
• Primary somatosensory area- postcentral gyrus.– input includes: touch, proprioception, pain, itching,
tickle, temperature • Primary visual area- occipital lobe• Primary auditory area- temporal lobe• Primary gustatory area – base of postcentral gyrus• Primary olfactory area- medial aspect of temporal
lobe
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Sensory Pathways
• Relay information from periphery to cerebral cortex• 3 neurons in each pathway.• Posterior column- medial lemniscus [lem-nis-kuhs]
pathway– Fine touch- body location, texture, size– Proprioception- [proh-pree-uh-sep-shuhn]
position & motion of body parts– Vibratory sensations- fluctuating touch stimuli
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Association Areas• Adjacent to sensory & motor areas• connected with tracts- interpret information• E.g. somatosensory [suh-mat-uh-sen-suh-ree] association
area– Posterior to primary somatosensory area– Integrates sensation- exact shape & texture of object
compares with stored memories• Wernike’s area- left temporal & parietal [puh-rahy-i-tl]
lobes– Interprets meaning of speech– Right hemisphere adds emotional content
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Lateralization
• Left gets input from & sends output to right side of body and vice versa
• Left important for spoken & written language, numerical & scientific skills & reasoning
• Right more involved with spatial and pattern recognition and emotional content
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Basal Nuclei
• Deep gray = basal nuclei (basal ganglia)–Globus palladus, putamen [pyoo-tey-min],
caudate nucleus
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Diencephalon
• Thalamus- critical relay for sensory input– Transmits motor information from cerebellum & basal nuclei to
cerebrum• Hypothalamus- important for homeostasis
– Control of ANS-regulation of many activities– Control of pituitary and hormone production– Regulation of emotional & behavior patterns– Regulation of eating & drinking– Control of body temperature– Regulation of circadian rhythms & states of consciousness
• Pineal gland- secretes melatonin
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Figure 10.6a
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Brain Stem- Midbrain
• Connects pons to Diencephalon– Large tracts = cerebral peduncles (motor)
• Nuclei = substantia nigra, red nuclei, cranial nerves III & IV
• Superior colliculi – nuclei involved in tracking visual stimuli
• Inferior colliculi – auditory input & startle reflex
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Brain Stem- Pons
• Pons (bridge)- nuclei & tracts– Connect left & right of cerebellum
• Ascending & descending tracts• Nuclei – motor relays from cerebrum to
cerebellum , respiration & cranial nerves V, VI, VII, VIII
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Brain Stem- Medulla
• Medulla Oblongata- inferior part of brainstem– white matter extending between spinal cord & other parts of
brain• several nuclei: cardiovascular center
– (heart rate)• Medullary rhythmicity area
– (respiratory rhythm)• Other sensory & reflex motor areas
– Some related to cranial nerves
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Cerebellum
• Two cerebellar hemispheres– Posterior to medulla and pons, below cerebrum
• Cerebellar cortex –gray matter• Tree like white matter & nuclei• Attached to brain stem via cerebellar
peduncles
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Cerebellar function
• Gets wide range of sensory input• Compares with programmed motor activity
from cerebral cortex• Smoothes & coordinates complex activities• Regulates posture & balance• Required for skilled motor activities
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Limbic System
• Ring of structures on inner border of cerebrum and floor of diencephalon
• “emotional brain” – pain , pleasure, anger, affection, docility
• Involuntary activity related to survival• Important in memory development
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Reticular formation
• Netlike arrangement of gray and white mater• Ascending part = Reticular Activating System
(RAS)• Projects to cerebral cortex & helps maintain
consciousness• Inactivation => sleep
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Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
• Circulates through ventricles of brain and the subarachnoid space.
• 4 ventricles: 2 lateral, third & fourth• Formed in choroid plexuses
– = Specialized capillary networks in wall of ventricles covered by ependymal cells
• Flows through ventricles then from 4th to central canal of spinal cord & subarachnoid cells– Reabsorbed through arachnoid villi into superior saggital sinus
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Brain blood supply
• Requires ~20% body’s oxygen supply– 4 min lack => permanent damage
• Requires continuous glucose supply• Protected by Blood-brain barrier
– Allows lipid soluble materials: O2, CO2, alcohol, anesthetic agents but controls entry of other materials
• Created by tight capillaries and glial cells
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Figure 10.7
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Figure 10.8
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Figure 10.9
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Figure 10.11b
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Figure 10.12
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Figure 10.14a
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Sensory Pathways (cont)
• Spinothalamic pathways-• anterior & lateral spinothalamic tracts• Relay impulses for pain, tickle, itch & thermal
sensations.
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Somatic Motor Pathways
• Signals converge on lower motor neurons• Lower motor neurons stimulate muscles directly• Input comes from:
– Local interneurons- e.g. reflexes– Upper motor neurons- corticospinal tracts– Basal ganglia- help with muscle tone– Cerebellum- coordination
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Figure 10.15
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Memory
• Process for storing & retrieving information• Involves structural & functional changes• Involves association areas, parts of limbic
system & diencephalon• Skill memory also involves cerebellum & basal
ganglia
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Central Nervous System, Spinal Nerves, And Cranial Nerves
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Cranial Nerves (table 9.6)
• I Olfactory- sensory (smell)• II Optic- sensory (vision)• III Oculomotor- motor (eye)• IV Trochlear- motor (eye)• V Trigeminal- Mixed
– Sensory around eyes & upper mouth motor to chewing• VI Abducens- motor (eye)• VII Facial- mixed
– Sensory to front of tongue & motor to facial expression, lacrimal and some salivary glands
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Cranial Nerves
• VIII Vestibulocochlear- sensory (ear)• IX Glossopharyngeal- mixed
– Sensory for rest of tongue, pharynx & palate, blood pressure– Motor to pharyngeal muscles, parotid salivary gland
• X Vagus- mixed (major visceral nerve)– Sensory from pharynx, ear, diaphragm, visceral organs in ventral
cavity– Motor to palatal & pharyngeal muscles & organs in ventral cavity
• XI Accessory- Motor to voluntary muscles including sternocleidomastoid and trapezius
• XII Hypoglossal- motor to tongue
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Aging
• Rapid growth during first few years– Size of neurons & proliferation of neuroglia
increases– Increases development of dendritic branches &
synaptic contacts• Decline in brain mass from early adulthood on
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Spinal Cord StructureProtection and Coverings
• Spinal cord in vertebral cavity-–Surrounded by bone
• Wrapped in meninges- – 3 layers of connective tissue
• Spinal cord meninges are continuous with brain meninges
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Spinal Meninges• Epidural space lined with fat• Dura mater- tough ,dense connective tissue
– Extends to 2nd sacral vertebra – Well beyond spinal cord
• Arachnoid mater- collagen and elastic fibers• Subarachnoid space-
– cerebral spinal fluid circulates in this space• Pia mater- transparent layer
– adheres to surface of brain & spinal cord– Contains blood vessels
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Figure 10.1
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Gross Anatomy Of Spinal Cord
• Runs to 2nd lumbar vertebra• Roots of spinal nerves for lumbar, sacral &
coccygeal nerves in vertebral cavity before leaving = Cauda Equina
• Enlargements: cervical & lumbar– Include nerves for upper & lower limbs
• Each spinal segment gives rise to a spinal nerve – 31 pairs
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Figure 10.2
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Internal Structure Of Spinal Cord
• Two grooves- left & right halves– Anterior median fissure & posterior median
sulcus• Gray matter- 3 horns on each side– Anterior, posterior, lateral
• Anterior- somatic motor neurons• Posterior- sensory neurons• Lateral- autonomic motor neurons
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Internal Structure Of Spinal Cord (cont)
• White matter- organized into columns– Anterior, posterior & lateral white columns
• Each column contains one or more tracts having a common destination
• Sensory = ascending tracts– Carry information toward brain
• Motor = descending tracts– Carry information down spinal cord
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Figure 10.3
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Spinal Nerves
• Serve particular area of body• Contain 2 bundles of axons = roots• Dorsal root- only sensory axons• Swelling called dorsal root ganglion– Contains Cell bodies of sensory neurons
• Ventral root- axons of somatic & autonomic motor neurons
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Spinal Nerves (cont)
• Named and numbered according to level of vertebra they emerge from
• C1-8, T1-12, L1-5, S1-5 & 1 coccygeal• C1 from above atlas• Rest through intervertebral foramina
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Spinal Nerve Composition
• Roots unite to form nerve at foramina• Mixed sensory & motor axons• Each axon wrapped in endoneurium• Axons grouped in fascicles wrapped in
perineurium• Outer covering = epineurium
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Figure 10.4
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Distribution Of Spinal Nerves
• After leaving vertebra nerves branch• Some join with axons from neighboring nerves to
form plexuses• Names then relate to area they are in or region
innervated• Spinal nerves T2-T11 do not form plexuses=
intercostal nerves– Supply abdominal muscles, skin of chest & back and
muscles between robs.
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Plexuses
• Cervical plexus- posterior head, neck, shoulders & diaphragm
• Brachial plexus-upper limbs & some neck & shoulder muscles
• Lumbar plexus- abdominal wall, external genitals & part of lower limbs– e.g. ilioinguinal, femoral, obdurator nerves
• Sacral plexus- buttocks, perineum & lower limbs– e.g. Gluteal, sciatic & pudendal nerves
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Figure 10.2
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Spinal Cord Functions
• Routes signals along pathways• Gray matter integrates signals • Reflex = fast involuntary sequence of actions in
response to a stimulus• Inborn reflex e.g. withdrawal reflex• Can also have learned reflexes,– e.g. driving skills
• Can be spinal or cranial integration
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Reflex arc (patellar reflex)
1. Sensory receptor- responds to stimulus• Tap below patella
2. Sensory neuron- to dorsal horn & brain3. Integrating center- e.g. single synapse
• Sensory to motor neurons
4. Motor neuron- from center to effector• Via ventral horn
5. Effector- responder (muscle or gland)• Patellar reflex- rectus femoris contracts
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Figure 10.5