Elisee Reclus, Man and Nature

8/3/2019 Elisee Reclus, Man and Nature

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manNATURthempactfhumanctivity nphysicaleography

concerninghe warenessfnaturen nodernociety

El isee eclu$

SYDNEY



MANAND NATUREEliseeReclus

I^SBN -908437-03-X

The Impactof Human Activity on PhysicalGeography.A Reviewof Man and NaturebyG"P. Marsh is a translation of L'Hommeet la nature. De l'uction humaine sur lageographie hysique,RewedesDeuxMondes"Vol. 54(15December) 864.

Concerninglte Awareness f Nature n ModernSociety s a translationof Du Sentimentde Ia nature dans es societiesmodernes, elue desDeux Mondes,Vol. 63 (15 May)I 866.

First EnglishTranslation,August1995

A JuraMediapublicationJUR.ABOOKSI l0 CrystalStreetPetersham, SW2049,Australia

Set n TimesNew RomanPrintedby Black Cat Press,Sydney

Translatedby Jack GrancharoffCoverDesignby BLACK ' MARK . ARTCover llustrationby MauriceDuvaiet

DistributionbyJURABOOKSI l0 CrystalStreet

Petersham, SW 2049,Australia(02)55 [email protected]

AClil{OWLEI}GEMENTS

Jura Books would like to thank the following pecple whose efiorts have made thispublication possible: Rhondda Dean, Grzrharn Purchixe, Joann Davidson. Nick Hughesand Doug Woodgate.

COI\TEh[TS

Preface 4

The mpactof HumanActivity onPhysicalGeography 5

Concerning he Ar.vareness f Nature n lVlodernSociet;r 13



dead etngainstt, works n his estat€sor its beautificationaswell as ts Uetterrnent.otonly as aqualified armerand ndustrialistdoeshe know how to utrlise,moreandmore,the earth's orcesanditspro'&rcts' ut alsoasanartisthe eams o give o thesurroundinglandsc4e more charnr,graceand mqiesty.Having become he "consciousnessf theearth" he manwortlry of zucha missionassumes, ryviftue of thd, a responsibleolewithi[ttrc harmonyandbeautyof his nafuralenvironment.

It is this elevated ointof view thatM. Marshconsidersn his mportant ook dedicdedto the studyof the mpact of humanaction onvarious modificationsof theeart\ havingpreparedor his work by perseveringwith scientific research nd engthy ravelling inAmeric4 Europeandclassical rientalcountries.Theauthorhas,what'smore, he meritto proceedwith the nost scrupulousconscientiousness nd neverventur€s o drawconclusions nlesshisstatements zupported y a greadumberof authentic estimoniesand ncontestable acts. M. Marsh'sboolg even f lacking methodolory, s a kind ofdetailednquiry into the waymanhas ulfilled hisduties,n conservation ndbettermentin relation o ttreearth re ives on. t emergesromthis inquiry tha onmanypointshuman

activitieshaveunfortun*ely fatal results n impoverishing he soil, degrdfutg natureandqpoiling he climate.Takenasa wlrcle, in relation o the earth humanity hasnot yet

emergedrom its primitivebarbarism.Earth'ssurfaceoffersmanycases f completedevastation n rnarry ocdions manhas

trmsfornned is homelandrto desert nd"nogftrssgrowswherehe leads".Big partsofPersi4 Mesopotami4 dumeaandmanyothercountries f Asia Minor andArabiawhere"milk and honey" used o flow and which supportedargepopulationsare now quiteunproductiveand nhabitedby destitute ribes iving 6n pillage ard nrdimentaryandcultivation. When hepowerof Romeyieldedto the barbarians,taly and neighbouringprovinces,uinedbythe crudecultivationof the andby slaves,waschangedntoadesertandeven o thesedays,afterneady wo thousand earsof the andbeing allow,vast da€tsof land hd the Etnrscans ndSiculesoncecultivatedareeitherunutilisedor hare umedinto unhealthymrshes. Causes imilar o those hat ed o the weakenirgand uin of theRomanEmpireare at work in theNew Wodd where argepartsof its arable and havebeenost;suchplantationsn CarolinaandAlabam4built at heexpense f virgin forestsless hanhalf a centuryago,haveceasedo beproductiveandarenow hedornainof wildcds.

,dsvast as hegrowittgdesolation f Americaandmany othercountriess wheremarqhardlyadayon hisplanet abuses ispower o exhausthe soil which nourishes im, hereis noothercountry n the world wheredevastdionsarc acconplishedwith such eiditythan heFrenchAlps. The rain and meltrng snowgraduallywash out the tiny layersoffertiie soil covering he slopesmd carry t to the sea n the orm of useless ilt, tlrc roclsaredenuded ndmoundsof debrisand ayersof stones re eplacinghecultivated andsof thevalieys.Deepgullies slowly dig their way into the steepslopeshuscawing thecrestof the mountainsnto distinct peakswhich breakdown andare redrced n heigfuquickly.Not a single shrubs seen n a stretchof rnanyeaguesn certain ocalities,only

agreyishpastureappears ereand hereon theslopesand uined housesmergewith thecrushed ocls that sunound hem.Everyyear hedevastated oneextends ndat he sametimeas hesoil impoverishes,hepopulationdisappeas;n fact in l0 square ilomeEesbetweenhemassifof Mount Taborand heAlp of Niceonehadly cancountagroupofinhabitantshd exceedmore han wo thousandndividuals.Andthis desert hat separatesthe ributaryvalleys of theRhone tom theverypopulousplainsof Piedmontwas creafedby the Montagnardshernselveswho, furthermore,were looking to extend t. In factgreedy ownershave cleared nearly all the forest covering the mountain sidesandconsequentlyhe water hd had been rappedby the rootsof the treesard thus slowlyseepednto hesoil, hasstop@ its ertilising workandhas urrrcd ntoa devast$ingorceIf anew Atilla hapens to cross he Alps anddecideso devastatelrc valleys or good,hewill not fail to errcouragehe ndives in tlrcir senselessork of destruction.

Suchare he changesakingplace n theplrysicalgeogr4hy and n therypearance frnountainousountriesollowingthe deforestationof lopes.Whentheplainsane trippedof their woods he conseqencesre essdisastrousnd t takesmore rme o become ware

ofthembut, nonetheless,hey are nevitable.Thesurfaceofthe eadh,without the treesthatbeautifuher, s notonly degraded ut salso pcessarilympoverishedAccording othenearlyunanimous estimory of all geographerst 4pears mostprobablehat annualrainfalisaredirninishing n countries evastded y wood cutterswhile, on tre otherhand,they are ncreasing n territories newly dorested. However,sinceour meteorologicalrccordsareof a ew years t is mher difricult to establish his faetwith cercainty"What scertains that deforestation isturbs heharmonyof naturebD' ltering he distribution ofvder unevenly.The interminglingbranches f the treeswould let therain fall, drop bydrop, so t would seepslowly thtough dead eavesand hairy roots, nowthe rain nrshesover lp soil fonning temporary treams.nsteadof forming subrterraneanaters h.d. adown o the ower landsand emerge s ertilising springs" he rain nowwashes verthesurface nd s ost n rivers argeard small.As thehighlands ry out, hevolumeof,wafterdownstreamncreases ith therisingwatersuming nto floodsanddevastatmgivorsidefields, mmensedisasters ccur sinrilarto thosecansed y theLoire ard the Rhone n1856.Thedirect esponsibilityof man n these dastrophiess largeand t maybe arguedthd it would havebeenprevented, r to agreatextertr essened, y the maintenance f tlreexisting orestsand by forestdion. Othercauses, or which manbears esponsibilities

beczusef hisactivities, s hisconfributiono the mmense xpansion f anmal flooding.Thus hedamsbuilt by engineersn order o prcted riverside ields arernoreoften hannottrranged n sucha way that hey mpedehemovemeffof watersand n themdorityof cases onotallow sufficient spaceor rising loods. n someocationsheLoire, whichis overflowirg so erribly, has n more han a tenth of its old wi&h betweenhesedans.The drainagesystem,excellent n preserving he fertilig of the soil" hasudoftunAeaonsequsncesn increasinghe evelof armual loods. Un&rtaken on a mgescale heseworls haveeffects comparable o thoseof deforestatioqbecausehe soil is quickly

drained nd hus n a ew minutesder showers heriver swells. n Englandand Scctland

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particularlybeautiful because f the greeneryhd covers hem oday.A district of thecountyof Mayo in whiclU according o tradition" nternalwars and he invasionof theEnglish conquerorshad not left a single tree standing now offers, thanks o variousplantatiors,much bettersights han hosebefore he deforestation t is the art of man,whateversome morosesprrit may thinlq that has he power o beautiff untrammeiledflatureby grving tpr thecharmof penpectiveand diversity and"aboveatrl,harmonisinglrcrwith the nner eelingsof thosewho nhabither. n Switzerland, n heshores f someofthegred lakesandinfront of antremountafuEndqparklingglaciers,manychalets ndtownswith their lawns,clustersof flowersard shady ootpdhs maken*ure even molebeautifuland hey charm, ike a sweetdreamof happine$s,he ravellerwhopasses y!

Nonetheless, t has to be sai4 that the peoplewho are today the avant-gardeofhumanity have, in general,very little preoccupationwith beautifying nature.Moreindustrialistshan artists, heypreferpower o beauty.Whd manwants oday s toad4tthe earth o his own needs,o own t completety n order o exploit its vast richness"He

cove$ her with anet of roads, ailwaysand elegraphines; heattempts o fertilisedesertsandprevent ivem rorn looding, hoproposeso changehehills in or&r to spread ltrwialdepositsover theplains; o tunnel nto the Alps and heAndes; o connect he Red Seawith theMediterraneanmd is nowpre.paringo mix the watersof the Fbcificwittr tlpseofthe CaribbeanSea- t is evident hatpeople,both actorsandwitnesses fall these redundertakings, aveallowedthemselveso be carriedawayby the ntoxicationof work anddrearn nty of moulding he earthaccording o their own mage.And ndrstry, whichhasalreaf accomplished uch narvels,what can t do if science urnishes t with no othermeans o act on the earth! It is that which M. Marshbringsto our attention n a feweloquentwords:"Mary plrysicists", ayshe,"suggestedhe dea hat t wouldbepossibleto collect and store up for humanusage some of the gre& natural forceswhj.ch heelements isplay with such zurprisirrgenerry." If,we cancdch andbind the containedpower hd is continuouslyenritted y hurricanesn theAntillesandmake t work for ourownbenefit; if we canget confrol over the inrpetusof the forcesdeveloped y 'araves&rringwinter stormswhen heybreakagainst he dykesof Cherboury r, evenbetter, herryanreshich erch month egpinhebeaclres f FundyBay; f weknewhowto utilise thepressuref onesquaremile of seawatertohedeshoffivethousandf'*homs;fweknewhow to utilise earthquakes nd volcanic movernents what colossalworks could beundertakenn our centuryof in&rtry andaudacitynow hat hevirtue of faith isno ongersufficient o transportmountains nd hrow them nto the sea?

Concerning the Awarenessof lfature in Modern Society "

['tor someyearsnow thereappearso bea veritable exuberancen the eelingsof loveI' thatbindsmergbothof science nd arts, o nature"Tnavellers warm n all courtriesth* areofeasy access, nd are remar*ableor the beautyoftheir sites"orthe charmoftheirclimates.Manypainters, esigners ndcarneramentraverseheworldfromthe shoreof Yang-Ts+Kiang o the riversof the Amazon.Theystudy he rnostdiverseaspects fthe earth,seaand orestand eveal o us all the magnificence f theplanetuponwhichwelive. Thanks o their increasinglycloseassociationwith ndure and o the artistic worksinspiredby theseruumerable oyages, ll culturedmencannow beawareof tlre differentfedures and physiognomyof the various countries of the wodd. The scholan, lessnu{nereushan he artists,but moreusefirl n their work of exploratio& havealso urnedinto nornads nd he entireworld hasbecomeheir sfirdy. t waswhilst travelling rom tte

Arxles o Altai thatHumbold composed isadmirableTablesof Ndure, dedicded,as ehimself said:"to thosewho for the ove of liberty havebeenable o toss hemselves nthe tempestuous aves of life*. The m4jority of artists,scholarsandrnaly otherswho"withoutpretensionsithertoartsorscience, implywantto efreshthemselvesnunspoiltnature,head or the mountainousegions.Eachyear, f theweatherallowstravellers ovisit the high valleys andventure o thepeaks,housands f plaindwellers ush owardsthosepartsof theSreneesand he Alps most enownedor theirbeauty. t is frue hat hernajority come o follorv the ashion,either or wantof something o do or out of vanity,but he nitiators of thernovement re hosewho aredrawn o it by loveof the rnountainsthemselves nd or whom rock-clirnbhg, s a tnrly sersualpleasure.The sight of highpeaks xerts omekindoffascinationonmanypeople.hemourtains withtheirmajesticfonnsandboldprofile outlined n theclearsl{y, with garlands f clouds hatcoil aroundtheir slopes,with the continuous aridions of shadeand ight that occur n grrlliesandfoothills - are hrme4 so to spealqnto beings endowedwith life and t is in order odiscover he secretof their existerrcehatpeople ry to corquer hem.Besidesone eelsdracted to them because f thecontrastbetween lrc virginal bezuty of their unspoiledslopes nd hemonotonyof theplains,cultivded andoftenmade gly by thework of manAn4 in fmt, do not the mountains ontaiq within a small qxrce,a summaryof earttily

splendours? limatesandzones f vegetati,on se ntiers on theirperipheries; t aglanceone can embrace ultivded land, orests,meadows, ocks, ce, snow, and erh eveningthe ing liglt of the sunbestows n lre summitsamarvellousook of transparenry s fthe enormousmasssbut a ight rosydr4ery floaing in tbe slry.

Fonnertypeopleworshipped he mountains r at east everedhemasabo&sof theirdivinities. otlrc westandtotltenorthofMour(Merou, hatstatelyhrone f,IndianGods,eachstageof civilisation canbe rneasuredy other srcred nountainswhere he rnastersof the skygathere4where hegred mythologicaleventsnthe life of ndions tookplme.Morethan ifu moursains, rom Ararat o Athos, werenamedas summitswhere heArkcontaining hedaunirg of hunanity ant the seeds f all that ived on earthwasgoingto

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descend.n semitic countrieseverysummit was an altat dedicated ither o Jehovah rMolock or other deities. t wasat Sinai hat heJewish ablesof law 4peared amidst helightning; t wasMount Nebo hat suppodedhe templeof Jerusalem.t was o Garizim

that heHigh Priestwent to blesshispeople,and similarly CarmelandMount TaborandMount Liban wreathedwith cedars.To the "high places",on which were situded tlrcir

altars, he Jewsard Canaanitesctffned in masseso slit the hroatsof theirvictimsand

burn heirholocausts. ikewise or the Greekserchmountainwas a citadel of the Titans

or a courtyardof agod;a Czucasiraneakservedas apillory for Prometheus,atherand

modelof humanity; he riple domeof O$mpuswas hernagnificentesortof Jupiterand

whenapoet nvokedApollo hiseyeswould ook atMount hrnassus.Nowdrys we donot worshipmountains nymore ut thosewhohaneoften raversed

thernLove hemwith aprofoundaffection.Thepeak hatyou haveclimbed seemso look

atyou.Froma distancet smilesatyoq it is for you thd its snow shinesard the evening

isbrightened y a ast ray. With whatpleasupone emembers ven he smallestncidentof theclimb: the rocks, hat dislocatingthernselvesrom theslopes, o plungiqginto t1te

torrer* with a deafening oise; he oot to whichone s hangingn order o climbup a wallof rocks; he rickle of snow-wderwith which one's hirst s quenchedhe rst crcvasse

of a glacier you lean over and dare o cross,a long slope which has beenarduouslyclaimed almost sinkingkneedeep nto the snow and, inally, the astcrest rom where

can be seen he vast unfolding parnftunaof,mountains, alleys andplainsas ar as he

mist of thehorizon.Whenonesees,rom a distance,hepeakconquered t thecostof sornucheffort it is with true oy that one discerns, r guesses aglance,hep*h former$

taken rom the depths f, he smallvalleys o the white snowsof the summit. n thisgrand

scene resen0edy the mountains'slopes ne inds againail the memories f ah4py day.Fromwheredoes his deeply eit oy in climbingup highmountain ummitscome?At

flrst it is agreatphysicaldelight o breathereshand crispair notpollutedby the mpure

emanations f the plains. One s revived by enjoying this afinosphere f life; as oneascendsheair becomesighter, onebreathesn longer ntervalso fill 14) ne's ungs, hechestexpands, he musclesstretchard cheerftrlness nlers he soul.More tban thd one

becomesn corfrol of ard responsibleor one's ownlife The walkeru'ho climbs up amountaindoesnot give himself up to the whim of tlp elemefts ike tlrc adventurous

navigator at seA less so is he a simple humanparcel, labelled,controlled and thendispatched t a given lnur under he supervisionof an employeen unif'orm as s thetraveller by train. By touchingthe soil he revives the usageof his faculties andhis

freedorn.Hiseye serveso evade ccks on hispch, to measurehedepthof precipices nd

to.discoverprojeetionsandcrags hat helphim scatreockfaces.The orceandelasticityof his musclesenabtre im to get over abysses,o cling to steepslopesand climb up

mountaingorgesstep by step"On thousands f occasionsuring the xcent of a steepmountainone realises hd onewill have o facerealdanger if one osesone's balance,if one'svision is suddenlyblurred by vertigo or if one's imbs refuse o function. It isprecisely hisawareness f danger, ded to theoy of knowing one s agile and il thal

doublesn the spirit of themountaineerhe feelirg of securityAs to the ntellectualpieasure nascent ffers,besides eing ntimatelyrelated o the

physicalpleasure f theclimb, t is enhanced hen hemind s moreopenard thediversephenomenaf naturearebetterstudied.Onecatchesn action he erosion aused y waterand snow, witnesses he movementof glaciers,sees he shifting rocks moving fromsurnmits o plains,and ollows the vista of the enormous orizontalor vertical tiersandcatches ightof masses f granite ifting upstratar;hen inaltrywhenorc is onahighpeakone can contemplate,n its entirety, the edifice of the mountarnwith its ravinesamdfoothills, ts snows, ts forestsandmedows. Dalesandvalleys,which ce,water andbariweatherhavescul$ured on the vast relief, reveal hemselves leady. Ora sees he workaccomplished y all thesegeologicalagents ring thousands f centuries.Goingbmk asfar as the origins of the mountairs hemselves, nepllssesa better udgementon thevariousscholars'hypothesisabout he breakingof the earth'scrust about le folds of

strdaandabout he eruptionsof graniteorporphyry". Furthermoret has o beadmittedhatvanity often mingleswith thenoblepassionbac

leadsa traveller o climb thehigh summits..,lotonly is maneladed y tha(naturalpridecreded by the oy of being able,despitehispettiness,o triurnphby his ntelligpnceandwill over the obstacles hd hinderedhim; not only doeshe rejoice n overcoming hernountain tself ard proclaiminghirnself he conquerorof th* formidablepedg whosefirst sight,nonetheless, ad illed him with asot of religious erroq but also, n advance,he hearshe alk aroundhis narnewhich will not fail to bemade f he succeedsn puttinghis foot on the covetedpeakand perhps even n advance, e s flafteredby the feelingof envy which less uclqyexplorerswill bear. t is agreatand at the san-reime a puerilepleasureo reach irst the targetwhictr, at oneand hesalne irne,manyothelsare byingto be he irst to hoist he lagupon conqueredanparts, irst to leap orwardon a desiredshore.One amousmountaineer, ecogtrising h* it would be n vain to try to climb thehighestpeakof the ulountCervin,at eastwanted o reach he nearest eak o the summit"thendeernednaccessible.Why?usaidtheguide o him""Thisrock hasneithernamenorglory". And the mountaineer, urning his back on Cervin ook the road o anotherinaccessibleeak" t is rnoreoverruethat his rtrantilevanity which consistsof wishingto makea pedestal ut of a mountain h* is difficult to climb is t}rcmaiq if not unique

cause f these erribleaccidentshat hrypeneachyear. f a climber s not absotrutelyureof his cleamess f vision and he strengthof his limbs thenheought o retreat, irithout

any shame,n the aceof any racks hatare oo diffrcult for him and herewill beno need

to deploreh€horri8'ing l4penings whosesimple naration makes s shiver.The number of importantascents as ncreased onsiderably ince he devotees f

rocksandglaciershave yplied thepowerfirlprincipleof the association f climbingwiththe ntimde undentandingof the greatsurnmits.Societiesmadeup of scholars, ighly

skilledualkersandmenof leisurewho want o harean aim n life, havebeenestablishedin manycountriesn European4 under he nameof Alpine clubs, hey haveerfieredan

agrcementot to leavea single ock-poirt, a singlegully of avalanchesiee frorn human

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footsteps. hey havedrawnup a ist of all peaksasyetunconquered, iscussedhe meansof reaching hem,promped manyascents nd by their m41 memoirsand numerousmeetingshavegreatly contributed o knowiedge about he structurcof the Alpe Thecollectionshatcontain he ravelournalsof the nembers f thevariousAlpineClubsareundoubtedly he exts whereone indsthemostvaluablenformationaboutthe ccks andglaciersof thehigh rnourtainsof Europeaswell as hebestaccounts f ascents.n future,when heAlps andotter accessibleanges f the worldwill be uny known, hernernoirs

of the Alpine Clubs will be the Illid of mountain oversandpeoplewill tell about heexploits of Tyndall. Tucket,Goas,Theobaldand others,heroesof this greatepic of thecorqueringof theAlps as n thepast hey old about heexploitsof men of war.

Indisputab$ he honourofgivingthe mpetuso thisgreat novement f the explorationof high summitsgoes o theEnglish.A hundredand wenty ive yearsago,Pococke ndWyndhan ha4 so o speak, iscoveredMount Blarrc.After thatmemorable ra t wasalso

the English who, exceeding n zealand intrepidity the inhabitantsof the Swiss Alpe

themselves ndmoreso he Sanoyard talianandFrenchmountaineers, ost@uentlyclimbedMount Btranc ndottrergiantsof theAlps; t is theywlrc, with greatenrour,have

studied the Glacial sea and various glaciers of the Westernmassifsand who havEexplained o usthe tnre opography f the essknowngroupsof Pelvoux,Grard-Pardisandof Viso; and t is they, inalXy,whoby the establishmentf the irst AlprneClubhaveled to the subsequent urgeof a large number of societies f the same ype in variouscountriesn Europe.

What s the reasonor this remarkableAnglo-Saxonpre-eminencen theexplordionof mountains?No doubtonehas o seek t largely n theblood of therace tself. Englishtranellers,sailorsandclirnbersare descen&nt iom audmiousVikirgs who refened cthemselvess"kingsof tlrewild waves"andwho,with oy, wouldventure n theirnafiowboatsover he choppyanddangerclus{/Eves f theNorthernSea. he Danes rd Normans,

children of tlc Vikings, establishedhemselvesn Englan{ mixed with aboriginesandformercorrluerorcof the andand o theBriton's tenacig thus dded their audacityandtheir love.for adventure.The native milieu did the r€st. The slopesof the fieldsgently

slarfed owards he se4 the deepndentations f the coast ine, the argeestuaries f therivers, the facility of sea comnrunications,he fortunde position of its portsoppositeGermanyandFrance,all tlpse naturaladvantages rove heEnglish owardscoilrmerce

and ravelling. CreatBritain hasbecome hemain radecentreof theentire world and asa result t is there,more hananywhere lse, hatwith ttteprogress f civilis*ion the desireto knowcountrieswhoseaspects iffer from thoseof Englandhasdeveloped. urthsr, lesettingup of Englishprope{y lawshas resultedn a greatnumberof erergeticpeople

beingdrivenoutof thecountryand hus ncreasinghe aste or andexperience f all typesofjburneys.Whereasworkersand armerswithout nheritanceeave oluntarily n searchof well berng and rdependencen the other hernispheres, n'*rnberof well-off people

deprived by the nstitution of primogeniture,of larded propeftyand hus having so ospealqnoties with thendive soil are always eady o change ountries.Not harringarry

fields hatpropedybelong o therry hey ake hewhole earthas leir domainand,as rewMamertines,eaveenmassehenativecountrywhich no ongerhasany need or them.

In order to account or the overwhelmingattractionwhich leads so many Englishtourists owards he crevassesfglaciers,gulliesofavalanches nd cornices froclcsonemustnot forget that the Anglo-Saronhasalways madea veritablecult out of physicalsfength. A greateaterof almostrawmeat he takespleasuren all violent exercisesnwhich musclesare flexed, in which, in a massiveeffort, the body is rendered ike amachine, n which the bloodrusheso ttte skin and ntensifiests circulation Whilst thisadmiration or theexersise f bnrtalstrength s well-foun&d somehowt is notbalancedin the Erglish by any moredelicatesentiments nd nevitablydegeneratesnto cruelty-not that crueltythat nspires anaticismor that gives hattouch of heedlessnesso Latinpeople, utacold, thouglrtfrrl,systemdiccruelfy- the oveof bloodforthe sakeof blood.unfortunately, one has to admit this depravity of the nroral sensewhen one seeshrliament in session, djoum ts sitting o allow thestatesmenhe s*isfaction of seeinga ight betweenwo boxers

who,with faceandbodynude,batter,mutilateandblind eachotherwith blowsand um eachother nto two masses f bleeding lesh. Frorn he inaeofthd warwith theSepoys,when n mostchurcheslrepastonwere heardo evoke lrc Godof arms o askhim to exteminate herebels, o thernost ecent imes, when he coarsestapplaudingbyvariousstrataof Englishsocietyhasaccompaniedhe honiblebutchery nJamaica, e havebeen orced o recognise, ith sadness,hatagreatcompoflent f nativebarbarism till prevails n theErylish nature.Brutality" taken n isoldion as a kind ofreligious ideal, is even found recently arnong Engtrishwriters, philosophersandtheologians, nd hoy are suchfervent4ostles thattheirdoctrines ironically refened ob5' hepublic as MuscularChristianity.Despite his gotesquedescriptionhe new sectr€prcsentsn mportantsectionof English society;mostly ts supporierse frornstrong,and courageousouthwhoseaim in life is to hunt,box, runandbuild up the muscles ftheir bodiesandarms In their oveof strength,he new kindof Christians requentlycometo detesthe weak and hus hemajority of them,because f hated of theblmks, took thesideof theplantationistsn theAmericanCivil War. To havean deaof themoraiiryofthe Muscrrlar-Christiansne hasonly to readthenovelTheSwardand he Gouryr rittenby oneof heprirnadonnasfthe sect. ll its heroes reamish-mashofmuscle ndpride.Among lre Frerrch haractershat the zuthorportraysheabhors,aboveall, thepeasant

made and-ownerby theRevolutiorl and only admiresone old gentleman,iddledwithvices,but whoknowshowto loseat cardswithout raisinghiseyebrows.

However f the admirersof physicalstrength orget that man s rnore han a set ofmuscles ervedby an impassivewill, it is also tnre th* the maralprogress f Englishpeople, n general,hasremarkablyacceler*ed by the cae taken by youngand ald todevelop igour,dexterityandcourageIt is an excellentspectacleo seeagameof cricketor aracebetween wo rowingboats.These lenderhandsomemenwith muscled rrnsandflexible and comfortableclothingwho put so muchpassiondo winning an honoraryvictory and who attend to the glances,wishes and encouragement f thousandsof

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spectators do they not look like the Greekheroesof the Olympicgameswhosegloryposteritystill celebrates?n order o equal hepoeticalcharmofthe Hellenicathletes heyonly lack a milieu similar to that of Ancient Greece;he beautyof the landscape,lnclearness f the blue sky, the splendour f marble emplesand stahresn divine forms othrow light upon them and"aboveall, they lack the powerfrrlcharm hat a mir4ge of abygonepastof two thousand earsprovides.Andyet heyoungEnglishathletesn nowayyield in the courage,endurance,will-power and passion hey put into their bodilyeducatio& o thoseof Greece.Under he dircction <rfprofessionalnstructo$,who trainthem like rrc,ing horses, hey submit voluntarily to a long regime of abstinence ndendrrance alculated o achievea calmer outlook, strongermuscles nd more ernrgeticwill. Thanks to such an education hesepeople earn to rely on themselveson anyoccasion; hey deff sickness,weariness nd danger; lrcy are afraidneitherof openair,coldor heatnorof being eft alonen a desertor on heocean They ook at leir irdlexiblewill as a cornpass nd so ong as tnir task s not fulfilled theymissneitherparentsnor

friendsnorbig cities where ife is so easy.These re he ightpeopleor climbing he onceinaccessiblesummits of the Alps, the Andes and the Himalayasandfor conqueringunknown wildernesses or geography"One should only reproach hem with t hecold-bloodedbnrtal calm with which hey discardanything oreign o them.While n thecolonies he squatters ursue henatives ike wild beasts ndend upgrabbing heir and;theErglish explorers,as soonas hey havediscovered newcountry,hasteno suppressthepoetical ulmesgivenby the nhabitarfsandsubstitute hem with mostvulgar names

- thankg o that "the cataractof thunderoussmoke'l ums to "Victona Falle" andthe"Piercerof the Slqy" o "MountCook".

Amongst he representafivesf the admirableAngfo-Saxon'saudacityone couldnotnameanyone more remarkable han Tyndall, one of those rare personswhereinintelligence, 4gacig andscholarlyperceptions are not bluntedartistic emotions.Afterhavinglost,fuoughsome mallclimbs, heexcess eighthehadpt onfuringthe winterin his London aboratory, he ntrepidclirnber hashad no fear n climbing alone, n hisshirtsleeves,o the top of Mount Rose. Onedoes nt know how muchstrength here sin four ounces f food" he said"ondeparture,when ealising ha apieceof breadwashisonly provision.Another ime heand severalof his comparfons"ied tqgetherby a cord,slid headirst on a snowy slope underneathwhich suddenlyopened precipice.During

this tremendous escent,n completepresence f rnind, hecalculated ll charrces f Meand dedh an4 in unison with aguidehe elt instinctivelyworked with hiq heusedhisstich his handsand his legs with the resuit hat theburrchof men urally came o restdthe edgeof the abyss"F{owever,t is when M. Tyndall s deffing tiredness nddanger nqrder to solve a scienti{ic problem, that his audacity and his perseverance remostadndrable.t is wonderftrl o seehim, in theheightof winter, opena pafh n thesnowashighashis shoulders ndventureabovehiddencrevasses,herehe akes heriskofbeingswallowed p, n order o be able o measureigorously, romthe heightof a vantage ointlost in themist or in a snow stoffn, he slow movementof the making rodsplacedd

intervalsonthe Montanvertgfacier.Thanks o hisgreat ove of nature, hat nspiredhim to urde(ake all thosezudacious

actsand difficult explorations,he amousprofessor"whonodoubtcherishes is rightfrrlrerpwn,has eachedhepointwhereheplaceshis spiritualandphysicalequilibriumwellabovehis scientific ame.Heholds closer o his hearthisover all well-being, hat oie devivre, so o say,acqriiredhrough he exertionof muscles ndminq than heopinionsof,hiscontemporariesnd of austerityon hevalueof hiswork. "You kno#' hewritesto afriend of his "what[ttle importance dtach to my scientificresearclresn he Alps. Theglaciersand he mountainsare muchmore mpo(ant to me han scierrcetself- In themfind a sourceof life and oy; they have umished me with imagesandmemorieswhichwill neverbeeffacedrom my thouglt; they havemademyvery beingaware f thevirilityof myconsciousnessndnow, min{ soul andbody wor* in me, n unisorqwith a strengthso oyful that neither weaknessnor boredomcan ever alter. My experiencesn themountainshave aisedmy awarcrnss f delight and ed me to become our rival in tlre

iove of nature.Seewhd the Alps havegiven me!" Owing to the sensitivegrorvth nfqelings hd the ntimae knowtredgef earthlyphenomenaasgivento Prrof. yndall, hemost minutedetailsastonishand delight him with joy. Are thereamong he pliysicistsmanywho, like hinL wait for the bearty of a snowflake without fearing ttre sugarysarcasmof a friendly colleague? s there any one whtr, after having described heramificationof frosty flowersonthewindowsof an nrLwill dare o add; theseexquisiteproductionsdon"t talk to the rfelligenceonly but alsodelight the heartand make ears

rypear n the eyes?"And this ma&whosewords we quote, s notamelancholic oetbutthe scholr who, since he first research y Agassiz,hascontributedmost o theprogressof scientific knowledgeaboutneveandglrciers.

M. Tyndall's passion or hard o accessmountainswas shared y his friendsof theAlpineClubandmanyotherEnglishmenwhq like hinqcontinueeach ear oaddby theirclimbs, to the knowledge of Europeangeography.IVforeover, t is not only in theexploration of glaciers and high pealc th* many Anglo-Sa,ronscholars,among hescholarsof other nations,havedistinguished hemselves:but also in the study of allphysicalphenomenaf the world.Theastronomer iazzi-SmitlU iswife and hecrew ofayacht spentseveralmonthsd 300G3500metreson the slopesof tte Peakof Tenerifeto setup experiments n thepurity of the atnosphere n order o study he upper ayer of

cloudsasothershavestudied hoseof ttp lard and to witress the conflict between heMe winds ard the counlercurreft coming um the Equdor. Even moredaringly M.Glaisher, n hisballoorg hasgoneup well above healtitudecorrespondingo thehighestpeakof Himdaya Themeteorological cholarmd his companions ecided okeepgoingup so ong as they remainedully corscious.The air, havfurg ecorne oo rare or theirlungs, orced hem o pantwith difficulty and o suffer rom palpitatiorLt set heir ea:sbu"z@, it distendedhe arteriesn their emples ndchilled heir ingen into funnrobility;nonetteless,heir wi.ll sustainshemand hey ettison moresandoutfrom thebasketandthus makea new sur3e nto the aEnosphere. ne of the crew faints but the othersdo

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nothing o stop he ascent nd with eyes ixed on their nstnrments,heyglancingly note

thegmdual alling of thernercuryn the barometer nd hermometer s f they were still

at their Ssewation point at Kew. The secondof the threeheroic ravellers,completely

numbbecause f the ack of air andwarmtlqalsocollrysesandyet theballoon still rises.

By now M. Glaishel graduallyovercome y drowsiness,as ost heuseofhishands; ut

heholds he cordof thevalvebetween isteethand t is only whenhe eels hata secon{

only a second" epardeshim andhis companionsrom death hathe ets thegasescape

and he defided balloonstopsat last andgraduallystarts o descendowards he fields

11,000metresbeneathhern.Whatnoble courageon thepartof thesepeoplewho,with

sucha simplicity of soul, iskeddeathsimply o bebetterable o study le tenperafire of

the atmosphere hereneittrerbird nor mancan ive! indeed it wouldbe better o belittle

the strengthof spiril and self,-controtrf thesescholarshan to comparehem with the

brutal courageof the soldierwtro furiously throwshimself nto bdtle intoxicatedwith

gunpowder, proarandbloodWhile, through wofold tove of natureandscience, eopleike M.Tyndall andGlaisher

climb difficult sumrnitsor hurl themselvesnto spacen balloons,many thousardsof

otherEnglishmenwhosecareers remore modest" inceonly afew of them canhope o

conquer ame, un risks n otherelementsuchassnatching hipuneck ictims rom death

No doubt eelingsplaya argepart n thededicationof theseireless ife-boaf owerswho

venturcon seethingwaves n tlremiddleof terribtestoms, duringthose rightening and

arfu1 nightswhen heskippercanhardty distinguishhisown crcwor hearhis ownvoice

through he howling of the aiq but in thd admirablegacrificeof their lives aren't the

rescuers lso emptedby thegred aftractionwhich thebeartyof the urious seaexercises

on hern?There s nogfeaterdelight o temptbftIveheats than o baUleagainst.ltewaves,

winds, stonns and darknessandto defeat all those_nemiesby strengthof courage,

presenceof mind, voluntary disciplineand heroic persevefimce!Certainlythe tough

sailorswho during nigfits of ship*recls dash o aid ships n distressare, n fact, the

&scendants f the ancient ings of the seaand ove he wild seajustas heir ancestondid

and ike them hey aughd dedh but their arnbition s higher. nsteadof searchingarne

in murderandrrye their mission s to rescue ictims from dedtr or evensimply to find

their corpses.Werenot hoseexpeditions edicated, ith suchpersevemnce,o thesearch

for JohnFranHin andhis companions one other hanrescueatlernpsmadeon a grand

scale?Love of struggle and dangernrns n the blood of rnen but real heroesbegin tounderstandhd to sdisff theirpassionor fighting, it is nobler o grryplewith tte forces

of nature han o cut the hroatsof their brothers.If in thegred undertakingof ndure's explordion thathasbeencaried outto date, lte

English are especiallydistingrrishedor their zudacity, heir lively perseverancend

cortennptor danger,hen he Germans"erhrys,showanappreciation f naturewhich s,

at one and the sanneime, moregeneraland more intirnate. n their poetical and

phitosophicalworks heyhmrenot simply extollednaturen all its aspects,heyhavealso

shrdied t with devotion.Kaff, thegreatexponent f modemphilosophy,alsoconcerned

himself with the solutionof problems elatirg to the andan4 with thesame en hd he

usedor theCritique ofPureReason wrctemanyworks onphysicalgeographyGoe{lp,

the calm admirerof the forces hidden n rocks andplants, had as contemporaries"

AlexanderHumboldt,a tireless ravellerwho, n two continents, tudiedon site heflux

of the ife of the world andKarl Ritter, heheroicscholarwhodidnot linch at he hought

of starting,by himself, an enryclopaedia f humanknowledge bout hecountries nd he

peopleof the Earth. After these wo men, w1p wererealpioneers,have comea gredt

numberof travellersand scholars,whosemission s to tranel aroundhe planetand o

study and describe t. The Germans, ot having coloniesand not sending egions of

employeeso all partsof the earthas heBritishhavedone,are hereforemotivatedneither

by narow pdiotisrn nor by the demardsof imposedmissionsbut rdher, it is truly the

iove of the land that drivesso marryGermanexploren to rarelyvisited or completely

unknown egiorrs.Already he ist is longof ttroseamonghemwho havedied n Africa

in Australia in dsia andAmericabu! nonetheless,ew ravellemkeepcoming orward

to continue he discoveries ftheir precursors.

It is tnn, generallyspealdng,hat he Germans rc superior o theirEnglishrivalsasinterpretcrs f naturebut theyde notequal o them n the ardourand ively fearlessness

of theirmountainexplordions;on heotherhand the Germans re essprone obe carried

av/ayby the ntoxication of climbingand o cornmit oolishiy darirg acts hai eachyear

costmaflypreciousives.Theydonotclimbpeakssimply or thesheer hysicalpleasure

but also in order to learn and then to teach ater on an4 hariingbecomeprudentby

reflection, hey do not ventufe,other han with goodreaso&on dangerous scaxpments.

Without illing the world with theclamourof theirexploits,asdo rnanyEnglishelimbers

whose olemerit s knowinghow omasterhemost earsome eaks, onre eologists nd

naturalists, uchasTtreobaldandVogt, have&finitely contributedmore o theprogress

of thescience f theAlps thananyoneelse.Moreover,n Germany swell as nEnglan4

the mportance f physicalexerciseor thewell-beingof thehumanspeciess beginrdng

to be understood rd rymnastic clubsarebeing foundedeverywhere. heseexcellent

institutions, hat alreadyhave rnore han 150,000members n all partsof the

corfederatio&not only contribute o the development f thestrengtllgraceandbeautyof

thgracebut alsobring together,on a daily and equalbasis,peopleof all classes; cholars,

doctors,engineers,merchantsandworkers. Slowly they facilitate the penetrationof

reprblicanprinciples hroughgivingeachpersogwith superiorphysicalstrengttt, morc

extendededucation,a greatercomprehension f his rights and duties and a greaterfamiliarity with voting anddebate. herymnasticassociations hich havesuccessively

beenorganisedn erch town have erdedby covering he cour$rywith a multitudeof

fe&rated groupswhosenationalcompetitionsars,at one ard the sarneime" Olympic

gamesandpadiaments.n this way ryrnnasticscan be considered neof the greatest

components f thematerial,political andsocia! egenerdionof thepeople. t will notbe

tongbefore ts beneficial nfluenceon thephysicalard moral equilibriumof the citizen

will correctwhat s vague, alse ard mystical n the ove h* Germans ave or ndure.

Qa)(2t)



Thd this oveofnature, despiGhe abenationst hasbeensubjectedto ince he dawn

of history, hasalwaysbeenoneof thedistinctive raits of the German eoplesprovenby

the legends and great number of songs collected n various Germanprovinces.The

descendantsfthose Teutonswhoused o inhabit heheartlard ofthe forestshavenever

ignored he beautyof their woodsof sal<'beechand ir trees,of their springs,mo&stly

spouting n the meadowgrasses r under he dead eanes,of their mountainssmoothed

overby layersof snow n winter irne. Oneof thebestwitnesses s o theprovenstrength

of feelirgtha Germansavealways dforndure is tobefound ntheirpatronymics.In

France, ile or d least ulgar ypellanions re,unfortunately, umerous. he amily names

derived rom the andsuchas:Dumont,Dubois,Lafont,Duplan,Durrieu, simplyrefer o

alocation or oldproperty rights andmakeno allusionto the beautyof the counlry.As to

the Gerrnans,millions of themaregiven graciousandsuperbnameswhich s aproofof a

lively, poeticalsentimentwi&in themasseshemselves.Over he other sideof theRhine

it is common o call yourself:Branche-de-Ruier,Ruisseau4e-Frenes, lage-Fleurie,

Chan -des-Oiseaux, ochede-Lumi re.

It has to be said th* the Frenclq on the whole, do not alwaysapprecide,as theirnorthernand eastemneighboun do, greatNdure's splendours.More sociable han he

Germans rd the English hey are essable o endureoneliness ndeven he temporary

internrptionof their usualreliationships.hey need"at work and n pleasure,he daily

routine; ln same omrades rd thesameriends.Theydrcadwild ndure where nanhas

noothercompalrionshantrees,ocksand orrerfs.The aspect f ndure which theFrench

ryprecide more and which theypreferto look at, consistsof gentlyudulating land n

which varied ypesof cultivdion altenrate racefi.rllyight up to the distanthorimn of theplains.Herearow of greenhills rnark out he andscape,herea small iver winds benedh

alder and aspenbranchesand here and there,clustersof trees appearamongst he

meadows ndwheatfieldsandoverthere,whitehouseswhose edtiles shinenthe middle

ofthegreenery. hebeauty fthe siteappears omplete henaruincoveredinwildvines

anda mill, constructed n uneven rchesrcrossheriver, add heirpicturesque rofile to

the whole scene. veqrwhere,hepersonwhoconternpldes uchscerrcryees ignsof the

indusfiy of his fellow beings;naturealteredby wo* is, so to speak, umanised nd lre

spectatorloveso identitr hirnselfwiththis comrnonpursuit.Nonetheless,arawayfronn

those egions ransformed ry ultivdion one inds siteswhere heprimitivebealrtyof the

landremainsmrnaculate.

The dealof our ancestors,egardingardscrye, s revealed y thesites h* princesandtordschoseor building their castles f pleasureOnly a verysrnallnumber f these lrces

occupyapositionwhereone cangazaat a grandiose orizonof mountains ndrocks; t

is to be rnted, also, hd in many ocalities,especiallyon theshores f Lake Geneva,he

countryhouses uiltby the rich riparian ownershave heirbac*sto whd nowrypeatlrcmostspectaculariews. nsted of gladly gazingd nafirre n all itspowerfulsavagsryhey

prefenedcon{inedspaces here he maginations keptwithin krpwnbounds- acurtain

of hills blerxtirg sof[ly, avenues f thick trees, awns ard pords decordedwith stahres.

They put grace, often affectedgrace,well above the simple grandeurof immensehorizons.

Nonetheless,f one were not awareof the reasonshe baronsand squiresbuilt theirtowersonsteepslopes,hesiglt of thepicturesqueortified castleon agged ocksmight

temptsome o believe hat he eudal ords n theFrenchenitories ypreciafedhebeautyof wild naturc. f they nhabited he zummitsof thesesolded rocks surely t wasnot toenjoy he view of the risingsunor to follow the sight of meanderingivers but rdher to

observeenemiesor victims in the surrounding alleys.No donbt hey came o like thesolitaryretreatn which theyhad aken efuge;haviry seenor the irst time the ight ofthe day hrough herurrow loopholes of the castle;aschildrerg unningon hebattlement

and eaningover the crenelsn the walls, th€y hd learnedhenames f the lowersthd

bloomedn the cracksandof tlt treeshatgrew, ar away,on hehilly slopes; ften ards,becominghunters, hey wouldknowthe animalsof the orestandbecome ccustomedo

winds, stonnsandbadwedher and"hrough ong habit,wouldend n appreciating artof

thd ndure in the midstof which they ived. However,as he Germanicelement n this

classofconquerorsbecameFrenchified,due o cross-breedingandustorns,he oveofsolitudeandwild nafurewas ostamong heknights; heymovedcloser o theplains; hey

establishedhemselvesn to$ns and becarne, raduafiy,princesor courtiers" t was n

Gennanymorepreciselyon hebanksof theRhine,NeckmandN{oselleiversand n themountainous egronsof Paldina@"SwabiaandFrankonia th* this aurfrrX hivalry of

ferociousplunderers ersistedhe ongest,sirre theirryprecidion of naturewas ike thd

of wild beasts;a place o find their densand bring theirprey.One of thernost earsorne

of these rigand-knights,he nfamous berhard,orHeartofWildBoal, ofwhomwefind

afictionalportraitinUhland'sballds,hadasamotto:'FriendofGo4enemyofallmen.'And in order o ustiff thesewords,he nevermissedanop'portunityo assaiihun&edsof

his fellow beings.The fortified castlewas an eyrie and he ord took ashis emblecnhe

eagleand hevulturc as s provenby thefact thd thesestrange irdsof prcy,despiteall

the progressaccornplishedn tlre modern wodd, haveremained he coailof anns of

families and states. he American epublic tself, n oddly eudalmanner"ook ttrc e4gle

as he symbolof its power.

Whatever he eelings of the conquerors f the ard may havebeen owardsndure, it

is certain hd themasses f slaves anhardly hane ypreciatedhe beautyof the efih on

whichtheypassedtheirmiserableivesandthe eelings heyhdtowards the surrounding

landscape ouldneeessarily e debased.hp dtterness f existence €s then ar tooacutefor thern to be able to indulge in the pleasureof admiring clouds, rocks and trees.

Everywhere herewas strife, hatreqabject ear,warsand arnirres. he master'swhim

and cruelty were aru or the enslaved; achunknownpereonwas earedas a murderer;

the words oreignerand enemyhadbecome ynonyms.n sucha society heonly thing a

brane nan coulddo to figtf ?geinsthis destinyandpreserve is self-respectwas o be

merryand ronic, to make irn of the strongandaboveall of hismaster" uthedid notpay

any attention o nafure.Besi&s, ndure wasalsoharsho him; sheoftenrefirsedo-vield

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thewhed hecast nto the funows; brougltt cold andstorms o him even houghhehad

inst'fficient clotlrcs ocoyerhirnself,sometimes heblewgustsof pestilence ver he and

and entire populationsdisrypearedn a few weeks"The magnificentcharacterof ttrc

surrounding aturehad o rernainunknown o menwho, under he spell of obscureears

carefutly sustained D/wizardsof all kinds" cortinued o see in gfottos,sunken oads,

mountaingorges,n woods ull of shadows ndsilence shryeless hostsandhorrible

monsters, artbeastandpartdemon.What strangedeasabout heearth and ts beauty

havehadthe monks n tire Middle Ages who, in their world rnaps,never ail to draw,

beside he namesof distantcountries,animalsbeiching ire, men wit} hoovesof horses

or tails of fisll gryphonswith headsof rams or oxer1 lying mandrakes nddec4itated

bodieswith hugewild eyes n their chests!To get an ryproximate dea of whs society was ike in theMiddle Agesandof the

feelings hatnafure nspiredn it, it wouldbe necessaryopenetratento remote outtries

whereold traditionsarepreserved ndwhere he night of ignoranceetains ts densiq'. rn

fact, n France here snotasingle egionwhere nodern&as, albeit n a ccnfusedonn,havenot arrived;but even f onecannotind lrereanyrealreftrunts of theMiddle Ages,

it is, nonetheless, aqyo recognisets vestiges.Twentyyearsago he belief in magic,

sorcery andmiracles of all sorts still prevailedabsolutely n the minds of millions of

villagers in the centreof Franceand Brittany. To understandhe fear that nature

engenderedn ourancestorst isnotnecessaryo goback o the centuryof,EtienneMarcel

and Chades heMauvais;manyof us oniy hane o rerngnrber ur childhoodand he naivegullibility with which we accepted ll assertionshd wouldnourishourpenchantor fear.

There arernany of us who in our yout[ poor little things remblingnear he heartlq

heardheold womenwhisper enible storiesof monsters nddemons. owardsduskwehaveseenhideouspharrtorns,ormed from river mists, walking miselessly across he

meadows tretchingheir ongtransparcnt rms owardsus. During aclearmoonlitnight

we havequivered ike leaveswhen werewolveshowledat thecross oads. f among he

various anfasieshat surgedinourhallucination,hereweresomegraious ones hey, ike

therest,werecompletelydivorced rom reality. Recently had hepleasureo seeagain

an old counry wonutnwho had aughtme orrce hd to go to Rome, o Saint Jamesof

Compostella nd Jerusalem would trave o go to walk on the starsand ollow theMilky

Way.Thegoodwomanvrasmostsurprisedwhen , in my tBnL wanted o telLher hd thestages f thepilgrimsarenot o be oundon the arcsof thesky. Shedid not refirtemebut

sheshookherheadsilentlyandwithout any doubthaskept her aith in the deghs of her

heart.Considering hat herehavealwaysbeenexceptionso suchconeepts fthe subjectof

ndtrre, it is easy o understardhow ignorance,superstitiorqmisery, ear or the love ofprofit musthavedarkenedmirds andgiventhenUd leastpartially,a warpedview of the

beaarty f the earth.Neither he peasartnor the bourgeoisexploitersof the land couldperceivehebearty of the countryside ther han rom a utilitadanpointof vieq and heliterdurc, the nafuralexpression f thepeople's houglils,couldnot on ts part do other

than o cowey in an dealised onn thatway of seeing hings.Forcenturies renchwritershavecompletely efratned rom celebrating ny hing other hanmanandsocietyof, more,precisely,when they havetalkedaboutrnture it was to sing d "tlre cool shades,heflowery meadow, he golden harvest".Agai& in general, his has ollowed classicaltraditionsandno doubt they would not hasedared o sing of nature f Virgil hd notextolled t before hem. Very ofterL n their numerouswars n Spainand taly" Frencharmieshavecrossedhe oreneesand he Alps an4 nonetlreless,lrey4pearto haveseennothingof the singularbeautyof these egionsw'here ow visitors rom the our conrersof the world are nrshing n; they were mpressed nly by the steeprcss f theslopesandthe difficutty of the tracks. After havingcrossed lrc charmingpastures f the passofArgentiere,after having seen he superbpeaksof Chameyroqof GrandRubrenandMount Viso, Francois he Firct could find no other word to characteriseheAlps than"strangerurd"and eserved il hisadmiration ,orthecovetedbeautiful lainsof PiedmontandMilan. Likewise hen$ority of Spanish ndPorhrgueseonquistadors,hosemenso

greatn their zudacity,so atrocious n their cruelty,E4rearnot o haveseen he wonderfulnahre ofthe NewWorld nthe rnidstofwhich they oundthemselves. he all mountains,the virgin forestsandthe clear, blue seawerc all insubstantial;heir eagereyesweresearching nly for veins of gold in the hick layersof rockand soil.

In modern imes Rousseau, orn* the foot of the Alps, hasbeen he first person orcveal heoy one eelsatbeinginthe rnidstofuntamednffure,on seeinggredakes,openforestsand hemagnificentperspective f themountains'horizoru. Yet despitehis deepand sincerc ove of solifirde,despitehis rnisanthmpywhich madehirn aiverse ven ofracesof rnanlcind,Roussezu everventured nfo the highvalieys, $nowyguiliesor theicy fields; he was content o stroll aboutand admire lrc landsc4e at the foot of tlprnountairuqhere esidencesndcr.rltivationtestiryo the work ard prcsence f labourers.As to Ch*eaubriand, his greatartist, even hough he knew how tn boldly depict someaspects f ihe seaandmighty rivers of the New Worlds, he oundtheAlpc too high forhimand ailed o see hebeautyof "these eavymasses" hich appearedo hirn o be"notin harmorywith the acultyof mananrdhe weakness f his orgaru."Heaffirms hat"thisgreatnessf the mountains f whrch so nruch uss s made s nothingbut heresultof thetiredness f the raniellef';wheneveramassof peaksencroachesnthe vidw offields anddo not form amerescene n the horizon he inds the nrountainsbideous".

No doubt nowadays, herearehardlydny peoplebold enough o hold propositionssirnilar to thoseof Chateraubriandnd o as clearly confessheir iaability to rypreciaenature n oneof its gredestmanifestations. he collectiveeducdionthd all civilisedpeopleenjoy,due o constant ontactamongone anotherandthe exchangehat happensin arts,science rd customs, oesnotallow anyone o ignore hebeautyof harshgorges,jagged ocksandslopesof iceand snow;but t is true hat despite he successiverqgressrchieved n un&rstandingnafure,heFrenchhavecortributed ess han heirneigfiboursin tlrc study of their own mountain nassifsor even n the moregpneralwork of woridexploration.This nferiority isnot anabsolute ndneednotbe akenasa de .The number

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of thosewho liberate themselvesrom daily routines n order to contemplate nspoilt

nature,either n distant courfriesor within their owq is growingquickly and will grow

larger thanks o the greater acilities that areoffered o travellers.No doubt, f school

childrendid not have o submit o that harshdisciplinewhiclt, more han anythingelse,

leads o the blunting of individrality and f it wasnot followed by military servicewith

itsevenmorehorrendous isciplinewhich redrceshundreds f thousands f the strongest

andmost adventurous outh to passiveobedience,he Frenchpopulationwould have

fulfilled, in the history of traveliing and diseovery,he gred role which their enviableposition - situatedd the extremewest of Euope, between he Mediterrarpanand he

Ocearl between he Alps and he$renees - has narked ut for them.

Theawarenessf nature, ike therypreciationof art, developshrougheducation. hepeasantwho lives in themiddleof the countrysideand reely enjoys he view of green

expafises odoubt oves, nstinctively, he soil he cultivatesbut he has no awareness f

that ove andonly seesn the soil a dormant ichness o bebmugltt orth by cultivation

Themountaindweller,himself,moreoften gnores hebezutyof thevalley he ives n and

the escarpmentslsd surrourdhim; he reselves ll hisadmirartionor the errainadjoiningtheplainswhere he ronplough sinks deeply nto the ertile soil and wherehe can walk

the ron ploughwithout fdigue or danger; t is only der he has moved away rom his

mountains ndhas raveltednforeign countries hat he ove of hiscountry s rcvealedin

his soul and he begins to understand,n his nostalgr4 the splendidgrednessof the

horizonshe misses.However, f education an nd.rcean4prcciation of nature n those

whohave notyet understoodts deepest harrnt can also,when ,alse, eprarrehe taste

andmakemonskousor ridiculousconcepts ppearUearfifut. hus he Chinese, nancientpeoplewhich rejuvenatedtselfmany imes at hecostof bloodyrevolutioryhareanived-

in theirpalby love for tlre baroque nd or symmetty, o rcpress hesry in the trunksof

trees n order o createdwarf varieties and o give themgeometricorms or thebizane

4pearanceof monsters nddernonsSimilady"manyGerrnan rincipalities,cornrpted y

a deplorabiemania for affectation, have changed or the worse the most charming

landscapesy engravingpedanticnscriptionson rocks,decoratingawnswith whirnsical

monumerfsandputting guardson duty in front of the sights heywant to show o their

visitors. The over of naturemust harrea feeling of delicafeconsiderdionf he s to able

to touch heearthwithout destoying its graceor, likewise" o beable o give it agreater

harmonyof contoursand colours.And moreover, hat is theway mankindmust behave

if societies re o advancen civilisationnaftrrallyand n suchaway hat heirprogtesssnotacquired tlre expense f the and hat s theirhome.Hencefort[ thankso trarelling"

it is the planet itself that will ennoble he tastesof its inhabitantsand give them an

understandingf what s truly beautifirl.Thosewho trryerse heffrenees, tlre Alps, the

Himalaryasr only the highcliffs along he oceans;hosewho visit viryin forest or gaze

atvolcar*ccrders; all leam rorn thesemagpificentsceneso grasp he truemeaningof

thebeautyof lessstnkrngtandseapesnd earn not to touch hertl"when theyhane hepower o modiff them,other hanwith respect.

It is increasinglymportant hat awarenessf naalredevelops rd is refinedsince,byforce of circumstances,henumberof peopleexiled romthe couritrysiderrcreasesaily.For a ong time thepessimists avebeenscared f theconstant rowthof the big cities,"lroweveg hey never ully realisedhe r4id progressionwith whicll in the future, themovement f people owards heprivilegedcentreswould takeplace.

It is true that hemonstrousBabylonsof thepastgdlpred within theirwallshundreds

of thousands,f not millions, of inhabitants; ommercialnterests, espotic entralisadon

of,powers, the g,reatscramble or favours and the love of pieasureenticed o thesepowerful cities the populationsof entire provincesbut communicafionsherg unlike

today,were muchslower- therising of a river,bad wedher, delaysof caravans,he raid

of an enemyarmyor tribal uprisingwere suffrcieru o delayor stop he supplieso the big

cities.Thus,amongst ll their splendours,hey ound hemselvesontinuously xposedo

starvation.Moreoveqduringtheseperiodsof pitilesswars hese 4iuls ahvays ndedin

becominga theatreof some mmense nass:rcre nd sometimes he destructionn'as so

complete hat heruin of a town was afi te same ime the end of a people.Even reeently

one could see, or exarnple, n some cities of China what wasin

storefor

tlrcbig

nnetropolisesf the ancientcivilisations.Thepowerfirlcity of Nankinghasbecome heap

of rubblE,whilst Ouchang which fifteen yearsago appearso havebeen he mostpopul*ed city in the world,has ost more han hrpequarters f its inhabitants.

Ts the causeswhich once madepeoplemove to the big cities andwhich are still

4plicable one must add others,not lesspowerfi,ri,which are inked to the whole of

modemprogess; communicationoutes,camls, roadsandrailwaysall lead, n a grea

nurnber, o the important ceftres andenmesh hern n anever ncreasirrg efwot&.The

movementof people nowadays s so easythat from morning to eveningferries can

disgorgeorso hepar/ementsf Parisor Lordon 500,000peopleand" n anticipaCion f a

simple ete, a marriage,a funeralprocession r the visit of anypersonaliry,nilliors of

people have sometimes nflated the floating population of a capital. As to the

transportation f goods t can akeplacewith the sameeaseas hd of commuters. rom

all the neighbouringfields, from all partsof the county andfrom all the world the

comrnoditiesournq by landandby se4 rso lnse enonnous tomachs luchnevercease

to absorbanl absorbyet again. f needbe, f theappetiteof London deman& t, in less

thanayear t can etch tself more hana half of the world's production.

This, of course" s a greatadvan',agehd the cities of antiquity did not have and

moreover,the revolution which railways and other meansof cornrnlrnicationhaveinfoduced nto the ife stytehasust begrn Is t truethd two ot threeourneysayem or

eachnhabitartof France s the average, speciallyas asimpleexcursionor aquaderof

anhour o thesuburbe f Parisor anyothercity isconsi&redstdisticaliy ajounney?What

is eertains thff eachyear herngvement f vastnurnbers f peoplencreases normorxly

andprobablyall thepredictionsonthis matterwill be exceededas heyhavebeensince

the beginning of the century. As in the caseof the city of l"ondon only, where the

movement f peoplesactuallyas argBnone week as t was, rrthe 1830's,orthe whole

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of GreatBritain in oneyear"Thanks o the railways, he country continually shrinksandone can even establishstaistically the degtee o which this reduction n territory takesplace since, to do that, it suffices o cornpare he speedof trains with that of thestagecoachesrd ramshackle onveyances hich they have replaced.On his parl,mansepar*eshimself from hisnative and moreandmore easily;hebecomes nomadnot nthe way of theancientshepherds ho always ollowed regular racksard never ailed toreturnperiodically to the samepastureswith their flocks,but in a muchmorc horoughway becausehe moves ndiscriminantly, rom one point of the horizon o anotherwhenever uriosityorpleasurempelshim; only a ew of these oluntary expa.triotseturnto die n theirnative and.Thisceaselessrowth n migrdion nowtakesplace n millioruand niltons and t is precisely owards he mostpopuloushumanant hiils tlnt thegrean$orif of emigrantshead.The terrible invasionof the Frankishwarriors nto RomanGaulprobablydid not have, rom an ethnologicalpoirfi of vien, asmuch mportance sthesesilent mmigrationsof theroadsweepers f LuxemburgandPalafinwho each earinflate hepoprldionof Paris.

To havean ideaof wh* tlre bE commercial ities of the world will becomeone day,if other causes cting n an nversesense o notbalancehe causes f growtlr, t sufficesto see he enonnousmportancellat townshave n moderncoloniescomparedo thd ofvillages and solded homesteads.n thesecountries lrepopulation, tee from the ies ofhabitand ree to get ogetlreras heypleasewithout anyothermotive han heir own will.is ahnostentirely crammednto the owns, even n specificagriculturalcoloniessuchasin theyoungAmericanstdes of theFarthest egionsof La Plda Queenslardn Australiaor theNorth Island on New Zealand,he numberof ciqi dwellershasan upperhandoverthoseof the country: on averaget is d least hree imes more andcontinueso grow asconunerceand industry develop. rn colonies,suchas Victoria and Califomia, whercspecial re€lsorl,such as gold mines and great commercialadvantagesattract manyspeculators,hepiie up of peoplen the cities s evenmore significant. f Pariswere oFrarcewhat SanFrancisco s to California,wfiat Metrboumes toHqpy-Ausfralia thenthe "grcattown" truly wortlry of its name,would not have ess han 9 to i0 millions.Obviously t is in dl thesenewcountries,wherecivilisedrnanhasonly.justput foot, thatone must seekan ideal other han h* ofthe 19th centurysocietybecause o obstacleprevents ewcomers rom forming srnallgroupsall over he county andyet theyprefer

to conglomerde n vastcities.Theexampleof HungaryarrdRussi4 asopposedo thd of

Californiaandsuchothermodern olonies,mayserve o illustrde what a span f centuriesseparafes ountries whosepopukdionsarestill distributedas n the Middle Ages rornilrosewhere hephrnmenonof socialaffrnity developedbymodemcivilisationhasafteehasd. n theRussianplainsand n the Hungarian Puzzta" herearehardlyany cities nthe realsense, nly largeror smallervillagers; the capitalsarecentresof administratioqartificial credions whose nhabitants ntertain hemselves rd who would straightawayloosea majorpartof their nportance f thegovernment id notmairfain an artificiatrifeat the expense f the restof thendion In these ourtries he wo*ingpopulation consists

of agricultunl workerswhile townsare or employees ndmenof leisure On hecorfrary,in Australiaand Califomia thecountrysides ust a suburband hepeasantshemselves,shepherds ndfarmers, ave heirminds urnedtowards hecity;theyarespeculidors ho,"in their self nterest,have emporarily eft the argecommercial enffes ut whowill notfail to return o them.No doubgsooner r later, heRussian easarts,who todayarewellrooted n theirndive soil,will detachtemselvesrom theglobe o which heyhanebeensubservient nd, ike the English and he Australians, ecome omads ndmove owards

the arge cities wlpre cornmerce nd rdustry call them or where heir own arnbition osee, o experience,o ameliorateheirconditionspusheshem.

Thegroansofthose who bemoan lrc depopulationofthe countrycannot, herefore,

stop hismovement; othirg canbedone,all clamours reuseless.{aningbecorne,hanks

to agrederfreedomof rnovernent ndtoclreryertranelcosts, heownerofthatprimordiallibefy thd of "to go and o come" rom which, evertually allother reedorns ray ollow,

the armer wittroutpropefiyrespondso a natural mplse wlpn he akes heroad o the

&nsely populated ity of which manymarvelshavebeen old. At thesame ime sadard

haqy, he saysgoodbye to the ndive hrmbledown cottagp, o go and contempliatehemirrclesof industry and architecture; egive up the regularwageshd tlrc woft of his

handhasprovided but" perhaps, ike many other lads of his village he will come to

dfiuenceor a ortuneand f onedayhe returns o his counfiy t will be o builda castleat

theplaceof thesqualid esidence herehe wasborn.Feware hemigrantswhohavebeen

able o realiseheir dreams f fortune Most of tliemfind poverty,sickness ndprenrafure

deattrn the cities;but, at least, hosewho survivehavebeenable o enlargehe circle of

their deas,heyhaneseen ountriesdifferentone rom another, avemade ontactswith

otherpeople,avebecome ore ntelligentmoreeducdedandallthisndivi&ralprogress

constitutes,or thewholeof society,an nestimable dvantage.

We know the napiditywith whictl in France, s accomplished hephenomena f

emigrdion from the country to Paris, Lyon, Toulouseand the big seaports. All thepopuldiongrowth s to thebenefitof the cenEes f attractionandmostof the small owns

andvillages emainstationary,f not declining, n numbers f inhabitants.More tbanhalf

of the deparunents re essand esspopulate<lnd onecan narneane, he I-ourcr Alps,

which since heMiddle Ages hascertainly ost agood hird of its population. f onealso

takesnto accountounreysand emporarymigrations, hatmustnecessarilyesult n the

growthof the lo*ingpopulation of ttp cities, he resultswouldbeevenmorestriking. n

the fureneesof tlre Ariege therearecertainvillageswhere all the nhabitants,men andwomen,departentirety n thewinter n order o descendo the townsof thepiairu. In a

wod mostFrenchpeoplewho ae involved n commerce r who live off their ncomes,

without courdmg he rnultitudeof peasants ndworkers,never aii to visit Paris or thepnncipalcities of Frarrce nd t is a lorg time since, n theremoteprovinces, traveller

was designatedy thenarneof thecity th* he hd tived n. In Engfandand n Gennary

thesameptrenomenaakeplrce. Even f in thesecountriesbirthsexceed edhsmore so

than n Fialrce,nonetheless,lpre too agriculturalareas, uchas lpse of theDuchy of

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Hess-Cassel nd he Countyof Cambridge,ost heirpoptrldion or thebenefitof the argecities. Even n North Americ4 where hepopulationgrowswith an astonishing peed,greatnumberof agriculturaldistrictsof NewEnglandhave osta argeproportionof theirinhabitailtsas a result of double emigration:on one side owards he regionof the FarWest on he other owards he commercialownsof the shores: ortland BostonandNewYork.

However, t is a well known act that he air of the city is loadedwith the elements fdeath.Thoughofficial statisticsn this respect o not alwaysofferthe desirable incerityit is, nonetheless,ertain hat n all Euopean andAmericancountriesheanerage geofthe counby folk exceeds T,manyyears hat of the city drvellersandthe migrants, nleaving the native fields for the narrow andfoul streetsof aluge city, may calculateapproximately,n advance,how much their lives are shortened ollowing the rutes ofprobability.Not only do the new-comers ufferpersonallyandexpose lpmselves o anearlyde*hbut they also equallycondemntheirownoffspring Onecannot gnore hd inthegreafcities, suchasLondon or Paris, he vital force s quicklyexhausted nd hat no

bourgeoisfamily has continued o the third, let alone the fourth generation. f theindividual can esist he deadty nfluencesof thesurrounding rvironment, he ami$, aleasg inishesby succumbingo iL andwithout the continuous migrdion of thepeople

from theprovincesand of the oreignerswho hapily march o deatlt, he capitalswouldnot be able o recruit their enormous opulations.The feafuresof the citizens becomerefinedbut he bodyweakens nd he spnngsof life dry up. Likewise, rom an rfellectualpoirf of vieq all the brilliant facultieswhich social ife develops re,d first, overexcitedbut thoughtgradually oses ts stength: it growsweary andat ast declinesnthe faceoftime. Adrnittedly hegaminof Paris, n comprison to theyoungboor of thecountry, sfull of life and sprrit; but is not the brotherof this "pale out" physicallyard morallycomparableo thosesickplants hatgrow in cavesn themidst of dar*rress? inatly. t is

in the towns, above all thosewhich are the rnost renowned or their opulenceandcivilisatioq thd orp is certain o find themostdegraded uman eings poorbeingswithno hopeother handirtiness,hunger,brutal ignorarrce nd hatredofall - who rankwellbelow thehrypy savageunning reely in ttrc forestsard themountains. t is beside hegreatest plendourshat one ooks or themost owly Sjecdorq not ar away iom thosemuseurnswhere the beautyof the humanbody is shown n all its glory the childrcn,suffering rom rickets,warm hemselvesn he mpureair exhaledromtlrcmouthsof thesev/ers.

If, on heonehand illusionsbring ever ncreasing rowds o the own then,on heotherhand, oul airs drive awry to the courilry and evergrowingnumberof peoplewho wantto inhale, or awhile, cleanair andtorefreshheir thoughtsn the ullview of flowers andgreenery.The rich, able to take their leisure as they please,can escaperom theoccupations rjadedpleasures f the crty or modhs at a ime. Some f them even esidein the countryand only rypear leetingly n their housesn thegred cities. As to all thoseworkerswho ca{xxot oaway or long,dre to the exigencies f daily labour, he majorig

of them snatchnecessaryespite rom work to visit the country. The uckiest ones akeholidayweeks, ha they spendaway rom the cqital, in themountains r at the seaside.Themost enslaned y work are contento escE)e, rom time to time for a ew hours, lrcruurow borizon of the custoilury steets and hey happilymake he mostof feastdayswhenthe emperatures mild andtheslcy s clear: hen erchtree of the woodsnearesthecities sheltersa merry family. A significant proportion of merchants ndernployees,aboveall in EnglandandAmeric4 boldlysend heir wives andchildren o the countryandcordemn hemselveso malcing wicea day, he ourneys hatseparatehe shopcounterfrom the home. Thanks to quick communicationsmillions of peoplecan thus becorrcurrently lty aswell as countrypeopleand eachyear henumberof peoplewho thus

have wo sides o their lives is growing.Arourd London hundreds f thousands an be

countedwho plungeeachmoming nto tlre tudnrlent fairs of the city andwho return

eachevening o their peacefirlhome n thegreensuburbs. he city, the actualcentreof

the commercialworl4 is depoprlatedof residents:during the day t is the most rctive

humanhive; at nigt$ t is a desert.

Unforturdely thismovementfromthe owns o the subutbs asnottakenplacewithoutdiofigurement of the countryside: not only does rubbish of all sorts clutter up the

intermedide space etweenhe owns and he countrybut an evenmoreserioushittg is

happening. peculators re akinghold of dtl tlrc charmingsites n thevicinity, they divi&

them rfio rectangular locks, enclose hem n s wallsard therehundreds f

thousands f pret€rfioushousesare built. For'the stroller wardering along themuddy

roads of this so.calledcountryside,nature s only represented y prunedshrubsand

clustersof flowers which onecanglirnpseof through he railings. On theseashore he

most picturesquecliffs and the most charmingbeachesare also in many places

monopolised y ealousowne$ or by speculdorswhoapprecidendural bezutyasmuch

asmoney-changersvaluafe n ngotofgold. n frequentlyvisitedmountainouslrces he

samemaniato appropride seizeshe nhabitarts he andscapes cut nto squares ndsold

to thehighestbidder;eachnatral curiosity- a cW, grotto,cascade,issureof aglacier,

even he soundof anecho,everything canbecome rivde property.Entrepreneursease

water falls, surround hem by wooden ences o preventnon paying travellen from

enjoyurg he tumult of thewaters, he& try dint of advertising ransform nto solid ecus

the igbt which dancesnthe shdtereddroplets ndbreezehat swirls hroughthewredhs

of the spray.Sincenature s profanedby somany speculatonpreciselybecause f its beauty, t is

notsurprising hat armersand ndrstrialistsneverask hemselvesf" in fact they & rct

contribuE o thedisfigurcmentof theearth. t is true th* the nrd wotker doesnot carc

lessabout he charm of ttle countryside nd hehanrony of the andscape, rovided ha

thesoilproduces bundant rops;swinginghis axed randoflrn the hicket,hecutsdown

trees hat are n his way, shamefultymutikfes othersandgives hem he4pearanceof

stakesor brcoms.Vast tracts of land which oncewere ovely to look d and which one

loved to cross are debased ompletelyand one feelsa real anersiono look at them.

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Besides, t often happenshat a farmer.as lacking in scienceas n love of ndure, isnristakenn his calculations ausinghis own ruin by introducingmodificationswithouttaking into consideration he climate. Also the industrialist doesnot care ess f, byexploitinghis mine or his factory in the open country, he atnospheres blackened ycoal-smoke ndpollutedbyfoul fumes.WithoutmentioningEnglan{ in WesternEuropethereareagred marry rctory ladenvalleyswhere he hick air is almosturbreathableoroutsiders:here hehouses resmokeilled the eaves fthe treesarecoveredn sootandwhenone ooks d the sun t is almost always hrougha densebaze hrs. ts yellow face

rypears.As to the engineer, isbridgesand viaductsarealways hesame,whethern themost evenplains or the steepestmountain gorges he is preoccupied,not with thelandscape,ut simply nbalancing hepressure nd esistancef materials.

Though it is necessaryor man to possessand and to know how to utilise itspotentialities,nonethelesshe brutality with which this seizurehasbeenaccomplishedsrcgrettable. hus"when hegeologistMarcou rforms us that the falls of tlre ArnericanNlagarahare noticeablydecreasedn abundance nd ost their beauf afterhavingbeen

bled dry !o set n motion he actorieson ts.banls,we think with sadness f the ime, notso ong ago, when"thethun&r of the waers" unknown o civilised man, ushedreelyfrom hehighcliffs betweenock aces rowrnd by hugerees. ikewise,weaskourselvesif vastprairiesandwild forestswlrere,n imaginationwe canstill see he mble figuresofChirgashookandBas-de-Cuircould not havebeen eplacedwith somethingother hanwith fields all of the same ypearance,all oriented owards he four cardinalpoints

conforming o the and registerand surrounded y fencesof thesame eight.Wild naure is so beautifirMs it thennecessarytlartma4 in bis seizureof it, has o

proceedsystematically o exploit eachnewly conquereddomain and to rnark hisownershipwith vulgar constnrctions ndpropertyboundaries s straightas a die? f thatwereso, hen he harmonious ontrastswhichareoneof thebeauties f theearthcold soonbereplrcedby desolate niforrnity sincesociety,which ncreasesach earby at east enmillion or so, andhasa its dispnsal, hrough scienceand ndustry, a forcegrowing nprodigiousproportions,s marchingqrickly towards he conquest f the entire surface ftheplarret. trcday astryproacheswhen herewiil not be a single egionof the cortinentthd hasnot beenvisited by a civilised pioneeran4 sooneror later, human nterventionwillbe exertedonallpoints f theglobe. ornrnafely,beautyndutilitycanbe ompleielyfused and this is happening n the countries where the agricultural industry is most

advarcedsuchasEnglan4 Lombardyand certainpartsof Switzerland where heusersof the and know how to make t yield thegreaestamountof producewhilst respectingtlrc charms f, hecountryside r evenadding o itsbeautywith a ouchof art.The marshesandmoorsof Flanders ransformed y drainagento fields of exubrarf fertility; the stonyCrauchanging nto a magnificent nedow thanls to irrigatioq the rocky flanls of theApennines and the mritime AIpa, from top to bottofir,hidden n the fioliageof olivetrees tle rcddishpeat-bogs f Irelard replaced yf'orests f larches, edars ndwhite irs:are hesenot adrnirableexamples f wh* canbe doneby the armer who can exploit the

land or hisownprofit whilst also naking t morebezutiful?The mafrerof knowingwhichaspects f human abourserve o beauti$ or to degrade

outer naturemry ryWar futile to the so-calledpositivistspirits but it is, nonetheless,nissueof prime mportance.Humandevelopments re inked nthe most ntimate fuilrnerto the natural environment.An implicit harmonyexistsbetween he eanhand hepeopleit nourishes,and when impnrdent societiesstrike a blow againstwhat bezutifres heirenvironnrent hey havealwarys nded n regretting t. Therewhere and becomes gl5r,wherealtr oetrydisappearsrom the andscape,rnagin*iors areextinguished, pirits a:eimpoverished, outineand servility oveftake he soulandset t on tltep*h to torporanddeath.Among the causesn human history which havealreadycontributed o thedisappearancef rnarry trccessiveivilisafions,onemustmentionthe rutalviotrence ithwhich tlp ndority of nationshave reated he nourishingear1h. hey cuJ&wn forests,driedup springs, looded rivers,damaged limates,sunounded he cities with swampy

andpestilential mnes" herq whenndure desecrdedby them hasbecomerostile, hEgrasped er with batredandnot beingabtreo re-immene hernselvesike savagesffo the

life of the orests, hey et themselves ecomemoreand more stupefied y tin despotismofpriestsandkings."Thegreatesbteshanreuined taly" sa"dPliny,but t couldbe added

thd thesegrealestates, ultivatedby sliaves,addisfigured hs andalmosto the stde ofleprosy.Historiansshocked y the zurprisingdecaderrcef Spainder Charles henfth

advance ariousexplalrafions" ccording o some he main carseof the uin of the nation

was obe ourdinthe discovery fthe Americangold;oothers,twas he eligiouserrororganisedby he "sacredratendty" ofthe Inquisition, heexpulsionofthe Jewsand heMoors and the bloody auto-da-feof heretics.Feopleharie ikewise blamed he faltrof

Spainon the niquitous ar alcabalaandthedespotic entralisation a Frencfu ut surely

hasnot hekind of ragewith which the Spaniardsut down he rees ,or ear of the birds,por miedode lospajarifos, something o do with repulsiveand earsome speds,soil is

impoverishedandthe populatiorLdiminishingwithin two centuries,has relapsednto

barbarism.The ittle birds haveavengedhemselves.Therefore, t is withjoy that we now welcome his gpnerous assionwhich brings so

nnly a rnan and rnaywe add,the best, o cross "irgin forests,beactesandnrountaingorgesand ovisit many egionsof tlp world wherenaturehas ept tsprimordialbeauty.

For fear of ethical and ntellectual rnpoverishment, ne eels hx ttte vulgarity of many

disfigured andmediocre hings which nanow minded spirits seeas evidence f modern

civilisatioruneeds, t all costs, o be cour$drbalarcedy tlregreatscenes f theearttLThedire* study of naturealrd conternplation f its phenomenaas o becomeor all mdure

rnenanessential artof their edrcation.Also t is necessaryo developn eachndividual

theskill and heplrysicalstrengtho enable im to climb thesummiiswith oy, to took d

the abysses ithoutfeasand o keepup in all hisbeLB thatntrurai equilibrium of forces

without which he wili never be able to perceive he mostbeatrtifulsightsother than

througlra veil of sadness nd melanchoiy.Modernrnarihas o combinen his personall

tlrevirtuesof, hosewho havepreceded im onthe earthard nevergive'up he mrnense

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privileges,which civilisationhascorferred uponhim; he shouldnever oosehis arrcientforce and 1ethimself be surpassedy any savagen vigour, skill andunderstanding fnatural In theheyd4ys f the Greek epublicsheHellenesaimedd makingheroesof children through grace,strength and courage;equally modern society, byfosteringvigorous raits n itsyouth,by teading hem brck to natureandputtingthem n

touchwith it can ensureaelf againstall decadence,hrough ln regeneration f the raceitself.

LongagoRumfordsaid: Onealways inds more n naturelut one ooks or." Whetlrcr

a scholarexamines louds,stones, lantsand nsects,or whether restudieshegeneral

laws of tlr globe,he everywlereandalwaysdiscovers nforeseenwonders;he artist inpursuit of beautiful landscapes,s visually andmentally in perpetualcelebration; heindustrialist looking to utilise thepoduce of tfte earttr, ontinueso seearcundhirnriches

thd arenotyetutilised As to the simplepersonwlm s sdistred 0 ove nafurc or itsovr'n

sake, herehe finds his oy and whenhe s unhry, d least,hispainsare sweetendbythe view of the opencoirr[ry. Surely heproscribed r thosedeclasse ho live on he soil

of theirhomeland sexiles eel, evend the rnost hmning sites,a sense f being solated,unknovsn ndwithout &iends,and hewoundof despair lwaysgnawslnm. Nonetheless,

they also endby respording o the sweet rfluerce of themilieu which surroundshem;their mostvivid bittenrcss hanges,ittle by little, into a kind of melancholywhich allowsthem to undeistand"with a sense efined by gnef, everythinggraciousand beautifulofferedby the earth; more hanmany of thehrypy do theyknow how to ryp,recife thrustlingof leaves,he sir€lng of birds and hemurnrurof springs"And if naturehassuchpowerto consoleor to strengthenndividrals whd il her rfluence, over tlre courseofcenturies, n humanity tself. Wittrout my doubt he viewof the vast horizons o a greatpartcortributedto thequalityofthe mounainpeopleandit is not avainlinguistic fonnulawhen one rcfers o the Alps as he boulevardof fieedom.

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Elisee Reclus, Man and Nature

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