Electronic Noses & Sensors for the Detection of Explosives

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Series II: Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry - Vol. 159

Electronic Noses & Sensors for the Detection of Explosives

edited by

Julian W. Gardner School of Engineering, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom

and

Jehuda Yinon National Center for Forensic Science, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida, U.S.A.

Springer-Science+Business Media, B.V.

Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Electronic Noses & Sensors for the Detection of Explosives Warwick, Coventry, U.K. 30 September-3 October 2003

A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN 978-1-4020-2318-7 ISBN 978-1-4020-2800-7 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-2800-7

Printed an acid-free paper

AII Rights Reserved © 2004 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 2004 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edition 2004

No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.

Dedication

This book is dedicated to my father, Dr. William Edward Gardner, who has both helped me with this book and inspired me all of my life.

Contents

Dedication v

Contributing Authors Xl

Preface XV

Foreword XVll

Review of conventional electronic noses and their possible application to the detection of explosives I JULIAN GARDNER

Polymer electronics for explosives detection 29 TIMOTHY SWAGER

Luminescent inorganic polymer sensors for vapour phase and aqueous detection of TNT 39 WILLIAM TROGLER

Amplifying fluorescent polymer arrays for chemical detection of explosives COLIN CUMMING, MARK FISHER AND JOHN SIKES 53

V111 Electronic noses & sensors for the detection of explosives

Fast detection of explosives vapours and particles by chemiluminescence technique 71 DAO HINH NGUYEN, SHIRLEY LOCQUIAO, PHUONG HUYNH, QIAOLING

ZHONG, WEN HE, DAVID CHRISTENSEN, LIN ZHANG, BILL BILKHU

Optical microsensor arrays for explosives detection DAVID WALT AND TAMAR STERNFELD

Metal oxide semiconductor sensors for detection of toxic and explosive gases DZMITRY KOTSIKAU AND MARIA Iv ANOVSKA YA

Detection of landmines and other explosives with an ultra-trace chemical

81

93

detector 117 MARK FISHER AND JOHN SIKES

Electrochemical sensing of nitro aromatic explosives JOSEPH WANG

131

Improved sensitivity for explosive vapours and ICAO taggents detection using electrochemical sensors 143 STEWART BERRY, SHIRLEY LOCQUIAO, PHUONG HUYNH, QIAOLING

ZHONG, WEN HE, DAVID CHRISTENSEN, LIN ZHANG AND CHARNJIT

SINGH BILKHU

Electrochemical trace detection and pattern recognition 149 MICHAEL KRAUSA, KARSTEN PINKWART, PETER RABENECKER AND

MARCKEHM

Detection of dynamic smell intensity ARUNAS SETKUS

159

Chemotactic search in complex environments 181 TIMOTHY PEARCE, KWOK CHONG, PAUL VERSCHURE, SERGI

BERMUDEZ I BADIA, MIKAEL CARLSSON, ERIC CHANIE AND BILL

HANSSON

A spiking neural network model of the locust antennallobe DOMINIQUE MARTINEZ AND ETIENNE HUGUES

209

Detecting chemical vapours from explosives using the zNose®, an ultra high speed gas chromatograph 235 EDWARD STAPLES

Electronic noses & sensors for the detection of explosives IX

Explosive vapour detection using micromechanical sensors 249 THOMAS THUNDAT, LAL PINNADUWAGE AND RICHARD LAREAU

Solid phase microextraction for field sampling 267 KRISHNA PERSAUD, PETER WAREHAM AND ANNA MARIA PISANELLI

A digital microfluidics platform for multiplexed explosive detection 279 V AMSEE P AMULA

Next generation trace explosives detection systems 289 RICHARD LAREAU

Summary of the workshop 301 JEHUDA YINON

Index 305

Contributing Authors

Sergi Bermudez I Badia, Institute of Neuroinformatics, ETH-Universitat Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, Zurich CH 8057, Switzerland.

Stewart Berry, Scintrex Trace Corporation, 300 Parkdale Ave, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

Charnjit Singh Bilkhu, Scintrex Trace Corporation, 300 Parkdale Ave, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

Mikael A. Carlsson, Department of Crop Science, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, PO Box 44, Sundsvagen 14, SE-230 53 Alnarp, Sweden.

Eric Chanie, Alpha MOS, 10 Av Didier Daurat, ZI Montaudran, 31400 Toulouse, France.

Kwok Y. Chong, NeuroLab, Centre for Bioengineering, Department of Engineering, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester LEI 7RH, UK.

David Christensen, Scintrex Trace Corporation, 300 Parkdale Ave, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

Colin Cumming, Nomadics Inc., Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA.

Mark Fisher, Nomadics Inc., Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA.

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xii Electronic noses & sensors for the detection of explosives

Julian W. Gardner, Smart Sensors and Devices Group, School of Engineering, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK.

Bill S. Hansson, Department of Crop Science, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, PO Box 44, Sundsvagen 14, SE-230 53 Alnarp, Sweden.

Wen He, Scintrex Trace Corporation, 300 Parkdale Ave, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

Etienne Hugues, LORIA, Campus Scientifique, BP 239, Universite de Nancy, Vandoevre-Les-Nancy, France.

Phuong Huynh, Scintrex Trace Corporation, 300 Parkdale Ave, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

Maria Ivanovskaya, Research Institute for Physical Chemical Problems, Belarus State University, Leningradskaya 14, Minsk, Belarus.

Marc Kehm, Fraunhofer-Institut fur Chemische Technologie (ICT), Pfmztal-Berghausen, Germany.

Dzimtry Kotsikau, Research Institute for Physical Chemical Problems, Belarus State University, Leningradskaya 14, Minsk, Belarus.

Michael Krausa, Fraunhofer-Institut fur Chemische Technologie (ICT), Pfmztal-Berghausen, Germany.

Richard T. Lareau, Transportation Security Administration, Atlantic City International Airport, New Jersey, USA.

Shirley Locquiao, Scintrex Trace Corporation, 300 Parkdale Ave, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

Dominique Martinez, LORIA, Campus Scientifique, BP 239, Universite de Nancy, Vandoevre-Les-Nancy, France.

Dao Hinh Nguyen, Scintrex Trace Corporation, 300 Parkdale Ave, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

Vamsee K. Pamula, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA.

Electronic noses & sensors for the detection of explosives xiii

Timothy C. Pearce, NeuroLab, Centre for Bioengineering, Department of Engineering, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester LEI 7RH, UK.

Krishna C. Persaud, Department of Instrumentation and Analytical Science, University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology. Manchester, UK.

Karsten Pinkwart, Fraunhofer-Institut fur Chemische Technologie (lCT), Pfinztal-Berghausen, Germany.

Lal A. Pinnaduwage, Life Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, USA.

Anna Maria Pisanelli, Department of Instrumentation and Analytical Science, University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology. Manchester, UK.

Peter Rabenecker, Fraunhofer-Institut fur Chemische Technologie (lCT), Pfinztal-Berghausen, Germany.

Arunas Setkus, Semiconductor Physics Institute, A. Gostauto 11, Vilnius, Lithuania.

John Sikes, Nomadics Inc., Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA.

Edward J. Staples, Electronic Sensor Technology, 1077 Business Center Circle, Newbury Park, California, USA.

Tamar Sternfeld, Department of Chemistry, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts, USA.

Timothy M. Swager, Department of Chemistry and Institute for Soldier Nanotechnology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.

Thomas Thundat, Life Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, USA.

William C. Trogler, University of California, San Diego, California, USA.

XIV Electronic noses & sensors for the detection of explosives

Paul F. M. Verschure, Institute of Neuroinformatics, ETH-Universitat Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, Zurich CH 8057, Switzerland.

David Walt, Department of Chemistry, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts, USA.

Joseph Wang, Department of Chemistry, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico, USA.

Peter Wareham, Department of Instrumentation and Analytical Science, University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology. Manchester, UK.

Jehuda Yinon, National Center for Forensic Science, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida, USA.

Lin Zhang, Scintrex Trace Corporation, 300 Parkdale Ave, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

Qiaoling Zhong, Scintrex Trace Corporation, 300 Parkdale Ave, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

Preface

This book examines both the potential application of electronic nose technology, and the current state of development of chemical sensors for the detection of vapours from explosives, such as those used in landmines. The two fields have developed, somewhat in parallel, over the past decade and so one of the purposes of this workshop, on which the book is based, was to bring together scientists from the two fields in order to challenge the two communities and, mutually, stimulate both fields.

The first chapter reviews the basic principles of an electronic nose and explores possible ways in which the detection limit of conventional electronic nose technology can be reduced to the level required for the trace levels observed for many explosive materials.

Chapters 2-6 describe the use of several different types of polymer-based sensors, i.e. chemiluminescent, fluorescent and optical, to detect explosive materials. In the optical case a large array of coated beads is employed to reduce the signal-to-noise ratio, and provide greater amplification of weak signals from trace levels of va pours.

Chapters 7-11 continue the theme and explore different types of chemical sensors. Chapter 7 describes the application of metal oxide semiconducting resistive sensors, and then Chapters 8-11 cover mainly recent developments of electrochemical sensors.

Part of Chapter 11 and Chapter 12 explore the use of, firstly, pattern recognition techniques to enhance the performance of the chemical sensors and secondly the modulation of the smell intensity to improve the signal processing.

Chapters 13 and 14 look at biological systems as a blue-print for chemical sensing. The biology is employed either to understand the way

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insects locate odorant sources (e.g. the pheromone mediated chemotactic search of the moth), or to understand the signal processing via a neural mode of the antennallobe of the locust.

Chapters 15 and 16 continue with a discussion of some of the new types of electronic noses; namely a fast GC column with a SA W detector and secondly the use of micromechanical sensors.

Chapters 17 and 18 look at the importance of sampling technologies and the design of the micro fluidic systems. In particular, the use of pre­concentrators and solid phase micro extractors to boost the vapour concentration before it is introduced to the chemical sensor or electronic nose.

Finally, in Chapter 19 there is an exploration of the next generation of trace detection sampling systems and Chapter 22 attempts to consider the two fields and answer the question as to whether they are producing complementary or replacement technologies.

As remarked above this book is based on material presented at a NATO Advanced Research Workshop held in Coventry (UK) in October 2003. The authors wish to express their gratitude to the NATO Science Committee for their financial support of the workshop and the preparation of this book, the University of Warwick for providing administrative support and to all the contributors. We would also like to thank the staff at the Westwood Training & Conference Centre, and single out Marie Bradley who worked tirelessly to ensure that the meeting ran smoothly.

Warwick University March 2004

Julian W. Gardner Jehuda Yinon

Foreword

The contents of this book represent the views of the contributing authors and are not necessarily those of the co-editors. However, the adoption of the UK rather than US spelling of certain words in the main text, such as "odour" and "fibre", is the editors' fault! Finally, we provide below a group photograph of the participants at the NATO Advanced Research Workshop held in Coventry, VK.

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