ElectromagneticCompatibility

PIERRE DEGAUQU E

JOEL HAMELIN

Main mathematical symbols used

xxv

Chapter 1 The domain of electromagnetic compatibility

1

1 .1

Introduction

1

1 .2

Sources of interference

2

1 .3

Coupling

6

1 .4 Measurement and testing methods

1 0

1 .5

Conclusion

1 3

Chapter 2 Sources of natural noise

1 4

2 .1

Nature of the sources of natural noise

1 4

2 .1 .1

Terrestrial magnetic fields and magnetic storms

1 4

2 .1 .2

Fair-weather electric fields; the global electric circuit

1 8

2.1 .3 Thunderstorm activity and atmospheric noise

20

2.1 .4 Earth currents and fields

29

2.1 .5

Cosmic noise

2 9

2 .1 .6

Conclusion

3 4

2.2 Phenomena of thunderstorms

34

2 .2 .1 Thundercloud development

34

2 .2 .2

Processes of electrification and charge distribution

36

2 .2 .3 The discharge: process of a lightning flash

39

2.2.4

Characteristics of lightning currents

45

2.2.5

Electro-geometric model

5 8

2.2 .6 Triggered lightning discharge

59

2.3

Fields radiated by a lightning discharge

6 3

2 .3 .1

Return strokes

6 4

2 .3 .2

Intra-clouds discharges

7 4

2 .3 .3 Phenomenology : VHF-UHF radiation

8 3

2 .4 Currents and fields radiated by a lightning discharge :theoretical models

9 1

2.4.1

Introduction to existing models

9 1

2.4.2 Relationship between current and radiated fields

94

2.4.3

Conclusion

104

2 .5

Methods of detection and location

10 5

2 .5 .1

Introduction

105

2 .5 .2 System of location using atmospherics

106

2.5.3

Detection of the time signature of return strokes an dlocation

107

2 .5 .4 Detection of the VHF-UHF radiation of leaders ;three-dimensional location

112

2.6 General conclusion

114

References

114

Chapter 3 Man-made noise

120

3 .1

Introduction

12 0

3 .2

Description of interference signals

12 1

3 .2 .1

Classification of interference signals according to theirfrequency spectrum

12 1

3 .2 .2

Measured electromagnetic quantities : preferred units

12 2

3 .2 .3

Methods of identifying disturbances

12 3

3 .3

Sources of radio-frequency noise and interference

12 6

3 .3 .1

Radio-frequency transmitters

12 7

3 .3 .2

Unintentional sources of radiation

13 5

3 .4

Effects of interfering signals

148

3 .4.1

Statistical distribution of noise level

148

3 .4 .2

Interference in radio receivers

15 0

3 .4 .3

Specification of limits for disturbance radiated b yunintentionally radiating equipment

15 2

3 .4.4 Radiated disturbance from non-radio-frequenc yequipment

15 4

3 .5

Conclusion

15 5

Appendix

15 6

References

15 7

Chapter 4 Electromagnetic pulses of nuclear origin

15 9

4 .1

Nuclear explosions as origins of electromagnetic pulses

15 9

4 .1 .1

Nuclear explosions and their effects

15 9

4.1 .2 Nuclear radiation and its interaction with theenvironment

16 0

4 .1 .3

Creation of electric currents and of a surroundin gplasma

16 2

4.2 Electromagnetic pulse generated by nuclear explosions in ahomogeneous atmosphere

16 4

4 .2 .1

Source zone, current density and ionization

16 5

4 .2 .2 Creation of the electromagnetic pulse

16 6

4 .3

Electromagnetic pulses generated by nuclear explosions atground level

170

4 .3 .1

Source zone, electric current densities and ionization

170

4 .3 .2 Creation of the electromagnetic pulse

172

4 .4 Electromagnetic pulse generated by exoatmospheric nuclea rexplosions

177

4.4.1

Source zone

177

4.4.2

Electric current densities and ionization

180

4.4.3

Creation of the electromagnetic pulse : the planegeometric case

18 3

4 .4 .4

Surface distribution of the electromagnetic pulse withrespect to point zero of the explosion

18 6

4.5 General survey of the SGEMP and TREE effects

188

4 .6

Specific protection

19 1

4 .6 .1 General remarks on the protection of equipment o rinstallations

19 1

4 .6 .2 Concepts of protection against EMP, SGEMP an dTREE

19 1

References

19 3

Chapter 5 Frequency spectrum management and regulation o fradio communications

194

5 .1

General

194

5 .1 .1

General considerations relating to the frequencyspectrum

194

5 .1 .2 Historical summary of radio communication services

194

5 .1 .3

Compatibility, and the necessity for regulation of radiocommunications

196

5 .2 Classification of radio-communication services

197

5 .2.1

Terrestrial and space services

197

5 .2.2 The fixed service

197

5 .2 .3

The mobile service

197

5 .2 .4 The broadcasting service

19 8

5 .2 .5

Miscellaneous services

19 8

5 .2 .6

Industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) uses (of radio -frequency energy)

199

5 .3 Use of frequency spectrum by radio-frequency services

199

5 .3 .1

Use connected with propagation characteristics

199

5 .3 .2 Compatibility problems

20 3

5 .3 .3 Need for allocation of the spectrum among services

205

5 .4

International institutions

206

5 .4.1

International Telecommunications Union

206

5 .4.2 Administrative conferences

206

5 .4.3 International Frequency Registration Board

207

5 .4.4 International Consultative Committees

207

5 .5 International regulation of radio communications : RadioRegulations

20 8

5 .5 .1

Radio Regulations

20 8

5 .5 .2 Table of allocation of frequency bands

20 9

5 .5 .3

Methods of frequency allocation : role of the IFRB

21 0

5 .5 .4 International monitoring system

21 1

5 .5 .5

International coordination at regional level

21 1

5 .5 .6

National regulations

21 1

5 .6 Protection of radio communications against interferenc eproduced by equipment other than radio-frequency emitters

212

5 .6.1

Restriction of radio-frequency interference producedby equipment other than radio transmitters

21 3

5 .6 .2 Methods for measuring the interference power ofequipment

21 5

5 .6 .3 Immunity of equipment

21 6

5 .6 .4 Method of measuring electromagnetic immunity

21 6

References

21 7

Chapter 6 Characterization of screened cables

21 8

6.1

Introduction

21 8

6.2 Methods for measuring the transfer impedance and transfe radmittance of a coaxial cable

22 4

6 .2 .1

Principles of measurement

22 4

6 .2 .2 Common measurement methods

23 0

6 .2.3 Improved measurement methods

234

6 .2.4 Methods using transient currents

23 8

6 .2.5 Limitations on measurement at high frequencies

239

6 .3

Electromagnetic coupling to cable : modelling oftransfer impedance and transfer admittance

24 1

6.3 .1

Coaxial cables with homogeneous screen

24 1

6.3 .2

Coaxial cables with braided wire shields

244

6.3 .3

Helical shielding tape

256

6 .4 Coaxial cables with multiple screens

258

6 .4 .1

Influence of the mode of connection of screening

262

6 .4 .2 Use of ferromagnetic screens

264

6 .4 .3 Technology of cables with multiple screening

267

6 .5

Multi-wire screened cables

269

6 .5 .1

General

269

6 .5 .2 Transfer impedances for common mode and differentia lmode

27 1

6 .5 .3 Measurement of transfer impedance for differentia lmode

277

6 .5 .4 Influence of the ground wire on the screeningeffectiveness of multi-wire cables

279

6.6

Screening factor

282

6.7 Conclusion

28 5

References

28 8

Chapter 7 Coupling to cables near the earth surface or ground plane 29 3

7 .1

Introduction

29 3

7 .2 Coupling between a wave and an overhead line parallel to aperfectly conducting ground plane

295

7 .2 .1

Differential equations for currents and voltages

298

7 .2 .2

Special case of a line of infinite length

30 1

7 .2 .3 Introduction to boundary conditions and the influenc eof down-leads

30 2

7 .2 .4 Example showing the influence of changes in linelength

30 6

7 .2 .5 Remarks on the approach based on "magnetic" and"electric" coupling

31 2

7 .2 .6

Current distribution in short cables

31 5

7 .2 .7

Current distribution in long cables

31 8

7 .3

Coupling with a coaxial cable

31 9

7 .3 .1

Introduction

31 9

7 .3 .2 The case of short cables

323

7 .3 .3 The case of long cables

324

7.4 Discontinuities in screening and connectors

326

7 .4.1

Discontinuity with electrical contact

327

7 .4.2 Terminal discontinuity with electrical contact

329

7 .4.3

Discontinuity without electrical contact

33 1

7 .4.4 Conclusion

33 7

7 .5

Coupling with a line parallel to the surface of the earth

33 7

7 .5 .1

Introduction

33 7

7 .5.2 Determination of propagation coefficients

33 8

7 .5.3

Current distribution along a line excited at a point

346

7.5.4 Current induced by an incident plane wave

349

7 .6 Coupling with a buried line

35 8

7 .6 .1 Determination of propagation coefficients

35 8

7 .6 .2 Equivalent transmission line

360

7 .6 .3 Excitation of the line by a plane wave

36 3

7.7 Conclusion

36 6

Acknowledgement

36 7

References

36 7

Chapter 8 Coupling of a plane wave with wire antennas

37 1

8 .1

Introduction

37 1

8 .2 Integral equations for induced current in the frequenc ydomain

372

8 .2.1

Electric-field and magnetic-field integral equation s(EFIE, MFIE)

373

8.2.2 Thin-wire approximation and treatment ofsingularities

378

8.3 Resolution by the method of moments

38 3

8.3 .1

Principle of the method

38 3

8 .3 .2 Usual choice of basis and testing functions

38 5

8 .3 .3 Impedance matrix

38 8

8 .3 .4 Convergence

392

8 .4 Application examples

394

8 .4 .1

Antenna isolated in space

394

8 .4 .2 Antenna in the presence of perfectly conductin gground

402

8 .4 .3 Antenna containing one or more lumped loads

404

8 .5

Antenna displaying junctions or radial discontinuities ;equivalent radius of a mast

405

8 .5 .1

Junctions and radial discontinuities

405

8 .5 .2 Equivalent radius of a mast

409

8.6 Antennas in the presence of a real, imperfectly conductin gground, or penetrating the ground

412

8 .6.1

Exact formal approach for any thin-wire structureabove the ground

41 3

8 .6.2 Fast algorithms for calculating the Sommerfeldintegrals for a thin-wire structure above the ground

414

8 .6.3 Exact formal approach for a wire penetrating the ground 41 9

8 .6.4 Fast algorithms for calculating the Sommerfeldintegrals for a wire penetrating the ground

42 1

8 .6.5 Numerical applications

423

8 .7 Large thin-wire structures-hybrid method

42 5

8 .7 .1

Description of the method

426

8 .7.2 Numerical applications

43 1

8 .8 Study in the time domain

43 7

8 .8 .1

Integral equation in the time domain

43 9

8 .8 .2 Approximation for thin wires

44 1

8 .8 .3 Algorithm for numerical resolution

442

8 .8 .4 Advantages and disadvantages of the time-domainapproach

444

8 .8 .5 Example of application

44 4

Appendix

44 6

Acknowledgement

44 7

References

447

Chapter 9 Penetration into three-dimensional structures, an dcoupling

45 1

9 .1 Approach to the problem: topology

45 1

9 .2 Determination of the fields and currents on external surfaces o fstructures

452

9 .2.1

Exact solutions and analytical approaches

45 2

9 .2.2 Integral equations in the frequency domain

456

9 .2.3

Integral equations in the time domain

468

9 .2.4 Finite-element method

477

9 .2.5 Singularity Expansion Method (SEM)

479

9 .2.6 Finite-difference methods

480

9 .2.7

Solution by means of circuit-analysis programs

48 3

9.2.8 "High-frequency" methods

48 3

9.2.9 "Low-frequency" methods

484

9.2.10 Summary of the various methods

485

9 .3

Penetration through apertures

486

9 .3 .1

Methods of calculation

486

9 .3 .2

Equivalent dipoles

486

9 .4 Penetration through a homogeneous wall

488

9 .4 .1

Skin effect

48 8

9 .4 .2 Example of a homogeneous spherical shell

48 9

9 .4 .3

Penetration into other forms of shell

49 5

9 .4 .4

Penetration into a building

49 8

9.5 Conclusion

499

References

499

Chapter 10 Measurements for electromagnetic compatibility

50 5

10 .1 Introduction

50 5

10 .2 Control of the electromagnetic environment

50 6

10 .2.1 Open area test site

50 6

10 .2.2 Screened anechoic chamber

508

10 .2 .3 Underground gallery with low Q-factor

51 2

10.2.4 TEM cell

51 2

10 .2 .5 Mode stirred chamber

51 4

10.3 Measurements of conducted interference

51 6

10.3 .1 Measurements in frequency domain of conductedinterference emitted by equipment

51 6

10.3 .2 Measurements in frequency domain of the susceptibilit yof equipment to conducted interference

52 1

10 .3 .3 Measurements in time domain of conductedinterference emitted by equipment

524

10 .3 .4 Measurements in time domain of the susceptibility o fequipment to conducted interference

52 4

10 .4 Measurements of radiated interference

52 6

10 .4 .1 Review of the behaviour of antennas

526

10 .4.2 Measurements of radiated interference : antennas used

52 8

10 .4 .3 Measurements of radiated interference : examples ofprocedures

532

10 .4.4 Measurements of susceptibility to radiated interference 53 2

10 .5 Other types of test

536

10 .5 .1 Current-injection methods

53 6

10 .5 .2 Ability to withstand electrostatic discharges

537

10 .5 .3 Charge injector for ground testing of aircraft

539

10 .5 .4 Checks on metal coatings and measurement of surfac eresistance

540

10 .5 .5 Measurement of the impedances of earth connections

54 1

10 .5 .6 Measurement of the screening effectiveness of materials 543

10 .6 Scale modelling

54 5

10 .6 .1 Introduction

545

10 .6 .2 Theoretical approach

546

10 .6 .3 Experimental approach

548

10 .7 Further comments

550

10 .7 .1 Narrow-band and wide-band interference

550

10 .7 .2 Comparison of measurement techniques in th efrequency and time domains

55 3

10 .7 .3 Error estimation

55 5

10 .7 .4 Choice of equipment

557

10 .8 Conclusion

559

References

559

Chapter 11 Simulation techniques and sensors

564

11 .1 Simulators of electromagnetic pulses

564

11 .1 .1 Equipment generating stationary fields

565

11 .1 .2 Radiated-wave simulators

56 5

11 .1 .3 Bounded-wave simulators

572

11 .1 .4 Hybrid simulators

589

11 .2 Injectors of voltage and current pulses

592

11 .2.1 Low-level injection

594

11 .2.2 Medium-level injection

594

11 .2 .3 High-level and very high-level injection

59 8

11 .3 Instrumentation for measuring the effects of electromagneti cdisturbance

61 3

11 .3 .1 Sensors for electromagnetic fields and transducers

61 3

11 .3 .2 Means for transmission of signals

63 6

11 .3 .3 Means for acquisition of signals

640

11 .4 Conclusion

64 1

References

64 2

Index

645