A

SEMINAR

ON

“Electric Hybrid Vehicle”

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

REQUIREMENT OF THE DEGEE OF

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

IN

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SUPERVISED BY: SUBMITTED BY:

Prof. ASAD ZAI Lakshminarayan

Roll No. – 13EVEEE026

Enrl. No.-13E1VEEEM3XP02

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

VYAS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, JODHPUR

RAJASTHAN TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, KOTA

2017

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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the student Mr. Lakshminarayan of final year, have

successfully completed the seminar presentation on “Hybrid Electric Vehicles”

towards the partial fulfilment of the degree of Bachelors of Technology (B.

TECH) in the Electrical Engineering of the Rajasthan Technical University

during academic year 2017 under my supervision.

The work presented in this seminar has not been submitted elsewhere for award

of any other diploma or degree.

Prof. Asad Zai

Supervisor

Professor

Deptt. of Electrical Engineering

VIET, Jodhpur.

Counter Signed by:

Prof. Manish Bhati

Head Deptt. of Electrical Engg.

VIET, Jodhpur.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, I thank the God Almighty for His grace and mercy that enabled me in the

finalization of this seminar. Secondly I would also like to thank my Parents and Sister

who helped me a lot in finalizing this project within the limited time frame.

Every seminar big or small is successfully largely due to effort of a number of wonderful

people who have always given their valuable advice or lent a helping hand. I sincerely

appreciate the inspiration, support and guidance of all those people who have been

instrumental in making this seminar a successful.

I wish to express of gratitude to my guile to Prof. Asad Zai, Electrical Engineering

Department to give me guidance at every moment during my entire thesis and giving

valuable suggestion. He gives me unfailing inspiration and whole hearted co-operation

in caring out my seminar work. His continuous encouragement at each work and effort

to the push work are grateful acknowledged.

I am also grateful to Prof. Manish Bhati, Head of the Department, Electrical

Engineering for giving me the support and encouragement that was necessary for the

completion of this seminar.

Lakshminarayan

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ABSTRACT

Have you pulled your car up to the gas/petrol pump lately and been shocked by the high

price of gasoline? As the pump clicked past Rs1400 or 1500, maybe you thought about

trading in that SUV for something that gets better mileage. Or maybe you are worried

that your car is contributing to the greenhouse effect. Or maybe you just want to have

the coolest car on the block. Currently, there is a solution for all this problems, it's the

hybrid electric vehicle.

The vehicle is lighter and roomier than a purely electric vehicle, because there is less

need to carry as many heavy batteries. The internal combustion engine in hybrid-electric

is much smaller and lighter and more efficient than the engine in a conventional vehicle.

In fact, most automobile manufacturers have announced plans to manufacture their own

hybrid versions. Hybrid electric vehicles are all around us. Most of the locomotives we

see pulling trains are diesel-electric hybrids. Cities like Seattle have diesel-electric

buses -- these can draw electric power from overhead wires or run on diesel when they

are away from the wires. Giant mining trucks are often diesel-electric hybrids.

Submarines are also hybrid vehicles -- some are nuclear-electric and some are diesel-

electric. Any vehicle that combines two or more sources of power that can directly or

indirectly provide propulsion power is a hybrid.

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TABLE OF CONTANTS

CERTIFICATE ........................................................................... i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT........................................................... ii

ABSTRACT ................................................................................. iii

TABLE OF CONTANTS ........................................................... iv

LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................... vi

1 Introduction ....................................................................... 1

1.1 Introduction of Hybrid Electric Vehicle ............................ 1

2 History of Hybrid Electric Vehicle .................................. 3

2.1 History of Hybrid Electric Vehicle ..................................... 3

3 Types by Degree of Hybridization .................................... 6

3.1 Full Hybrid ........................................................................... 6

3.2 Mild Hybrid .......................................................................... 7

4 Types of Hybrid Electric Vehicle ...................................... 8

4.1 Series Type HEV ................................................................ 8

4.2 Parallel Type HEV ............................................................... 10

4.3 Series-Parallel Type HEV .................................................... 13

5 Parts of Hybrid Electric Vehicle ..................................... 14

5.1 Engine ................................................................................. 14

5.1.1 Gasoline Engine .................................................................. 14

5.1.2 Diesel Engine ...................................................................... 14

5.1.3 Hydrogen Engine ................................................................ 15

5.2 Battery .................................................................................. 16

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5.2.1 Batteries Packaging ............................................................. 17

5.2.2 Basic Characteristics ........................................................... 19

5.3 Electric Motor ...................................................................... 21

5.3.1 Motor Components ............................................................. 21

5.3.2 Components: Electric Motor – Dc ...................................... 22

5.3.3 Components: Electric Motor – Ac ...................................... 23

5.4 Controller ............................................................................. 23

5.5 Generator ............................................................................. 24

5.6 Power Split Device .............................................................. 24

6 Features of Hybrid Electric Vehicle ................................. 25

6.1 Idle Stop ............................................................................... 25

6.2 Regenerative Braking ......................................................... 25

6.3 Power Assist ....................................................................... 26

6.4 Engine-Off Drive Electric Vehicle Mode ........................... 26

6.5 Plug-In Hybrids (PHEV) ..................................................... 26

7 Environmental Issues Concerned with HEV .................. 27

7.1 Environmental Issues ........................................................... 27

8 Features of Hybrid Electric Vehicle ................................. 31

8.1 Starting and Low Speed Process .......................................... 31

8.1.1 Starting ................................................................................ 31

8.1.2 Low Speed Process ............................................................. 31

8.2 Cruising ............................................................................... 32

8.3 Passing ................................................................................ 32

8.4 Braking ................................................................................ 33

9 Predecessors of Current Technology in HEV ................. 35

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9.1 Current Technology ............................................................. 35

10 Advantages and Disadvantages of HEV .......................... 38

10.1 Advantages ........................................................................... 38

10.2 Disadvantages ...................................................................... 39

11 Modern Hybrids Production ............................................. 40

11.1 Modern Hybrids Production ................................................ 40

Future Works .................................................................... 43

Conclusions ......................................................................... 45

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LIST OF FIGURES

2.1 The first gasoline-electric hybrid vehicle .............................. 3

3.1 Full hybrid Vehicle-Toyota Prius (2nd generation)............... 6

4.1 Series type HEV ..................................................................... 9

4.1 Series type HEV Block Diagram .......................................... 9

4.3 Power flow in series type HEV ............................................. 10

4.4 Parallel type HEV .................................................................. 11

4.5 Parallel type HEV Block Diagram ....................................... 12

4.6 Power flow in parallel type HEV ........................................... 12

4.7 Series- parallel type HEV ..................................................... 13

5.1 Cost per mile EV v/s Gasoline Engine .................................. 16

5.2 Cylindrical type battery packaging ........................................ 17

5.3 Prismatic type battery packaging ........................................... 17

5.4 Button type battery packaging ............................................... 18

5.5 Pouch type battery packaging ................................................ 18

5.6 Cycle life ................................................................................ 20

5.7 Energy Densities .................................................................... 20

5.8 Motor Parts ............................................................................ 22

5.9 Components: Electric Motor – DC ........................................ 23

5.10 Components: Electric Motor – AC ........................................ 23

5.11 Parts of HEV .......................................................................... 24

8.1 Starting and low speed process of HEV ................................ 31

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8.2 Cruising process of HEV ....................................................... 32

8.3 Passing process of HEV ......................................................... 33

8.3 Braking process of HEV ........................................................ 34

11.1 1997 Toyota Prius (first generation) ...................................... 42

11.2 2000 Honda Insight (first generation) .................................... 42

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Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION OF HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE

A hybrid vehicle, abbreviated HEV, is one that uses both an internal combustion

engine (ICE) and an electric motor to propel the vehicle. Most hybrids use a high-

voltage battery pack and a combination electric motor and generator to help or assist

a gasoline engine. [1]

The ICE used in a hybrid vehicle can be either gasoline or diesel, although only

gasoline-powered engines are currently used in hybrid vehicles. An electric motor

is used to help propel the vehicle, and in some designs, capable of propelling the

vehicle alone without having to start the internal combustion engine.

The presence of the electric power train is intended to achieve either better fuel

economy than a conventional vehicle or better performance. There are a variety of

HEV types, and the degree to which they function as EVs varies as well. The most

common form of HEV is the hybrid electric car, although hybrid electric trucks

(pickups and tractors) and buses also exist. Modern HEVs make use of efficiency-

improving technologies such as regenerative braking, which converts the vehicle's

kinetic energy into electric energy to charge the battery, rather than wasting it as

heat energy as conventional brakes do. Some varieties of HEVs use their internal

combustion engine to generate electricity by spinning an electrical generator (this

combination is known as a motor-generator), to either recharge their batteries or to

directly power the electric drive motors. Many HEVs reduce idle emissions by

shutting down the ICE at idle and restarting it when needed; this is known as a start-

stop system. A hybrid-electric produces less emissions from its ICE than a

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comparably-sized gasoline car, since an HEV's gasoline engine is usually smaller

than a comparably-sized pure gasoline-burning vehicle (natural gas and propane

fuels produce lower emissions) and if not used to directly drive the car, can be geared

to run at maximum efficiency, further improving fuel economy. [1]

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Chapter-2

HISTORY OF HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE

2.1 HISTORY OF HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE

In 1900 Ferdinand Porsche developed the Lohner-Porsche Mixte Hybrid, the first

gasoline-electric hybrid automobile in the world, a 4WD series-hybrid version of

"System Lohner-Porsche" electric carriage previously appeared in 1900 Paris World

Fair. The Mixte included a pair of generators driven by 2.5-hp Daimler IC engines

to extend operating range and it could travel nearly 65 km on battery alone. It was

presented in the Paris Auto Show in 1901. The Mixte broke several Austrian speed

records, and also won the Exelberg Rally in 1901 with Porsche himself driving. The

Mixte used a gasoline engine powering a generator, which in turn powered electric

hub motors, with a small battery pack for reliability. It had a top speed of 50 km/h

and a power of 5.22 kW during 20 minutes. George Fischer sold hybrid buses to

England in 1901; Knight Neftal produced a racing hybrid in 1902. [2]

Fig. 2.1 The first gasoline-electric hybrid vehicle

In 1905, Henri Pieper of Germany/Belgium introduced a hybrid vehicle with an

electric motor/generator, batteries, and a small gasoline engine. It used the electric

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motor to charge its batteries at cruise speed and used both motors to accelerate or

climb a hill. The Pieper factory was taken over by Imperia, after Pieper died. The

1915 Dual Power, made by the Woods Motor Vehicle electric car maker, had a four-

cylinder ICE and an electric motor. Below 15 mph (24 km/h) the electric motor

alone drove the vehicle, drawing power from a battery pack, and above this speed

the "main" engine cut in to take the car up to its 35 mph (56 km/h) top speed. About

600 were made up to 1918. The Woods hybrid was a commercial failure, proving to

be too slow for its price, and too difficult to service. The United States Army's 1928

Experimental Motorized Force tested a gasoline-electric bus in a truck convoy. In

1931 Erich Gaichen invented and drove from Altenburg to Berlin a 1/2 horsepower

electric car containing features later incorporated into hybrid cars. Its maximum

speed was 25 miles per hour (40 km/h), but it was licensed by the Motor Transport

Office, taxed by the German Revenue Department and patented by the German

Reichs-Patent Amt. The car battery was re-charged by the motor when the car went

downhill. Additional power to charge the battery was provided by a cylinder of

compressed air which was re-charged by small air pumps activated by vibrations of

the chassis and the brakes and by igniting oxy-hydrogen gas. An account of the car

and his characterization as a "crank inventor" can be found in Arthur Koestler's

autobiography, Arrow in the Blue, pages 269-271, which summarize a

contemporaneous newspaper account written by Koestler. No production beyond

the prototype was reported. The hybrid-electric vehicle did not become widely

available until the release of the Toyota Prius in Japan in 1997, followed by the

Honda Insight in 1999.While initially perceived as unnecessary due to the low cost

of gasoline, worldwide increases in the price of petroleum caused many automakers

to release hybrids in the late 2000s; they are now perceived as a core segment of the

automotive market of the future. More than 5.8 million hybrid electric vehicles have

been sold worldwide by the end of October 2012, led by Toyota Motor Company

(TMC) with more than 4.6 million Lexus and Toyota hybrids sold by October 2012,

followed by Honda Motor Co., Ltd. with cumulative global sales of more than 1

million hybrids by September 2012, and Ford Motor Corporation with more than

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200 thousand hybrids sold in the United States by June 2012. Worldwide sales of

hybrid vehicles produced by TMC reached 1 million units in May 2007; 2 million

in August 2009; and passed the 4 million mark in April 2012.As of October 2012,

worldwide hybrid sales are led by the Toyota Prius lift back, with cumulative sales

of 2.8 million units, and available in almost 80 countries and regions. The United

States is the world's largest hybrid market with more than 2.5 million hybrid

automobiles and SUVs sold through October 2012, followed by Japan with more

than 2 million hybrids sold through October 2012 The Prius is the top selling hybrid

car in the U.S. market, surpassing the 1 million milestone in April 2011. Cumulative

sales of the Prius in Japan reached the 1 million mark in August 2011. [2]

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Chapter-3

TYPES BY DEGREE OF HYBRIDIZATION

3.1 FULL HYBRID

Full hybrid, sometimes also called a strong hybrid, is a vehicle that can run on just

the engine, just the batteries, or a combination of both. It uses a gasoline engine as

the primary source of power, and an electric motor provides additional power when

needed. In addition, full hybrids can use the electric motor as the source of

population for low-speed, low acceleration driving, such as stop-and-go traffic or

for backing up.Ford's hybrid system, Toyota's Hybrid Synergy Drive and General

Motors/Chrysler's Two-Mode Hybrid technologies are full hybrid systems The

Toyota Prius, Ford Escape Hybrid, and Ford Fusion Hybrid are examples of full

hybrids, as these cars can be moved forward on battery power alone. A large, high-

capacity battery pack is needed for battery-only operation. These vehicles have a

split power path allowing greater flexibility in the drive-strain by inter-converting

mechanical and electrical power, at some cost in complexity. [3]

Fig. 3.1 Full hybrid Vehicle-Toyota Prius (2nd generation)

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3.2 MILD HYBRID

Mild hybrid, sometimes also called a stop-start hybrid is a vehicle that cannot be

driven solely on its electric motor, because the electric motor does not have enough

power to propel the vehicle on its own. Stop-start technology conserves energy by

shutting off the gasoline engine when the vehicle is at rest, such as at a traffic light,

and automatically re-starting it when the driver pushes the gas pedal to go forward.

Mild hybrids only include some of the features found in hybrid technology, and

usually achieve limited fuel consumption savings, up to 15 percent in urban driving

and 8 to 10 percent overall cycle A mild hybrid is essentially a conventional vehicle

with oversize starter motor, allowing the engine to be turned off whenever the car is

coasting, braking, or stopped, yet restart quickly and cleanly. The motor is often

mounted between the engine and transmission, taking the place of the torque

converter, and is used to supply additional propulsion energy when accelerating.

Accessories can continue to run on electrical power while the gasoline engine is off,

and as in other hybrid designs, the motor is used for regenerative braking to

recapture energy. As compared to full hybrids, mild hybrids have smaller batteries

and a smaller, weaker motor/generator, which allows manufacturers to reduce cost

and weight. Honda's early hybrids including the first generation Insight used this

design, leveraging their reputation for design of small, efficient gasoline engines;

their system is dubbed Integrated Motor Assist (IMA). Starting with the 2006 Civic

Hybrid, the IMA system now can propel the vehicle solely on electric power during

medium speed cruising. Another example is the 2005-2007 Chevrolet Silverado

Hybrid, a full-size pickup truck. Chevrolet was able to get a 10% improvement on

the Silverado's fuel efficiency by shutting down and restarting the engine on demand

and using regenerative braking. General Motors has also used its mild BAS Hybrid

technology in other models such as the Saturn Vue Green Line, the Saturn Aura

Green line and the Mailbu Hybrid. [3]

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Chapter-4

TYPES OF HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE

4.1 SERIES TYPE HEV

In series hybrids, only the electric motor drives the drive-strain, and the ICE works

as a generator to power the electric motor or to recharge the batteries. The battery

pack can be recharged through regenerative braking or by the ICE. Series hybrids

usually have a smaller combustion engine but a larger battery pack as compared to

parallel hybrids, which makes them more expensive than parallels. This

configuration makes series hybrids more efficient in city driving. The Chevrolet

Volt is a series plug-in hybrid, although GM prefers to describe the Volt as an

electric vehicle equipped with a "range extending" gasoline powered ICE as a

generator and therefore dubbed an "Extended Range Electric Vehicle" or EREV.

Means In a series driveline, only an electric motor is connected to drive the wheels.

In it gasoline motor turns a generator, generator may either charge the batteries or

power an electric motor that drives the transmission and at low speeds is powered

only by the electric motor. In a series-hybrid design, the engine turns a generator,

which can charge batteries or power [4]

an electric motor that drives the transmission. The internal combustion engine never

powers the vehicle directly.

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Fig. 4.1 Series type HEV

Fig. 4.2 Series type HEV

This diagram shows the components included in a typical series hybrid design. The

solid-line arrow indicates the transmission of torque to the drive wheels. The dotted-

line arrows indicate the transmission of electrical current. [4]

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Fig. 4.3 Power flow in series type HEV

4.2 PARALLEL TYPE HEV

In parallel hybrids, the ICE and the electric motor are both connected to the

mechanical transmission and can simultaneously transmit power to drive the wheels,

usually through a conventional transmission. Honda's Integrated Motor Assist

(IMA) system as found in the Insight, Civic, Accord, as well as the GM Belted

Alternator/Starter (BAS Hybrid) system found in the Chevrolet Malibu hybrids are

examples of production parallel hybrids. Current, commercialized parallel hybrids

use a single, small (<20 kW) electric motor and small battery pack as the electric

motor is not designed to be the sole source of motive power from launch. Parallel

hybrids are also capable of regenerative braking and the internal combustion engine

can also act as a generator for supplemental recharging. Parallel hybrids are more

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efficient than comparable non-hybrid vehicles especially during urban stop-and-go

conditions and at times during highway operation where the electric motor is

permitted to contribute. Means in a parallel system, both the gasoline and the electric

motor are connected to the drive wheels. Gasoline motor, batteries which powers an

electric motor, both can power the transmission at the same time and electric motor

supplements the gasoline engine. In a parallel-hybrid design, multiple propulsion

sources can be combined, or one energy source alone can drive the vehicle. The

battery and engine are both connected to the transmission. The vehicle can be

powered by internal combustion alone, by electric motor alone, (full hybrids), or a

combination. In most cases, the electric motor is used to assist the internal

combustion engine.

Fig. 4.4 Parallel type HEV

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Fig. 4.5 Parallel type HEV

Diagram showing the components involved in a typical parallel-hybrid vehicle. The

solid-line arrows indicate the transmission of torque to the drive wheels, and the

dotted-line arrows indicate the flow of electrical current.

Fig. 4.6 Power flow in parallel type HEV

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4.3 SERIES-PARALLEL TYPE HEV

Series-Parallel type also called Power-split hybrids have the benefits of a

combination of series and parallel characteristics. As a result, they are more efficient

overall, because series hybrids tend to be more efficient at lower speeds and parallel

tend to be more efficient at high speeds; however, the cost of power-split the hybrid

is higher than a pure parallel. Examples of power-split (referred to by some as

"series-parallel") hybrid power-strains include current models of Ford, General

Motors, Lexus, Nissan, and Toyota. Means a series-parallel hybrid design allows

the vehicle to operate in electric motor mode only or in combination with the internal

combustion engine. In it characteristics of both series and parallel type hybrid

electric vehicle are used, it’s cost is more than both single type HEV’s. [4]

Fig. 4.7 Series- parallel type HEV

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Chapter-5

PARTS OF HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE

5.1 ENGINE

It’s much same as other vehicles engine, but the size of hybrid electric vehicle engine

is small and it’s more fuel efficient.

Higher energy density than batteries,

1,000 pounds of batteries = 1 gallon (7 pounds) of gas.

It has three types. [5]

5.1.1 Gasoline engine

Gasoline engines are used in most hybrid electric designs, and will likely remain

dominant for the foreseeable future. While petroleum-derived gasoline is the

primary fuel, it is possible to mix in varying levels of ethanol created from renewable

energy sources. Like most modern ICE powered vehicles, HEVs can typically use

up to about 15% bio-ethanol. Manufacturers may move to flexible fuel engines,

which would increase allowable ratios, but no plans are in place at present.

5.1.2 Diesel engine

Diesel-electric HEVs use a diesel engine for power generation. Diesels have

advantages when delivering constant power for long periods of time, suffering less

wear while operating at higher efficiency. The diesel engine's high torque, combined

with hybrid technology, may offer substantially improved mileage. Most diesel

vehicles can use 100% pure bio-fuels (biodiesel), so they can use but do not need

petroleum at all for fuel (although mixes of bio-fuel and petroleum are more

common). If diesel-electric HEVs were in use, this benefit would likely also apply.

Diesel-electric hybrid drive-strains have begun to appear in commercial vehicles

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(particularly buses); as of 2007, no light duty diesel-electric hybrid passenger cars

are currently available, although prototypes exist.

5.1.3 Hydrogen engine

Hydrogen can be used in cars in two ways: a source of combustible heat, or a source

of electrons for an electric motor. The burning of hydrogen is not being developed

in practical terms; it is the hydrogen fuel-cell electric vehicle (HFEV) which is

garnering all the attention. Hydrogen fuel cells create electricity fed into an electric

motor to drives the wheels. Hydrogen is not burned, but it is consumed. This means

molecular hydrogen, H2, is combined with oxygen to form water. 2H2(4e-) + O2 --

> 2H2O(4e-). The molecular hydrogen and oxygen's mutual affinity drives the fuel

cell to separate the electrons from the hydrogen, to use them to power the electric

motor, and to return them to the ionized water molecules that were formed when the

electron-depleted hydrogen combined with the oxygen in the fuel cell. Recalling that

a hydrogen atom is nothing more than a proton and an electron; in essence, the motor

is driven by the proton's atomic attraction to the oxygen nucleus, and the electron's

attraction to the ionized water molecule. [5]

An HFEV is an all-electric car featuring an open-source battery in the form of a

hydrogen tank and the atmosphere. HFEVs may also comprise closed-cell batteries

for the purpose of power storage from regenerative braking, but this does not change

the source of the motivation. It implies the HFEV is an electric car with two types

of batteries. Since HFEVs are purely electric, and do not contain any type of heat

engine, they are not hybrids. [5]

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Fig. 5.1 Cost per mile EV v/s Gasoline Engine

5.2 BATTERY

It stores the energy generated from gasoline engine or during regenerative braking,

from the electric motor. It’s power the vehicle at low speed, it’s size is larger and

holds much more energy than non-hybrid electric vehicle. [5]

Batteries rule the performance of the vehicle

They dictate how much power you get (kW)

They dictate how much energy you get (kWh)

A single cell dictates the battery voltage each cell mates two dissimilar

materials

Table 5.1 Battery types

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5.2.1 Batteries packaging

1. Cylindrical

Fig. 5.2 Cylindrical type battery packaging

2. Prismatic

Fig. 5.3 Prismatic type battery packaging

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3. Button

Fig. 5.4 Button type battery packaging

4. Pouch

Fig. 5.5 Pouch type battery packaging

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5.2.2 Basic Characteristics

State of Charge (SOC)

Measured as a percentage of total battery energy (0-100%)

Typically, should not go below 20%

Depth of Discharge (DoD)

Inverse of SOC

Power (kW)

Energy (kWh)

A-h

Typically used for power batteries

Cells often described in mA-h

C Rate

A normalized rate of power use to qualify testing

100% discharge divided by the time in hours

C2 means the discharge rate was 100% in ½ hour

C/2 means the rate was less aggressive – over 2 hours

Cycle Life

Always measured based on DoD

Ex. 1000 cycles at 80% DoD

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Fig. 5.6 Cycle life

Weight/Volume

Measures in terms of W/kg and W-h/kg

W/l and W-h/l

Fig. 5.7 Energy Densities

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5.3 ELECTRIC MOTOR

It’s power the vehicle at low speed and assist the gasoline engine when additional

power is needed, it’s also convert otherwise wasted energy from braking into

electricity and store it in battery. Most of the electric machines used in hybrid

vehicles are brushless DC motors (BLDC). Specifically, they are of a type called an

interior permanent magnet (IPM) machine (or motor). These machines are wound

similarly to the induction motors found in a typical home, but (for high efficiency)

use very strong rare earth magnets in the rotor. These magnets contain neodymium,

iron and boron, and are therefore called Neodymium magnets. The magnet material

is expensive, and its cost is one of the limiting factors in the use of these machines.

5.3.1 Motor components

Rotating components

[1] Shaft

[2] Rotor

[3] Rotor fins

[4] Fan

Housing components

[5] End bells / bearing housings

[6] Stator housing

[7] Cooling fins

[8] Junction box

[9] Fan shroud

Fixed components

[10] Seals

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[11] Stator windings

[12] Core iron / lamination stack

[13] Bearings

Fig. 5.8 Motor Parts

5.3.2 Components: Electric Motor – DC

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Fig. 5.9 Components: Electric Motor – DC

5.3.3 Components: Electric Motor – AC

Fig. 5.10 Components: Electric Motor – AC

5.4 CONTROLLER

The controller is used to charge the battery or to supply the power to electric motor.

Converts Battery DC to a chopped DC power

Can chop in amplitude (DC) or frequency (AC)

Power is based on low voltage input signal 4-20 mA or 0-5V

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In other fields this is called a drive or inverter

Variable Frequency (AC)

Pulse Width Modulation (AC)

Buck Conversion (Reduce - DC)

Boost Conversion (Increase - DC)

5.5 GENERATOR

It converts mechanical energy from engine into electrical energy, which can be used

by electric motor stored in the battery. It’s also used to start the gasoline engine

instantly. [5]

5.6 POWER SPLIT DEVICE

It’s a gearbox connecting the gasoline engine, electric motor and generator. It allows

the engine and motor to power the car independently or in tandem and allows the

gasoline engine to charge the batteries or provide power to the wheels as needed

Fig. 5.11 Parts of HEV

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Chapter-6

FEATURES OF HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE

6.1 IDLE STOP

Idle stop turns off engine when the vehicle is stopped. When the brake is released,

the engine immediately starts. This ensures the vehicle is not using fuel, not creating

CO2 emissions, when the engine is not required to propel the vehicle. At this time

battery supply the power to all accessories of vehicle like AC, DVD Player etc. [6]

6.2 REGENERATIVE BRAKING

Regenerative braking converts otherwise wastage energy from braking into

electricity and store it in the battery. In regenerative braking the electric motor is

reversed so that, instead of using electricity to turns the wheels, the rotating wheels

turns the motor and create electricity. Using energy from the wheels to turn the

motor slows the vehicle down. When decelerating, the braking system captures

energy and stores it in the battery or other device for later use, helping to keep

batteries charged.

In motor case “𝑬𝒃 = V - 𝑰𝒂𝑹𝒂 “ Generally 𝐸𝑏 < V

Here, 𝐸𝑏 = Back emf of motor

V = Terminal voltage/Load side voltage

𝐼𝑎 = Armature current and

Ra = Armature resistance

But in regenerative braking system 𝐸𝑏 > V, means the load supplies the power to

motor.

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6.3 POWER ASSIST

The electric motor provides extra power using current drawn from the battery to

assist ICE during acceleration. This power-assist mode enables the vehicle to use a

smaller, more fuel-efficient engine without giving up performance. [6]

6.4 ENGINE-OFF DRIVE ELECTRIC VEHICLE MODE

In this mode the electric motor propels the vehicle at lower speeds. The ICE is not

being used during low acceleration, no fuel is being used and no emissions are being

released. When the hybrid is in this mode, it is essentially in an electric vehicle.

6.5 PLUG-IN HYBRIDS (PHEV)

A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), also known as a plug-in hybrid, is a hybrid

electric vehicle with rechargeable batteries that can be restored to full charge by

connecting a plug to an external electric power source. A PHEV shares the

characteristics of both a conventional hybrid electric vehicle, having an electric

motor and an internal combustion engine; and of an all-electric vehicle, also having

a plug to connect to the electrical grid. PHEVs have a much larger all-electric range

as compared to conventional gasoline-electric hybrids, and also eliminate the "range

anxiety" associated with all-electric vehicles, because the combustion engine works

as a backup when the batteries are depleted.

Plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEV) present a cleaner alternative to traditional vehicles,

as they use less oil and have lower emissions. PHEVs also use less oil than standard

hybrid electric vehicles (HEV), and at first glance seem to have lower emissions

than HEVs. PHEV with a range of 40 miles would have approximately half the

emissions of a HEV if it were powered by a carbon-free energy source, but would

have higher emissions if 50% of its electric power was generated by coal. [6]

The Chevrolet Volt is a plug-in hybrid able to run in all-electric mode up to 35 miles.

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Chapter-7

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES CONCERNED

WITH HEV

7.1 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

Since the dawn of the modern era, consumption and distribution of energy has

quickly become mankind’s highest priority. However, the continued apathetic

attitude that was initially taken toward energy and its side effects can no longer be

used. A new more environmentally friendly source of energy has to be utilized in

order to fulfil our own needs otherwise we self-destruction while relying on non-

renewable oil based methods. In the last few decades two new technologies have

emerged; the development and implementation of Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs)

and more recently the Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs). These emerging

technologies may make it possible for the United States to adapt these technologies

on a larger scale to reduce harmful emissions and cut our dependence on foreign oil

dramatically. However, the future of the technologies will heavily depend on the

everyday American consumer’s willingness to forgo the ‘tried and true’ combustion

engine for the infantile technologies of the HEV and PHEV. With the introduction

and continued popularity of HEVs and as well as the recent hype over the PHEVs,

the future of transportation in the United States is on the brink of change. This

project has objectives relevant to the aforementioned HEVs and PHEVs. First,

verify if independence of foreign oil is truly a possibility and how to accomplish this

feat. Second, identify the major motivators for the American consumers who

purchase these vehicles and how that can be used to increase the sales of HEVs and

PHEVs respectively. The third and last objective is to determine the future impact

of the all-electric vehicle (EV). Earlier civilizations relied on a number of power

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sources such as water to turn wheels, to run mills, fire to heat water and create steam,

or windmills to turn grinding stones. Since roughly the 17th century various forms

of oil have been used, such as kerosene, as fuel for lanterns. Even into the 18th, 19th,

and early 20th centuries whales were hunted for their blubber which could be

converted into oil among other things. In the more recent years with the invention

of the combustion engine, which has not only increased the shear amount of oil

consumed annually but also drastically augmented our dependence upon it in our

daily lives. Our oil ‘addiction’ has lead us to the realization that our usage has its

limits, not only does the environment suffer adverse effects because of its use but

our society is so dependent upon that if it were suddenly removed, most of modern

society would cease to function properly if it all. Without a reasonable alternative

this fate is all too possible and this has caused huge concerns over how, on a large

scale, we can change our consumption habits and create a cleaner energy for our

use. Hybrid cars have come a long way in the past 20 years, but most people are

unaware they have been around since the mid-1800s. The early electric vehicles at

the turn of the 20th century were expensive, problematic and not very powerful.

Given certain weather conditions or too steep a hill the electric vehicle of yesteryear

was simply unable to perform up to our expectations. With the introduction of the

Ford Model T, a revolution in vehicles was made. The Model T was cheaper and

more powerful and was made relatively simplistic, it also ran on a then abundant

source of gasoline, and the United States could meet its own internal demand enough

so that it actually exported its excess to European countries such as France and

Britain. Ultimately, the Model T made the early EVs defunct and as such fell off the

radar until events like the 1973 oil crisis and 1979 energy crisis where the electric

technologies were eventually reconsidered. The first electric car is claimed to have

been built between 1832 and 1893 by Robert Anderson of Scotland. From then until

the late 1800s, when they became efficient enough to use as taxi cabs in England,

the cars were heavy, slow and impractical. Modern batteries development in the

early 1900s pushed the development of more efficient, reliable, and practical electric

cars in that period. The Hybrid came about in 1900 in Belgium, when a small

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gasoline engine was paired with an electric motor. During normal operation the

electric motor charged on-board batteries, but during acceleration and uphill stints

the electric motor provided a boost to the 3.5 horsepower motor. In 1905 H Piper

patented the first hybrid in America. In 1910 a hybrid truck was manufactured in

Pennsylvania, which used a 4 cylinder to power a generator and an electric motor.

1916 saw the production of hybrid cars claiming 35 mph and 48 mpg, however this

also saw the end of the electric car era due to the advances in combustion engine

technology. Until the mid to late 1960s, there is little commercial advance in hybrid

or electric cars. As early as the mid-1960s congress recognized the importance of

reducing emissions to improve air quality, and that the use of electric cars was a

possible way to achieve this. In the late 60s and early 70s the oil embargo sparked a

renewed interest in hybrid and electric vehicles. A few hybrids were released by

major manufacturers, but most were underpowered and small. More importantly,

three scientists patented the first modern hybrid system in 1971, much of which

closely resemble the hybrids of today. The next big push from congress come s with

the 1976 Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Research, Development, and Demonstration

Act which encouraged the commercial improvement of electric motors and other

hybrid components. The research lead toward new developments and new vehicle

released in the United States, including all electrics from GM and Honda, even

including an electric truck, the Chevrolet S-10. These vehicles reached a niche

group, but still did not receive the sales numbers to be feasible. This all changed

with the release of the Toyota Prius in Japan in 1997. With 18000 sold in the first

year it becomes the first economically feasible hybrid produced. With its import to

the united stated in 2000 and the release of Hondas Insight to the US in 1999 the

hybrid age had finally arrived. However, PHEVs and HEVs are not without

limitations, which are mainly caused by the current state of battery technology. With

future research and development into creating improvements on battery technology

many of the limitations will be greatly reduced if not expunged completely. We have

come a long way since the nickel and lead batteries of the 1960s, more recently the

Nickel Metal Hydride and Lithium Ion battery technologies have been developed

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and successfully implemented. Today’s HEVs are a far cry from the small four horse

power models of the 1800s, modern HEVs include the same power, acceleration,

comfort, and price of their counterpart conventional cars (CVs), but can reach

upwards of 50 miles per gallon depending on the model. The importance of this

project is not simply limited toward the contemporary state of the automotive

industry. It is also a generalized overview of what to expect in the near future

concerning the status of the global automotive market and the respective

technologies of which it encompasses. Valuable insight given into possible

implications of using the aforementioned technologies and how they may affect the

US and its ability to reach its energy goals all while becoming both more energy

independent and environmentally conscious. Projections for the future give an

overall view of what is to come, including future vehicles available for purchase,

their collective impact on the populace, and how that technology can be built upon

and advanced. It is essentially a forecast of the automotive industry from both a

national and global level. Based on the examination of information and projection

from qualified data sources, it gives as full as possible understanding to the reader

of where, when, and how the automotive industry is now and in the foreseeable

future. [6]

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Chapter-8

WORKING OF HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE

8.1 STARTING AND LOW SPEED PROCESS

8.1.1 Starting

When hybrid electric vehicle is initially started the battery typically powers all the

accessories of vehicle. The gasoline engine only starts if battery needs to be charged

or the accessories require more power than available from the battery. [6]

8.1.2 Low speed process

For initial acceleration and slow-speed driving, as well as reverse, the electric motor

uses electricity from the battery to power the vehicle. If the battery needs to be

recharged, the generator starts the engine and converts energy from engine into

electricity, which is stored in the battery.

Fig. 8.1 Starting and low speed process of HEV

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8.2 CRUISING

To run the vehicle at the speed of above mid-range for long period (Long drive). At

the time of cruising both internal combustion engine and electric motor are used to

propel the vehicle. The gasoline engine provides the power to the electric vehicle

directly and to the electric motor via the generator. [6]

The generator also converts the energy from internal combustion engine into

electricity and send it to battery for storage.

Fig. 8.2 Cruising process of HEV

8.3 PASSING

To pass or overtake any other vehicle. During heavy accelerating or when additional

power is needed, the gasoline engine and electric motor are both used to propel the

vehicle. Additional energy from the battery may be used to power the vehicle.

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Fig. 8.3 Passing process of HEV

8.4 BRAKING

Regenerative braking converts otherwise wastage energy from braking into

electricity and store it in the battery. In regenerative braking the electric motor is

reversed so that, instead of using electricity to turns the wheels, the rotating wheels

turns the motor and create electricity. Using energy from the wheels to turn the

motor slows the vehicle down. When decelerating, the braking system captures

energy and stores it in the battery or other device for later use, helping to keep

batteries charged.

In motor case “Eb = V - IaRa “ Generally Eb < V

Here, Eb = Back e.m.f of motor

V = Terminal voltage/Load side voltage

Ia = Armature current and

Ra = Armature resistance

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But in regenerative braking system Eb > V, means the load supplies the power to

motor.

If additional stopping power is required, we apply friction bakes like disk brakes to

stop the vehicle.

Fig. 8.3 Braking process of HEV

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Chapter-9

PREDECESSORS OF CURRENT

TECHNOLOGY IN HEV

9.1 CURRENT TECHNOLOGY

A more recent working prototype of the HEV was built by Victor Wouk (one of the

scientists involved with the Hennery Kilowatt, the first transistor-based electric car).

Wouk's work with HEVs in the 1960s and 1970s earned him the title as the

"Godfather of the Hybrid". Wouk installed a prototype hybrid drive-strain (with a

16 kilowatts (21 hp) electric motor) into a 1972 Buick Skylark provided by GM for

the 1970 Federal Clean Car Incentive Program, but the program was stopped by the

United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1976 while Eric Stork,

the head of the EPA's vehicle emissions control program at the time, was accused of

a prejudicial cover-up.

The regenerative braking system, the core design concept of most production HEVs,

was developed by electrical engineer David Arthurs around 1978, using off-the shelf

components and an Opel GT. However, the voltage controller to link the batteries,

motor (a jet-engine starter motor), and DC generator was Arthurs'. The vehicle

exhibited 75 miles per US gallon (3.1 L/100 km; 90 mpg-imp) fuel efficiency, and

plans for it (as well as somewhat updated versions) are still available through the

Mother Earth News web site. The Mother Earth News' own 1980 version claimed

nearly 84 miles per US gallon (2.8 L/100 km; 101 mpg-imp).

In 1989, Audi produced its first iteration of the Audi Duo (the Audi C3 100 Avant

Duo) experimental vehicle, a plug-in parallel hybrid based on the Audi 100 Avant

Quattro. This car had a 9.4 kilowatts (12.8 PS; 12.6 bhp) Siemens electric motor

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which drove the rear road-wheels. A trunk-mounted nickel-cadmium battery

supplied energy to the motor that drove the rear wheels. The vehicle's front road-

wheels were powered by a 2.3 litre five-cylinder petrol engine with an output of 100

kilowatts (136 PS; 134 bhp). The intent was to produce a vehicle which could

operate on the engine in the country, and electric mode in the city. Mode of operation

could be selected by the driver. Just ten vehicles are believed to have been made;

one drawback was that due to the extra weight of the electric drive, the vehicles were

less efficient when running on their engines alone than standard Audi 100s with the

same engine.

Two years later, Audi, unveiled the second duo generation, the Audi 100 Duo -

likewise based on the Audi 100 Avant quattro. Once again, this featured an electric

motor, a 21.3 kilowatts (29.0 PS; 28.6 bhp) three-phase machine, driving the rear

road-wheels. This time, however, the rear wheels were additionally powered via the

Torsen centre differential from the main engine compartment, which housed a 2.0

litre four-cylinder engine. [citation needed]

In 1992, Volvo ECC was developed by Volvo. The Volvo ECC was built on the

Volvo 850 platform. In contrast to most production hybrids, which use a gasoline

piston engine to provide additional acceleration and to recharge the battery storage,

the Volvo ECC used a gas turbine engine to drive the generator for recharging.

The Clinton administration initiated the Partnership for a New Generation of

Vehicles (PNGV) program on 29 September 1993, that involved Chrysler, Ford,

General Motors, USCAR, the DoE, and other various governmental agencies to

engineer the next efficient and clean vehicle. The United States National Research

Council (USNRC) cited automakers' moves to produce HEVs as evidence that

technologies developed under PNGV were being rapidly adopted on production

lines, as called for under Goal 2. Based on information received from automakers,

NRC reviewers questioned whether the "Big Three" would be able to move from the

concept phase to cost effective, pre-production prototype vehicles by 2004, as set

out in Goal 3. The program was replaced by the hydrogen-focused Freedom CAR

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initiative by the George W. Bush administration in 2001, an initiative to fund

research too risky for the private sector to engage in, with the long-term goal of

developing effectively carbon emission- and petroleum-free vehicles.

1998 saw the Esparante GTR-Q9 became the first Petrol-Electric Hybrid to race at

Le Mans, although the car failed to qualify for the main event. The car managed to

finished second in class at Petit Le Mans the same year. [7]

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Chapter-10

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF

HEV

10.1 ADVANTAGES

a) Hybrid cars emit up to 90% less toxic emissions and half as much

greenhouse-this causes carbon dioxide as an average car (therefore drivers

would not have to worry about polluting the environment).

b) Hybrids can run on electricity or gas.

c) Less fuel consumption. Current HEVs reduce petroleum consumption under

certain circumstances, compared to otherwise similar conventional vehicles,

primarily by using three mechanisms:

Reducing wasted energy during idle/low output, generally by turning

the ICE off

Recapturing waste energy (i.e. regenerative braking)

Reducing the size and power of the ICE, and hence inefficiencies from

under-utilization, by using the added power from the electric motor to

compensate for the loss in peak power output from the smaller ICE.

Any combination of these three primary hybrid advantages may be

used in different vehicles to realize different fuel usage, power,

emissions, weight and cost profiles. The ICE in an HEV can be

smaller, lighter, and more efficient than the one in a conventional

vehicle, because the combustion engine can be sized for slightly above

average power demand rather than peak power demand. The drive

system in a vehicle is required to operate over a range of speed and

power, but an ICE's highest efficiency is in a narrow range of

operation, making conventional vehicles inefficient. On the contrary,

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in most HEV designs, the ICE operates closer to its range of highest

efficiency more frequently. The power curve of electric motors is

better suited to variable speeds and can provide substantially greater

torque at low speeds compared with internal-combustion engines. The

greater fuel economy of HEVs has implication for reduced petroleum

consumption and vehicle air pollution emissions worldwide.

d) The battery pack of a hybrid vehicle never needs to be charged from an

external source. It’s charged by ICE and by motor from braking system.

e) Hybrids have smaller engines; therefore, they tend to weigh less than non-

hybrids (but this can lead to problems in the future). Since hybrid cars can

run on alternative fuels, this allows us to decrease our dependency on fossil

fuel and enables us to increase fuel options. (hybrids reduce fuel costs). [7]

f) A person who purchases a hybrid car is entitled to a federal tax deduction.

10.2 DISADVANTAGES

a) Hybrids are more expensive than non-hybrids. The cost of HEV is more

because it’s using more parts than non-HEV and these all are costly.

b) It requires more maintenance. It’s using more parts so all require more

maintenance.

c) It has low towing capacity. It’s engine size is small so it’s don’t able to

import and export more things.

d) The parts that make up the hybrid car are more expensive and are more

difficult to acquire for one’s car.

e) Since a hybrid is electrical, Water cannot be used to put out a fire that starts

in the hybrid.

f) Hybrids (in regards to a car accident) have a much higher risk of exploding

(depending on the impact of the vehicle) because it has a combination of

gasoline and ethanol (which are both highly flammable). [7]

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Chapter-11

MODERN HYBRIDS PRODUCTION

11.1 MODERN HYBRID PRODUCTION

Automotive hybrid technology became widespread beginning in the late 1990s. The

first mass-produced hybrid vehicle was the Toyota Prius, launched in Japan in 1997,

and followed by the Honda Insight, launched in 1999 in the United States and Japan.

The Prius was launched in Europe, North America and the rest of the world in 2000.

The first generation Prius sedan has an estimated fuel economy of 52 miles per US

gallon (4.5 L/100 km; 62 mpg-imp) in the city and 45 miles per US gallon (5.2 L/100

km; 54 mpg-imp) in highway driving. The two-door first generation Insight was

estimated at 61 miles per US gallon (3.9 L/100 km; 73 mpg-imp) miles per gallon

in city driving and 68 miles per US gallon (3.5 L/100 km; 82 mpg-imp) on the

highway.

The Toyota Prius sold 300 units in 1997, 19,500 in 2000, and cumulative worldwide

Prius sales reached the 1 million mark in April 2008. By early 2010, the Prius global

cumulative sales were estimated at 1.6 million units. Toyota launched a second

generation Prius in 2004 and a third in 2009. The 2010 Prius has an estimated U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency combined fuel economy cycle of 50 miles per US

gallon (4.7 L/100 km; 60 mpg-imp). [9]

The Audi Duo III was introduced in 1997, based on the Audi B5 A4 Avant, and was

the only Duo to ever make it into series production. The Duo III used the 1.9 litre

Turbocharged Direct Injection (TDI) diesel engine, which was coupled with a 21

kilowatts (29 PS; 28 bhp) electric motor. Unfortunately, due to low demand for this

hybrid because of its high price, only about sixty Audi Duos were produced. Until

the release of the Audi Q7 Hybrid in 2008, the Duo was the only European hybrid

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ever put into production. The Honda Civic Hybrid was introduced in February 2002

as a 2003 model, based on the seventh generation Civic. The 2003 Civic Hybrid

appears identical to the non-hybrid version, but delivers 50 miles per US gallon (4.7

L/100 km; 60 mpg-imp), a 40 percent increase compared to a conventional Civic

LX sedan. Along with the conventional Civic, it received styling update for 2004.

The redesigned 2004 Toyota Prius (second generation) improved passenger room,

cargo area, and power output, while increasing energy efficiency and reducing

emissions. The Honda Insight first generation stopped being produced after 2006

and has a devoted base of owners. A second generation Insight was launched in

2010. In 2004, Honda also released a hybrid version of the Accord but discontinued

it in 2007 citing disappointing sales. [10]

The Ford Escape Hybrid, the first hybrid electric sport utility vehicle (SUV) was

released in 2005. Toyota and Ford entered into a licensing agreement in March 2004

allowing Ford to use 20 patents[citation needed] from Toyota related to hybrid

technology, although Ford's engine was independently designed and built.[citation

needed] In exchange for the hybrid licenses, Ford licensed patents involving their

European diesel engines to Toyota.[citation needed] Toyota announced calendar

year 2005 hybrid electric versions of the Toyota Highlander Hybrid and Lexus RX

400h with 4WD-i, which uses a rear electric motor to power the rear wheels negating

the need for a transfer case. [10]

In 2006, General Motors Saturn Division began to market a mild parallel hybrid in

the form of the 2007 Saturn Vue Green Line which utilized GM's Belted

Alternator/Starter (BAS Hybrid) System combined with a 2.4 litre L4 engine and a

FWD automatic transmission. The same hybrid power-strain was also used to power

the 2008 Saturn Aura Green line and Malibu Hybrid models. As of December 2009,

only the BAS equipped Malibu is still in (limited) production. [10]

In 2007, Lexus released a hybrid electric version of their GS sport sedan, the GS

450h, with a power output of 335 bhp. The 2007 Camry Hybrid became available in

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Summer 2006 in the United States and Canada. Nissan launched the Altima Hybrid

with technology licensed by Toyota in 2007.

Commencing in the fall of 2007 General Motors began to market their 2008 Two-

Mode Hybrid models of their GMT900 based Chevrolet Tahoe and GMC Yukon

SUVs, closely followed by the 2009 Cadillac Escalade Hybrid version. For the 2009

model year, General Motors released the same technology in their half-ton pickup

truck models, the 2009 Chevrolet Silverado and GMC Sierra Two-Mode Hybrid

models.

The Ford Fusion Hybrid officially debuted at the Greater Los Angeles Auto Show

in November 2008, and was launched to the U.S. market in March 2009, together

with the second generation Honda Insight and the Mercury Milan Hybrid.

Fig. 11.1 1997 Toyota Prius (first generation)

Fig. 11.2 2000 Honda Insight (first generation)

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Future works

There are several subjects concerning control of hybrid electric vehicles that are not

dealt with. Some interesting questions to investigate are suggested below.

The control strategy optimizing for ICE efficiency, does not consider the overall

efficiency at all. An interesting study would therefore be to develop an algorithm

that optimizes for the overall efficiency.

The hybrid vehicle in the simulation model is run on diesel fuel, but it would be

interesting to study the efficiency and emission formation with bio fuels, like

Ethanol or DME, when used in a hybrid vehicle.

Cylinder deactivation is used in this study to adapt the ICE power for low power

requirements. Another solution could be using a small ICE that is strongly

overcharged to handle the highest power requirements. The engine could in that case

be provided with an electric turbo charger.

If the unit that distributes the demanded power to the electric machine(s) and the

ICE would be able to predict the driving cycle, new possibilities open up. This would

influence the usage of the batteries, i.e. there is a potential to reduce losses. One

solution is to use a GPS that can predict the route. Another possibility is to use a

control algorithm that by means of the last time period (µs/ms/s/min) can calculate

a forecast of the demanded power.

This study presents a number of different parameters but only a limited number of

possible alternatives and simulations. There are programs available which purpose

is to find an optimized solution in a system containing a number of adjustable

parameters. Such a procedure might be interesting to try out on this simulation

model. All parameters investigated in the previous study (Jonasson, 2002) should

also be included in such optimization.

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When implementing cylinder deactivation, the necessity of a large battery decreases

since the range of load points including high ICE efficiency increases. Therefore, it

would be interesting to carry out further investigations where the battery size is

decreased.

A particular type of electric hybrid vehicles is called plug in-hybrids. The idea is to

mainly utilize the electric machine(s) in these vehicles and mainly charge the battery

from the grid. The ICE is more or less utilized as a range extender. An advantage

with this, which would be interesting to investigate further, is the environmental

potential it implies.

The optimization has not been carried out with intention to choose the best

temperature condition, regarding SCR. This can of course be tried out in further

works.

The received results points at the need of a control algorithm adjusted for hybrid

implementation. It would therefore be valuable to perform measurements on the

engine when the different control algorithms are implemented and adjusted. One

questions to answer is, for example, what happens to the engine while large amount

of EGR is used? How would the hybrid vehicle be affected by changes of the

injection angle and other means of combustion control?

In the model it has been assumed that the included filter for PM is sufficient. It

would be interesting to study this assumption closer, and to investigate the influence

on the filter performance with higher EGR rates.

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CONCLUSION

Means a hybrid vehicle is a vehicle that uses two or more distinct power sources to

move the vehicle. The term most commonly refers to hybrid electric vehicles

(HEVs), which combine an internal combustion engine and one or more electric

motors.

Modern HEVs make use of efficiency-improving technologies such as regenerative

braking, which converts the vehicle's kinetic energy into electric energy to charge

the battery, rather than wasting it as heat energy as conventional brakes do. Some

varieties of HEVs use their internal combustion engine to generate electricity by

spinning an electrical generator (this combination is known as a motor-generator),

to either recharge their batteries or to directly power the electric drive motors. Many

HEVs reduce idle emissions by shutting down the ICE at idle and restarting it when

needed; this is known as a start-stop system. A hybrid-electric produces less

emissions from its ICE than a comparably-sized gasoline car, since an HEV's

gasoline engine is usually smaller than a comparably-sized pure gasoline-burning

vehicle (natural gas and propane fuels produce lower emissions) and if not used to

directly drive the car, can be geared to run at maximum efficiency, further improving

fuel economy.

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REFERENCES

[1] https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_electric_vehicle

[2] http://www.hybridcars.com/history-of-hybrid-vehicles

[3] https://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/hybridtech.shtml

[4] http://www.123seminarsonly.com/Seminar-Reports/007/56069122-Hybrid-

Electric-Vehicle.docx

[5] https://drive.google.com/file/d/0BylKfvgX-GD6RFNWamxCUjI4bWc/view

[6] http://www.123seminarsonly.com/Seminar-Reports/007/7042641-Control-of-

Hybrid-Electric-Vehicles-With-Diesel-Engines.pdf

[7] http://pediain.com/seminar/www.pediain.com-plugin-hybrid-electric-vehicle-

seminar.pdf

[8] https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/007skpk/a-seminar-report-on-hybrid-

electric-vehicle

[9] http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/hybridtech.shtml

[10] http://www.toyota.com/prius/

[11] https://www.google.com/images (All images from Google images)