Electric Double-layer Capacitor - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

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Maxwell Technologies "MC" and

"BC" series supercapacitors (up to

3000 farad capacitance)

Electric double-layer capacitorFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Double-layer capacitor)

Main article: Supercapacitor

Electrical double-layer capacitors (EDLC) are, together with

pseudocapacitors, part of a new type of electrochemical capacitors[1]

called supercapacitors, also known as ultracapacitors. Supercapacitors

do not have a conventional solid dielectric. The capacitance value ofan

electrochemical capacitor is determined by two storage principles:

Double-layer capacitance electrostatic storage of the electrical

energy achieved by separation of charge in a Helmholtz double

layer at the interface between the surface of a conductorelectrode

and an electrolytic solution electrolyte. The separation of charge

distance in a double-layer is on the order ofa few Angstroms

(0.30.8 nm) and is static in origin.[2]Pseudocapacitance Electrochemical storage of the electrical energy, achieved by redox reactions

electrosorption or intercalation on the surface of the electrode by specifically adsorbed ions that results in

a reversible faradaic charge-transfer on the electrode.[2]

Double-layer capacitance and pseudocapacitance both contribute to the total capacitance value of a

supercapacitor.[3] However, the ratio of the two can vary greatly, depending on the design of the electrodes and

the composition of the electrolyte. Pseudocapacitance can increase the capacitance value by as much as an

order of magnitude over that of the double-layer by itself.[1]

Supercapacitors are divided into three families, based on the design of the electrodes:

Double-layer capacitors with carbon electrodes or derivatives with much higher static double-layer

capacitance than the faradaicpseudocapacitance

Pseudocapacitors with electrodes made of metal oxides orconducting polymers with much higher

faradaic pseudocapacitance than the static double-layer capacitance

Hybrid capacitors capacitors with special electrodes that exhibit both significant double-layer

capacitance and pseudocapacitance, such as lithium-ion capacitors

Supercapacitors have the highest available capacitance values per unit volume and the greatest energy density ofall capacitors. They support up to 12,000 F/1.2 V, with capacitance values up to 10,000 times that of

electrolytic capacitors.[1] Supercapacitors bridge the gap between capacitors and rechargeable batteries. In

terms of specific energy, as well as in terms of specific power, this gap covers several orders of magnitude.

However, batteries still have about ten times the capacity of supercapacitors.[4] While existing supercapacitors

have energy densities that are approximately 10% of a conventional battery, their power density is generally 10

to 100 times as great. Power density combines energy density with the speed at which the energy can be

delivered to the load. This makes charge and discharge cycles of supercapacitors much faster than batteries.

Additionally, they will tolerate many more charge and discharge cycles than batteries.

In these electrochemical capacitors, the electrolyte is the conductive connection between the two activeelectrodes. This distinguishes them from electrolytic capacitors, in which the electrolyte is the cathode and thus

forms the second electrode.
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Hierarchical classification of supercapacitors and

related types

Supercapacitors are polarized and must operate with the

correct polarity. Polarity is controlled by design with

asymmetric electrodes, or, for symmetric electrodes, by

a potential applied during manufacture.

Supercapacitors support a broad spectrum of

applications for power and energy requirements,

including:

Long duration low current for memory back up in

(SRAMs)

Power electronics that require very short, high

current, as in the KERS system in Formula 1 cars

Recovery of braking energy in vehicles

Contents

1 Concept

2 History

3 Construction

4 Comparisons

5 Materials

5.1 Research materials

6 Properties

7 Applications

7.1 General automotive7.2 Heavy transport

7.3 Motor racing

7.4 Personal car

7.5 Battery complement

7.6 Low-power applications

8 Market

9 See also

10 References

11 External links

Concept

In a conventional capacitor, energy is stored by moving charge carriers, typically electrons, from one metal plate

to another. This charge separation creates a potential between the two plates, which can be harnessed in an

external circuit. The total energy stored in this fashion increases with both the amount of charge stored and the

potential between the plates. The amount of charge stored per unit voltage is essentially a function of the size, the

distance and the material properties of the plates and the material in between the plates (the dielectric), while thepotential between the plates is limited by the breakdown field strength of the dielectric. The dielectric controls

the capacitor's voltage. Optimizing the material leads to higher energy density for a given size.
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Principle charge storage of different capacitor types and

their inherent voltage progression

The older picture of the comparison of construction

diagrams of three capacitors without pseudocapacitors. Left:

"normal" capacitor, middle: electrolytic, right: electric

double-layer capacitor. Note that despite appearing to be

separated in the image, the carbon "islands" at each electrode

in the rightmost image form a continuously connected foam

in 3D.

EDLCs do not have a conventional dielectric.[citation needed] Instead of two plates separated by an intervening

insulator, these capacitors use virtual plates made of two layers of the same substrate.[citation needed] Their

electrochemical properties, the so-called "electrical double layer", result in the effective separation of charge

despite the vanishingly thin (on the order of nanometers) physical separation of the layers. The lack of need for a

bulky layer of dielectric and the porosity of the material used, permits the packing of plates with much larger

surface area into a given volume, resulting in high capacitances in small packages.

In an electrical double layer, each layer is quite conductive, but the physics at the interface between them meansthat no significant current can flow between the

layers.[citation needed] The double layer can

withstand only a low voltage, which means that

higher voltages are achieved by matched series-

connected individual EDLCs, much like series-

connected cells in higher-voltage batteries.

EDLCs have much higher power density than

batteries.[citation needed] Power density

combines the energy density with the speed atwhich the energy can be delivered to the load.

Batteries, which are based on the movement of

charge carriers in a liquid electrolyte, have [5]

relatively slow charge and discharge times.

Capacitors can be charged or discharged at a

rate that is typically limited by the heat tolerance

of the electrodes.

While existing EDLCs have energy densities that

are perhaps 1/10 that of a conventional battery,theirpowerdensity is generally 10 to 100 times

as great.[citation needed] This makes them most

suited to an intermediary role between

electrochemical batteries and electrostatic

capacitors, where neither sustained energy

release nor immediate power demands

dominate.

HistoryGeneral Electric engineers experimenting with

porous carbon electrodes first observed the

EDLC effect in 1957.[6] They believed that the

energy was stored in the carbon pores and the

device exhibited "exceptionally high

capacitance", although the mechanism was

unknown at that time.

General Electric did not immediately follow up on this work. In 1966 researchers at Standard Oil of Ohiodeveloped the modern version of the device, after they accidentally re-discovered the effect while working on

experimental fuel cell designs.[7] Their cell design used two layers of activated charcoal separated by a thin

porous insulator. This basic mechanical design remains the basis of most electric double-layer capacitors.
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Standard Oil did not commercialize their invention, licensing the technology to NEC, who finally marketed the

results as supercapacitors in 1978, to provide backup power for maintaining computer memory.[7] The

market expanded slowly for a time, but starting around the mid-1990s various advances in materials science and

refinement of existing systems led to rapidly improving performance and rapid cost reduction.

The first trials of supercapacitors in industrial applications supported the energy supply to robots.[citation needed]

In 2005 aerospace systems and controls company Diehl Luftfahrt Elektronik GmbH chose supercapacitors to

power emergency actuation systems for doors and evacuation slides in airliners, including the Airbus 380 jumbo

et.[8] In 2005, the market reached between US $272 million and $400 million.[citation needed]

As of 2007 solid state micrometer-scale electric double-layer capacitors based on advanced superionic

conductors were employed for low-voltage electronics such as deep-sub-voltage nanoelectronics and related

technologies (the 22 nm technological node of CMOS and beyond).[9]

As of 2010 multi-voltage 5.3 W EDLC power supply for medical equipment produced a total of 55 F of

capacitance, charged in about 150 seconds and ran for about 60 seconds. The circuit used switch-mode voltage

regulators followed by linear regulators for clean and stable power, reducing efficiency to about 70%. Thedevelopers recommended a buck-boost best handles the widely varying voltage across an EDLC buck-

boost.[10]

Construction

Styles of supercapacitors with activated carbon electrodes

Schematic construction of a wound

supercapacitor

1.Terminals, 2.Safety vent, 3.Sealing disc,

4.Aluminum can, 5.Positive pole, 6.Separator,

7.Carbon electrode, 8.Collector, 9.Carbon

electrode, 10.Negative pole

Schematic construction of a supercapacitor

with stacked electrodes

1.Positive electrode, 2.Negative electrode,

3.Separator

Each EDLC cell consists of two electrodes, a separator and an electrolyte. The two electrodes are often

electrically connected to their terminals via a metallic collector foil. The electrodes are usually made from

activated carbon since this material is electrically conductive and has a very large surface area to increase the

capacitance. The electrodes are separated by an ion permeable membrane (separator) used as an insulator to

prevent short circuits between the electrodes. This composite is rolled or folded into a cylindrical or rectangular

shape and can be stacked in an aluminium can or a rectangular housing. The cell is typically impregnated with a
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liquid or viscous electrolyte, either organic or aqueous, although some are solid state. The electrolyte depends

on the application, the power requirement or peak current demand, the operating voltage and the allowable

temperature range. The outer housing is hermetically sealed.

Comparisons

Advantages of supercapacitors include:

Long life, with little degradation over hundreds of thousands of charge cycles. Due to the capacitor's high

number of charge-discharge cycles (compared to 200 to 1000 for most rechargeable batteries) it will last

for the entire lifetime of most devices, which makes the device environmentally friendly. Rechargeable

batteries wear out typically over a few years and their highly reactive chemical electrolytes present a

disposal and safety hazard. Battery lifetime can be optimised by charging only under favorable conditions,

at an ideal rate and for some chemistries, as infrequently as possible. EDLCs can help in conjunction with

batteries by acting as a charge conditioner, storing energy from other sources for load balancing purposes

and then using any excess energy to optimally charge batteries.

Low costper cycleGood reversibility

Fast charge and discharge.

Low internal resistanceLow ESR and consequent high cycle efficiency (95% or more)

Low heating levels during charge and discharge

High output power

High specific power/power densityAccording to the Institute of Transportation Studies, the specific

power of electric double-layer capacitors can exceed 6 kW/kg at 95% efficiency.[11]

Improved safetyUses non-corrosive electrolytes and low material toxicity.

Simple charge methodsno danger of overcharging, thus no need for full-charge detection.

In conjunction with rechargeable batteries, some applications use EDLC to supply energy directly,

reducing battery cycling and extending life.

Disadvantages include:

Low energy densityThe amount of energy stored per unit weight is generally lower than that of

electrochemical batteries (3 to 5 Wh/kg, although 85 Wh/kg has been achieved in the lab [12] as of 2010

compared to 30 to 40 Wh/kg for a lead acid battery, 100 to 250 Wh/kg for a lithium-ion battery and

about 0.1% of the volumetric energy density of gasoline).

High dielectric absorptionhighest of any type of capacitor.High self-dischargethe rate is considerably higher than that of an electrochemical battery.

Low maximum voltageseries connections are needed to obtain higher voltages and voltage balancing

may be required.

Rapid voltage dropUnlike batteries, the voltage across any capacitor drops significantly as it

discharges. Effective energy recovery requires complex electronic control and switching equipment, with

consequent energy loss.

Spark hazardLow internal resistance allows extremely rapid discharge when shorted, resulting in a

spark hazard generally much greater than with batteries.

Materials
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Ragone chart showing energy density vs.power density for

various energy-storage devices

In general, EDLCs improve storage density through the use of a nanoporous material, typically activated

charcoal, in place of the conventional insulating

dielectric barrier. Activated charcoal is an

extremely porous, "spongy" form of carbon with

an extraordinarily high specific surface areaa

common approximation is that 1 gram (a pencil-

eraser-sized amount) has a surface area of

roughly 250 square metres (2,700 sq ft)aboutthe size of a tennis court. It is typically a powder

made up of extremely fine but very "rough"

particles, which, in bulk, form a low-density

heap with many holes. As the surface area of

such a material is many times greater than a

traditional material like aluminum, many more

charge carriers (ions or radicals from the

electrolyte) can be stored in a given volume. As

carbon is not a good insulator (vs. the excellent

insulators used in conventional devices), in general EDLCs are limited to low potentials on the order of 2 to 3 Vand thus are "stacked" (connected in series) to supply higher voltages.

Activated charcoal is not the "perfect" material for this application. The charge carriers it provides are far larger

than the holes left in the charcoal, which are too small to accept them, limiting the storage. The mismatch is

exacerbated when the carbon is surrounded by solvent molecules.

As of 2010 virtually all commercial supercapacitors use powdered activated carbon made from coconut

shells.[13] Higher performance devices are available, at a significant cost increase, based on synthetic carbon

precursors that are activated with potassium hydroxide (KOH).

Research materials

Research devices

Material

Energy

density/power

density

Notes

Graphene

85.6 Wh/kg at

room

temperatureand

136 Wh/kg at

80 C at a

current density

of 1 A/g

comparable to

that of nickel

metal hydride

batteries

The device uses curved graphene sheets that do not restack face-to-face. The

curved shape enables the formation of mesopores accessible to and wettable

by environmentally benign ionic liquids capable of operating at a voltage over

4 V. These devices fully use the surface capacitance and specific surface area

of single-layer graphene.[14]

Allow polymer to sit in the tube and act as a dielectric.[15] Carbon nanotubes

can store about the same charge as charcoal (which is almost pure carbon) per

unit surface area, but nanotubes can be arranged in a more regular pattern that
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Carbon

nanotubes?

exposes greater suitable surface area.[16] The high surface area and

conductivity of single-wall carbon nanotubes further increase energy density.[17]

Multi-walled carbon nanotubes have mesopores that allow for easy access of

ions at the electrode/electrolyte interface.[18] Adding multi-walled nanotubes

lowers resistance. Capacitors with multi-walled nanotube fibers had higher

electron and electrolyte-ion conductivities than others. Improved power

density.[19]

Polyacenes

and

conducting

polymers

? redox (reduction-oxidation) storage mechanism along with a high surface area

Tunable

nanoporous

carbon

(carbide-

derivedcarbon)

?

exhibit high surface areas and tunable pore diameters to maximize ion

confinement, increasing specific capacitance and energy densities above those

offered by similar endohedral carbon allotropes. H2 adsorption treatment can

increase energy density by as much as 75% over 2005-era commercial

products.[20][21]

Carbon

aerogel

90 Wh/kg

energy density

and 20 W/g

power density

Gravimetric densities of about 4001000 m/g. Electrodes are a composite

material usually made of non-woven paper made from carbon fibers and coated

with organic aerogel, which then undergoes pyrolysis. The carbon fibers

provide structural integrity and the aerogel provides the surface area. Small

aerogel supercapacitors are used as backup electricity storage in

microelectronics. Aerogel capacitors can only work at a few volts; higher

voltages ionize the carbon and damage the capacitor.[22]

Solid

activated

carbon or

consolidated

amorphous

carbon

(CAC)

? Surface area exceeding 2,800 m2/g[23]

Mineral-

based

carbon

10 Wh/kgenergy density

and 50 kW/kg

power density

of devices

nonactivated carbon, synthesised from metal or metalloid carbides, e.g. SiC,

TiC,Al4C3.[24] The synthesised nanostructured porous carbon, often called

Carbide Derived Carbon (CDC), has a surface area of about400 m2/g to

2,000 m2/g with a specific capacitance of up to100 F/mL (in organic

electrolyte). As of 2006 this material was used in a supercapacitor with a

volume of 135 mL and 200 g weight having 1.6 kF capacitance. [25][26]

Bacitor ?

biodegradable paper battery with aligned carbon nanotubes, designed to

function as both a lithium-ion battery and capacitor. The device employed an

ionic liquid, essentially a liquid salt, as the electrolyte. The paper sheets can be

rolled, twisted, folded, or cut with no loss of integrity or efficiency, or stacked,like ordinary paper (or a voltaic pile), to boost total output. They can be made

in a variety of sizes, from postage stamp to broadsheet. They have light weight

and low cost.[27]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadsheethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postage_stamphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaic_pilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionic_liquidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium-ion_batteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodegradablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Specific_capacitance&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_carbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-AIP-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrolysishttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/coatedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fiberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wovenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite_materialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerogelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-CarbideDerivedCarbons-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allotropehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunable_nanoporous_carbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redoxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conducting_polymershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyacenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-J._Power_Sources-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SWNThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-mit-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_nanotube


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Polypyrrole

and

nanotube-

impregnated

papers.

Research

PropertiesAs of 2011 the capacitance of EDLCs was up to 5 kF and a working voltage of about 5 V. [28]

A typical D-cell-sized conventional electrolytic capacitor may have capacitance of up to tens of millifarads. The

same size EDLC might reach several farads, an improvement of two orders of magnitude. EDLCs maximum

working voltage of a few volts was two orders of magnitude less than standard electrolytics. [28] The amount of

energy stored per unit of mass is called specific energy, which is often measured in watt-hours per kilogram

(Wh/kg) or megajoules per kilogram (MJ/kg). In 2010 the highest available EDLC specific energy was

30 Wh/kg (approximately 0.01 MJ/kg).[29]

The specific energy of existing commercial EDLCs ranges from around 0.5 to 30 Wh/kg[30][31] including lithium

ion capacitors, known also as a "hybrid capacitor". Experimental electric double-layer capacitors demonstrate

specific energies of 30 Wh/kg and scale to at least 136 Wh/kg.[32][33] For comparison, a conventional lead-

acid battery stores typically 30 to 40 Wh/kg and modern lithium-ion batteries about 160 Wh/kg. Gasoline has

a net calorific value (NCV) of around 12,000 Wh/kg; automobiles operate at about 20% tank-to-wheel

efficiency, giving an effective specific energy of 2,400 Wh/kg. Electric automobiles run at a much higher

efficiency. For example, the Tesla Roadster runs at an average battery-to-wheel efficiency of 88%. This is also a

factor to be taken into account when dealing with first approximate comparisons.

Up to 85 Wh/kg has been achieved at room temperature in the lab,[34] which is still lower than rapid-charging

lithium-titanate batteries.[35] As of 2012 commercially available EDLCs typically have mass-to-volume ratio

between 0.33 and 3.89 kg/l.[36]

Research is ongoing to improve performance. For example, an order of magnitude power density improvement

was achieved in the laboratory in mid-2011.[37]

A charged EDLC loses its charge (self-discharge) much faster than a typical electrolytic capacitor and

somewhat faster than a rechargeable battery.

Costs per kilojoule has dropped faster than cost per farad. As of 2006 the cost of supercapacitors was 1 cent

per farad and $2.85 per kilojoule and dropping.[38] In 2001, a 3 kF capacitor cost US$5,000; by 2011, its

cost had dropped to $50.[39]

Applications

General automotive

EDLCs are used in some concept vehicles, to keep batteries within resistive heating limits and extend battery

life.[40][41] An "ultrabattery" combines a supercapacitor and a battery in one unit, creating an electric vehicle

battery that lasts longer, costs less and is more powerful than current plug-in hybrid electric vehicles

(PHEVs).[42][43]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-42http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plug-in_hybridhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-REW1-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US$http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilojoulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium-titanate_batteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-physicsworld.com-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Room_temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla_Roadsterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_automobilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_heating_valuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasolinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead-acid_batteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium_ion_capacitorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-30whkg-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watt-hour_per_kilogramhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-5000f-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faradhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faradhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D_batteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-5000f-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polypyrrole


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Heavy transport

See also: Capa vehicle

Some of the earliest uses of EDLCs were motor startup capacitors for large engines in tanks and submarines

and as the cost has fallen they have started to appear on diesel trucks and railroad locomotives. [44][45] In the

2000s they attracted attention in the electric car industry, where their ability to charge much faster than batteries

makes them particularly suitable for regenerative braking applications. New technology in development couldpotentially make EDLCs with high enough energy density to be an attractive replacement for batteries in all-

electric cars and plug-in hybrids, as EDLCs charge quickly and are stable with respect to

temperature.[citation needed]

China is experimenting with a new form of electric bus (capabus) that runs uses onboard EDLCs, which quickly

recharge whenever the bus is at any bus stop (under so-called electric umbrellas) and fully charge in the

terminus. A few prototypes were tested in Shanghai in early 2005. In 2006, two commercial bus routes

converted, including Route 11 in Shanghai.[46]

In 2001 and 2002 VAG, the public transport operator in Nuremberg, Germany tested a hybrid bus that uses adiesel-electric battery drive system with EDLCs.[47] From 2003 to 2008 Mannheim Stadtbahn in Mannheim,

Germany operated a light-rail vehicle (LRV) using EDLCs for regenerative braking.[48][49] In October 2007

Rhein-Neckar Verkehr in Germany ordered 19 light-rail vehicles (LRVs) equipped with EDLCs to store

braking energy, using Bombardier MITRAC[50] equipment as tested in Mannheim. The tests in Mannheim

showed 30% energy savings.[51] In addition, the EDLCs enabled the LRV's to operate in an area of Heidelberg

without overhead wires. The EDLC equipment cost an additional 270,000 per vehicle, which is expected to be

recovered in the first 15 years of operation. In April 2011 Rhein-Neckar Verkehr ordered 11 more LRVs

equipped with EDLCs.[52]

In 2009 in Paris a light-rail vehicle (LRV) was fitted with a bank of 48 supercapacitors mounted on the roof

both to store braking energy and operate without an overhead line on parts of its route, running on stored energy

between electrified segments and recharging quickly at segments equipped with catenary.[53] In 2012 tram

operator TPG in Geneva began tests of a light-rail vehicle (LRV) equipped with a prototype supercapacitor

mounted on the roof to recover braking energy.[54] In August 2012 the CSR Zhouzhou Electric Locomotive

corporation of China presented a prototype two-car light metro train equipped with a roof-mounted EDLC

providing regenerative braking and the ability to operate without overhead wires while charging at stations.[55]

Other public transport manufacturers are developing EDLC technology, including mobile storage[56] and a

stationary trackside power supply.[57][58] Hong Kong's South Island metro line is to be equipped with two 2MW energy storage EDLC units, which are expected to reduce energy consumption by 10%.[59] Adetel Group

has developed its own energy saver named NeoGreen for LRV and metros [60]

A triple hybrid forklift truck uses fuel cells and batteries as primary energy storage and supplemental EDLCs. [61]

Motor racing

The FIA, the governing body for many motor racing events, proposed in thePower-Train Regulation

Framework for Formula 1 version 1.3 of 23 May 2007 that power train regulations be extended to include ahybrid drive of up to 200 kW input and output power using battery/EDLC hybrids.[62]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-63http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-63http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-62http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_trainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formula_1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-61http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-60http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-59http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-58http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-57http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-56http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-55http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-54http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-rail_vehiclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genevahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-53http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overhead_linehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-rail_vehiclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heidelberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombardier_Transportationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-rail_vehiclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-49http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-48http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-rail_vehiclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel-electric_transmissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_electric_bushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bus_terminushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bus_stophttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_bushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plug-in_hybridhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_electric_vehiclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regenerative_brakinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_carhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locomotiveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tankhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capa_vehicle


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The Toyota TS030 HYBRID LMP1 car uses a hybrid drivetrain with EDLCs.[63] In the 2012 24 Hours of Le

Mans race a TS030 using EDLCs qualified with a fastest lap only 1.055 seconds slower (3:24.842 versus

3:23.787)[64] than the fastest car, an Audi R18 e-tron quattro with flywheel energy storage. The energy storage

devices made the Audi and Toyota hybrids the fastest cars in the race. In the 2012 Le Mans race the two

competing TS030s, one of which was in the lead for part of the race, both retired for reasons unrelated to the

EDLCs. TS030s then won three of the other races in the 8-race 2012 FIA World Endurance Championship

season.

Personal car

The Max Planck Institute claimed that their EDLC prototype offered power density (0.47 kW/kg) and energy

density (300 Wh/kg) greater than many batteries and other EDLCs. [65][66] A 200 kg EDLC in an electric

vehicle, would produce 60 kWh. A car that needed 10-15 kW of power at 100 km/h, would have a theoretical

range of 400600 km assuming 100% efficient usage of the energy and a range of 360540 km at 10%

combined losses in ELDC, power electronics and drive train.

Battery complement

When used in conjunction with rechargeable batteries in uninterruptible power supplies and similar applications,

the EDLC can handle short interruptions, requiring the batteries to be used only during long interruptions,

reducing cycles and extending battery life.[67]

Low-power applications

EDLCs can drive low-power equipment such as PC Cards, photographic flash, flashlights, portable media

players and automated meter reading equipment.[68] They are advantageous when extremely fast charging is

required. In professional medical applications, EDLCs have been used to power a handheld, laser-based breastcancer detector (55 F to provide 5.3 W at multiple voltages) that charges in 150 seconds and runs for 60

seconds).[10]

In 2007 a cordless electric screwdriver that uses an EDLC for energy storage was produced.[69] It charges in

90 seconds, retains 85% of the charge after 3 months and holds enough charge for about half the screws (22) a

comparable screwdriver with a rechargeable battery will handle (37). Two LED flashlights using EDLCs were

released in 2009. They charge in 90 seconds.[70]

Market

According to Innovative Research and Products (iRAP), ultracapacitor market growth will continue during 2009

to 2014. They forecast that worldwide business, over US$275 million in 2009, would continue to grow at an

average annual growth rate of 21.4% through 2014.[71]

See also

Electric vehicle batteryTypes of capacitors

Nanoflower

Rechargeable electricity storage system

Flywheel energy storage
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flywheel_energy_storagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechargeable_electricity_storage_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoflowerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Types_of_capacitorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_vehicle_batteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-71http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-70http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LEDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-69http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_screwdriverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-psu-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-68http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_meter_readinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_media_playerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-powered_equipmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_(photography)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_Cardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-67http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uninterruptible_power_supplieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-66http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-65http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_FIA_World_Endurance_Championship_seasonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audi_R18_e-tron_quattrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-64http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_24_Hours_of_Le_Manshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_note-63http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mans_Prototypehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyota_TS030_HYBRID


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List of emerging technologies

Lithium ion capacitor

Self-powered equipment

Mechanically powered flashlight

Conjugated microporous polymer

References

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6. ^ US 2800616 (http://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2800616), Becker, H.I.,

"Low voltage electrolytic capacitor", issued 1957-07-23

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pg=14&news_id=13&lang=eng&arh=0), 2006.

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13. ^ Laine, Jorge; Simon Yunes (1992). "Effect of the preparation method on the pore size distribution of

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6223%2892%2990178-Y).

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16. ^ Researchers fired up over new battery (http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2006/batteries-0208.html), Deborah

Halber, MIT News Office, 8 February 200617. ^ Arepalli, S.; H. Fireman, C. Huffman, P. Moloney, P. Nikolaev, L. Yowell, C.D. Higgins, K. Kim, P.A. Kohl,

S.P. Turano and W.J. Ready (2005). "Carbon-Nanotube-Based Electrochemical Double-Layer Capacitor

Technologies for Spaceight Applications".JOM: 2431.

18. ^ Du, C. S.; Pan N.J. Power Sources 2006, 160, 14871494

^ " "
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-J._Power_Sources_18-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-17http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2006/batteries-0208.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-mit_16-0http://lees.mit.edu/lees/battery_001.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-MIT_15-0http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fnl102661qhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-14http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2F0008-6223%2892%2990178-Yhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/000862239290178Yhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-13http://nextbigfuture.com/2010/11/graphene-based-supercapacitor-with.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-12http://web.archive.org/web/20081015020637/http://www.apowercap.com/?pg=14&news_id=13&lang=eng&arh=0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-pd_11-0http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.143.2621http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeer#CiteSeerXhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-psu_10-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-psu_10-0http://www.nanometer.ru/2007/10/17/nanoionnie_superkondensatori_4879.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell_Technologieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-8http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/nov07/5636/2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-ieee_7-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-ieee_7-0http://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2800616http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-6http://gigaom.com/cleantech/how-ultracapacitors-work-and-why-they-fall-short/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-5http://144.206.159.178/ft/308/18782/332034.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-K.C3.B6tz_4-0http://144.206.159.178/FT/145/34337/587733.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-Frackowiak1_3-0http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/cempe/subjects_JGZ/eet/Capstone%20thesis_AN.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-Namisnyk_2-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-Namisnyk_2-0http://electrochem.cwru.edu/encycl/art-c03-elchem-cap.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Bookshttp://books.google.com/books?id=8yvzlr9TqI0C&pg=PA1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0306457369http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Bookshttp://books.google.com/books?id=8yvzlr9TqI0C&pg=PA1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-conway1_1-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-conway1_1-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-conway1_1-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugated_microporous_polymerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanically_powered_flashlighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-powered_equipmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium_ion_capacitorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_emerging_technologies


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(http://www.aip.org/tip/INPHFA/vol-10/iss-5/p26.html). The Industrial Physicist(2004)

23. ^ Reticle (http://reticlecarbon.com/) US 6787235 (http://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?

DB=EPODOC&IDX=US6787235)

24. ^ US 6602742 (http://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US6602742) and WO

2005118471 (http://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=WO2005118471)

25. ^ developments in carbide derived carbon

(http://web.archive.org/web/20070730150214/http://www.skeletonnanolab.com/16th_EDLC_presentation_2006

.pdfLatest) (2006)

26. ^ [4] (http://www.skeletontec.com/). Skeleton Technologies, Estonia.

27. ^ batteries: storing power in a sheet of paper (http://news.rpi.edu/update.do?artcenterkey=2280Beyond).

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute press release (13 August 2007)

28. ^a

b

5000F (http://web.archive.org/web/20080419094049/http://www.nesscap.com/products_lineup.htm),Nesscap Products

29. ^ A 30 Wh/kg Supercapacitor for Solar Energy and a New Battery

(http://www.jeol.com/NEWSEVENTS/PressReleases/tabid/521/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/112/A-30-

Whkg-Supercapacitor-for-Solar-Energy-and-a-New-Battery.aspx). Jeol.com (3 October 2007). Retrieved on 13

September 2011.

30. ^ Advanced Capacitor Technologies, Inc. ( ACT ) (http://www.act.jp/eng/index.htm). Act.jp. Retrieved on 13

September 2011.

31. ^ Ultracapacitor Google Video une vido Techniek en wetenschap

(http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x65xr6_ultracapacitor-google-nbspvideo_tech). Dailymotion. Retrieved on

13 September 2011.

32. ^ Liu, Chenguang; Yu, Zhenning; Neff, David; Zhamu, Aruna; Jang, Bor Z. (2010). "Graphene-BasedSupercapacitor with an Ultrahigh Energy Density". Nano Letters10 (12): 4863. doi:10.1021/nl102661q

(http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fnl102661q).

33. ^ Carbon Nanotube Enhanced Ultracapacitors, MIT LEES ultracapacitor project

34. ^ Graphene supercapacitor breaks storage record (http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/44477).

physicsworld.com. Retrieved on 13 September 2011.

35. ^ Note: all references to batteries in this article should be taken to refer to rechargeable, not primary (aka

disposable), batteries.

36. ^ "Super Capacitor Products" (http://www.illinoiscapacitor.com/ic_search/_super_products.aspx).

Illinoiscapacitor.com. Retrieved 2013-03-14.

37. ^ Chemistry World: New carbon material boosts supercapacitors(http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/News/2011/May/13051102.asp). Rsc.org. 13 May 2011. Retrieved on 13

September 2011.

38. ^ Supercapacitors see growth as costs fall

(http://www.electronicsweekly.com/Articles/2006/03/03/37810/Supercapacitors-see-growth-as-costs-fall.htm).

Electronics Weekly. 3 March 2006. Retrieved on 13 September 2011.

39. ^ Advent of Ultracapacitors Signals Change in Wind Turbine Capabilities

(http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2011/03/advent-of-ultracapacitors-signals-change-in-

wind-turbine-capabilities). renewableenergyworld.com. March 2011. Retrieved on 13 September 2011.

40. ^ AFS Trinity Wald, Matthew L. (13 January 2008). "Closing the Power Gap Between a Hybrid's Supply and

Demand" (http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/13/automobiles/13ULTRA.html). The New York Times. Retrieved

1 May 2010.41. ^ AFS TRINITY UNVEILS 150 MPG EXTREME HYBRID (XH) SUV (http://www.afstrinity.net/afstrinity-

xh150-pressrelease.pdf). (PDF) . AFS Trinity Power Corporation. 13 January 2008. Retrieved on 13

September 2011.

42. ^ http://www.csiro.au/science/Ultra-Battery.html. Missing or empty |title= (help)

^ " "
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/technologies/energy_storage/ultracapacitors.htmlhttp://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/technologies/energy_storage/ultracapacitors.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#citation_missing_titlehttp://www.csiro.au/science/Ultra-Battery.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-42http://www.afstrinity.net/afstrinity-xh150-pressrelease.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-41http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/13/automobiles/13ULTRA.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AFS_Trinityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-40http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2011/03/advent-of-ultracapacitors-signals-change-in-wind-turbine-capabilitieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-REW1_39-0http://www.electronicsweekly.com/Articles/2006/03/03/37810/Supercapacitors-see-growth-as-costs-fall.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-38http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/News/2011/May/13051102.asphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-37http://www.illinoiscapacitor.com/ic_search/_super_products.aspxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-35http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/44477http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-physicsworld.com_34-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-33http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fnl102661qhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-32http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x65xr6_ultracapacitor-google-nbspvideo_techhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-31http://www.act.jp/eng/index.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-30http://www.jeol.com/NEWSEVENTS/PressReleases/tabid/521/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/112/A-30-Whkg-Supercapacitor-for-Solar-Energy-and-a-New-Battery.aspxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-30whkg_29-0http://web.archive.org/web/20080419094049/http://www.nesscap.com/products_lineup.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-5000f_28-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-5000f_28-0http://news.rpi.edu/update.do?artcenterkey=2280Beyondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-27http://www.skeletontec.com/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-26http://web.archive.org/web/20070730150214/http://www.skeletonnanolab.com/16th_EDLC_presentation_2006.pdfLatesthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-25http://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=WO2005118471http://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US6602742http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-24http://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US6787235http://reticlecarbon.com/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-23http://www.aip.org/tip/INPHFA/vol-10/iss-5/p26.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-AIP_22-0http://www.y-carbon.us/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-CarbideDerivedCarbons_20-0http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20839769http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fcr9003314http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-19


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.

(http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/technologies/energy_storage/ultracapacitors.html). Office of

Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. 15 April 2009. Retrieved 10 January 2011. "Many applications can

benefit from ultracapacitors, especially HEVs and PHEVs. Ultracapacitors can be the primary energy source

during acceleration and hill climbing, as well as for recovery of braking energy because they are excellent at

providing quick bursts of energy."

44. ^ Supercapacitors (http://www.eere.energy.gov/de/supercapacitors.html), US DoE overview

45. ^ "Ultracapacitors"

(http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/technologies/energy_storage/ultracapacitors.html). Office of

Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. 15 April 2009. Retrieved 10 January 2011. "Using an ultracapacitorin conjunction with a battery combines the power performance of the former with the greater energy storage

capability of the latter. It can extend the life of a battery, save on replacement and maintenance costs and enable

a battery to be downsized."

46. ^ [5]

(http://web.archive.org/web/20070105022719/http://www.52bus.com/article/special/200608/special_6.html) (in

Chinese, archived page)

47. ^ VAG Verkehrs-AG Nrnberg (http://en.vag.de/barrierefrei.php?pid=102). En.vag.de. Retrieved on 13

September 2011.

48. ^ UltraCaps win out in energy storage

(http://www.railwaygazette.com/news_view/article/2006/07/4432/ultracaps_win_out_in_energy_storage-

1.html). Richard Hope, Railway Gazette InternationalJuly 2006

49. ^ M. Steiner. MITRAC Energy Saver (http://www.allianz-pro-schiene.de/veranstaltungen/2006/workshop-

verbesserung-der-umweltwirkungen-des-eisenbahnverkehrs/praesentation-kehl.pdf). Bombardier presentation

(2006).

50. ^ Bombardier MITRAC Energy Saver,

http://www.bombardier.com/files/en/supporting_docs/Mitrac_Energy_Saver.pdf

51. ^ Super cap tests complete, http://www.railwaygazette.com/nc/news/single-view/view/supercap-tests-

complete.htmlRailway Gazette International, 18 May 2008

52. ^ Rhein Neckar Verkehr orders more supercapacitor trams, http://www.railwaygazette.com/nc/news/single-

view/view/rhein-neckar-verkehr-orders-more-supercapacitor-trams.htmlRailway Gazette International, April

201153. ^ 'Supercapacitors to be tested on Paris STEEM tram,'http://www.railwaygazette.com/nc/news/single-

view/view/supercapacitors-to-be-tested-on-paris-steem-tram.htmlRailway Gazette International, July 2009

54. ^ 'Geneve tram trial assesses supercapacitor performance,' Railway Gazette International, 7 August 2012,

http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/industry-technology/single-view/view/geneve-tram-trial-assesses-

supercapacitor-performance.html

55. ^ 'Supercapacitor light metro train unveiled, Railway Gazette International, 23 August 2012,

http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/single-view/view/supercapacitor-light-metro-train-unveiled.html

56. ^ The Transportation Systems division of Siemens AG is developing mobile energy storage called Sibac Energy

Storage Siemens AG Sibac ES

(http://www.transportation.siemens.com/ts/en/pub/products/green_mobility/our_solutions/on_a_roll/sibac.htm)

Sibac ES Product Page (as of November 2007)57. ^ Sitras SES Sitras SES

(http://www.transportation.siemens.com/ts/en/pub/products/green_mobility/our_solutions/for_the_net/sitras.ht

m) Sitras SES Product Page (as of November 2007)

58. ^ Cegelec a.s. | Electrical equipment for municipal mass transit | utilization of regenerated energy | transport

(http://www.cegelec.cz/20-zarizeni-na-vyuziti-rekuperovane-energie.html). Cegelec.cz. Retrieved on 13

September 2011.

59. ^ 'Supercapacitor Energy Storage for South Island line,' Railway Gazette International, August 3,

2012,http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/single-view/view/supercapacitor-energy-storage-for-south-island-

line.html

60. ^ http://www.adetelgroup.com/library/fiches-produits/4-NEO_GREEN_POWER.pdf

61. ^ Proton Power Systems Unveils the Worlds First Triple-hybrid Forklift Truck.

(http://web.archive.org/web/20080521204639/http://www.fuelcellsworks.com/Supppage7867.html) Fuel Cell

Works press release (2007).

62. ^ Formula One 2011: Power-Train Regulation Framework

(http://paddocktalk.com/news/html/modules/ew_filemanager/07images/f1/fia/332668895__2011_Power_Train_
http://paddocktalk.com/news/html/modules/ew_filemanager/07images/f1/fia/332668895__2011_Power_Train_Regulation_Framework.pdfhttp://paddocktalk.com/news/html/modules/ew_filemanager/07images/f1/fia/332668895__2011_Power_Train_Regulation_Framework.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-62http://web.archive.org/web/20080521204639/http://www.fuelcellsworks.com/Supppage7867.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-61http://www.adetelgroup.com/library/fiches-produits/4-NEO_GREEN_POWER.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-60http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/single-view/view/supercapacitor-energy-storage-for-south-island-line.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-59http://www.cegelec.cz/20-zarizeni-na-vyuziti-rekuperovane-energie.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-58http://www.transportation.siemens.com/ts/en/pub/products/green_mobility/our_solutions/for_the_net/sitras.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-57http://www.transportation.siemens.com/ts/en/pub/products/green_mobility/our_solutions/on_a_roll/sibac.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siemens_AGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-56http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/single-view/view/supercapacitor-light-metro-train-unveiled.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-55http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/industry-technology/single-view/view/geneve-tram-trial-assesses-supercapacitor-performance.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-54http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway_Gazette_Internationalhttp://www.railwaygazette.com/nc/news/single-view/view/supercapacitors-to-be-tested-on-paris-steem-tram.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-53http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway_Gazette_Internationalhttp://www.railwaygazette.com/nc/news/single-view/view/rhein-neckar-verkehr-orders-more-supercapacitor-trams.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway_Gazette_Internationalhttp://www.railwaygazette.com/nc/news/single-view/view/supercap-tests-complete.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-51http://www.bombardier.com/files/en/supporting_docs/Mitrac_Energy_Saver.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-50http://www.allianz-pro-schiene.de/veranstaltungen/2006/workshop-verbesserung-der-umweltwirkungen-des-eisenbahnverkehrs/praesentation-kehl.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-49http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway_Gazette_Internationalhttp://www.railwaygazette.com/news_view/article/2006/07/4432/ultracaps_win_out_in_energy_storage-1.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-48http://en.vag.de/barrierefrei.php?pid=102http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-47http://web.archive.org/web/20070105022719/http://www.52bus.com/article/special/200608/special_6.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_Energy_Efficiency_and_Renewable_Energyhttp://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/technologies/energy_storage/ultracapacitors.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-45http://www.eere.energy.gov/de/supercapacitors.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_Energy_Efficiency_and_Renewable_Energyhttp://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/technologies/energy_storage/ultracapacitors.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-43


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Regulation_Framework.pdf). (PDF) . 24 May 2007. Retrieved on 13 September 2011.

63. ^ Racecar Engineering: Toyota TS030 LMP1 Hybrid revealed (http://www.racecar-

engineering.com/news/toyota-ts030-lmp1-hybrid-revealed/). (HTML). 24 January 2012. Retrieved on 24

January 2012.

64. ^ TOYOTA Racing Impresses in Le Mans Qualifying, http://www.toyotahybridracing.com/toyota-racing-

impresses-in-le-mans-qualifying/?myvar=News

65. ^ Parrish, Alton (2010-01-18). "Ideas, Inventions And Innovations: Polyaniline Nanoporous Carbon Electrode

Materials Yield Most Powerful Supercapacitors to Date Say Max Planck Researchers"

(http://nanopatentsandinnovations.blogspot.se/2010/01/polyaniline-nanoporous-carbon-electrode.html).Nanopatentsandinnovations.blogspot.se. Retrieved 2013-03-14.

66. ^ "United States Patent Application: 0100008021" (http://appft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?

Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PG01&p=1&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsrchnum.html&r=1&f=G&l=50

&s1=%2220100008021%22.PGNR.&OS=DN/20100008021&RS=DN/20100008021). Appft1.uspto.gov.

Retrieved 2013-03-14.

67. ^ Using SuperCapacitors for Energy Storage, 2010 (http://www.discoversolarenergy.com/storage/super-

caps.htm). discoversolarenergy.com. Retrieved on 13 September 2011.

68. ^ Graham Pitcher If the cap fits .. (http://fplreflib.findlay.co.uk/articles/6610/if-the-cap-fits.pdf). New

Electronics. 26 March 2006

69. ^ Coleman FlashCell Cordless Screwdriver (http://www.ohgizmo.com/2007/10/01/coleman-flashcell-cordless-

screwdriver-recharges-in-just-90-seconds/). Ohgizmo.com (1 October 2007). Retrieved on 13 September2011.

70. ^ Ultracapacitor LED Flashlight Charges In 90 Seconds (http://tech.slashdot.org/article.pl?

sid=08/12/10/1821208)

71. ^ Ultracapacitors For Stationary, Industrial, Consumer And Transport Energy Storage An Industry,

Technology And Market Analysis (http://www.innoresearch.net/report_summary.aspx?

id=71&pg=171&rcd=ET-111&pd=2/1/2010)

External links

Super Capacitor Seminar (http://www.supercapseminar.com/)

Article on ultracapacitors at electronicdesign.com (http://electronicdesign.com/Articles/Index.cfm?

AD=1&AD=1&ArticleID=17465)

Article on ultracapacitors at batteryuniversity.com (http://www.batteryuniversity.com/partone-8.htm)

A new version of an old idea is threatening the battery industry

(http://www.economist.com/science/displaystory.cfm?story_id=10601407) (The Economist).

An Encyclopedia Article (http://electrochem.cwru.edu/encycl/art-c03-elchem-cap.htm) From the Yeager

center at CWRU.

Ultracapacitors & Supercapacitors Forum (http://www.ultracapacitors.org/)

Special Issue of Interface magazine on electrochemical capacitors

(http://www.electrochem.org/dl/interface/spr/spr08/if_spr08.htm)

Nanoflowers Improve Ultracapacitors: A novel design could boost energy storage

(http://www.technologyreview.com/Energy/21375/?a=f) (Technology Review) and Can nanoscopic

meadows drive electric cars forward? (http://technology.newscientist.com/article/dn14753) (New

Scientist)

If the cap fits... How supercapacitors can help to solve power problems in portable products

(http://fplreflib.findlay.co.uk/articles/6610/if-the-cap-fits.pdf).

A web that describes the development of solid-state and hybrid supercapacitors from CNR-ITAE

(Messina) Italy (http://www.nanocapacitors.altervista.org/)

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electric_double-layer_capacitor&oldid=563550157"

Categories: Capacitors Emerging technologies Energy conversion
http://paddocktalk.com/news/html/modules/ew_filemanager/07images/f1/fia/332668895__2011_Power_Train_Regulation_Framework.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Categoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electric_double-layer_capacitor&oldid=563550157http://www.nanocapacitors.altervista.org/http://fplreflib.findlay.co.uk/articles/6610/if-the-cap-fits.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Scientisthttp://technology.newscientist.com/article/dn14753http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_Reviewhttp://www.technologyreview.com/Energy/21375/?a=fhttp://www.electrochem.org/dl/interface/spr/spr08/if_spr08.htmhttp://www.ultracapacitors.org/http://electrochem.cwru.edu/encycl/art-c03-elchem-cap.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Economisthttp://www.economist.com/science/displaystory.cfm?story_id=10601407http://www.batteryuniversity.com/partone-8.htmhttp://electronicdesign.com/Articles/Index.cfm?AD=1&AD=1&ArticleID=17465http://www.supercapseminar.com/http://www.innoresearch.net/report_summary.aspx?id=71&pg=171&rcd=ET-111&pd=2/1/2010http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-71http://tech.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=08/12/10/1821208http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-70http://www.ohgizmo.com/2007/10/01/coleman-flashcell-cordless-screwdriver-recharges-in-just-90-seconds/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-69http://fplreflib.findlay.co.uk/articles/6610/if-the-cap-fits.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-68http://www.discoversolarenergy.com/storage/super-caps.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-67http://appft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PG01&p=1&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsrchnum.html&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=%2220100008021%22.PGNR.&OS=DN/20100008021&RS=DN/20100008021http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-66http://nanopatentsandinnovations.blogspot.se/2010/01/polyaniline-nanoporous-carbon-electrode.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-65http://www.toyotahybridracing.com/toyota-racing-impresses-in-le-mans-qualifying/?myvar=Newshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-64http://www.racecar-engineering.com/news/toyota-ts030-lmp1-hybrid-revealed/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-layer_capacitor#cite_ref-63http://paddocktalk.com/news/html/modules/ew_filemanager/07images/f1/fia/332668895__2011_Power_Train_Regulation_Framework.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Energy_conversionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Emerging_technologieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Capacitors


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