Eighth World ISUD

“He”(Harmony) in Daoism: An Inspiration to Ecological Ethics

Liu-yan & Chen-xia

Abstract: In this Essay we shall focus on the concept of

“He”(Harmony)in Daoism, and its particular inspiration to the modern ecological ethics. “he” originally means “tone”(diao) in music which coordinates different sounds into mellifluous melodies, or refers to a state of all beings growing spontaneously according to their own nature. “he” is later viewed as harmonious relationship between Heaven, Earth and humanity. In Daoism, Dao creates Primordial Energies (yuanqi) from nothing, which brings out yin and yang; all oppositions and discrepancies are merged into one organic whole through the interacting and balancing between yin and yang which is also essential for human beings to grow in accordance with their makeup. Daoism’s stress on “oneness of man and heaven”, “valuing life”, “nourishing all the myriad beings”, “action as non-action” and “inherited Guilt” (chengfu)etc, are all important ways to reach harmony between natural world, humanity and society. Imbalance between yin and yang, disorder between heaven and earth, or separation of the body from the mind may lead to calamities, social disorders, poverty, diseases and pollution, etc. Thus, the concept of “he” can be very conducive and inspiring today because it contains a brilliant wisdom on ecology ---it regards nature, individuals and society as one dynamic, interactive organism, and shows the way to convert ourselves, construct harmony with Heaven and Earth and bring back a peaceful and wholesome millennium. Under the circumstances of globalization, studies of Daoism and ecological ethics need to start off from the local, endow Daoism with vitality by means of comprehensive creation, and enhance Daoism to be modernized and universalized, so it can play its role in protecting biodiversity and cultural pluralism.

On the grand opening ceremony of Beijing Olympics, 2008, audiences from all over the world were impressed by an enthralling part in which 2008 pieces of Chinese characters were magically swindling and switching, finally putting on a huge “he” in both simple and ancient styles of Chinese character. Apparently, Zhang Yimou, chief director of the opening ceremony intended to present to the whole world the core idea of Chinese culture. And, he succeeded, the splendid scene has engraved the simple but sagacious word “he” in the mind of the people from all the countries and has publicized an important approach for human being to adjust themselves in nature, society as well as in their future life.

In Chinese, “he” originally means “tone”(diao) in music which coordinates different sounds into mellifluous melodies, or refers to a natural state of all beings growing spontaneously according to their own nature. “he” was later viewed as harmonious relationship among Heaven, Earth and humanity. And this thesis is to illustrate the concept of “He”(Harmony)in Daoism, and its particular inspiration to the modern ecological ethics.

In Daoism, Dao creates Primordial Energies (yuanqi) from nothing, which brings out yin and yang, and all oppositions and discrepancies are merged into one organic whole through the interacting and balancing between yin and yang. Daoism’s stress on “oneness of man and heaven”, “valuing life”, “nourishing all the myriad beings”, “inherited Guilt” (chengfu),and “action as non-action”, etc, are all important ways to reach harmony between natural world, humanity and society. Imbalance between yin and yang, disorder between heaven and earth, or separation of the body from the mind may lead to calamities, social disorders, poverty, diseases and pollution, etc.

Apparently, “he”(Harmony) in Daoism shares with the contemporary eco-studies the concerns to enhance a positive relationship between human and nature. Contrary to the rapid growth of modern economy and unconscionable exploitation of natural resources promoted by modern industry, “he” in Daoism creates a set of eco-ethics which appeals to human’s responsibilities to breed and take care of all kinds of creatures and bring about eco-nature, eco-mind as well as a peaceful community. In the entry on Daoism in the edition of the Encyclopedia of Bioethics, we note that Daoism express “a universalistic ethic that extended the scope of all humanity, to the wider domain of all living things.”“Daoist conceptions on history, humanity and cosmos also undercut some of the paternalistic tendencies so common in other traditions…. Our lives are to mirror the operation of the Dao, which contrasts markedly with Western images of God as creator, father, ruler, or judge.” In short, the “he”(Harmony) in Daoism lays down an explicit and important ecological ethics rule that may serve as a valuable inspiration for the construction of modern ecological ethics as well as the global theories and undertakings of Green Politics.

Ⅰ. Mingling and Balancing Yin and Yang-- Basic principle for myriad things

In the ancient book of Shuowen Jiezi ( To explain words and characters, the earliest dictionary of China in the 2nd century AD), “he ”was annotated as: “It means tone, follows the two words ‘龠’and ‘禾’, and is written as ‘和’ for short in most classic books”. According to this,“龢” (“he”) has two parts, the part of “龠”(“yue”) represents its meaning and shape---a kind of three-hole bamboo pipe which is usually played in coordination with other instruments, and the other part indicates that it has the same pronunciation as “禾” “he”，and is often used as a substitution for the character “和” which has the same meaning and pronunciation. Thus the original meaning of “he” is related to tone, indicating coordination, harmony and balance, etc.

Thus, tones from different instruments ought to be coordinated with each other in order to produce a mellifluent piece of music；And noticeably, this implication has been preserved in most Chinese expressions made up of the word “he”. For instance:1) To express the beauty of music or the concord between different items, there are “hesheng”(symphony), “hele”(happy and harmonious), “hehe”(concord), “hexie”(harmony),”hemei”(harmonious and happy, “heqia”(on friendly terms); 2)To refer to solutions to conflicts or a state including no war, there are “heping ”(peace), “hejie”(to be reconciled), “hehui”(peace conference), “hehuan”(to ease up), “hehao”(to restore good relations), “heyi”(peace talks), “heyue”(peace treaty), “heqin”(the policy of cementing friendly relations through political marriages), “jianghe”(to become reconciled); 3) To indicate agreeable state of people’s disposition, tone of speech, mood or personal relationships, there are “pinghe”(composed and gentle), “he’ai”(affable, amiable), “heshan”(kind and gentle, genial), “heqi”(friendly and amiable), “heyue”(affable and pleasant), “hemu”(harmony), “heshun”(gentle and amiable), “heyi”(unassuming and amiable), “yonghe”(stately, dignified and amiable); 4)To describe pleasant weather or feelings there are “wenhe”(mild, temperate and moderate), “henuan”(warm and mild), “hechang”(gentle and pleasant), “hexu”(pleasantly warm, genial), “hefeng”(soft breeze), “xianghe”(auspicious and peaceful).

Apart from the above, many idioms contain “he”, for instance, “heguang tongchen”(Daode jing·chapter56, the way softens the glare, and mixes with the dust), “hefeng xiyu”(in a gentle and mild way), “heyan yuese”(be all smiles and sweetness), “hezhong gongji” (to work together with one accord in time of difficulties), “he’er butong”(harmony in difference), “hepan tuochu”(to lay all the cards on the table), “yituan heqi”(to keep on the right side of everyone), “fanzhan shanghe”(to oppose war and advocate accord) and “heping gongchu”(peaceful coexistence),etc.; There are also verbs in which “he” ought to be pronounced in the fourth tone, “heshi”(to chime in with a poem), “qugao hegua”(of a song to be too highbrow to be popular), “yichang baihe’(when one starts singing, the others join in); What’s more, there have been popular sayings in Chinese such as “heweigui”(Harmony is gold.), “jiahe wanshi xing”(A harmonious family can succeed in everything.) and “heqi shengcai”(Wealth can be brought about by amiability). In a word, “he” is a utopian word which pursues balance, ideal and perfection, and in ancient China, people also used to name their utopian state with “he” like in “baohedian”(Palace of Reassured Harmony) and “taihedian”(Palace of Extreme Harmony), and “yonghegong”, the well known Lama Temple in Beijing, which means Palace of Stately Harmony.

So “he”(Harmony) in Daoism is indubitably one of the key words in Chinese traditional ideals, closely related to terms like “Dao”, “qi”, “yin and yang”, and “xie”. The origin of Heaven and Earth is accounted for in terms of the two forces of yin and yang, the two essential aspects of the Primordial Energies (yuanqi), also out of which all beings are formed. So harmony among myriad things is realized through the rotation, coordination and balancing between yin and yang. Harmony between Heaven and Earth is the essential factor for the nature to grow spontaneously and ecologically, as was demonstrated in most classic books:

The Dao produces the One. The One turns into the Two. The Two gave rise to the Three. The Three brings forth the myriad of things. The myriad things contain yin and yang as vital forces, which achieve harmony through their interactions. (Daode jing, Chapter42)

Thus it is said, “Dao begins with One”. One (alone) However, does not give birth. Therefore it divided into yin and yang. From the harmonious union of yin and yang, the myriad things were produced. (Huainanzi, chapter13)

“The union of yin and yang will give rise to the birth and harmony of myriad things.”(Li ji)

Evidently, the concept of “he” herein，basically refers to two things: the harmonious union of Heaven, Earth and men, and the principle of the spontaneous growth of myriad things in the world. That is to say, harmony and spontaneity are two core parts in “he” -- through the fluxing and balancing interactions of “qi” from the two poles of yin and yang, myriad things can be circulated in harmony and immorality. And this represents the unique way that the Chinese treat nature, life and the order of cosmos. With this belief, Daoism regards the very harmony between yin and yang as an attainable perfection, applies it to the interpretation of ideal order in nature, life and society, and extends it to the government of a nation:

“The essence and harmony as such are natural and constant. To know this is called wise.”

“Blunts its sharpness, unties the tangles, softens the glare, and mixes with the dust.”(DaodeJing, Chapter 55,56)

“To unite the kingdoms, to lead government officers, and to harmonize the common people. ”(Zhouli)

“For Heaven and Earth to unite harmoniously is the great principle of life.”(Lu shi chunqiu)

“As for the qi of Heave and Earth, nothing is greater than its harmony (He). As for harmony, by it yin and yang are regulated, day and night distinguished, (and so) it produces beings.”(Huainanzi, chapter13)

“As for the yin and yang, the yin and yang essential in the Central Harmony. When the qi of Central Harmony gains, the ten thousand beings will flourish; people will live harmoniously and the rule of the sovereign will bring peace.” (Taiping jing)

Confucianism regards “he” with no less significance. The following is from the first chapter of Zhongyong:

“Before the feelings of pleasure, anger, sorrow, and joy are aroused it is called equilibrium(zhong, centrality, mean) ，when these feelings are aroused and each and all attain due measure and degree, it is called harmony. Equilibrium is the great foundation of the world, and harmony its universal path. When equilibrium and harmony are realized to the highest degree, heaven and earth will attain their proper order and all things will flourish.”

Thus, in both Daoism and Confucianism, “Balance of yin and yang” and “Central Harmony” are described as sacramental display of supreme order and interactions among Heaven, Earth and Human beings. However, they are displayed with reciprocal emphasis. “Centrality” in Confucianism is interpreting an experiential modification of people’s disposition, while in Daoism it deals with how to harmonize the qi of Heaven and Earth, emphasizing the union of yin and yang. Nevertheless，the two schools both contend that Heaven, Earth and human are one organic whole. On the one hand, the harmony between them insure the spontaneous growth of myriad things as well as the advent of the era of Great Peace; On the other hand, if any of the components--- Heaven, Earth and human is out of function, their communication and harmony will be reduced to disorder and result in natural disasters or social turbulence. Thus, in Chinese notions, “he”(Harmony) is a central element to the harmonization of Heaven and Earth, yin and yang:

As for the laws of qi, it circulates under Heaven and above Earth; if yin and yang obtain each other, mingling and attaining harmony, they unite as three with the qi of Central Harmony, together nurturing all things. If the three qi cherish each other and mutually communicated, there will no longer be any harm. (Taiping jing)

According to Taiping jing, “What is pure adheres to Heaven, what is turbid adheres to Earth, and the Central Harmony adheres to humanity.” Human stand in the central position of cosmic organism and therefore are uniquely designed to protect, pass and refresh the qi of Central Harmony and maintain the harmony of cosmic and the spontaneity in which the myriad things will healthily grow. Humans never stand isolated from nature, and it is each person’s obligation to limit the over-growth of their self-consciousness and protect the spontaneity of the environment.

Unfortunately, the golden ages marked by harmony between Heaven, Earth and human that might have been existing during the ancient times, some time close to the age of Eden recorded in the Bible, was interrupted, due to the accumulation of human’s wrong doings. As said in the Taiping jing, “When the order is destroyed, not only the king is the culprit, but all the people under heaven are guilty; The sin can be passed down to later generations and gradually accumulate. All the guilt is due to people performing astray from Dao.”

The Doctrines of Inherited Guilt (chengfu), transposing cosmological language into ethical reasoning, explains reasons for human diseases, sorrows, natural disasters and social calamities, alleging that all these are due to the accumulation of people’s deeds. That is to say, people are given life by Heaven and are reared by Earth, if they become unscrupulous and unconscionable, Heaven and Earth shall grieve over their ailments, and thus produce strange phenomena to punish their children; And yet, by the same token, if people perform friendly to their surroundings, blessings and happiness will be granted to them or their next generations. In a word, crucial factors for the relations between human and nature are spiritual and ethical, human is responsible for either deterioration or harmonization of the environment. The doctrines of Inherited guilt cautions us to take measures to lead an ecological life so that a sustainable living space can be handed over to our offspring.

Ⅱ.Oneness of Heaven and Earth--- human’s function to assist the growth of nature

The inland geographical circumstances and the autarkic agricultural economy have long nurtured the Chinese notion of Oneness of man and heaven. Both traditional Daoists and Confucians believe that humans are generally inferior to Earth and Heaven---symbols of the natural world and the universe. This is opposed to the Western tradition that humankind should conquer nature. Tang Tong, a British scholar expressed his fascination on the Chinese tradition, “The Chinese tradition is remarkably different. People never go out their way to conquer the nature, nor do they try to know about nature by means of critical analysis, instead, they aim to reach and maintain accord and harmony with the nature. Their scholars pay significant attention to the kind of wisdom which takes the subject and object into one unity and guides the coordination between human and nature. The Chinese tradition is entirety and humanistic; it denies the separation of science from aesthetics and ethics, sense from kindness and beauty.”

But as was mentioned before, the doctrines of Daoism and Confucianism differ in their emphasis on the tradition of “he”: Confucianism attaches importance to the moral properties of Heaven and makes all its effort to modify Heaven in a social, political and ethical way, and the legitimacy of certain ethical rules is, in its turn, measured according the model of Heaven; whereas Daoism thinks much of the natural aspects and tends to explore life in terms of human-nature relationship. According to Laozi, Dao is the essence of universe:

Man follows the way of Earth. Earth follows the way of Heaven. Heaven follows the way of the Dao. And the Dao follows the way of spontaneity (ziran). (Daode jing, chapter25)

The key point is in the last sentence:“the Dao follows the way of spontaneity (ziran).” Daode jing regards spontaneity as the core part in the chain of Humankind, Earth, Heaven, the Dao and ziran, all following the principle of spontaneity. Here, spontaneity (Ziran) indicates the state, also the basic fundamental of harmony in human societies and in the whole universe, which envisions an ecological environment for us modern people. In so far as Daoism has so much sanctified the harmony between human and nature, it constitutes a unique scene among the global philosophies and religions.

Daoism, drawing an analogy between Heaven and men, contends that men and the Heaven share identical physical and mental structures, which initiated the theory of Heaven-human Correspondence. Here, Heaven is both in nature and in spirit, thus the correspondence takes place both between human and nature, and human and the gods. According to this correspondence, people and nature can know about themselves by observing each other, just as the Taiping jing said,“ Human can draw images from the Heaven, and Heaven can draw images from human.” So, people’s benignity is responded with kindness by the Heaven, while their wrongdoings are responded by the Heaven with vice as well.

To some extent, the theory of Heaven-human Correspondence is congenial with the theory of Holographic Cosmos of the modern science. According to Holographic Cosmos, the cosmic is a unity composed of systems and sub-systems; and there is a pan-respondence between sub-system and system, system and the cosmos; and in this light, the corresponding parts in different systems bear more similar properties than the non-corresponding parts do. Modern ecological theory share views with the theory of Heaven/human Correspondence as well. They remark that all life beings are exchanging material with their environment, and in the process influence and transformation take place in both. For instance, the overdue consumption of Freon in modern society has led to the damage of ozonosphere, and thus, kinds of perilous radiances have been intruding and jeopardizing the human health.

It is patent that the theory of Heaven-human Correspondence has some perspicacity for the key issues of modern Holographic Cosmos and ecology. The Book of the Hidden Talisman of the Yellow Emperor (Huangdi yinfu jing ) has further explained the interdependent and cause-effect relations between human and Heaven/Earth, "Both birth and death are the ways of Dao. Heaven and Earth are drawn by the myriad beings; the myriad beings are drawn by human beings and human beings are drawn by the myriad beings. If the three forms of drawing are in harmony, the three types of beings (Heaven and Earth, human beings, and the myriad beings) will be in peace". This quotation interprets an everlasting cycle among Heaven, Earth and human: all beings on earth is stealing and exploiting the prime of Heaven and Earth--- sunlight, air, season etc., as a result, life is born in spring, growing in summer, mature in autumn and preserved in winter; people, in the same way, are taking other beings for food, clothing, medicine etc to give birth and maintain health; and finally human after their death, is being used by other beings and the heaven as well. Deducing from this circulation, we can see that the over-exploitation of the natural resources will necessarily threaten the multiplication and even, the survival of human being.

As for the relationship between human and nature, Daoism postulates that human should treat nature under “the law of Dao” rather than on behalf of their ego, that is, to regard all beings in a cosmic view. The reason is that human and all other beings are equal members at the mercy of Dao, “Therefore the Dao is great. Heaven is great. Earth is great. And man is also great. There are four great things in the universe, and man is one of them. ” (Daode jing Chapter 25) Zhuangzi·Qiushui borrowed a saying from the god of North Sea, “Observed in the light of the Way, things are neither prized nor despised; observed in the light of things, they prize themselves and despiseothers; observed in the light of the common lot, one’s value is not determined by oneself.” which means from the broad and powerful view of Dao, there is no discrimination between human and other beings, so it’s assuming for human to boast their intelligence and reduce nature from a friend to a subordination or treasury. In the essay of Qiwu, Zhuangzi has thoroughly related the equity of myriad things and concluded that “heaven and earth were born together with me and the myriad things are one with me.” Further more, human and other life beings can even transform into each other, as recorded in the mysterious Zhuangzi fable of ZhuangZhouMengDie(the dream between Zhuangzi and a butterfly) , that one day, Zhuangzi fell asleep and dreamt that he himself was transmuted into a butterfly, but when awake, he was too confused to tell whether it was he who had dreamt of the butterfly or it was he who was in the dream of the butterfly. Such is a vivid picture of the interdependence and mingling of all beings.

Daoism’s notion on the correspondence, equality and unity among all life beings, has been clarified by modern science which points out that the ecological system is an open system constituted by processes of material and energy exchange, instead of，say, static parts. Daoism has introduced morality to all the creatures, thus it is strongly against human’s presumption and egoism which impose ranking into the nature. “Daoism believes that there is no substantial gap between human and nature, because everything is linked with others immanently.”In entirety, human and other beings in the nature belongs to the same organic cosmic system, which denies the dualistic approach to culture and nature. However, modern industrial society commonly employs the notion of duality on man and heaven, and thus human has undergone tremendous inflation in their ego, acting as a master over the cosmic and damaging greatly their environment; while in violent contrast, Daoism, with its belief that “all forms have the nature of Dao”, confirms the value of all beings. So we can say that Daoism, extending its love to human, all the other living beings and even all the creatures in the cosmic, nourishes the broadest concern for life.

In this unique eco-paradigm of Daoism, people learn about nature with the intention to join and love rather than control it. Human and nature are equal for they are both offspring of heaven and earth, nevertheless, “human is not only the son of heaven and earth, but also the elder brother of all the other beings”, who is in charge of “assisting heaven to give birth”, “helping earth nurture the life ” and “facilitating all beings to grow spontaneously by inaction”. And the “assisting” here is in conformance with the nature of all beings rather than be carried out by force. In this manner, Daoism converts the idea of “conquering the nature” into “nurturing the nature according to the harmony of heaven and earth”, which directs people to assist heaven and earth in keeping ecological balance and natural beauty.

Ⅲ. Valuing life and Fostering life__ The Harmonious Way of Body and Heart

Another important theme of Daoism has been “fostering life” or “Self-cultivation” (yangsheng), ie., to lead a simple, harmonious and meaningful life. The idea has a potential to deepen and enrich modern ecological thoughts and provide new paradigms for our health, especially for people who resists interventionist urges and cultivates the Dao—a cosmic practice that is as powerful and trustworthy as it is natural.

Individual beings are the embodiment of life, and each of them is particular and non-replicable, so individual life is of sacramental value. Daoism has sufficiently recognized this holiness in people’s life. It says that among all the life beings, “human life is the primary thing”, and in all the benignity “longevity owns the greatest merit”. “Life” is so important that it is often employed as the alias of Dao, like in the saying of “oneness of life and Dao”. Also, “fostering life”(yangsheng), “valuing life”(guisheng) in Daoism, which renounce the contrived pursuit of fame and materials and go in for a true person relieved from disorientation of humanity, have become a valuable way of self-cultivation. Modern people seem to believe that civilization means getting away from nature, so when going earnestly after the material indulgence, they gradually get numb, ignore their true feelings, and leave the meaning of life in oblivion. Thus, Daoism suggests that if everyone gets down to self-cultivation, step by step approaches the spontaneous, powerful and reliable cosmic origin, the world will in the meantime undertake subtle and universal alterations. In Daoism, person who has grasped and acquired the pith of Dao will be entitled as “perfected person”--- a person that has kin-spirits with Dao, Heaven and Earth. Such persons preserve themselves by cultivating their mind, and after that, through nondirective deeds, they can be concerned about, help and even convert other people, and that course is called “huamin”(transforming the people).

Zhuangzi said: “in our strif and friction with other things, we gallop forward on our course unable to stop. Is this not sad?” Zhuangzi here points out that it is sad and pitiful for men to be obsessed in material things, lose control and go with the stream. To overcome or obviate this kind of predicament, “Zhuangzi teaches us to form a healthy view towards nature: to respect nature, follow environmental laws in dealing with nature, and finally reach that realm where Heaven and humans are one. Those are approximate to principles of western environmental ethical theory. But without getting down to real deeds, all the doctrines would be reduced to phrasemongering. We must work diligently to carry on the discipline, from transcending desires, to nurturing self-reliance, gaining the freedom and capacity to liberate our inner spirit, and finally, entering the level of attainment where there is no self, where self is forgotten. Only when we get that level, do we really know the Dao, do we actually understand that Heaven and human are one. This discipline is what humankind today urgently demands in order to protect the environment.”

One of the significant actions taken by Daoism towards its ideal is the cultivation of oneself, especially in inner cultivation. According to the Daoist, human and the universe are based on the same pattern---Dao, and there is a circulation of “qi” between both systems of human and cosmic, thus the cultivation of elixir and the operation of the cosmos observe a common mechanism. Consequently, the cultivation of human life needs to be performed in accordance with the natural environment. For instance, the periodical circulation of the moon and the sun is affecting the tempo of human individuals’ physiological activities, including the blood and qi function in human bodies, and in light of which, the cultivation should be carried out by balancing the interaction of yin and yang in strict coordination with the waxing and waning of the sun and the moon, so that people can join in the spontaneity of the cosmos and achieve the oneness of man and heaven. Yu Yan once said, “Human body has a similar image of the heaven and the earth, the going up and declining of the movement of its qi and blood observe the same mechanism with that of the heaven and the earth.” And that, “People who is cultivating and refreshing their inner elixir are just causing ‘the sun and the moon’ of their body system to course in the same rhythm as that of the heaven and the earth.”

Daoism regards the body as a spiritual eco-system. That is, in the process of cultivation, practitioners realize that the inner and outer worlds converge into a continuum of matter and energy, and that they themselves, as members of the cosmos, have to show love and respect to both their bodies and the environment. This postulation tallies remarkably with the modern biology, which believes that the tempo of biology’s physiological activities is formed through their coordination and adaptation to the periodical movement of their surroundings---life beings are arranging and adjusting their activities according to the timing for energy acquisition.

Such being the case, the cultivation of the inner elixir(“neidan”) would be equal to a special renovation on the inner environment of human body. Series of practices in the Religious Daoism take coordination between human and nature as their code, for instance, maintaining inner vigor, “fostering life”, medicine, music, commandment, and. In “fostering life”, the practitioners, with the knowledge that human and the cosmos share common structure, laws of movement and system, can finally reach an ideal order in their inner environment by cultivating their temperament, dissolving the clash between soul and flesh, transcending the conflict of body and mind meanwhile closing up to the spontaneity of cosmic; Daoism rites involves a pious religious emotion for the nature, and a concern for the harmonious coexistence of everything on earth, in this background, people can impetrate Heaven of the nature and Heaven of spirit to remove disasters and grant blessings for the human beings; and last but not least, "grotto heaven and blessed earth "(Dongtianfudi) is a holy place for Daoists to perform their self-cultivation, endowed with profound natural beauty, it is usually favorable for a deep communication between man and nature.

While the man-and-nature harmony is relying on the coordination of body and mind, as well as the purification of human’s inner environment, Human body constitutes the natural aspect of human life, this ‘landscape of the body’ implies that both the physiological and moral aspects of people are contained in the scope of self-cultivation, and, through a Daoism cultivation, the Daoist would finally accomplish a religious and ecological goal. As was said by kristofer Schipper, a famous contemporary scholar on Daoism, “The preservation of the natural order therefore depends absolutely on the preservation of this order and harmony within ourselves, never on any outside authorities. The environment is within us. This Priority of the inner world is one of the crucial tenets of Daoism. The outside crisis and dangers are overcome and transformed by the transforming of our inside world, ie. to purify and reshape the environment through the harmony of ourselves. All beings are transformed through that. With perfection attained, the body will radiate harmony that is beneficial to its environment.”

We modern people have been realizing the crux of happiness is not concealed in the outer but the inner environment. Thus, the salvation of the world begins with nothing but the conversion of individual. That is what the Religious Daoism focuses their effort on---through self-cultivation, absent-mindedness and overdue desires would be dispelled and the purgation and coordination of the body system regained. People with profound bio-spiritual practices, aiming at the conversion of his personality, may achieve the ability to exert influence over the entire world. The psychiatrist Karl Jung once pointed out that, “The secrecy of alchemy lies in the conversion of personality achieved by the coordination of superior and inferior elements, by blend of consciousness with sub-consciousness.” In this line, Jung reminded that human, as they are the only species with consciousness, should keep in mind their ethical obligation of converting themselves.

The goal of Daoist practice is the establishment of harmony on different levels: between the body and mind of the individual, between the individual and his or her surroundings, and between the individual and the cosmos. The ultimate, ideal level of attainment is one of oneness, of merging oneself with environment in a sense of cosmic union that alone could lead to the complete fulfillment, and further, the transcending of the self. Individual cultivation is the hinge to achieve healthy for oneself, and much more significant, for healing of the community, the environment, and eventually the planet.

Ⅳ.Taking no action--- The Harmonious Way of Social and Individual

“he”, when applied to politics, is rendered as “wuwei erzhi”(“To govern through take-no-action);while in a social discourse, it accentuates the principles of equity, eg. the Chinese altruism of “to benefit the society by aiding the weak community and ferrying the endangered to security”(“jishiduren”), or “valuing pliance and remaining benevolent especially when one is mighty”(guiroushouci).For one thing, Daoism, emphasizing that a country is a community of families, contends that to govern a nation equals to cultivate oneself, and to achieve a peaceful and prosperous society, governors should learn principles from the way of Dao: “To govern through take-no-action(wuwei).” and, “The Dao invariably takes no action, and yet there is nothing left undone”.

Thus the sage conducts affairs through take-no-action(wuwei); He spreads his doctrines through wordless teaching; He let all things grow without its initiation; He nurtures all things but takes possession of nothing; He promotes all things but lays no claim to his ability; He accomplishes his work but takes no credit for his contribution; It is because he takes no credit that his accomplishment stays with him forever. (Daode jing, chapter2)

He who takes an action fails. He who grasps things loses them. For the reason the sage takes no action (wuwei) and therefore doest not fail. He grasps nothing and therefore he does not lose anythings. … The sage desires to have no desire, He does not value rare treasures, He learns to be unlearned, and returns to what the multitude has missed(Dao). Thus he supports the spontaneity of ten thousand things and dares not take any action. (Daode jing, chapter64)

Liu Xiaogan explains that the combination of wu (no) and wei(action) seems to indicate, yet does not mean “taking no action” or “governing the world by doing nothing”, actually it refers to “being as non-being” , “action as non-action” or “actions that appear as almost nothing”, that is, to restrain human actions in a certain scope. It is a special guideline for governing advocated by Laozi. “ The theory of wuwei prefers a natural, gradual, and moderate style of conduct and opposes exercising intensively, coercively, dramatically, and on a large scale. Evidently, natural action is close to the spirit of wuwei, while intensified action is against it.”And, according to the British scientist Joseph Needam, “ ‘wuwei’ means refraining from activities against Nature---never compel anything to function against its nature, and in human affairs, never go out of one’s way to court a doomed goal, or take pains struggling for an intention which can be achieved through a spontaneous way.”

Thus, “Wuwei” actually represents a principle of following spontaneity, and which, if taken by all the people as their code to live by, will make it very hopeful to realize a harmonious society. The reality, however, is so negative and in total contrast with “Wuwei”: a global ecological crisis has been brought out and increasingly exacerbated by the social Darwinism oriented industrialization, commercialization and globalization. Nowadays, the majority of countries and districts in the world have been involved in a solitary economic pattern, boasting a consumptionism relied on the endless incitement of material satisfaction, sensory enjoyment and love of vanity，which is seriously anti-ecology and again repaid by the new round of global financial crisis. What is more ironic, when the developed countries have been cooling down to reflect on that monstrous momentum of modernization and examine its consequences, the developing countries are thrusting themselves into the dubious competition with the facile intention of emulating the GDP growth of the developed countries. Under such circumstances, Daoism principle of “To govern through take-no-action(Wuwei)” may well serve as an effective antidote.

On one hand, the principle of Wuwei” in Daoism claims that everything on earth has the ability to adjust themselves according to the fluxing of its surroundings, thus intervention on them should be as limited as possible; And on the other, apart from exhorting people to cultivate their inner vigor on principle of spontaneity, Daoism also, from a cosmic view, insists the virtue of helping others; GoHong had a saying in Baopuz Duisui, “Person who merely cares about promoting his skills and capacity in changing things and ignores the cultivation of morality, would never reach immortality.” So Holmes Rolston, an environmentalist and philosopher from the US, when commending Daoism for its reciprocal interaction of yin and yang, regarded it as not only an explanation for cosmic movement, but also a sagacious guidance for human’s behavior. Significantly, from the modern ecological view, this ideal contains a special eco-ethic which makes the best of both worlds, as was related by David L. Hall in 1987, “The ethics in Daoism is an aesthetical one. People attain their virtue and acquire their happiness by acclimatizing the nature of things. By means of “Wuwei”(“no action”, “no knowledge” and “no desire”), we can get on well with the nature, appreciate the spontaneity and the inherent perfection (virtue)of other beings, and foster at the same time the perfect humanity of ourselves. ” In general, the concept of “he”, under the eminent guidance of “Wuwei” which embraces both aesthetical and ethical perfection, is aspiring after the universal valuing and treasuring of life, in which all beings is born and coexisting in a peaceful and friendly way.

In a broad and deep sense, Daoism has a great concern for the justice in the social development. As for social justice, here should be listed its three major aspects: equal rights for people of the same generation in production and distribution, equal opportunities for different generations of people to take advantage of the resources, and last but not the least, justice in relationship between men and women. For instance, justice is the premise for the fulfillment of environmental and resource sustainability, and Daoism had remarked on this insightfully in ancient times, “Does not the Dao of Heaven resemble the drawing of a bow? When the string is taut, press it down. When it is low, raise it up. When it is excessive, reduce it. When it is insufficient, supplement it. The Dao of Heaven reduces whatever is excessive, and supplements whatever is insufficient. The Dao of man does the opposite.”(Daode jing, chapter 77, 25) That is to say, the law of nature is always removing the surplus resources from the rich to make up for the poor; Similar doctrines from Taiping jing said, “people who, wallowing in money, do not show any sympathy for or donate to the poor that are starving to death, are guilty forever.”

The sustainable development is “a development not confined to the economic growth but having equal consideration for the distribution of resources, the restoration of the environment, and the assisting rather than marginalizing the minor groups of people; this pattern of development shows its primary concern for the poor people---creating more opportunities for them to participate in the decision-making process of their own life.” Emmanuel Levinas has pointed out the infinite importance in the self to the other and thus contends that every one has infinite obligation to the other around them. According to that, as poverty is the major issue of global environmental problems, a fair social development should aid and give more rights to the poverty-stricken people, especially the women in poverty; By the same token, in order to ensure that the developing countries progress in an ecological way, the developed countries should limit their consumption of resources and productions and donate the surplus part to the developing countries who has been struggling for basic need for life.

Also, in the synchronic dimension, one generation, while developing and satisfying themselves, should take into account the wellbeing of their offspring. According to the theory of inter-generation continuum, with Anette Baier and M.P.Golding as its advocators, the human history as a continuum is made up of livings of millions of individuals, and this continuum link contemporary people with their ancestors and offspring, and put all of them in a cooperative linear relationship; Also, the theory of Justice advanced by John Rawls, with explorations on justice as its focus, also talked about the concern that parents should have for their children and grandchildren; and still, here should not be missed is the theory of Inherited Guilt (chengfu lun) in Daoism, which demonstrates the equality of people and the cause-effect logic between generations. In general, series of influential theories from both west and east cultures not only indicate the importance of justice and mutual love, but also relate them in a trans-generational view, and these inter-generation ethics afford real hope for an ecological vision.

Last but not least, in the attitude to women, Daoism is quite different from some other cultural traditions. Daoism values softness and modesty. Equality between the sexes comes from the idea of the "balance between ying and yang." In the Book of Great Peace it is said that the nature of Heaven and Earth is half yin and half yang. Ever since the world distanced itself from Dao, discriminations against women have become widespread, leading to yin being diminished and to the loss of equilibrium between Heaven and Earth. The lonely yang element, without a companion, began to wither and dry up. Daoism's concept of the equality between man and woman may be a contribution to the ethics of sustainable development.

In 1993, the second convention of World Religion Congress was held in Chicago, US, and a blueprint of constructing global ethics was discussed. In the Proclamation of the Global Ethics, the global ethics is defined as “a consensus on certain regulative morals as well as irrevocable standards on humanity.” The Manifesto has created four irrevocable regulations, out of which the first one is “to maintain a culture that opposes violence and respects life”. Evidently, all these ecological ethics can find their counterparts in the Daoism culture, especially when the idea of “he” fully embodies the law of balancing between yin and yang, treats heaven, earth and man as one organism, and shows great respect for the health of people’s mind and body. But nowadays, modern economy masks a disfigured planet, and the balance of yin and yang of our environment has been substantially damaged, thus, certain positive interventions, including administrative policies, education, international academic communications and cooperation between social communities, etc., must be undertaken. Also, traditional Chinese thoughts have their inherent defects, so they should be adopted in cooperation with the western modern science to form a powerful eco-ethics. Under the circumstances of globalization, studies of Daoism and ecological ethics need to start off from the local, endow Daoism with vitality by means of comprehensive creation and enhance Daoism to be modernized and universalized, so it can play its role in protecting biodiversity and cultural pluralism.

� Due to the complex ties between Daoism and the Religious Daoism, the Religious Daoism mentioned in this thesis refers to a comprehensive conception containing the concept of Daoism. Doctrines of the religious Daoism was mainly derived from the philosophy of Daoism, although with a long history of inheriting in between—from Daoism in the Spring and Autumn Period, to the New Daoism in Qin and Han Dynasties, the Metaphysics in Wei and Jin Dynasties, the post- Metaphysics of Sui and Tang Dynasties and the Doctrine of heart, temperament and inner vigor from Song till Qing Dynasty. According to ChenYingning, “Before Zhangling created the religious Daoism in East Han Dynasty(25-220 AD), there was only Daoism, and yet the thought of the religious Daoism had been germinating in the Daoism. Since the birth of the religious Daoism, the doctrines of Daoism has never been developed in new treatises, but this does not mean that the theory of Daoism was not inherited either, in fact, the religious schools of Dao from The Period of Three Kingdoms to Qing Dynasty were all vestured in the philosophical thought of Daoism, and the scholars both in and out of the court, disciples or laymen, all resorted to the doctrines of Laozi on issues of cultivation of oneself and government of a nation…The theoretical Daoism and the religious Daoism went into amalgamation.”

� Russell Kirkland. The entry of “the religious Daoism.”Encyclopedia of Bioethics, 2d ed. New York: Macmillan, 1995, 5:2463-68.

� Wang Keping. The Classic of the Dao (Daode jing)---A New Investigation,Beijing: Foreign Languages Press Beijing, 1998. p.239.

� Translation is of John S. Major, Heave and Earth in Early Han Thought, Albany: State University of New York, 1993, pp.108-109.

� The Classic of the Dao (Daode jing)---A New Investigation.. pp.244-245.

� The Book of Great Peace (Taiping jing): in Wang Ming 1960: Taipingjing he jiao, Beijing: Chinese Book Press, p.20

� Zhongyong, Translation is from A Source book in Chinese Philosophy, trans. And comp. Wing-tsit Chan, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963, p.98.

� The concept of “he” was understood and interpreted with certain discrepancy by Confucianism and Daoism. Chinese contemporary philosopher TangYijie contends that: “Confucianism tends to extend the harmony of man’s body and mind to the coordination of human society, for example, they claim “the harmony is gold”, “to realize equilibrium and harmony to the highest degree”, etc to value the harmonious personal relations.; while Daoism deduced man-and-nature harmony from the experience of the natural balance, as Laozi alleged‘Dao follows the way of spontaneity’, and Zhuangzi advocated‘the harmony of myriad things’, which all emphasize the adoration for nature.” There are echoes from the western world. Mary Evelyn Tucker, a US scholar in religious and ecological studies related that the religious Daoism is nature-oriented while Confucianism is society-oriented, the religious Daoism Focuses on the elementary causality of Dao whereas Confucianism talks about the secondary causality of human activities, the religious Daoism concerns the ecological balance between individuals and Dao while Confucianism endeavors to realize a fair society, the religious Daoism encourages an economical and simple life and an intimate interaction with the nature while Confucianism advocates to adjust human behavior and coordinate the society in a dynamic natural mold. In a word, the religious Daoism has a bent in nature-ecology while Confucianism, the social ecology.

� The Book of Great Peace (Taiping jing),p.149.

� The Book of Great Peace (Taiping jing), p.205.

� Tong B. Tang. Secience and Technology in China. Quoted from a secondary source: Ge Rongjing, 1991: Daoist Culture and Modern Civilization, Beijing: China People's University Press. p.257.

� The Classic of the Dao(Daode jing)---A New Investigation , p.231.

� The Book of Great Peace (Taiping jing), p.673.

� The Classic of the Dao(Daode jing)---A New Investigation , p.231.

� Zhuangzi 25. All the citations of Zhuangzi are from the Wanfering on the Way, Early Taoist Tales and Parables of Chuang Tze. translated and commented by Victor H. Mair. pp.155.

� Zhuangzi ,P.18.

� Po-Keung Ip. “Daoism and the Foundations of Environmental Ethics.” Environme ntal Ethics. 1983, 5.

� The Book of Great Peace (Taiping jing): in Wang Ming 1960: Taiping jing he jiao, Beijing: Chinese Book Press, p.340, 88, 124.

� Zhuangzi, p.14.

�Jeffrey F. Meyer, “Salvation in the Garden: Daoism and Ecology”, N.J.Girardot, James Miller & Liu Xiaogan ed. Daoism and Ecology: Ways Within A Cosmic Landscape, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2001, p.232.

� The Book of the Hidden Talisman of the Yellow Emperor (Huangdi Yinfu jing): in Daoist Canon), Wenwu Press / Shanghai Bookstore Press / Tianjin Ancient Book Press, 1988, vol. 1.p.223.

� The Book of the Hidden Talisman of the Yellow Emperor (Huangdi Yinfu jing,: p.198.

� kristofer Schipper, “Daoist Ecology: The Inner Transformation. A Study of the Precepts of the Early Daoist Ecclesia”, N.J.Girardot, James Miller & Liu Xiaogan ed. Daoism and Ecology: Ways Within A Cosmic Landscape, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2001, p.92.

� Liu Xiaogan, “Non-Action and Environment Today: A Conceptual and Applied Study of Laozi’s Philosophy”, Daoism and Ecology: Ways Within A Cosmic Landscape, p.317.

� Joseph Lee. The History of Chinese Technology, Vol. 2. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Press & Science press, 1990.p.76.

� David, L.Hall. “On Seeking a Change of Environment: A Quasi-Taoist Proposal.” Philosophy East and West, Vol.37, 1987.

� The Classic of the Dao(Daode jing)---A New Investigation, 1998. pp.254.

� UN Development Planning Office. Reports on Human Development,1994, Chinese edition. Trans. The Social Development Department of the National Planning Committee of China. London: Oxford University Press,1994.

� Proclamation of Global Ethics---World Religion Congress, Chengdu: Sichuan People Press, 1997. p.155.