Egypt Governance System and Revolutions

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EGYPT: GOVERNANCE SYSTEM AND REVOLUTIONS

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COLLEGE OF LEGAL STUDIES

SEMESTER-II

PROJECT FOR POLITICAL SCIENCE ON

EGYPT: GOVERNANCE SYSTEM AND

REVOLUTIONS

Word Count: 7, 088

Submitted to: Mr. Sam Babu K.C.

Submitted on: April 24th, 2011


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2Table of Contents

EGYPT: GOVERNANCE SYSTEM AND REVOLUTIONS .....................................................3INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................3GOVERNANCE TRANSITIONS: PHASES ...........................................................................4

TRIBAL INHABITATION .................................................................................................4MONARCHICAL GOVERNANCE (FROM 3150 B.C.) .....................................................4FRENCH AND BRITISH PROTECTORATES ..................................................................6ESTABLISHMENT OF REPUBLIC OF EGYPT IN 1952 ..................................................6DICTATORSHIP SINCE 1981(MUBARAKS PHASE)............................................... 11

REVOLUTION OF 2011 ...................................................................................................... 12Rise of the Protest ............................................................................................................. 12Attempts to pacify ............................................................................................................. 13Fall of the Obstinate .......................................................................................................... 15Cheers across the Globe..................................................................................................... 16

GOVERNMENTAL SETUP: EGYPT .................................................................................. 18LEGISLATURE ................................................................................................................ 19JUDICIARY ..................................................................................................................... 21EXECUTIVE .................................................................................................................... 24MULTI PARTY SYSTEM IN EGYPT.............................................................................. 24

CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................................... 27BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................. 28

Treatises ............................................................................................................................ 28Websites ............................................................................................................................ 28


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3EGYPT: GOVERNANCE SYSTEM AND REVOLUTIONS

INTRODUCTIONThe project discusses the governance and related aspects of Arab Republic of Egypt, a country

located in the North African region. The country is known for its glorious history which had one

of the most ancient civilizations and remains a beloved site of the archaeologists who are still

making attempts to unveil the mysteries of the Great Sphinx1

and Pyramids of Giza2. Also such

sites are fostering countrys tourism inflows greatly. The country holds major oil and gas

reserves, thus making it cognizable for trade concerns.

The governance system of Egypt is typical to study as it has hardly been stable ever. Country has

seen varied forms of governments since its establishment as a state. Starting with monarchy,

country tasted military coup, dictatorship, imperial occupation and also ephemeral democracy.

The revolutions rebutting the anarchy have also taken place several times thus discerning

determination of people against autocracy and instability.

In the 2011 revolution, Egyptian population reaffirmed their commitment against despotism and

anarchy. The strength and vigor of the revolution became a benchmark for several other

countries facing the lash of dictatorship. Several governments of Algeria, Jordan, Yemen, Syria,

Bahrain etc. are still facing protests against bigotry and monocracy.

Governance of Egypt can be classified in five phases:-

1) Tribal Inhabitation (Protodynastic Period)2) Monarchical Governance (from 3150 B.C.)3) French and English Protectorates4) Establishment of Republic of Egypt in 19525) Dictatorship since 1981 (Mubaraks Phase)

1Warren E. Lee, The Mystery of Sphinx ,Vol. 7 No.II, (PLIM Report, 1998)

2Hooghe D. Alain, The Great Pyramids of Giza, (Vilo Publishing ed. 2000)


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4The setup has been discussed elucidating the theme of governance, executive, legislature and

judicature of Egypt. The project also contains a special corner for the iron fist of the 2011

Revolution of Egypt3.

GOVERNANCE TRANSITIONS: PHASES

TRIBAL INHABITATION

The Protodynastic period or the ancient Egypt shows signs of tribal inhabitation in the period of

10th

millennium BC. Major inhabitation signs have been traced along the areas bordering the

Nile River. Hunting-gathering and fishing were the feeding measures which had replaced their

complete dependency over agriculture. The region encountered severe climatic changes during

8th

millennium BC, expanding Sahara into several regions of Egypt, thus tribes had to shift their

locations. There was cultural distinction even between sections of tribes existing in the Northern

and Southern areas. The practices, traditions and language appear to be different. Trade was

pursued between the different tribes.

The Governance structure was more of a tribal hierarchy with a tribal chief at the acme, who led

the tribe as a monarch. His commands were infallible, and hostility in any form wasnt acceptedin any form.

4

MONARCHICAL GOVERNANCE (FROM 3150 B.C.)

King Menes was the first ruler to establish a unified kingdom in 3150 B.C. His reign fostered the

population culturally and religiously. Arts and languages seem to have bloomed in the same

period. The first two ruling dynasties in the period ranging from 2700 2200 B.C. are credited

for the pyramids at Djoser and Giza.

3Kanalley Craig,www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/.../egypt-revolution-2011_n_816026.html, 03/24/2011

4Midant-Reynes, Batrix. The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Kings. Oxford: Blackwell

Publishers
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5Around 30 dynasties have traces of existence in the ancient monarchical series. They can be

classified into two groups, i.e. first intermediate period and new kingdom. The First Intermediate

Period was for 150 years, which was full of political upheaval, while the new kingdom is the

term used to signify to the period of glory. The period can be credited for bringing up a powerful

Egypt.

The monarchical phase also contains terms of Ptolemaics and Romans. Various monuments have

been discovered belonging to that era. The period was important for the developments made in

the field of art and architecture. The famous Egyptian queen Cleopatra VII was the last in the

Ptolemaic chain. In the later days of the ancient form of Governance Ottomans also secured a

niche for themselves with admirably good governance. Ottomans successfully chucked the

Islamic Empire out in 1517. But ineptness of Ottomans in economic and societal management

frayed their grip over Egypt. They were also struck by the tempest of famines during their reign,

which knocked eight times during their reign. Egypt was in a pitiful condition, which

consequently made it vulnerable to foreign invasions. Egyptian trade was completely overtaken

by the Portuguese.

The first firm strike was made by the famous French invader, Napoleon Bonaparte in 1798.

Though he was defeated his strike raised differences among the ruling coalition comprising of

Ottomans, Albanians and British. The commander of Albanian regiment Muhammad Ali rose as

the most prominent of them. Sultan of Istanbul declared him to be his viceroy in Egypt, whereas

the truth was the subordination of the sultan hardly existed. Muhammad Ali was very potent in

his governance strategies. He established his own dynasty in Egypt which lasted till the

revolution of 1952.5

5ibid, Bard, Kathryn A. Ian Shaw, Ed. The Oxford Illustrated History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University

Press, 2000. p. 69


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6FRENCH AND BRITISH PROTECTORATES

Muhammad Ali remained successful in annexing some portion of Northern Sudan, Syria,

Anatolia and Arabia. But Europeans didnt let him enjoy his superiority in these areas and

charged Ottomans with all the territories annexed by Ali else Northern Sudan. He became a

puppet of the Europeans at a later stage as his territory was made a European protectorate and his

rule was hereditary.

Muhammad Ali was very fascinated of the military techniques of the Western forces; therefore

he sent Egyptian students to west and invited training missions to Egypt. He also contributed in

the local development by constructing industries and devising irrigation projects for the reason.

Ali was briefly succeeded by his son Ibrahim, grandson Abbas I, Said and Ismail. None of them

had the capability to hold the reign. Abbas I was meticulous, whereas Said and Ismail were

ambitious developers; but they spent beyond their means. Suez Canal was constructed in their

rule. Bulk of debts was obtained for its construction from various European agencies, also

onerous taxation policies was pursued. The Europeans seized the throne soon completely

observing the high time.6

ESTABLISHMENT OF REPUBLIC OF EGYPT IN 1952

Egypt has been a republic since 18 June 1953. Since the declaration of the republic, four

Egyptians have served as presidents. The first President to take office was President Mohamed

Naguib. The fourth president was Mohamed Hosni Mubarak, the President of Egypt since

October 14, 1981, following the assassination of former President Mohammed Anwar El-Sadat.

Local dissatisfaction with Ismail and European intrusion led to the formation of the first

nationalist groupings in 1879, with Ahmad Urabi a prominent figure. In 1882 he became head of

a nationalist-dominated ministry committed to democratic reforms including parliamentarycontrol of the budget. Fearing a reduction of their control, the UK and France intervened

militarily, bombarding Alexandria and crushing the Egyptian army at the battle of Tel el-Kebir.

They reinstalled Ismail's son Tewfik as figurehead of a de facto British protectorate.

6ibid


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7In 1914 the Protectorate was made official, and the title of the head of state, which had changed

frompasha to khedive in 1867, was changed to sultan, to repudiate the vestigial suzerainty of the

Ottoman sultan, who was backing the Central powers in World War I. Abbas II was deposed as

khedive and replaced by his uncle, Hussein Kamel, as sultan.

In 1906, the Dinshaway Incident prompted many neutral Egyptians to join the nationalist

movement. After the First World War, Saad Zaghlul and the Wafd Party led the Egyptian

nationalist movement to a majority at the local Legislative Assembly. When the British exiled

Zaghlul and his associates to Malta on March 8, 1919, the country arose in its first modern

revolution. The revolt led the UK government to issue a unilateral declaration of Egypt's

independence on February 22, 1922.

The new government drafted and implemented a constitution in 1923 based on a parliamentary

system. Saad Zaghlul was popularly elected as Prime Minister of Egypt in 1924. In 1936 the

Anglo-Egyptian Treaty was concluded. Continued instability due to remaining British influence

and increasing political involvement by the king led to the dissolution of the parliament in a

military coup d'tatknown as the 1952 Revolution. The Free Officers Movement forced King

Farouk to abdicate in support of his son Fuad. British military presence in Egypt lasted until

1954.

During the winter of 19511952 nationalist police officers backed by the United States and the

Soviet Union began protecting and promoting fedayeen terrorist attacks on British authorities in

Cairo, Alexandria, and the Suez Canal. After repelling a particularly devastating attack on British

shipping and facilities near Ismailia which resulted in the murder of several British soldiers,

officers, and seamen, British troops tracked the fedayeen into the city. On January 25, 1952,

British troops discovered the fedayeen had retreated into the local police barracks. When the

police refused to surrender the fedayeen, the British officer attempted to negotiate the surrender

of the police and the fedayeen. When their negotiator was killed in the parley by the fedayeen,

the British force attacked the Egyptian police barracks in Ismailia. Fifty Egyptian police officers

were killed and one hundred were wounded. Egypt erupted in fury.


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8Subsequently, Free Officer Movement cells initiated riots in Cairo which led to arsons. Without

suppression from local fire brigades, these arson attacks further inflamed more rioting. American

and Soviet newspapers promoted the incident on global wire outlets as the "Cairo Fires" and

suggested they were seen as further evidence of the beginning of the end of the monarchy.

The next day, January 26, 1952 ("Black Saturday"), what many Egyptians call "the second

revolution" broke out (the first being the Egyptian Revolution of 1919).

King Farouk dismissed Mustafa el-Nahhas's government, and in the months that followed, three

different politicians were instructed to form governments, each proving short-lived: Ali Maher

(27 January 1 March), Ahmed Naguib El-Hilali (2 March 29 June, and 2223 July) and

Hussein Sirri (220 July). These "salvation ministries", as they were called, failed to halt the

country's downward spiral. Corruption remained ubiquitous despite attempts by successive prime

ministers to put their political houses in order.

Stirrings of discontent were felt in the army, and in January 1952 opposition officers supported

by the Free Officers gained control of the governing board of the Officers Club. On 16 July, the

King annulled these elections, appointing his own supporters instead in an attempt to regain

control of the army.

A coup d'tat was planned for 5 August, but when General Naguib, one of the Free Officers,

informed the group on 19 July that the Egyptical Royal Army high command had a list of their

names, the coup leaders acted on the night of 22 July.

The Revolution Command Council (RCC), made up of the previous 9-member command

committee of the Free Officers in addition to five more members, including Mohamed Naguib,

was formed. Ali Maher was asked to form a civilian government. When the Free Officers started

isolating elements sympathizing with the Soviet Union, Communist Party cadres led workers

riots in Kafr Dawar on August 12, 1952, which resulted in two death sentences. Ali Maher who

still sympathized with the British resigned on 7 September following differences with the

officers, principally over proposed land reform. Mohamed Naguib became prime minister. On 9

September, the Agrarian Reform Law was passed, which immediately seized any white owned,


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9especially British owned property in Egypt. This was followed by signaling a major land

redistribution programme among peasant farmers which gained most of the seized land.

However, royal land as well as those of Jews, Greeks, and Copts, was in turn distributed amongst

the Free Officers as well as common supporters of the regime. In a bid to stop concentration of

land ownership, the regime placed a ceiling of 200 feddans on land ownership. On 9 December,

the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) without proper due process decreed that the 1923

Constitution of Egypt was abrogated "in the name of the people."

On 16 January 1953 the officers of the RCC dissolved and banned all political parties, declaring

a three-year transitional period during which the RCC would rule. A provisional Constitutional

Charter, written by the close circle of usurpers, was written with the intention of giving a veneer

of legitimacy to the RCC. This new Constitution was proclaimed on 10 February, and theLiberation Rallythe first of 3 political organisations linked to the July regimewas launched

soon afterwards with the aim of mobilising popular support. The Rally was headed by Gamal

Abdel-Nasser and included other Free Officers as secretaries-general. On 18 June, the RCC

declared Egypt a republic, abolishing the monarchy (the infant son of Farouk had been reigning

as King Fuad II) and appointing General Naguib, aged 52, as first president and prime minister.

Gamal Abdel-Nasser, was appointed deputy premier and minister of the interior. A

Revolutionary Tribunal consisting of RCC members Abdel Latif Boghdadi, Anwar el-Sadat and

Hassan Ibrahim, was set up to try politicians of the ancient regime.

In opposition to the Constitution with its overt secularism was the Muslim Brotherhood.

Additionally, contrary to orders issued by the Council, members of the Liberation Rally

accumulated much of the seized non-Muslim property and distributed amongst their closed

networks. Angered at being left out of the political and economic spoils and seeing a

continuation of secularism and modernity within the Free Officers Movement such as had

existed under the King, the Muslim Brotherhood organized its street elements. From June 1953

into the following year, Egypt was wracked by street riots, clashes, arson, and civil tumult as the

regime and the Muslim Brotherhood battled for popular support.


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10In January, the Muslim Brotherhood was outlawed, remaining an illegal political organization

ever since. The move came in the wake of clashes between members of the Brotherhood and

Liberation Rally student demonstrators on 12 January 1954. March witnessed clashes within the

RCC, symbolised in the attempt, ultimately successful, to oust Naguib. The move faced

opposition from within the army, and some members of the RCC, especially Khaled Mohieddin,

favoured a return to constitutional government. On 26 October, an assassination attempt

suspected by the Brotherhood was directed at Nasser during a rally in Alexandria. This led to the

regime acting against the Brotherhood, executing Brotherhood leaders on 9 December.

Subsequently, Gamal Abdel-Nasser, who had maneuvered himself into the commanding heights

of power, finally cemented his power, first becoming chairman of the RCC, and finally as prime

minister, with Naguib's constitutional position remaining vague until 14 November, when he was

dismissed from office and placed under house arrest.

Meanwhile, the RCC, morally backed by both the Soviet Union and the United States, managed

to remain united in its opposition to the British and French, specifically in regard to the Suez.

Despite continued calls from the RCC, in debates in the United Nations, and pressure from both

the US and USSR, the British refused to transfer control of the Canal to the new regime. The

RCC began funding and coordinating ever greater terrorist attacks on the British and French in

the Suez and Damietta. Finally, on 19 October, Nasser signed a treaty for the evacuation of

British troops from Egypt, to be completed over the following 20 months. Two years later, on 18

June 1956, Nasser raised the Egyptian flag over the Canal Zone, announcing the complete

evacuation of British troops.

Having excluded whites and Jews of being Egyptian, placed the indigenous Coptic community

under partial Dhimmini status, having ethnically cleansed Egypt of its European and Jewish

residents, and having seized their real property, on 7 June 1956 the remaining corporations which

had any European, Jewish, or Christian influence had their assets seized under a law which

promulgated for the "Egyptianisation" of foreign companies and joint ventures. None of these


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11who had their property stolen by the RCC or had suffered assaults, robberies, rapes, or murder

under the tumultuous revolution were given compensation for their losses.7

DICTATORSHIP SINCE 1981 (MUBARAKS PHASE)

Mubarak was appointed Vice President of Egypt in 1975, and assumed the presidency on 14

October 1981, following the assassination of President Anwar El Sadat. The length of his

presidency made him Egypt's longest-serving ruler since Muhammad Ali Pasha. Before he

entered politics, Mubarak was a career officer in the Egyptian Air Force, serving as its

commander from 1972 to 1975 and rising to the rank of air chief marshal.

Mubarak became Commander of the Air Force and Egyptian Deputy Minister of Defence in

1972. In the following year his military career reached its pinnacle when he was promoted to Air

Chief Marshal in recognition of service during the October War of 1973. Mubarak has been

credited in some publications for Egypt's initial strong performance in the 1973 war against

Israel. As Mubarak was only in post for about a year when the war erupted, his role with the

Egyptian Air Force was disputed by many.

In April 1975, Mubarak was appointed by Sadat as Vice President of the Egyptian republic. In

this position, he loyally served Sadat's policies. He took part in government consultations that

dealt with the future disengagement of forces agreement with Israel.

As part of his support for Sadat's policies, he went in early September 1975 on a mission to

Riyadh and Damascus, in order to convince the Saudi and Syrian governments to accept the

disengagement agreement signed with the Israeli government ("Sinai II"), but was refused a

meeting by the Syrian president.

In addition, Mubarak was sent by Sadat to numerous meetings with foreign leaders. Mubarak's

political significance as Vice-President can be seen from the fact that at a conversation held on

23 June 1975 between Foreign Minister Fahmy and US Ambassador Hermann Eilts, Fahmy said

7http://www.egyptianrevolution.net/, 21/03/2011
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12to Eilts that "Mobarek is, for the time being at least, likely to be a regular participant in all

sensitive meetings" and he advised the Ambassador not to antagonize Mubarak, as he was

Sadat's personal choice.

Following the assassination of President Sadat in October, 1981 by a Jihad cell in the military led

by Lieutenant Khalid Islambouli, Hosni Mubarak became the President of the Arabic Republic of

Egypt, and the Chairman of the National Democratic Party (NDP).

REVOLUTION OF 2011

The year 2011 came up with a revolution which throbbed millions of Arabic hearts against the

sense of anarchy and despotism. Budding from the small country of Tunisia, the revolution soon

embroiled countries like Algeria, Bahrain, Yemen, Egypt, Syria etc. Egypt can be tagged as the

second country with a successful uprising. The remarkable non violent protests made the

government fall within 18 days.

Rise of the Protest

Thousands of anti-government protesters, some hurling rocks and climbing atop an armored

police truck, clashed with riot police Tuesday in the center of Cairo in a demonstration to

demand the end of Hosni Mubarak's nearly 30 years in power.

Police responded with blasts from water cannons and set upon crowds with batons and acrid

clouds of tear gas to clear demonstrators crying out "Down with Mubarak" and demanding an

end to Egypt's grinding poverty, corruption, unemployment and police abuses.

Tuesday's demonstration, the largest Egypt has seen for years, began peacefully, with police

showing unusual restraint in what appeared to be a calculated strategy by the government to

avoid further sullying the image of a security apparatus widely seen as little more than corrupt

thugs in uniforms.


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13Attempts to pacify

Hosni Mubarak said he will not run for a new term in office in September elections, but rejected

demands that he step down immediately and leave the country, vowing to die on Egypt's soil, in

a television address Tuesday after a dramatic day in which a quarter-million protesters called on

him to go.

Mubarak said he would serve out the rest of his term working to ensure a "peaceful transfer of

power" and carry out amendments to rules on presidential elections.

But the half-way concession - an end to his rule months down the road - was immediately

derided by protesters massed in Cairo's main downtown square.

Watching his speech on a giant TV set up in Tahrir square, protesters booed and waved their

shoes over the heads in a sign of contempt. "Go, go, go! We are not leaving until he leaves," they

chanted, and one man screamed, "He doesn't want to say it, he doesn't want to say it."

He insisted that his decision not to run had nothing to do with the unprecedented protests that

have shaken Egypt the past week. "I tell you in all sincerity, regardless of the current

circumstances, I never intended to be a candidate for another term."

"I will work for the final remaining months of the current term to accomplish the necessary steps

for the peaceful transfer of power," he said.

Mubarak resolutely vowed not to flee the country. "This dear nation is where I lived; I fought for

it and defended its soil, sovereignty and interests. On its soil I will die. History will judge me like

it did others."

His speech came after a visiting envoy of President Barack Obama told Mubarak that his ally theUnited States sees his presidency at an end. Frank Wisner, a respected former U.S. ambassador

to Egypt who is a friend of the Egyptian president, made clear to Mubarak that the U.S "view

that his tenure as president is coming to close," according to an administration official, who

spoke on condition of anonymity because of the delicacy of the ongoing diplomacy.


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14Adding to the woes of the people, the Government shut down the internet and all other

messaging system else the telephonic calls. Reporters of various media agencies such as Al

Jazeera, CNN and BBC World confirmed the news which waved during the evening of 27th

.

Opposition parties called for Feb. 4 to be a "Day of Departure" earlier this week, All Voices

reports. The plan: to come together in massive numbers and in one voice demand President

Hosni Mubarak to step down once and for all.

An Al Jazeera analyst said the goal was clear: "The idea is to send a message, and have the

largest amount of people participate."

Protesters demanding Mubarak's ouster packed Cairo's central square in huge numbers, waving

Egyptian flags, singing the national anthem and cheering, appearing undaunted and determined

after their camp withstood two days of street battles with regime supporters trying to dislodge

them.

Thousands more flowed over bridges across the Nile into Tahrir Square, a sign that they were not

intimidated after fending off everything thrown at the protesters by pro-Mubarak attackers --

stones, firebombs, fighters on horses and camels and automatic gunfire. The protesters passed

through a series of beefed-up checkpoints by the military and the protesters themselves guarding

the square.

The crowd, well over 10,000, was the biggest since Tuesday, when a quarter-million turned out.

They chanted, prayed and unfurled a long banner in the national colors of red, black and white. A

man sitting in a wheelchair was lifted -- wheelchair and all -- over the heads of the crowd and he

pumped his arms in the air.

Egyptian Defense Minister Hussein Tantawi and senior army officials visited the square Friday

morning and soldiers were checking IDs and performing body searches at its entrances, a sign

that Egypt's most powerful institution was sanctioning the demonstration.


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15The New York Times reported that live video feeds were cut off in the square Thursday evening

and numerous journalists were attacked and detained, so it was not clear how well the media will

was able to report that days happenings.

Coinciding with "Day of Departure" events in Egypt, a demonstration was planned for Feb. 4 in

New York City's Times Square, beginning at 3:30 p.m. local time. Meanwhile, a "Day of Rage"

was also planned in Syria for Feb. 4, with major protests in the capital city of Damascus.

The Obama administration said it was in talks with top Egyptian officials about the possibility of

Mubarak immediately resigning, and an interim government forming before free and fair

elections this year.

U.S. officials said the creation of a military-backed caretaker government was one of several

ideas being discussed between the Egyptian regime and the Obama administration. The

American officials spoke on condition of anonymity to discuss the continuing sensitive talks.

Among the options was a proposal for Mubarak to resign immediately and cede power to a

transitional government run by Vice President Omar Suleiman, the officials said.

Fall of the Obstinate

Hosni Mubarak resigned as president and handed control to the military on 11th

February bowing

down after a historic 18-day wave of pro-democracy demonstrations by hundreds of thousands.

"The people ousted the president," chanted a crowd of tens of thousands outside his presidential

palace in Cairo.

Several hundred thousand protesters massed in Cairo's central Tahrir Square exploded into joy,

waving Egyptian flags, and car horns and celebratory shots in the air were heard around the cityof 18 million in joy after Vice President Omar Suleiman made the announcement on national TV

just after nightfall.


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16Mubarak had sought to cling to power, handing some of his authorities to Suleiman while

keeping his title. But an explosion of protests Friday rejecting the move appeared to pushed the

military into forcing him out completely. Hundreds of thousands marched throughout the day in

cities across the country as soldiers stood by, besieging his palace in Cairo and Alexandria and

the state TV building.

"In these grave circumstances that the country is passing through, President Hosni Mubarak has

decided to leave his position as president of the republic," a grim-looking Suleiman said. "He has

mandated the Armed Forces Supreme Council to run the state. God is our protector and succor."

Nobel Peace laureate Mohammed El Baradei, whose young supporters were among the

organizers of the protest movement, told The Associated Press, "This is the greatest day of my

life."

"The country has been liberated after decades of repression," he said adding that he expects a

"beautiful" transition of power.8

Cheers across the Globe

World leaders hailed Hosni Mubarak's decision to step down as Egyptian president after 30 years

in power, saying they shared the joy of Egyptians and hoped the transition to democracy would

be peaceful.

"I look forward to the future to build a national consensus in the coming period. There is a big

chance now and a window has opened after this white revolution and after the president's

concession," the Egyptian secretary-general of the Arab League, Amr Moussa, told Al Arabiya

television.

"Today is a day of great joy," German Chancellor Angela Merkel told a news conference. "We

are all witness to historic change. I share the joy of people on the streets of Egypt."

8Supra 3


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17The most eagerly anticipated reaction was expected from Washington, where President Barack

Obama was due to make an address later on Friday. The White House said he watched scenes

from Cairo on TV after being told Mubarak stepped down.

Vice President Joe Biden called it a "pivotal" moment in the history of Egypt and the Middle

East.

European foreign policy Chief Catherine Ashton said: "By standing down, (Mubarak) has

listened to the voices of the Egyptian people and has opened the way to faster and deeper

reforms."

"It is important now that the dialogue is accelerated, leading to a broad-based government which

will respect the aspirations of, and deliver stability for, the Egyptian people."

Switzerland has frozen assets that may belong to Mubarak. "I can confirm that Switzerland has

frozen possible assets of the former Egyptian president with immediate effect," spokesman Lars

Knuchel said soon after Mubarak bowed to 18 days of mass protests. "As a result of this measure

any assets are frozen for three years."

He did not say how much money was involved or where it was. Assets belonging to Mubarak's

associates would also be targeted so as to limit the chance of state funds being plundered, the

ministry said. Mubarak and his associates would be prevented from selling or otherwise

disposing of property, notably real estate.

British Prime Minister David Cameron said, "Egypt now has a really precious moment of

opportunity to have a government that can bring the country together. As a friend of Egypt and

the Egyptian people we stand ready to help in any way we can.

"We believe it must be a government that starts to put in place the building blocks of a truly

open, free and democratic society," he told BBC television.

"What has happened today should only be the first step. Those who now run Egypt have a duty

to reflect the wishes of the Egyptian people and in particular there really must be a move to


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18civilian and democratic rule as part of this important transition to an open, democratic and free

Egypt," he added.

Revelers swept joyously into the streets across the Middle East on Friday after Hosni Mubarak

stepped down as Egypt's president. From Beirut to Gaza, tens of thousands handed out candy, set

off fireworks and unleashed celebratory gunfire. The governments of Jordan, Iraq and Sudan sent

their blessings.

Even in Israel, which had watched Egypt's 18-day uprising against Mubarak with some

trepidation, a former Cabinet minister said Mubarak did the right thing. "The street won. There

was nothing that could be done. It's good that he did what he did," former Defense Minister

Benjamin Ben-Eliezer, who knew Mubarak well and spoke to him, told Israel TV's Channel 10.

The boisterous street celebrations erupted within moments of the dramatic announcement by

Egyptian Vice President Omar Suleiman that Mubarak had stepped down. The success of Egypt's

protesters in ousting a longtime ruler came less than a month after a pro-democracy movement in

Tunisia pushed dictator Zine El Abidine Ben Ali into exile in Saudi Arabia on Jan. 14.9

GOVERNMENTAL SETUP: EGYPTEgypt is a republic with a unitary governance format which runs under Presidential Governance

structure. Egypt has a bicameral legislature, comprising the Peoples Assembly and the Advisory

Council. The Peoples Assembly consists of 2 elected representatives from each of 222

geographical constituencies, along with 10 members appointed by the president, for a total of

454 members, all serving five-year terms. The Advisory Council, which serves only in a

consultative role, consists of 176 popularly elected members and 88 presidential appointees, all

of whom serve six-year terms.10

9http://www.azcentral.com/news/articles/2011/02/12/20110212mideast-reax0212.html , 21/03/2011

10http://parliament.gov.eg, 15/04/2011
http://www.azcentral.com/news/articles/2011/02/12/20110212mideast-reax0212.htmlhttp://www.azcentral.com/news/articles/2011/02/12/20110212mideast-reax0212.htmlhttp://www.azcentral.com/news/articles/2011/02/12/20110212mideast-reax0212.htmlhttp://parliament.gov.eg/http://parliament.gov.eg/http://parliament.gov.eg/http://parliament.gov.eg/http://www.azcentral.com/news/articles/2011/02/12/20110212mideast-reax0212.html


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19LEGISLATURE

The 1923 Constitution of Egypt was a previous working constitution of Egypt during the period

1923-1952. It was replaced by the 1930 Constitution for a 5-year period (19301935) before

being restored in 1935. It adopted the parliamentary representative system based on separation of

and cooperation among authorities. The Parliament was bicameral system made up of the Senate

and the House of Representatives. There were six councils running in parallel with the

Legislative Assembly i.e. High Council, Consultation Council, Representative Consultation

Council, Egyptian Representative Council and Law Consultative Council.

According to the 1923 Constitution, The Egyptian Parliament was bi-cameral, made up of the

Senate and the House of Representatives. The constitution also adopted the principle of equal

competences for the two houses with some exceptions. All of the members of the House ofRepresentatives were to be elected, for a 5-year term. On the other hand, three fifths of the

Senate members were elected, and the rest were appointed.

The number of members varied along the years the constitution was in effect. The House of

Representatives, had 214 members in the period 1924-1930, then became 235.The number

decreased under the 1923 Constitution which continued in effect from 1931-1934 to become 150.

It increased once again under the 1923 Constitution to become 232 for the period from 1936-

1938. Then the number of members became 264 from 1938- 1949. Then it is was increased to

319 in 1950 and continued as such up till the 1952 revolution.

Although the parliament established by the 1923 constitution was an advanced step along the

course of democracy and representation in Egypt. However, practice was mixed with numerous

negative aspects.

Political life in the period 1923-1952 varied between tides of limited popular democracy and

ebbs due to intervention by occupation forces and the palace, which led to the dissolution of

parliament ten times. Moreover, a new constitution was issued in 1930, and lasted for five years.

This was a setback to democratic life until the 1923 constitution was restored in 1935.


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20There have been five constitutional enactments thus changing the structure of governance which

can be enlisted as, 1956 Constitution; UAR Constitution, 1963 Provisional Constitution and 1971

Constitutional Framework.

In the current form Parliament meets for one eight-month session each year; whereas the

President of the Republic can call an additional session under special circumstances.11

The Peoples Assembly (Maglis El-Shaab)

The People's Assembly is the principal legislative body. Out of the assemblys 454 deputies, 444

are directly elected while no more than 10 may be appointed by the President (article 87 of the

Constitution). The Constitution reserves fifty percent of the assembly seats for workers and

peasants. The assembly sits for a five-year term but can be dissolved earlier by the President.All seats are voted on in each election. Four hundred seats are voted on using proportional

representation while the remaining forty-four are elected in local majority votes.

The Peoples Assembly may force the resignation of the executive cabinet by voting a motion of

censure. For this reason, the Prime Minister and his cabinet are necessarily from the dominant

party or coalition in the assembly. In the case of a president and assembly from opposing parties,

this leads to the situation known as cohabitation. While motions of censure are periodically

proposed by the opposition following government actions that it deems highly inappropriate,

they are purely rhetorical; party discipline ensures that, throughout a parliamentary term, the

government is never overthrown by the assembly.

11ibid

PARLIAMENT

MAGLIS EL-SHAAB

MAGLIS EL-SHURA


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21The Consultative Council (Maglis El-Shura)

The Shura Council is the 264-member upper house of Parliament created in 1980. In the Shura

Council 176 members are directly elected and 88 members are appointed by the President of the

Republic for six-year terms. One half of the Shura Council is renewed every three years.

The Shura Council's legislative powers are limited. On most matters of legislation, the Peoples

Assembly retains the last word in the event of a disagreement between the two houses.

JUDICIARY

The judicial system in Egypt is based on English common law, Islamic law, and Napoleonic

codes subject to judicial review by the Supreme Court and the Council of State, which overseesthe validity of administrative decisions. A tension between civil law derived from France and

competition from promoters of Islamic law exists. Recently, Islamic activists succeeded in

amending the constitution to state that Shari'ah (Islamic) law is in principle the sole source of

legislation. Formerly, Shari'ah applied primarily to Muslims with regard to family, personal

status, and inheritance matters. Egypt accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations.

Simple police offenses, misdemeanors, and civil cases involving small amounts are subject to the

jurisdiction of single-judge summary tribunals. The trial courts of the central tribunals, consisting

of three justices each, sit in cases exceeding the jurisdiction of summary courts and also consider

appeals. Traffic in narcotics and press offenses, considered serious crimes, are tried by the courts

of appeals of the central tribunals in the first instance, sitting as assize courts. There are seven

courts of appealsat Cairo, Alexandria, Tanta, Al-Mansurah, Asyut, Bani-Souef, and Ismailia

which sit in chambers of three judges. The highest tribunal is the Court of Cassation, composed

of 30 justices, which sits in panels of at least 5 justices.

The 1971 constitution declares that the judiciary is independent of other state powers and that

judges are independent and not subject to enforced retirement. The Supreme Constitutional Court

is responsible for enforcing adherence to laws and regulations and for interpreting legislation and

the constitution. The Office of the Socialist Public Prosecutor is responsible to the People's


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22Assembly for the security of the people's rights, the integrity of the political system, and other

matters.

The president appoints all civilian judges, from nominations by the Supreme Judicial Council, a

body designed to assure the independence of the judiciary and composed of senior judges,

lawyers, law professors, and the president of the Court of Cassation. Judges are appointed for

life, with mandatory retirement at age 64. The judiciary has demonstrated a good degree of

independence from the executive branch; for example, it handed down recent decisions

invalidating bans on political parties.

The State of Emergency in place since the assassination of President Anwar Sadat (and most

recently extended in 2003) has led to detention without due process for many persons.

Emergency security courts try suspected terrorists whose only recourse upon conviction is an

appeal for clemency to the president or prime minister.12

There are various kinds of courts existing under the setup such as

1. The Cassation Court2. Court of Appeal3. Court of First Instance4. Courts of Limited Jurisdiction5. Family CourtThe Court of Cassation, the only one in its category, was established in 1931 and based in Cairo.

The Court of Cassation, the exclusive body atop the judicial hierarchy in Egypt, was designated

with the purpose of creating a central tool to provide exclusive and uniform interpretation and

application of law.

The jurisdiction of Court of Cassation basically includes consideration of challenges brought to it

by either adversary or by the public prosecution.

It also includes examining lawsuits related to judges' actions. In such a case, the court undertakes

its role as a court of merit, rather than a court of law.

12http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Egypt-JUDICIAL-SYSTEM.html , 18/03/2011
http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Egypt-JUDICIAL-SYSTEM.htmlhttp://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Egypt-JUDICIAL-SYSTEM.htmlhttp://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Egypt-JUDICIAL-SYSTEM.htmlhttp://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Egypt-JUDICIAL-SYSTEM.html


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23It also has the power to give rulings on requests of reparations for all violated verdicts. The court

issues annual collections on approved judicial principles under the title Rulings and Principles

of The Court of Cassation.

Courts of Appeal, some which are called Higher Courts of Appeal, have the competence to

consider rulings by the courts of first instance falling under its jurisdiction should these rulings

be liable for appeal.

According to the Egyptian judiciary law, there are seven courts of appeal in Egypt; in Cairo,

Alexandria, Tanta, Mansoura, Ismailia, Beni Swaif and Assuit.

These courts of first instance have the competence to consider lawsuits filed before them as may

fall under their jurisdictions. Their rulings are liable to appeal.

These courts have the competence to issue rulings on lawsuits of limited importance, falling

under their geographical and term jurisdictions. These rulings are liable to appeal.

The Family Court (FC) was established in 2004, motivated by the need to differentiate between

family litigations and other disputes. It is intended to provide a specialized judiciary tool that

would take cognizance of such cases in an atmosphere totally different from that of other

lawsuits.

This aims to secure psychological peace for the children who may be involved, especially in such

cases of tutelage, divorce, alimony, custody, etc.

The ultimate objective of this court is to hammer out an amicable settlement for family problems

through specialized guidance bureaus.13

13http://www.undp-pogar.org/countries/theme.aspx?cid=5&t=9 , 22/03/2011
http://www.undp-pogar.org/countries/theme.aspx?cid=5&t=9http://www.undp-pogar.org/countries/theme.aspx?cid=5&t=9http://www.undp-pogar.org/countries/theme.aspx?cid=5&t=9http://www.undp-pogar.org/countries/theme.aspx?cid=5&t=9


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24

EXECUTIVE

The Head of the State is the President. Appointed by at least a one-third of the Majlis al-Sha'ab,

the People's Assembly, approved by at least two-third and elected by a popular referendum, he is

elected for a time of six years and maybe re-elected for other subsequent terms. The

implementation of general state policy is formulated and supervised by him. He is also the

Supreme Commander of the Armed Force. The last elected president of the republic was

Mohammed Hosni Mubarak.

The supreme executive and administrative organ of the State is the government, consisting of the

Council of Ministers. They are headed by the Prime Minister and he supervises the work of the

government. The highest Executive and administrative organ of the Egyptian Republic is the

Council of Ministers. The Ministers are all jointly responsible for the general policy of the State

before the People's Assembly, and each Minister is responsible for the performance of his

Ministry.

The Parliament has the right to withdraw confidence from the Cabinet or from any Cabinet

member.

MULTI PARTY SYSTEM IN EGYPT

The Egyptian Constitution doesnt provide for any form of constraints in the number of parties,

thus enabling the multi party system though, religious political parties are not allowed as it

would not respect the principle of non-interference of religion in politics and that religion has to

remain in the private sphere to respect all beliefs. In addition, political parties supporting militia

formations or having an agenda that is contradictory to the constitution and its principles, or

threatening the country's stability such as national unity between Muslim Egyptians and

Christian Egyptians. In total, 18 political parties exist in Egypt as of now with the below given

standings.


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25e dSummary of the 2010 People's Assembly of Egypt election results14

Parties Votes % Seats2005

Seats

Net

Change

Seats

%

National Democratic Party (Al'Hizb Al

Watani Al Democrati)420 330 90 81.0%

New Wafd Party (Hizb al-Wafd-al-Jadid) 6 5 1 1.1%

Progressive National Unionist Party (Hizb

al Tagammo' al Watani al Taqadommi al

Wahdwawi)

5 1 4 0.9%

Tomorrow Party (Hizb al-Ghad) 1 1 0 0.2%

Arab Democratic Nasserist Party or

Nasserist Party0 0 0 0.0%

Liberal Party (Hizb al-Ahrar) 0 0 0 0.0%

Social Justice Party (Hizb Al-'Adala al-

Ijtima'iyya) 1 - 1 0.2%

14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Egypt , 20/03/2011
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Egypt


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26Democratic Generation Party (Hizb El-Geel

al-Democrati)1 - 1 0.2%

Democratic Peace Party (Hizb El-Salaam

al-Democrati)1 - 1 0.2%

Independents (Muslim Brotherhood - al-

ikhwn al-muslimn)1 88 87 0.2%

Independents (other) 68 19 49

Still in contest 4

Unelected members 10 0 0 1.9%

Total (turnout %) 518


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27CONCLUSION

Egypts governance has been turbulent since its establishment as a state, and is still striving to

recover from its desolation. Even though Mubarak has been deposed and the army has been

charged with authorities, several protests are still being staged for the leniency shown by the

military authorities.

The constitution embodies vast powers into the President, thus disrupting the separation of

powers as well as the system of checks and balances. Executive seems in complete supremacy,

whereas legislature and judiciary can be moulded according to the wishes of the executive. The

revolution also called for constitutional reform in its blaze. Egyptian military has been earmarked

for the task; which has asked for 6 months for the process and is already on with that.


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28BIBLIOGRAPHY

Treatises

1. Warren E. Lee, The Mystery of Sphinx, PLIM Report2. Hooghe D. Alain, The Great Pyramids of Giza, Vilo Publishing3. Midant-Reynes, Batrix. The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First

Kings. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers

4. Bard, Kathryn A. Ian Shaw, Ed. The Oxford Illustrated History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford:Oxford University Press, 2000. p. 69

Websites

1. http://www.huffingtonpost.net/2. http://egyptianrevolution.net/3. http://www.azcentral.com/4. http://parliament.gov.eg/5. http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/6. http://en.wikipedia.org/
http://www.huffingtonpost.net/http://www.huffingtonpost.net/http://egyptianrevolution.net/http://egyptianrevolution.net/http://www.azcentral.com/http://www.azcentral.com/http://parliament.gov.eg/http://parliament.gov.eg/http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/http://en.wikipedia.org/http://en.wikipedia.org/http://en.wikipedia.org/http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/http://parliament.gov.eg/http://www.azcentral.com/http://egyptianrevolution.net/http://www.huffingtonpost.net/

Egypt Governance System and Revolutions

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