efotg.sc.egov.usda.gov · i. National Cooperative Soil Survey. This document and the associated...

United StatesDepartment ofAgriculture

NaturalResourcesConservationService

United StatesDepartment ofthe Interior

National ParkService

Ecological Site Descriptions for Mount Rainier National Park, Washington

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National Cooperative Soil SurveyThis document and the associated Soil Survey of Mount Rainier National Park,

Washington (USDA, 2016), are publications of the National Cooperative Soil Survey, a joint effort of the United States Department of Agriculture and other Federal agencies, State agencies including the Agricultural Experiment Stations, and local agencies. The Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) has leadership for the Federal part of the National Cooperative Soil Survey. This document and the soil survey were made cooperatively by the Natural Resources Conservation Service and the National Park Service.

Major fieldwork for the soil survey and ecological site descriptions was completed in 2013. Soil names and descriptions were approved in 2014. Unless otherwise indicated, statements in this publication refer to conditions in the survey area in 2014. The most current official data are available at http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/app/.

Citation

The proper citation for this document is as follows:

United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, and United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service. 2018. Ecological Site Descriptions for Mount Rainier National Park, Washington.

Nondiscrimination StatementIn accordance with Federal civil rights law and U.S. Department of Agriculture

(USDA) civil rights regulations and policies, the USDA, its Agencies, offices, and employees, and institutions participating in or administering USDA programs are prohibited from discriminating based on race, color, national origin, religion, sex, gender identity (including gender expression), sexual orientation, disability, age, marital status, family/parental status, income derived from a public assistance program, political beliefs, or reprisal or retaliation for prior civil rights activity, in any program or activity conducted or funded by USDA (not all bases apply to all programs). Remedies and complaint filing deadlines vary by program or incident.

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To file a program discrimination complaint, complete the USDA Program Discrimination Complaint Form, AD-3027, found online at http://www.ascr.usda.gov/complaint_filing_cust.html and at any USDA office or write a letter addressed to USDA and provide in the letter all of the information requested in the form. To request a copy of the complaint form, call (866) 632-9992. Submit your completed form or letter to USDA by:

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http://www.ascr.usda.gov/complaint_filing_cust.html

http://www.ascr.usda.gov/complaint_filing_cust.html

mailto:[email protected]

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Cover Caption View from Spray Park, looking southeast over Echo Rock and Observation Rock to

Liberty Cap, on Mount Rainier.

Additional information about the Nation’s natural resources is available online from the Natural Resources Conservation Service at http://www.nrcs.usda.gov.

http://www.nrcs.usda.gov

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ContentsContents ....................................................................................................................... iiiIntroduction ....................................................................................................................1History and Development ..............................................................................................2Climate ..........................................................................................................................4Ecological Site Description Key .....................................................................................5Ecological Site Descriptions ......................................................................................9Range Ecological Sites

R003XN540WA—Southern Washington Cascades Wet Subalpine Parkland ........10R003XN541WA—Southern Washington Cascades Moist Subalpine Parkland .......19R003XN542WA—Southern Washington Cascades Subalpine Parkland ................33R003XN543WA—Southern Washington Cascades Alpine Tundra .........................46R003XN544WA—Southern Washington Cascades Wet Alpine Tundra .................57R003XN545WA—Southern Washington Cascades Debris-covered Glaciers ........66R003XN640WA—Southern Washington Cascades Low Cryic Bog or Fen ............76R003XN641WA—Southern Washington Cascades High Cryic Bog or Fen ...........85

Forest Ecological SitesF003XN940WA—Southern Washington Cascades Frigid Riparian Forest ............94F003XN941WA—Southern Washington Cascades Wet Frigid Coniferous

Forest................ ...............................................................................................109F003XN942WA—Southern Washington Cascades Moist Frigid Coniferous

Forest ................. .............................................................................................121F003XN943WA—Southern Washington Cascades Frigid Coniferous Forest .......136F003XN944WA—Southern Washington Cascades Low Cryic Riparian Forest ...152 F003XN945WA—Southern Washington Cascades Wet Low Cryic Coniferous

Forest .................... .........................................................................................166F003XN946WA—Southern Washington Cascades Moist Low Cryic Coniferous

Forest ................... ..........................................................................................178F003XN947WA—Southern Washington Cascades Low Cryic Coniferous

Forest . ............................................................................................................193F003XN948WA—Southern Washington Cascades Low Cryic Deciduous

Forest . ............................................................................................................209F003XN949WA—Southern Washington Cascades High Cryic Riparian

Forest .... ..........................................................................................................221F003XN950WA—Southern Washington Cascades Moist High Cryic

Coniferous Forest ... .......................................................................................231F003XN951WA—Southern Washington Cascades High Cryic Coniferous

Forest ..... .........................................................................................................246F003XN952WA—Southern Washington Cascades High Cryic Deciduous

Forest ... ..........................................................................................................261References ................................................................................................................273

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By Erin Kreutz, United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service Fieldwork by Kathryn Smith, Toby Rodgers, and Philip Roberts, United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, and Sharon Brady, United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service,in cooperation withUnited States Department of the Interior, National Park Service

IntroductionEcological communities are dynamic; species may be common or rare, depending

on environmental factors. Climate, soils, seed sources, and human management are major environmental factors that influence the composition of species at a particular site. To quantify the differences, the response to disturbances of separate groups of distinct, co-occurring species is documented. Ecological site descriptions (ESDs) illustrate the effects of environmental conditions and disturbance regimes on the plant community at a particular site.

Range and forest are the two types of ESDs. Range typically has less than 25 percent tree canopy coverage, and forest typically has more than 25 percent coverage. The principal species expected in the overstory and understory are used to name an ESD and all associated plant communities. Each ESD is based on the reference community (also referred to as community phase 1.1). This community existed prior to European immigration and has been subject to minimal disturbance. Moderate and major natural disturbances, such as drought, high-intensity fires, and insect outbreaks, result in the reference community becoming a different plant community phase. With time and a lack of further major disturbance, however, the plant community will return to its original condition. The various disturbances and the resulting plant communities are shown in the state and transition (S&T) model. The S&T model can be used to help landowners determine the ecological timeline of the land and the plant community that can be expected if various management practices are applied.

The following methods are used to determine the characteristic states of an ecological site:

1. Identification and evaluation of reference sites with similar plant communities and associated soils. When describing the historic climax plant community, the reference sites should not have been subject to abnormal disturbances (or lack of normal disturbance). The productivity and species composition of the plant community should be evaluated.

2. Evaluation and comparison of the same ecological sites occurring under different levels of disturbance and management. The sites should also be compared to areas that are not disturbed. Projecting the response of plant species to particular


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disturbances and relating the present-day occurrence of species on a site to past disturbances (type, extent, frequency, and magnitude of disturbances) provides a basis for approximating certain vegetative characteristics of a plant community.

3. Evaluation and interpretation of research data on the ecology, management, and soils of a plant community.

4. Review of historical documents, survey and military records, and botanical literature on a particular area.

Figure 1.—Location of Mount Rainier National Park in Washington. Regional urban centers and major roads are shown for reference. (Map provided by National Park Service.)

History and DevelopmentMount Rainier National Park is centered around an active volcanic peak in the

Cascade Mountain Range, in western Washington State (fig. 1). Mount Rainier was named in honor of Captain Peter Rainier. It is the second highest and most glaciated peak in the conterminous United States, rising to an elevation of 14,410 feet above sea level. The park consists of 235,381 acres, covering the eastern portions of Pierce and Lewis Counties. It is approximately 62 miles southeast of Seattle, Washington, and is bounded by Mount Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest to the west and north, Gifford Pinchot National Forest to the south, and Okanogan-Wenatchee National Forest to the east (fig. 2). About 3 percent of the park is designated as a national historic landmark district and 97 percent is designated as wilderness. The park preserves a wild and rugged landscape in the Pacific Northwest.

Mount Rainier National Park receives approximately 2 million visitors per year.There are several readily accessible entrances to the park during the peak

season in summer. The most widely used entrance is the Nisqually Entrance, along Washington State Route 706, at the southwest corner of the park. This is the only vehicle entrance that is open year round, and it is the main access to the Longmire and Paradise areas. Other entrances include the Mowich and Carbon River Entrances at the northwest corner of the park; the White River Entrance at the northeast corner and the Chinook Pass Entrance on the eastern boundary, both of which are along Washington State Route 410; and the Ohanapecosh Entrance, along Washington State Route 123, at the southeast corner.

A long and diverse geologic history has resulted in a variety of landforms, soils, and dramatic topography. Numerous waterways, including the Nisqually, Puyallup, Carbon, White, and Cowlitz Rivers, start their journey to the Pacific Ocean on the flanks of Mount Rainier. A complex mosaic of mountainous topography and varied climatic conditions produce a diverse regional ecology of temperate rainforests, mountain forests and meadows, and alpine parkland. The park also has a rich cultural history that spans thousands of years.

Mount Rainier National Park was established in 1899 as the Nation’s fifth national park. The park provides a wealth of scenic, recreational, educational, and naturalistic opportunities for visitors from the largely urban population of Puget Sound. Activities


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include camping, hiking, fishing, climbing, wildlife viewing, bird watching, guided tours, and numerous interpretive and educational programs. The park offers a primitive wilderness experience in its backcountry, and numerous roadside exhibits and interpretive displays offer opportunities to learn about the region without traveling into the wilderness. The park was established “to preserve the area in a natural condition for the enjoyment of present and future generations” (Catton, 1996).

Visitation to Mount Rainier National Park has changed considerably since it was first established. Changing attitudes and goals of the public and park staff have shaped the administration of the park with respect to how visitors are accommodated. The annual number of visitors surpassed 2 million in the 1990’s, and the majority of those visits were made by automobile. This high level of visitation presents challenges to the park administration and has demonstrated a need for understanding the natural resources of the park now more than ever before. The challenge is to balance conservation of the wilderness with management of visitation and recreation within the park boundaries.

Headquarters for Mount Rainier National Park are along Washington State Route 706, between the towns of Elbe and Ashford and approximately 10 miles west of the Nisqually Entrance. Ranger stations are at the Nisqually Entrance and in the Longmire, Paradise, Ohanapecosh, White River, Sunrise, and Carbon River areas. Visitor centers include the Henry M. Jackson Memorial Visitor Center at Paradise and those in the Ohanapecosh and Sunrise areas.

Vehicle-accessible campgrounds are at Cougar Rock, Ohanapecosh, White River,and Mowich Lake.

ClimateMount Rainier National Park is characterized by a humid temperate climate.

Topography and proximity to the ocean are the major influences on the regional climate. Maritime influence is substantial; tidewater is as close as 30 miles to the boundary of the park. The corridors provided by the Nisqually, Puyallup, and White River Valleys allow moist marine air to reach the lower flanks of the volcano. Proximity to the northern Pacific Ocean produces significant rain and snow. Precipitation falls mostly in winter; summers are relatively warm and dry. Temperatures are generally mild at the lower elevations, but they drop substantially as elevation increases.

Two semi-permanent pressure systems influence the local climate in the Cascade Range of Washington (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2014).

These pressure systems are known as the North Pacific High and the Aleutian Low, and each year they fluctuate in intensity and position over the northern Pacific Ocean and the Cascade Range. In summer, the North Pacific High migrates northward over the northern Pacific Ocean and Washington. This clockwise circulation brings relatively cool, dry marine air over Washington and the Cascade Range throughout summer.

Late in autumn and throughout winter, the Aleutian Low strengthens and migrates southward, producing a pronounced rainy season over the Pacific Northwest. This counterclockwise circulation produces a southwesterly flow of cold, moist marine air. The majority of the precipitation falls as snow over the Cascade Range, and the snowpack commonly is more than 6 feet deep at the higher elevations.

The Aleutian Low pressure system, proximity to the Cascade Crest, and local topography influence the distribution of precipitation in the region. Mount Rainier causes strong orographic effects that influence the local climate in the park. These effects contribute to a humid climate on the western slopes of the Cascade Range while the eastern slopes have a drier climate. Typical winter storms arrive from the south and west, producing a drier microclimate to the northeast of the mountain.

Across the park, the annual precipitation ranges from 48 to 185 inches. It varies greatly with elevation and location relative to the volcanic cone (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2014). The intense topographic relief forces moist air masses to the higher, colder elevations, where snowfields and alpine glaciers form and are preserved.


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Ecological Site Description Key The key is based on abiotic and biotic features.

1. Site may have some trees (25 percent cover or less), but low shrubs, forbs, grasses, and grasslike plants are more abundant. If yes, go to “A.” If no, go to “2.”A. Site is in an unforested bog or fen. If yes, go to “a.” If no, go to “B.”

a. Site is at an elevation of 2,100 to 4,600 feet above sea level. Common plants include mannagrass, American skunkcabbage, water sedge, black alpine sedge, rushes, bluejoint reedgrass, and white marsh marigold. If yes, the site is Southern Washington Cascades Low Cryic Bog or Fen (R003XN640WA). If no, go to “b.”

b. Site is at an elevation of 3,600 to 6,500 feet above sea level and is in depressions of cirque floors and swales of terraces. Common plants include tufted bulrush, American skunkcabbage, water sedge, bluejoint reedgrass, white marsh marigold, and black alpine sedge. If yes, the site is Southern Washington Cascades High Cryic Bog or Fen(R003XN641WA). If no, go to “B.”

B. Site is on debris-covered glaciers at an elevation of 3,600 to 7,200 feet above sea level. The soils are shallow and have permafrost within 20 inches of the surface. Common plants include stunted conifers, Sitka alder, fireweed, willowherb, hawkweed, rushes, and Scouler’s willow. If yes, the site is Southern Washington Cascades Debris-covered Glaciers (R003XN545WA). If no, go to “C.”

C. Site is at an elevation of 3,300 to 7,000 feet above sea level and is in alpine parklands. If yes, go to “c.” If no, go to “D.”

c. Site is associated with soils that typically are ponded during the growing season. The primary plant is black alpine sedge. If yes, the site is Southern Washington Cascades Wet Subalpine Parkland (R003XN540WA). If no, go to “d.”

d. Site is on the south- and west-facing slopes of Mount Rainier. The mean annual precipitation is 77 to 140 inches. Common plants include Cascade huckleberry, pink mountain heather, white mountain heather, black alpine sedge, and spreading phlox. If yes, the site is Southern Washington Cascades Moist Subalpine Parkland (R003XN541WA). If no, go to “e.”

e. Site is on the north- and east-facing slopes of Mount Rainier. The mean annual precipitation is 59 to 122 inches. Common plants include fescue, smooth woodrush, false hellebore, mountain cinquefoil, Cascade desertparsley, and Cascade huckleberry. If yes, the site is Southern Washington Cascades Subalpine Parkland (R003XN542WA). If no, go to “D.”

D. Site is at an elevation of 4,600 to 11,000 feet above sea level. It is in alpine tundra, at the upper limits of plant growth. It commonly is covered with snow much of the growing season. If yes, go to “f.” If no, go to “2.”

f. Site has a short growing season as a result of a heavy snowpack. Plants are subject to intense solar radiation and high winds. Vegetation is sparse. Common plants include Davis’ knotweed, tundra aster, penstemon, common juniper, spreading phlox, and arctic lupine. If yes, the site is Southern Washington Cascades Alpine Tundra(R003XN543WA). If no, go to “g.”

g. Site is adjacent to water and melting snow for much of the growing season. It has a seasonal high water table at the soil surface to a depth of 8 inches below the surface. Vegetation is patchy and restricted to areas that have a higher content of soil moisture and availability of nutrients. Common plants include Tiling’s monkeyflower, partridgefoot,


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and black alpine sedge. If yes, the site is Southern Washington Cascades Wet Alpine Tundra (R003XN544WA). If no, go to “2.”

2. Site is forested, and more than 25 percent is covered with trees. If yes, go to “E.” Ifno, go to “1.”E. Site commonly is on gently sloping or flat flood plains and terraces associated

with streams and rivers in the southern Washington Cascades. If yes, go to “h.” Ifno, go to “F.”

h. Site is at an elevation of 1,600 to 2,100 feet above sea level. Commontrees are black cottonwood, western hemlock, western redcedar, andred alder. Common understory plants include Cascade Oregon grape,western rattlesnake plantain, ladyfern, western brackenfern, andqueencup beadlily. If yes, the site is Southern Washington CascadesFrigid Riparian Forest (F003XN940WA). If no, go to “i.”

i. Site is at an elevation of 2,000 to 6,100 feet above sea level. Commontrees are black cottonwood, Pacific silver fir, western redcedar, and Sitkaalder. Common understory plants include vine maple, Barclay’s willow,red huckleberry, and western swordfern. If yes, the site is SouthernWashington Cascades Low Cryic Riparian Forest(F003XN944WA). If no, go to “j.”

j. Site is at an elevation of 1,700 to 6,900 feet above sea level. Commonoverstory species are Alaska cedar, Sitka alder, Pacific silver fir, andEngelmann spruce. Common understory plants include vine maple,Barclay’s willow, five-leaved bramble, fireweed, and pearly everlasting. Ifyes, the site is Southern Washington Cascades High Cryic RiparianForest (F003XN949WA). If no, go to “F.”

F. Site is composed primarily of deciduous tree species in areas of activedisturbance on mountain slopes and valley sides. Disturbances include rockfalls,debris torrents, and avalanches. If yes, go to “k.” If no, go to “G.”

k. Site is at an elevation of 2,100 to 6,600 feet above sea level. Thevegetation is primarily Sitka alder, vine maple, red elderberry,thimbleberry, salmonberry, and devilsclub. Repeated avalanches do notallow for the establishment of a forested overstory; however, seedlingsof Pacific silver fir, noble fir, and western hemlock may be present. Ifyes, the site is Southern Washington Cascades Low Cryic DeciduousForest (F003XN948WA). If no, go to “l.”

l. Site is at an elevation of more than 3,600 feet above sea level. Thevegetation is primarily Sitka alder, Sitka mountain ash, Sitka valerian,and vine maple. Repeated avalanches do not allow for theestablishment of a forested overstory; however, seedlings of mountainhemlock, Alaska cedar, subalpine fir, and Pacific silver fir may bepresent. If yes, the site is Southern Washington Cascades High CryicDeciduous Forest (F003XN952WA). If no, go to “G.”

G. Site is composed primarily of coniferous tree species. If yes, go to “m.”m. Site commonly is at an elevation of 1,600 to 4,600 feet above sea level,

in the southern Washington Cascades. Western hemlock typically is inthe overstory. If yes, go to “i.” If no, go to “n.”

i. Site is in depressions and swales and on terraces, glacial-valleywalls, and debris aprons that are subject to frequent periods ofponding in April through June. Common tree species arewestern redcedar, red alder, western hemlock, and Douglas-fir.Common understory species include vine maple, salmonberry,devilsclub, American skunkcabbage, Oregon oxalis, deer fern,western swordfern, and western oakfern. If yes, the site isSouthern Washington Cascades Wet Frigid Coniferous Forest(F003XN941WA). If no, go to “ii.”


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ii. Site is in depressions and stream channels of terraces, debrisaprons, and valley walls. A seasonal high water table is at adepth of 10 to 20 inches from the soil surface some time duringthe growing season. Common overstory species are westernhemlock, western redcedar, Douglas-fir, and Sitka spruce.Common understory species include Cascade Oregon grape,vine maple, salmonberry, devilsclub, western rattlesnakeplantain, western swordfern, deer fern, and twinflower. If yes,the site is Southern Washington Cascades Moist FrigidConiferous Forest (F003XN942WA). If no, go to “iii.”

iii. Site is on debris aprons, mountain slopes, valley walls, andridges. Common overstory species are western hemlock,Douglas-fir, and western redcedar. Common understoryspecies include Cascade Oregon grape, salal, vine maple, redhuckleberry, baldhip rose, western rattlesnake plantain, andtwinflower. If yes, the site is Southern Washington CascadesFrigid Coniferous Forest (F003XN943WA). If no, go to “n.”

n. Site commonly is at an elevation of 1,800 to 5,700 feet above sea level, in the southern Washington Cascades. If yes, go to “iv.” If no, go to “o.”

iv. Site is in depressions and swales and on terraces and debris aprons that are subject to frequent periods of ponding in April through June. Common overstory species are western redcedar, red alder, Douglas-fir, and western hemlock. Common understory species are devilsclub, vine maple, salmonberry, thimbleberry, American skunkcabbage, western swordfern, deer fern, and western oakfern. If yes, the site is Southern Washington Cascades Wet Low Cryic Coniferous Forest (F003XN945WA). If no, go to “v.”

v. Site is in swales and on terraces and debris aprons of glacial valley walls. A seasonal high water table is at a depth of 10 to 20 inches from the soil surface some time during the growing season. Common overstory species are Pacific silver fir, western redcedar, bigleaf maple, western hemlock, and red alder. Understory species include devilsclub, vine maple, salmonberry, deer fern, and western swordfern. If yes, the site is Southern Washington Cascades Moist Low Cryic Coniferous Forest (F003XN946WA). If no, go to “vi.”

vi. Site is on debris aprons, bedrock benches, ridges, and glacial valley walls. A seasonal high water table is at a depth of 19 to 40 inches from the soil surface some time during the growing season. Common overstory species are Pacific silver fir, western hemlock, noble fir, and western redcedar. Understory species consist of black mountain huckleberry, red huckleberry, prince’s pine, bunchberry dogwood, and twinflower. If yes, the site is Southern Washington Cascades Low Cryic Coniferous Forest (F003XN947WA). If no, go to “o.”

o. Site commonly is at an elevation of 3,200 to 7,900 feet above sea level, in the Southern Washington Cascades. Mountain hemlock is present. If yes, go to “vii.”

vii. Site is on debris aprons of mountain slopes, lahars, cirque floors, and swales of glacial-valley walls. A seasonal high water table is at a depth of 10 to 20 inches from the soil surface some time during the growing season. Common overstory species are mountain hemlock and Alaska cedar. Common understory


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species are Cascade azalea, devilsclub, and dwarf bramble. If yes, the site is Southern Washington Cascades Moist High Cryic Coniferous Forest (F003XN950WA). If no, go to “viii.”

viii. Site is on debris aprons of mountain slopes, glacial-valley walls, and ridges. A seasonal high water table is at a depth of 19 to 40 inches from the soil surface some time during the growing season. Common overstory species include mountain hemlock and subalpine fir. Understory species include rusty menziesia, black mountain huckleberry, Sitka mountain ash, and common beargrass. If yes, the site is Southern Washington Cascades High Cryic Coniferous Forest (F003XN951WA).

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Ecological Site Descriptions


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United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service

Ecological Site Description Section I: Ecological Site Characteristics

Ecological Site Identification Site type: Rangeland Site name: Southern Washington Cascades Wet Subalpine Parkland Site ID: R003XN540WA Major land resource area (MLRA): 003—Olympic and Cascade Mountains

MLRA 3: Steep mountains and narrow to broad, gently sloping valleys characterize this MLRA. A triple junction of two oceanic plates and one continental plate is directly offshore from Puget Sound. Subduction of the oceanic plates under the westerly and northwesterly moving continental plate contributes to volcanic activity in the Cascade Mountains. Movement among these plates has resulted in major earthquakes and the formation of large stratovolcanoes. The Cascade Mountains consist primarily of volcanic crystalline rock and some associated metasedimentary rock. The mean annual precipitation is dominantly 60 to 100 inches, but it is 30 to 60 inches on the east side of the Cascade Mountains.

The soil orders in this MLRA are dominantly Andisols, Spodosols, and Inceptisols and minor areas of Entisols and Histosols. The soils are dominantly in the frigid or cryic temperature regime and the udic moisture regime. The soils generally are shallow to very deep, well drained, ashy to medial, and loamy or sandy. They are on mountain slopes and ridges.

Ecological Site Concept This ecological site is in small depressions of cirque floors, on debris aprons, and in swales of glacial-valley walls. It is in subalpine parkland. The most common natural disturbance is heavy snowpack. The volume and longevity of the snowpack affect the dynamics of the ecosystem. This site generally retains snow cover later in summer than do sites on south- and west-facing slopes. Growth starts more slowly due to the cooling effects of the high water table at the beginning of the growing season. Soils that support this ecological site are in the cryic temperature regime and the aquic moisture regime. This site typically is wet, and the associated soils are poorly drained. The growing season is very short as a result of the cool temperatures and total heat load in summer. Ponding on the soil surface is frequent, and it commonly persists for long periods.

Black alpine sedge (Carex nigricans) is the most common species on this site. The site commonly is a homogeneous ecosystem; however, areas where snow recedes earlier in the growing season may have higher vegetative diversity. These areas may support ladyfern (Athyrium filix-femina), black alpine sedge (Carex nigricans), bluejoint reedgrass (Calamagrostis canadensis), marsh marigold (Caltha leptosepala), and water parsley (Oenanthe sarmentosa). Because of the short growing season, flowering typically occurs later in the year and vegetation growth is limited. Continuous snowpack may affect the growing season in some years, and vegetation may be absent.


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Physiographic Features This ecological site is in small depressions of cirque floors, on debris aprons, and in swales of glacial-valley walls. It is in the Cascade Mountains (elevation 3,300 to 7,000 feet) of Mount Rainier National Park. Slope commonly is 0 to 15 percent.

Feature Minimum Maximum

Elevation (feet): 3,300 7,000

Slope (percent): 0 15

Aspect: All

Depth to water table (inches): 0 >75

Flooding: Frequency— Duration—

None None

None None

Ponding: Frequency— Duration—

None None

Frequent

Long

Climatic Features Most of the annual precipitation is received in October through March. The mean annual precipitation is 53 to 125 inches, and the mean annual air temperature is 33 to 45 degrees F. The microclimate may vary depending on the soil temperature and site-specific features. Generally, the summers are cool and dry and the winters are cold and wet.


Frost-free period (days): 30 90

Mean annual precipitation (inches): 53 125

Mean annual air temperature (degrees F): 33 45


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Monthly Precipitation (inches)

Precipitation Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Minimum 9.3 5.8 5.3 3.8 3.3 1.8 .08 0.8 1.8 3.3 7.8 7.8

Maximum 19.5 14.5 12.5 10.8 6.8 4.3 2.3 3.3 4.8 10.3 21 19.5

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Inch

es

Precipitation

precip_min precip_max

Monthly Air Temperature (degrees F)

Temperature Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Minimum 24 24.3 26.9 30.1 36.6 42.4 49.8 50.9 45.9 36.6 27.2 23.4

Maximum 31.9 32.5 34.8 39.3 45.8 51.1 58.3 59 53.8 44.4 35.2 30.6

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0


Degr

ees

F

Temperature

temp_min temp_max

Precipitation and temperature data are from the PRISM Climate Group, Oregon State University http://prism.oregonstate.edu. The tables were created February 26, 2015.

http://prism.oregonstate.edu/


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Influencing Water Features This ecological site is in depressions of cirque floors, on debris aprons, and in swales at middle to high elevations in Mount Rainier National Park. This site is subject to frequent, long periods of ponding. The soils are poorly drained. The water table typically rises in spring and recedes in fall.

Representative Soil Features Applicable soils: Williwakas

Applicable soil map units in Mount Rainier National Park: 8201, 8211, 8220, 8225, 8250, 8251, 8256, 8257, 9210, 9220, 9225, 9253, 9254, 9258, 9259

The Williwakas soils are in the cryic temperature regime and aquic moisture regime. The soils are poorly drained and very deep. They formed in volcanic ash and are in depressions of cirque floors, on debris aprons, and in swales of glacial-valley walls. The Williwakas soils have a seasonal high water table at the surface at some time during the growing season. They are subject to frequent periods of ponding in April, May, and June. The soils have less than 35 percent rock fragments in the control section. They are coarse textured and are dominantly medial sandy loam or medial loamy sand. The Williwakas soils exhibit andic soil properties in all mineral horizons. Melanization is the dominant pedogenic process. Podsolization is not evident because of a lack of coniferous forest cover. These soils have an umbric epipedon and a cambic horizon.

Excessive soil moisture is a limiting factor for plant growth on the Williwakas soils because of the frequent periods of ponding and the abundance of precipitation and snowmelt. A thin organic horizon consisting of decomposing litter is on the soil surface. This horizon helps to protect the soils from wind and water erosion.

Parent material: Volcanic ash

Surface texture: (1) Medial sandy loam (2) Medial loamy sand

Subsurface texture group: Medial sandy loam, medial loamy sand, paragravelly medial sandy loam

Drainage class: Poorly drained

Saturated hydraulic conductivity: High or very high


Depth (inches): 60 >60

Surface fragments <=3 inches (percent cover): 0 15

Surface fragments >3 inches (percent cover): 0 0

Subsurface fragments <=3 inches (percent volume): 0 35

Subsurface fragments >3 inches (percent volume): 0 0

Soil reaction (1:1 water): 4.5 5.5

Available water capacity (inches): 4 12


14

Plant Communities Ecological Dynamics of the Site

The driving abiotic factors for this ecological site are the landscape position and landform and the heavy snowpack at the higher elevations. The dynamics of the ecosystem are impacted primarily by the volume and longevity of the snowpack. This site generally retains snow cover later in summer than do sites on south- and west-facing slopes, and growth starts more slowly on this site due to the cooling effects of the high water table at the beginning of the growing season. The soils are in the cryic temperature regime and aquic moisture regime. They typically are wet and poorly drained. They have a very short growing season as a result of the cool temperatures and total heat load in summer. Ponding on the soil surface is frequent and commonly persists for long periods.

This site commonly is a homogeneous ecosystem, and black alpine sedge (Carex nigricans) is the dominant species. Black alpine sedge is adapted to a short growing season (45 to 60 days) and can survive in snowfields. It also has a unique adaptability to snow; it can flower within 7 days of snowmelt (Canaday, 1974). In years of continuous snowpack, vegetation is virtually absent on this ecological site. In years of light snowpack or in areas where snow recedes earlier in the growing season, the site may have higher vegetative diversity. Species include ladyfern (Athyrium filix-femina), black alpine sedge (Carex nigricans), bluejoint reedgrass (Calamagrostis canadensis), marsh marigold (Caltha leptosepala), and water parsley (Oenanthe sarmentosa). The short growing season typically results in later flowering and limited growth of vegetation.

State and Transition Diagram


15

State 1: Reference Community Phase 1.1: Black alpine sedge

Community phase 1.1.

Structure: Homogeneous meadow consisting of black alpine sedge

Black alpine sedge is the dominant species in this community phase. The reference community represents a summer growing season without snow. Snow commonly is along the edges of the site during most of the growing season. This provides moisture to the vegetation in summer.

Community phase pathway 1.1A This pathway represents minor disturbances (extended snow cover or ponding) that maintain the overall structure of the reference community.

Community phase pathway 1.1B This pathway represents snowpack throughout the growing season or a disturbance such as fire that results in areas of bare ground.


16

Community Phase 1.2: Bare ground or year-round snowpack


Structure: Disturbed areas of bare ground or areas covered with snow

Community phase 1.2 represents an ecosystem that has been disturbed by excessive ponding or is covered with snowpack during the entire growing season. Vegetation may regenerate or initiate; however, annual growth may be limited by the short growing season.

Community phase pathway 1.2A This pathway represents growth during a typical growing season with no significant disturbance. The vegetation is homogeneous and reaches the reference community state.

Section II: Ecological Site Interpretations Supporting Information Associated Ecological Sites

Ecological site R003XN540WA, Southern Washington Cascades Wet Subalpine Parkland, has features similar to those of site R003XN541WA, Southern Washington Cascades Moist Subalpine Parkland. Both sites are in parklands at similar elevations. The position on the landscape affects the persistence of the snow cover, which has a distinct influence on each site. Site R003XN540WA commonly is in depressions and swales, which capture and store snow for longer periods during the growing season. Plants adapted to wet conditions, such as black alpine sedge, commonly are homogeneous in this environment. Site R003XN541WA has higher plant diversity and production because of earlier seasonal snowmelt, which extends the growing season.

Other Established Classifications National vegetation classification group: Vancouverian-Rocky Mountain Subalpine-Alpine Snowbed, Wet Meadow & Dwarf-shrubland

U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, plant association: CARNIG

Inventory Data Reference Type locality plot ID: 13-PHR-059


17

Type Locality State: Washington County: Pierce Township: 16 North Range: 07 East Section: 14 Datum: NAD 83 Zone: 10 North Northing: 5191470 meters Easting: 584510 meters Latitude degrees: 46 Latitude minutes: 52 Latitude seconds: 17.1 Latitude decimal degrees: 46.871412 Longitude degrees: 121 Longitude minutes: 53 Longitude seconds: 27.9 Longitude decimal degrees: -121.891076

References Canaday, B.B., and R.W. Fonda. 1974. The influence of subalpine snowbanks on vegetation pattern, production, and phenology. Torrey Botanic Club Bulletin. Volume 101, pages 340-350.

Crawford, R.C., C.B. Chappell, C.C. Thompson, and F.J. Rocchio. 2009. Vegetation classification of Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks. Natural Resource Technical Report NPS/NCCN/NRTR-2009/211. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.

Dwire, K., and J. Kauffman. 2003. Fire and riparian ecosystems in landscapes in the Western United States. Forest Ecology and Management. Volume 178, pages 61-74.

Hanson, E.J., D.L. Azuma, and B.A. Hiserote. 2002. Site index equations and mean annual increment equations for Pacific Northwest Research Station forest inventory and analysis inventories, 1985-2001. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station Research Note PNW-RN-533.

Hemstrom, M., and J. Franklin. 1982. Fire and other disturbances of the forests in Mount Rainier National Park. Quaternary Research. Volume 18, pages 32-61.

Henderson, J.A., R.D. Lesher, D.H. Peter, and D.C. Shaw. 1992. Field guide to the forested plant associations of the Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region Technical Paper R6-ECOL-TP-028-91.

Pojar J., and A. MacKinnon. 1994. Plants of the Pacific Northwest Coast. Lone Pine, Vancouver, British Columbia.

PRISM Climate Group. Oregon State University. Accessed February 2015. http://prism.oregonstate.edu

Rochefort, R.M., and D.L. Peterson. 1996. Temporal and spatial distribution of trees in subalpine meadows of Mount Rainier National Park. Arctic and Alpine Research. Volume 28, number 1, pages 52-59.

Seastedt, T.R., and G.A. Adams. 2001. Effects of mobile tree islands on alpine tundra soils. Ecology. Volume 82, pages 8-17.

United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1990. Silvics of North America. Agriculture Handbook 654. https://www.fs.usda.gov/naspf/


https://www.fs.usda.gov/naspf/


18

United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, and United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service. 2014. Ecological site descriptions for North Cascades National Park Complex, Washington.

United States National Vegetation Classification. 2016. United States national vegetation classification database, V2.01. Federal Geographic Data Committee, Vegetation Subcommittee, Washington, D.C.

Washington Department of Natural Resources, Natural Heritage Program. 2015. Ecological systems of Washington State. A guide to identification.


19



Ecological Site Identification Site type: Rangeland Site name: Southern Washington Cascades Moist Subalpine Parkland Site ID: R003XN541WA Major land resource area: 003—Olympic and Cascade Mountains



Ecological Site Concept This ecological site is in subalpine parklands at middle and high elevations of the Southern Washington Cascade Mountains. The site is comprised dominantly of low-growing shrubs, forbs, and grasses. It is on south- and west-facing slopes of Mount Rainier, but it is on all aspects and slopes in the subalpine zone. The site commonly is influenced by heavy snowpack that provides soil moisture and insulation for plants during the dormant season. It receives the highest amount of rainfall of the subalpine parklands in Mount Rainier National Park; thus, the diversity and resilience of the vegetation is high. The soils that support this ecological site are in the cryic soil temperature regime and the udic soil moisture regime. Some of the soils have a water table at a depth of 10 to 20 inches at some time during growing season.

The reference community may be most common, but it is likely that all community phases of this site occur as a matrix across the landscape. Common plants include Cascade huckleberry (Vaccinium deliciosum), pink mountain heather (Phyllodoce empetriformis), white mountain heather (Cassiope mertensiana), Sitka valerian (Valeriana sitchensis), false hellebore (Veratrum viride), American bistort (Polygonum bistortoides), western columbine (Aquilegia formosa), arctic lupine (Lupinus arcticus), spreading phlox (Phlox diffusa), arrowleaf ragwort (Senecio triangularis), mountain hairgrass (Vahlodea atropurpurea), and showy sedge (Carex spectabilis).


20

Physiographic Features This ecological site is on ridges, cirques, and glacial-valley walls in the Cascade Mountains (elevation 3,650 to 6,975 feet) of Mount Rainier National Park. It is on all slopes, but commonly on slopes of 10 to 65 percent. Slope has little impact on the ecological dynamics of the site.




Aspect: All



None None

None None


None None

None None







21



Minimum 12.5 8.8 7.3 5.3 3.8 2.8 1.3 1.8 3.8 6.3 11.3 12.5

Maximum 21 15.5 14.5 11.8 7.8 4.3 2.3 3.3 5.3 9.3 23 23

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0


Inch

es

Precipitation




Minimum 25.5 25.6 27.8 31.7 37.8 43 50.5 51.3 46.7 37.4 28.4 24.5

Maximum 31.4 31.9 34.6 39.2 45.5 51.1 58.1 58.8 53.2 44.3 34.6 30.4




22

Influencing Water Features This ecological site is at middle to high elevations on ridges, cirques, and glacial-valley walls in Mount Rainier National Park. The site is not subject to ponding or flooding. The water table typically rises in spring and summer and recedes in fall.

Representative Soil Features Applicable soils: Burroughs, moist; Chenuis, moist; Littletahoma, moist; Mountwow, moist; Sarvant, moist; Tatoosh, moist; Wahpenayo, moist

Applicable soil map units in Mount Rainier National Park: 8250, 8251, 8252, 9250, 9251, 9252, 9253, 9254

The soils that support this ecological site are in the cryic soil temperature regime and the udic soil moisture regime. The dominant factors affecting the site are the position on the landscape and the duration of snowpack during the growing season. The Burroughs, Chenuis, Littletahoma, Sarvant, and Tatoosh soils are well drained, and the Mountwow and Wahpenayo soils are somewhat poorly drained. The Chenuis, Littletahoma, and Mountwow soils are very deep; the Burroughs, Sarvant, and Wahpenayo soils are moderately deep to andesite; and the Tatoosh soils are shallow to andesite. All of the soils are on ridges, cirques, and glacial-valley walls. They formed in volcanic ash, andesite colluvium, and andesite residuum. The Mountwow and Wahpenayo soils have a seasonal high water table at a depth of 10 to 20 inches from the surface at some time during the growing season. The Chenuis and Sarvant soils have more than 35 percent rock fragments in the particle-size control section; the other soils do not have rock fragments. The soils are coarse textured and primarily medial sandy loam or medial loamy sand. All of the mineral horizons have andic soil properties. Melanization is the dominant pedogenic process. Podsolization is not evident because of a lack of coniferous forest cover. Most of the soils have an umbric epipedon and a cambic horizon.

Soil moisture is not a limiting factor to forest growth because of the abundance of precipitation and the inherent water-holding properties of soils influenced by volcanic ash. A thin organic horizon consisting of decomposing litter is on the soil surface of the Mountwow, Burroughs, and Chenuis soils. This horizon helps to protect the soils from wind and water erosion.

Parent material: Volcanic ash, andesite colluvium, andesite residuum



Drainage class: Well drained, somewhat poorly drained

Saturated hydraulic conductivity: High, very high








Available water capacity (inches): 2.5 9.0


23


This ecological site is in subalpine parklands at middle and high elevations of the Southern Washington Cascade Mountains. The site is comprised dominantly of low-growing shrubs, forbs, and grasses. It commonly is influenced by heavy snowpack, which provides moisture to the soils and insulation for plants during the dormant season. Plant production is directly correlated to the time of snowmelt, which can be highly variable from year to year (Canaday, 1974). The site is on south- and west-facing slopes of Mount Rainier, but it is on all aspects in the subalpine zone. It receives the highest amount of rainfall of the subalpine parklands in Mount Rainier National Park; thus, the diversity and resilience of the vegetation is high.

The soils that support this ecological site are in the cryic soil temperature regime and the udic soil moisture regime. The dominant factors affecting the site are the position on the landscape and the duration of snowpack during the growing season. Some of the soils have a water table at a depth of 10 to 20 inches from the surface at some time during the growing season. The location, slope, and coarse texture of the soils normally would result in limited soil moisture in summer, which could restrict plant growth. Plant growth is not restricted on this site, however, because of the abundance of precipitation and the inherent water-holding properties of soils influenced by volcanic ash. The seasonal snowpack melts in spring and early in summer on this site, and the lack of saturation in the soil profile allows the soils to warm up quickly as the air temperature rises. The prevailing wind from the south and west results in significant orographic precipitation, and the cloud cover provides a steady supply of moisture for plant growth in summer.

This site has limited susceptibility to frequent natural disturbances, such as avalanches and soil movement. Historically, fire (anthropogenic and natural) has been an important disturbance factor. It has suppressed the growth of heather and encroaching conifers (Hemstrom, 1982) and maintained a parkland ecosystem consisting dominantly of forbs and grasses. Despite the abundant precipitation and soil moisture, this site is subject to compaction that can damage the vegetation and significantly impact the ecological integrity and resilience of the site. During long periods without disturbance, the site is subject to encroachment by conifers, including mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) and subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa). This results in tree islands.

The reference community may be most common, but it is likely that all community phases of this site occur as a matrix across the landscape. Common plants include Cascade huckleberry (Vaccinium deliciosum), pink mountain heather (Phyllodoce empetriformis), white mountain heather (Cassiope mertensiana), Sitka valerian (Valeriana sitchensis), false hellebore (Veratrum viride), American bistort (Polygonum bistortoides), western columbine (Aquilegia formosa), arctic lupine (Lupinus arcticus), spreading phlox (Phlox diffusa), arrowleaf ragwort (Senecio triangularis), mountain hairgrass (Vahlodea atropurpurea), and showy sedge (Carex spectabilis).


24



25

State 1: Reference Community Phase 1.1: Pink mountain heather-Cascade huckleberry/arctic lupine-Sitka valerian/showy sedge


Structure: Subalpine parkland consisting of shrubs, forbs, grasses, and grasslike species

The reference community is a floristically rich mosaic of shrubs, forbs, and grasses that have been relatively undisturbed by natural and human influences. This subalpine ecosystem is on aspects from which snow melts in spring and early in summer, providing for a longer growing season. The reference community receives adequate moisture throughout the growing season from snowmelt and runoff from higher elevations. The percentage of plant cover is variable, but the reference community plants are common throughout the entire ecological site. Low-growing shrubs, such as pink mountain heather and Cascade huckleberry, are dominant, but white mountain heather and black huckleberry may be prolific in some areas. Forbs such as spreading phlox, American bistort, arctic lupine, and Sitka valerian cover the areas, and showy sedge is interspersed.

Dwarf species of mountain hemlock, subalpine fir, and Alaska cedar are scattered throughout the ecosystem, forming tree islands in some areas. Natural disturbances, such as frost heaving, wind blasting, and varying snowpack may have a small scale, but significant, impact on the alpine vegetation. Soil compaction that can damage the vegetation may impact the integrity of the community. Herbivores, such as marmots, pikas, elk, migratory birds, and mountain goats, forage on the vegetation, which may create patches of open ground (Martin, 2001).


26

Community phase pathway 1.1A This pathway represents an ongoing period of disturbance, which favors the establishment of pockets of trees over time.

Community phase pathway 1.1B This pathway represents an extreme disturbance. The most typical disturbance is wildfire; however, other disturbances may include avalanches, landslides, and slow mass movement that remove a majority of the vegetation. The intensity of wildfires is driven by elevation. Normally, higher intensity wildfires are at the lower elevations and the recovery time in these areas is longer.

Forest Understory Characterization Summary

Understory plant type: Shrub

Common and Scientific Plant Name Symbol Nativity Cover %

(low) Cover %

(high)

Bottom canopy height

(in.)

Top canopy height

(in.)

White mountain heather (Cassiope mertensiana) CAME7 N 0 40 1 36

Pink mountain heather (Phyllodoce empetriformis) PHEM N 0 20 1 24

Cascade huckleberry (Vaccinium deliciosum) VADE N 0 45 1 48

Black huckleberry (Vaccinium membranaceum) VAME N 0 20 1 48

Understory plant type: Forb/herb


(low) Cover %

(high)


(in.)

Top canopy height

(in.)

Arctic lupine (Lupinus arcticus) LUAR2 N 0 25 1 36

Bracted lousewort (Pedicularis bracteosa) PEBR N 0 20 1 24

Spreading phlox (Phlox diffusa) PHDI3 N 0 10 1 8

American bistort (Polygonum bistortoides) POBI6 N 0 10 1 24

Sitka valerian (Valeriana sitchensis) VASI N 0 5 1 24


27

Understory plant type: Sedge


(low) Cover %

(high)


(in.)

Top canopy height

(in.)

Showy sedge (Carex spectabilis) CASP5 N 0 40 1 36

Community Phase 1.2: Mountain hemlock-subalpine fir/Cascade huckleberry



28

Structure: Tree islands with mature shrubs

Community phase 1.2 represents tree islands that developed over long periods without disturbance. Conifers such as subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) and mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) become established and develop into pockets of mature trees. Common understory species include black huckleberry, pink mountain heather, white mountain heather, and Cascade huckleberry.

Community phase pathway 1.2A This pathway represents an extreme disturbance. The most typical disturbance is wildfire; however, other disturbances may include avalanches, landslides, and slow mass movement that remove a majority of the vegetation. The intensity of wildfires is driven by elevation. Normally, higher intensity wildfires are at the lower elevations and the recovery time in these areas is longer.

Community Phase 1.3: Arctic lupine/showy sedge-mountain hairgrass Structure: Grass/forb meadow

Early seral species of grasses and forbs inhabit the landscape following a disturbance. Plants such as arctic lupine, Sitka valerian, American bistort, Idaho fescue, and showy sedge become dominant.

Community phase pathway 1.3A This pathway represents no further major disturbance and maturation of the present species. Shrubs such as pink mountain heather and Cascade huckleberry re-establish, and forbs diversify.


29

Section II: Ecological Site Interpretations Forest Site Productivity

Common and

scientific name

Symbol

Site index (low)

Site index (high)

CMAI (low)

CMAI (high)

Age at CMAI

Code for site index curve

Basis for site index curve

Citation

ft ft3/ac/yr yrs

Mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana)

TSME 36 56 --- 25 3.5 60 100BH Hanson, E., D. Azuma, and B. Hiserote. 2002. Site index equations and mean annual increment equations for Pacific Northwest Research Station forest inventory and analysis inventories, 1085-2001. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station Research Note PNW-RN-533.

Subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa)

ABLA 31 89 --- 90 90 60 100BH Hanson, E., D. Azuma, and B. Hiserote. 2002. Site index equations and mean annual increment equations for Pacific Northwest Research Station forest inventory and analysis inventories, 1085-2001. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station Research Note PNW-RN-533.


30

Supporting Information Associated Ecological Sites

Ecological sites R003XN542WA, Southern Washington Cascades Subalpine Parkland, and R003XN541WA, Southern Washington Cascades Moist Subalpine Parkland, have similar features and are at similar elevations. Both sites are parkland ecosystems; however, the availability of moisture distinguishes each site. Site R003XN542WA commonly is in rain shadow areas; thus, it is drier and warmer. The soils of site R003XN541WA have a higher moisture content; thus, they can support a more diverse vegetative ecosystem. The percentage of vegetative cover is higher on site R003XN541WA than that on site R003XN542WA.

Other Established Classifications National vegetation classification group: North Pacific Alpine-Subalpine Dwarf-shrubland and Heath

U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, plant association: PHYEMP-VACDEL-(CASMER), PHYEMP-(VACDEL)/LUPARC

Inventory Data ReferenceType locality plot ID: 11-PHR-080

Type LocalityState: Washington County: Pierce Township: 15 North Range: 08 East Section: 12 Datum: NAD 83 Zone: 10 North Northing: 5183100 meters Easting: 596820 meters Latitude degrees: 46 Latitude minutes: 47 Latitude seconds: 39.8 Latitude decimal degrees: 46.794396 Longitude degrees: 121 Longitude minutes: 43 Longitude seconds: 52.7 Longitude decimal degrees: -121.731302

References

Canaday, B.B., and R.W. Fonda. 1974. The influence of subalpine snowbanks on vegetation pattern, production, and phenology. Torrey Botanic Club Bulletin. Volume 101, pages 340-350.

Crawford, R.C., C. B. Chappell, C.C. Thompson, and F.J. Rocchio. 2009. Vegetation classification of Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks. Natural Resource Technical Report NPS/NCCN/NRTR-2009/211. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.

Douglas, G.W., and L.C. Bliss. 1972. Alpine and high subalpine plant communities of the western North Cascades, Washington. Arctic and Alpine Research. Volume 4, number 2, pages 147-166.


Franklin, J.F., and C.T. Dyrness. 1973. Natural vegetation of Oregon and Washington. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, Oregon.

31


Hanley, D.P., and D.M. Baumgartner. 2002. Forest ecology in Washington. Washington State University Cooperative Extension Technical Report EB 1943.




King, James E. 1966. Site index curves for Douglas-fir in the Pacific Northwest. Weyerhaeuser Company, Forestry Research Center Forestry Paper 8.

Klinka, K., B. Brett, and C. Chourmouzis. 1997. Regeneration patterns in the mountain hemlock zone. Scientia Silvica Extension Series, number 6.

Means, J.E. 1990. Tsuga mertensiana. In Silvics of North America: Volume 1. Conifers. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Agriculture Handbook 654. Pages 623-634. https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/misc/ag_654_vol1.pdf

Martin, K. 2001. Wildlife in alpine and sub-alpine habitats. In Wildlife-Habitat Relationships in Oregon and Washington. Oregon State University Press. Pages 285-310.

Naiman, R., S. Bechtold, T. Beechie, J. Latterell, and R. Van Pelt. 2009. A process-based view of floodplain forest patterns in coastal river valleys of the Pacific Northwest. Ecosystems. Volume 13, pages 1-31.

Pojar J., and A. MacKinnon. 1994. Plants of the Pacific Northwest Coast. Lone Pine, Vancouver, British Columbia.




Smith, K., G. Kuhn, and L. Townsend. 2008. Culmination of mean annual increment for indicator tree species in the State of Washington. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Technical Note Forestry-9.

Tesky, J.L. 1992. Tsuga mertensiana. In Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/tsumer/all.html




https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/misc/ag_654_vol1.pdf


https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/tsumer/all.html



32

Villarin, L., D. Chapin, and J. Jones. 2009. Riparian forest structure and succession in second-growth stands of the central Cascade Mountains, Washington, USA. Forest Ecology and Management. Volume 257, pages 1375-1385.



33



Ecological Site Identification Site type: Rangeland Site name: Southern Washington Cascades Subalpine Parkland Site ID: R003XN542WA Major land resource area: 003—Olympic and Cascade Mountains



Ecological Site Concept This ecological site is in subalpine parklands at middle and high elevations of the Southern Washington Cascade Mountains. It is comprised dominantly of low-growing shrubs, forbs, grasses, and grasslike species. The site is on the north- and east-facing slopes of Mount Rainier, but it is on all aspects in the subalpine zone. The primary factors that distinguish this ecological site are landscape position and climate.

This site is on exposed ridges, glacial-valley walls, and cirques. All of these areas are subject to high winds and restricted precipitation that limit soil moisture during the growing season and affect the production and composition of plants. Prevailing winds from the south and west result in a rain shadow. The limited precipitation in summer, limited cloud cover from the rain shadow, and coarse texture of the soils restrict the amount of moisture available to plants during the growing season. Evapotranspiration from winds on exposed slopes and ridges further reduces the available moisture. This is most pronounced on the exposed south- and west-facing slopes and on ridgetops. Plants are sparse, and they are dominantly drought-tolerant species.

The seasonal snowpack melts in spring and early in summer. The lack of saturation in the soil profile allows the soils to warm up quickly as the air temperature rises. The soils that support this ecological site are in the cryic soil temperature regime and the udic soil moisture regime. They generally are coarse textured and high in content of organic matter and formed in volcanic ash and colluvium.


34

Common plants in the reference community include fescue (Festuca), mountain hairgrass (Vahlodea atropurpurea), smooth woodrush (Luzula glabrata), Sitka valerian (Valeriana sitchensis), false hellebore (Veratrum viride), American bistort (Polygonum bistortoides), arctic lupine (Lupinus arcticus), high mountain cinquefoil (Potentilla flabellifolia), subalpine fleabane (Erigeron peregrinus), cascade desertparsley (Lomatium martindalei), spreading phlox (Phlox diffusa), and Cascade huckleberry (Vaccinium deliciosum).

Physiographic Features This ecological site is on ridges, cirques, and glacial-valley walls in the Cascade Mountains (elevation 3,650 to 7,450 feet) of Mount Rainier National Park. Most of the site is at an elevation of 3,650 to 7,000 feet. The site is on all gradients. Slope commonly is 10 to 40 percent.




Aspect: All



None None

None None


None None

None None




Mean annual precipitation (in): 59 122



35



Minimum 10.3 6.8 3.3 4.8 3.3 2.3 1.3 1.3 2.3 4.3 9.8 8.3

Maximum 17.5 13.5 12.5 9.8 6.8 4.3 2.3 3.3 4.8 10.3 21 16.5

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0


Inch

es

Precipitation




Minimum 22.3 22.9 25.1 28.4 35 40.7 48.2 49.3 44.4 35.1 25.9 21.9

Maximum 31.3 31.6 33.5 37.7 43.9 49.5 57 57.7 52.5 42.8 34 30

Precipitation and temperature data from the PRISM Climate Group, Oregon State University http://prism.oregonstate.edu. The tables were created February 26, 2015.



36

Influencing Water Features This site is at the middle to high elevations on ridges, cirques, and glacial-valley walls in Mount Rainier National Park. The site is not subject to ponding or flooding. The water table typically rises in spring and summer and recedes in fall.

Representative Soil Features Applicable soils: Burroughs, Chenuis, Littletahoma, Mountwow, Sarvant, Tatoosh, Wahpenayo

Applicable soil map units in Mount Rainier National Park: 8211, 8255, 8256, 8257, 9255, 9256, 9257, 9258, 9259

The soils that support this ecological site are in the cryic soil temperature regime and the udic soil moisture regime. The dominant factors affecting the site are the position on the landscape, the duration of snowpack, and the amount of precipitation during the growing season. The Burroughs, Chenuis, Littletahoma, Sarvant, and Tatoosh soils are well drained, and the Mountwow and Wahpenayo soils are somewhat poorly drained. The Chenuis, Littletahoma, and Mountwow soils are very deep; the Burroughs, Sarvant, and Wahpenayo soils are moderately deep to andesite, and the Tatoosh soils are shallow to andesite. The soils are on ridges, cirques, and glacial-valley walls. They formed in volcanic ash, andesite colluvium, and andesite residuum. The Mountwow and Wahpenayo soils have a seasonal high water table at a depth of 10 to 20 inches from the surface at some time during the growing season. None of the soils is subject to flooding or ponding. The Chenuis and Sarvant soils have more than 35 percent rock fragments in the particle-size control section; the other soils do not have rock fragments. The soils are coarse textured and dominantly medial sandy loam or medial loamy sand. All of the mineral horizons exhibit andic soil properties. Melanization is the dominant pedogenic process. Podsolization is not evident because of the lack of coniferous forest cover. Most of the soils have an umbric epipedon and a cambic horizon. A thin organic horizon consisting of decomposing litter is on the soil surface of the Mountwow, Burroughs, and Chenuis soils. This horizon helps to protect the soils from wind and water erosion.













Available water capacity (inches): 2.5 9


37


This ecological site is in subalpine parklands at middle and high elevations of the Southern Washington Cascades. It is on the north- and east-facing slopes of Mount Rainier, but it is on all aspects in the subalpine zone. This site is influenced by the location on the slope; plant growth starts earlier on this site than on most other sites in the subalpine zone. The seasonal snowpack melts in spring and early in summer, and the lack of saturation in the soil profile allows the soils to warm up quickly as the air temperature rises. Plant production is directly correlated to the period of snowmelt, which can be highly variable from year to year (Canaday, 1974). The soils that support this ecological site are in the cryic soil temperature regime and the udic soil moisture regime. Generally, the soils are coarse textured and high in content of organic matter and formed in volcanic ash and colluvium.

Prevailing winds from the south and west result in a rain shadow that influences this ecological site. The limited precipitation in summer, the limited cloud cover resulting from the rain shadow, and the coarse texture of the soils restrict the amount of moisture available to plants during the growing season. Increased evaporation from the winds on the exposed slopes and ridges adds to the moisture deficient. These effects are most pronounced on the exposed south- and west-facing slopes and ridgetops.

Historically, fire (anthropogenic and natural) has been an important disturbance factor. It suppressed the growth of encroaching conifers and helped to maintain a parkland ecosystem consisting of forbs, grasses, and grasslike plants (Hemstrom, 1982). This site is susceptible to disturbances such as soil compaction that can damage the vegetation and significantly impact the ecological integrity and resilience of the site. During long periods without disturbance, the site is subject to encroachment by conifers, including mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) and subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa). This that results in tree islands.

The reference community may be most common, but it is likely that all community phases of this site occur as a matrix across the landscape. Common plants include fescue (Festuca), mountain hairgrass (Vahlodea atropurpurea), smooth woodrush (Luzula glabrata), Sitka valerian (Valeriana sitchensis), false hellebore (Veratrum viride), American bistort (Polygonum bistortoides), arctic lupine (Lupinus arcticus), high mountain cinquefoil (Potentilla flabellifolia), subalpine fleabane (Erigeron peregrinus), Cascade desertparsley (Lomatium martindalei), spreading phlox (Phlox diffusa), and Cascade huckleberry (Vaccinium deliciosum).


38



39

State 1: Reference Community Phase 1.1: Cascade huckleberry-pink mountain heather/spreading phlox-arctic lupine/showy sedge-fescue


Structure: Subalpine parkland consisting dominantly of shrubs, forbs, grasses, and grasslike species

The reference community is a floristically rich mosaic of shrubs, forbs, and grasses that have been relatively undisturbed by natural and human influences. This community is on aspects from which snow melts in spring and early in summer, providing for a longer growing season. The percentage of plant


40

cover is variable throughout the ecological site, but the reference community plants are common in all phases. Low-growing shrubs such as pink mountain heather and Cascade huckleberry are dominant, but white mountain heather and black huckleberry are prolific in some areas. Forbs such as spreading phlox, American bistort, arctic lupine, and Sitka valerian cover the landscape, and showy sedge is interspersed.

Dwarf species of mountain hemlock, subalpine fir, and Alaska cedar are scattered throughout, forming tree islands in some areas. Natural disturbances, such as frost heaving, wind blasting, and variations in snowpack, are small scale, but they can have a significant impact on the alpine vegetation. Soil compaction that can damage vegetation may impact the integrity of the ecological site. Herbivores such as marmots, pikas, elk, migratory birds, and mountain goats forage on the vegetation, which may create patches of open ground (Martin, 2001).

Community phase pathway 1.1A This pathway represents an ongoing period without disturbance, which favors the establishment of pockets of trees.

Community phase pathway 1.1B This pathway represents an extreme disturbance. The most typical disturbance is wildfire; however, other disturbances may include avalanches, landslides, and slow mass movement that remove a majority of the vegetation. The intensity of wildfires is driven by elevation. Normally, higher intensity wildfires are at the lower elevations and the recovery time is longer in these areas.



Name Symbol Nativity Cover % (low)

Cover % (high)


(in.)

Top canopy height

(in.)


Cascade huckleberry (Vaccinium deliciosum) VADE N 0 40 1 16



41



Cover % (high)


(in.)

Top canopy height

(in.)


Subalpine fleabane (Erigeron peregrinus) ERPE3 N 0 5 1 12




False hellebore (Veratrum viride) VEVI N 0 15 1 48

Understory plant type: Grass and sedge


Cover % (high)


(in.)

Top canopy height

(in.)

Showy sedge (Carex spectabilis) CASP5 N 0 45 1 12

Fescue (Festuca) FE N 0 40 1 12

Smooth woodrush (Luzula glabrata) LUGL2 N 0 50 1 12


42

Community Phase 1.2: Mountain hemlock-subalpine fir/Cascade huckleberry


Structure: Tree islands with mature shrubs

Community phase 1.2 represents tree islands that developed over long periods without disturbance. Conifers such as subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) and mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) become established and develop into pockets of mature trees. Common understory species include pink mountain heather, Sitka valerian, and Cascade huckleberry.

Community phase pathway 1.2A This pathway represents an extreme disturbance. The most typical disturbance is wildfire; however, other disturbances may include avalanches, landslides, and slow mass movement that remove a majority of the vegetation. The intensity of wildfires is driven by elevation. Normally, higher intensity wildfires occur at the lower elevations and the recovery time is longer in these areas.

Community Phase 1.3: Spreading phlox/showy sedge-fescue Structure: Grass/forb meadow

Early seral species of grasses and forbs become established following a disturbance. Common plants such as arctic lupine, Sitka valerian, American bistort, Idaho fescue, and black alpine sedge become dominant.

Community phase pathway 1.3A This pathway represents no further major disturbance and maturation of the present species. Shrubs such as Cascade huckleberry and pink mountain heather re-establish, and forbs diversify.


43


Common and

scientific name

Symbol

Site index (low)

Site index (high)

CMAI (low)

CMAI (high)

Age at CMAI



Citation

ft ft3/ac/yr yrs


TSME --- 43 --- --- --- 60 100BH Hanson, E., D. Azuma, andB. Hiserote. 2002.Site indexequations andmean annualincrementequations forPacific NorthwestResearch Stationforest inventoryand analysisinventories, 1085-2001. U.S.Department ofAgriculture, ForestService, PacificNorthwestResearch StationResearch NotePNW-RN-533.


ABLA 64 76 55 71 105 60 100BH Hanson, E., D. Azuma, andB. Hiserote. 2002.Site indexequations andmean annualincrementequations forPacific NorthwestResearch Stationforest inventoryand analysisinventories, 1085-2001. U.S.Department ofAgriculture, ForestService, PacificNorthwestResearch StationResearch NotePNW-RN-533.


44


Ecological sites R003XN542WA, Southern Washington Cascades Subalpine Parkland, and R003XN541WA, Southern Washington Cascades Moist Subalpine Parkland, have similar features and are at similar elevations on the landscape. Both sites are parkland ecosystems; however, ecological site R003XN541WA has a higher content of soil moisture and receives more precipitation during the growing season, resulting in more diverse vegetation. Ecological site R003XN541WA tends to have a lusher vegetative cover as compared to that of site R003XN542WA.

Other Established Classifications

National vegetation classification group: North Pacific Alpine-Subalpine Dwarf-Shrubland and Heath

U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, plant association: CASMER-PHYEMP, VACDEL-FESVIR

Inventory Data Reference Type Locality Plot ID: 13-PHR-035







45






Klinka, K., B. Brett, and C. Chourmouzis. 1997. Regeneration patterns in the mountain hemlock zone. Scientia Silvica Extension Series, number 6.



Pojar, J., and A. MacKinnon. 1994. Plants of the Pacific Northwest Coast. Lone Pine, Vancouver, British Columbia.






Topik, C., N.M. Halverson, and D.G. Brockway. 1986. Plant associations and management guide for the western hemlock zone, Gifford Pinchot National Forest. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region Technical Paper R6-ECOL-230A-1986.










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Ecological Site Identification Site type: Rangeland Site name: Southern Washington Cascades Alpine Tundra Site ID: R003XN543WA Major land resource area: 003—Olympic and Cascade Mountains



Ecological Site Concept This ecological site is in the Southern Washington Cascade Mountains, typically at the higher elevations that comprise the upper limits of plant growth. Elevation is 4,600 to 11,000 feet, but most of the site is at an elevation of 7,000 to 11,000 feet. The primary abiotic factors are limited precipitation because of a rain shadow, high elevation that results in cool temperatures in summer and extremely cold temperatures in winter, high winds, intense solar radiation, a short growing season, and heavy snowpack. Plants are sparse and adapted to the challenging growing conditions.

The soils that support this ecological site are in the cryic soil temperature regime and the udic soil moisture regime. They formed in volcanic ash and colluvium. They are coarse textured and low in content of organic matter. The soils commonly are buried under heavy snowpack. The snowpack provides insulation for plants during the dormant season, but it also results in a significantly shorter growing season than that of other sites in Mount Rainier National Park.

Common plants include Davis’ knotweed (Polygonum davisiae), tundra aster (Oreostemma alpigenum var. alpigenum), alpine leafybract aster (Symphyotrichum foliaceum var. foliaceum), penstemon (Penstemon spp.), common yarrow (Achillea millefolium), common juniper (Juniperus communis var. montana), spreading phlox (Phlox diffusa), Tiling’s monkeyflower (Mimulus tilingii), arctic lupine (Lupinus arcticus), and asahinea lichen (Asahinea).


47

Physiographic Features This ecological site is on volcanic cones, ridges, and cirques in the Cascade Mountains (elevation 4,600 to 11,000 feet) of Mount Rainier National Park. Slope is dominantly 10 to 65 percent.




Aspect: All Depth to water table (inches): 10 >75


None None

None None


None None

None None







48



Minimum 12.5 9.8 8.8 6.8 4.8 3.3 1.3 1.8 3.8 6.8 14.5 11.8

Maximum 29 19.5 18.5 15.5 9.8 5.8 3.3 3.8 6.3 10.8 29 35

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0


Inch

es

Precipitation




Minimum 17.3 16.4 17.7 20.7 26.4 31.9 38.6 39.2 35.3 27.8 20.3 16.6

Maximum 27.6 29.2 32.5 37.3 44.6 50.4 58.9 60.3 54.1 43.1 31.7 27.6


Influencing Water Features This site is at the higher elevations on volcanic cones, ridges, and cirques in Mount Rainier National Park. The site is not subject to ponding or flooding. The water table typically rises in spring and summer and recedes in fall.



49

Representative Soil Features Applicable soils: Burroughs, Chenuis, Mountwow, Sarvant, Tatoosh, Wahpenayo

Applicable soil map units in Mount Rainier National Park: 9260, 9261, 9262, 9996

The soils that support this ecological site are in the cryic soil temperature regime and udic soil moisture regime. The dominant factors that impact this ecological site are the position on the landscape and the duration of snowpack during the growing season. The Burroughs, Chenuis, Sarvant, and Tatoosh soils are well drained, and the Mountwow and Wahpenayo soils are somewhat poorly drained. The Chenuis and Mountwow soils are very deep; the Burroughs, Sarvant, and Wahpenayo soils are moderately deep to andesite; and the Tatoosh soils are shallow to andesite. The soils are on volcanic cones, ridges, and cirques, and they formed in volcanic ash, andesite residuum, and andesite colluvium. The Mountwow and Wahpenayo soils have a seasonal high water table at a depth of 10 to 20 inches from the surface at some time during the growing season. None of the soils is subject to flooding or ponding. The Chenuis and Sarvant soils have more than 35 percent rock fragments in the particle-size control section; the other soils do not have rock fragments. The soils are coarse textured and primarily medial sandy loam and medial loamy sand. All of the mineral horizons exhibit andic soil properties. Melanization is the dominant pedogenic process. Podsolization is not evident because of the lack of coniferous forest cover. The soils have an umbric epipedon and a cambic horizon. They have a thin organic horizon that helps to protect the soils from wind and water erosion.















This ecological site is at the higher elevations on Mount Rainier in the Southern Washington Cascade Mountains. Elevation is 4,600 to 11,000 feet, but most of the site is at an elevation of 7,000 to 11,000 feet. This site comprises the upper limits of plant growth on Mount Rainier. The plants are specifically adapted to harsh winters, high winds, intense solar radiation, and a short growing season. Plant production is directly correlated to the time of snowmelt, which can be highly variable from year to year. A shorter growing season may impact the ability of plants to flower and disperse seed before the snow returns late in summer (Canaday, 1974). The plants are dwarfed and slow growing. Because of the conditions, the plants are vulnerable to additional disturbances and have a longer recovery time. Areas


50

at the lower range in elevation typically are cooler than areas at similar elevations in other ecological sites due to factors such as proximity to permanent ice.

The soils that support this ecological site are in the cryic soil temperature regime and the udic soil moisture regime. They formed in volcanic ash and colluvium. They are coarse textured and low in content of organic matter. The climate is characterized by cool, dry summers and cold, wet winters. The soils commonly are buried under heavy snowpack, which provides insulation for plants during the dormant season. Plant growth begins later in summer on this site than on most other sites in the subalpine zone. Because of the significantly cooler air and soil temperatures on this site, the growing season is shorter than on other sites on Mount Rainier. This site is susceptible to disturbances, such as soil compaction, that damage the vegetation, and recovery may be slow.

The reference community may be most common, but it is likely that all community phases of this site occur as a matrix across the landscape. Common plants include Davis’ knotweed (Polygonum davisiae), arctic lupine (Lupinus arcticus), common yarrow (Achillea millefolium), partridgefoot (Luetkea pectinata), tundra aster (Oreostemma alpigenum var. alpigenum), alpine leafybract aster (Symphyotrichum foliaceum var. foliaceum), penstemon (Penstemon sp.), common juniper (Juniperus communis var. montana), spreading phlox (Phlox diffusa), Tiling’s monkeyflower (Mimulus tilingii), and asahinea lichen (Asahinea).



51

State 1: Reference Community Phase 1.1: Davis’ knotweed-arctic lupine



52

Structure: Subalpine parkland consisting dominantly of shrubs, forbs, and grasses

The reference community is sparsely vegetated with a mixture of shrubs, forbs, and grasses that have been relatively undisturbed by natural and human influences. This subalpine ecosystem is on aspects from which snow melts in midsummer, which limits the growing season. The percentage of plant cover is variable, but the plants in the reference community are common throughout the ecological site. Low-growing subshrubs such as Davis’ knotweed are most prolific. Pink mountain heather and common juniper may be present. Forbs such as arctic lupine, tundra aster, common yarrow, and spreading phlox cover the site, and black alpine sedge is interspersed.

Minor natural disturbances, such as frost heaving, wind blasting, and variations in snowpack, can have a significant impact on alpine vegetation. Soil compaction damages the vegetation, which may have a significant impact on the integrity of the ecological site. Herbivores such as marmots, pikas, elk, migratory birds, and mountain goats, forage on the vegetation, which may create patches of open ground (Martin, 2001).

Community phase pathway 1.1A This pathway represents an ongoing lack of disturbance, which favors the establishment of pockets of shrubs.

Community phase pathway 1.1B This pathway represents major disturbances, such as continuous snowpack, avalanches, landslides, and slower mass movement, that remove most of the vegetation.




Cover % (high)


(in.)

Top canopy height

(in.)


Davis’ knotweed (Polygonum davisiae) PODA N 1 5 1 12


53



Cover % (high)


(in.)

Top canopy height

(in.)

Black alpine sedge (Carex nigricans) CANI2 N 0 30 1 24



Tundra aster (Oreostemma alpigenum var. alpigenum)

ORALA2 N 0 10 1 12


Community Phase 1.2: Pink mountain heather-Davis’ knotweed/arctic lupine-spreading phlox/black alpine sedge-Idaho fescue Structure: Subalpine parkland consisting dominantly of shrubs and forbs

Community phase 1.2 represents shrubs and forbs that developed during long periods without disturbance. The establishment of shrubs such as pink mountain heather, common juniper, and Davis’ knotweed results in pockets of low-growing vegetation. Common forbs include arctic lupine and spreading phlox.

Community phase pathway 1.2A This pathway represents extreme disturbances, such as continuous snowpack, avalanches, landslides, and slow mass movement, that remove a majority of the vegetation.

Community phase pathway 1.3A This pathway represents an area with no further major disturbance. Continued growth over time has led to increased vertical diversification of forbs.


54

Community Phase 1.3: Black alpine sedge-alpine timothy


Structure: Grass meadow

As the plant community recovers during periods without disturbance, grasses and forbs become established and increase in abundance. Plants such as arctic lupine, American bistort, Idaho fescue, and black alpine sedge become dominant.

Community phase pathway 1.3A This pathway represents no further major disturbance and maturation of present species. Shrubs such as Davis’ knotweed re-establish, and forbs diversify.


Ecological sites R003XN543WA, Southern Washington Cascades Alpine Tundra, and R003XN542WA, Southern Washington Cascades Subalpine Parkland, have some similar climatic and physiological features. Site R003XN543WA has a higher range in elevation, which limits the growing season and impacts the growth and production of vegetation. Site R003XN542WA supports a wider variety of vegetation species and has higher production as compared to site R003XN543WA.

Other Established Classifications National vegetation classification group: Northern Rocky Mountain Vancouverian Subalpine-Montane Dry Herbaceous Meadow

U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, plant association: POLDAV



55


References Barnes, George H. 1962. Yield of even-aged stands of western hemlock. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station Technical Bulletin 1273.

Canaday, B.B., and R.W. Fonda. 1974. The influence of subalpine snowbanks on vegetation pattern, production, and phenology. Torrey Botanic Club Bulletin. Volume 101, pages 340-350.


Czuba, J., C. Magirl, C. Czuba, C. Curran, K. Johnson, T. Olsen, H. Kimball, and C. Gish. 2012. Geomorphic analysis of the river response to sedimentation downstream of Mount Rainier, Washington. U.S. Geological Survey Open-file Report 2012-1242. Reston, Virginia.








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Kittel, G., D. Meidinger, and D. Faber-Langendoen. 2015. G240 Pseudotsuga menziesii-Tsuga heterophylla/Gaultheria shallon forest group. United States National Vegetation Classification. Federal Geographic Data Committee, Vegetation Subcommittee, Washington, D.C.



Nierenberg, T., and D. Hibbs. 2000. A characterization of unmanaged riparian areas in the central Coast Range of western Oregon. Forest Ecology and Management. Volume 129, pages 195-206.









United States National Vegetation Classification. 2016. United States national vegetation classification database, V2.01. Federal Geographic Data Committee, Vegetation Subcommittee, Washington, D.C. Accessed November 28, 2016.





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Ecological Site Identification Site type: Rangeland Site name: Southern Washington Cascades Wet Alpine Tundra Site ID: R003XN544WA Major land resource area: 003—Olympic and Cascade Mountains



Ecological Site Concept This ecological site is at middle and high elevations on Mount Rainier in the Southern Washington Cascade Mountains. Elevation is 4,600 to 7,850 feet. The site is in swales of cirques and on glacial-valley floors at the upper limits of plant growth. The main abiotic factor affecting plant growth is the proximity to water and melting snow. Areas at the lower elevation range of this site typically are cooler than other areas at similar elevations due to factors such as proximity to permanent ice.

The soils that support this ecological site are in the cryic soil temperature regime and the aquic soil moisture regime. The climate is characterized by cool, dry summers and cold, wet winters. The soils typically are poorly drained and very deep, and they formed in volcanic ash and glacial till. The water table commonly is at or near the surface for much of the growing season. The soils are coarse textured and low in content of organic matter.

The seasonal snowpack melts later on this site than it does on most other ecological sites in Mount Rainier National Park. This influences the hydrology and growing season. The air and soil temperatures on this site are significantly cooler, resulting in a shorter growing season. The vegetation is patchy and limited to areas with sufficient soil moisture and available nutrients. Common plants include Tiling’s monkeyflower (Mimulus tilingii), arctic lupine (Lupinus arcticus), partridgefoot (Luetkea pectinata), and black alpine sedge (Carex nigricans).


58

Physiographic Features This ecological site is in swales of cirques and on glacial-valley floors in the Cascade Mountains (elevation 4,600 to 7,850 feet) of Mount Rainier National Park. Slope and aspect are highly variable and are not significant drivers for this site. Slope commonly is 5 to 25 percent.




Aspect: All

Depth to water table (inches): 0 8


None None

Rare Brief


None None

None None

Climatic Features Most of the annual precipitation is received in October through March. The mean annual precipitation is 88 to 160 inches, and the mean annual air temperature is 30 to 45 degrees F. The microclimate may vary depending on soil temperature and site-specific features, creating variations in vegetation response on a localized scale. Generally, the summers are cool and dry and the winters are cold and wet. Heavy snowpack and harsh winds are common throughout the year. Plants are stunted because of the short growing season.






59



Minimum 13.5 9.8 9.3 6.8 4.8 3.3 1.3 1.8 3.8 7.3 14.5 12.5

Maximum 25 17.5 15.5 13.5 8.3 5.3 2.8 3.8 5.3 10.3 25 29

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0


Inch

es

Precipitation




Minimum 21.7 20.9 22.2 25.1 30.7 35.9 42.4 43.1 39.4 31.8 24.7 20.9

Maximum 32.4 34.1 37.1 42 48.9 54 62.5 63.3 57.5 46.4 35.5 31.6




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Influencing Water Features This site is at the middle to high elevations in swales of cirques and on glacial-valley floors in Mount Rainier National Park. The site is not subject to ponding, and flooding is rare. A seasonal high water table is present during the growing season due to snowmelt.

Representative Soil Features Applicable soils: Meany

Applicable soil map units in Mount Rainier National Park: 9260, 9261

The Meany soils are in the cryic soil temperature regime and the aquic soil moisture regime. They are poorly drained and very deep. They are in swales of cirques and on glacial-valley floors. They formed in volcanic ash and glacial till. These soils have a seasonal high water table at the surface to a depth of 8 inches below the surface during the growing season. The soils are subject to rare periods of flooding in May and June. They are not subject to ponding. The Meany soils have more than 35 percent rock fragments in the particle-size control section. The soils are coarse textured and primarily medial sandy loam or medial loamy sand. All of the horizons have andic soil properties. The dominant pedogenic processes are oxidation-reduction chemistry and gleization due to the high water table and presence of reduced iron. Podsolization is not evident because of the lack of coniferous forest cover. The soils have an ochric epipedon and a cambic horizon.

Soil moisture is not a limiting factor to plant growth on these soils because of the presence of volcanic ash and the abundance of precipitation and snowmelt.

Parent material: Mixed volcanic ash and glacial till

Surface texture: (1) Medial coarse sandy loam (2) Medial loamy sand

Subsurface texture group: Medial coarse sandy loam, medial loamy sand, medial sandy loam












This ecological site is at middle and high elevations on Mount Rainier of the Southern Washington Cascade Mountains. Elevation is 4,600 to 7,850 feet. The site is in swales of cirques and on glacial-valley floors at the upper limits of plant growth on Mount Rainier. Areas at the lower range in elevation typically are cooler than areas at similar elevations in other ecological sites of Mount Rainier National Park due to factors such as proximity to permanent ice.


61

on most other ecological sites in the park. This influences the hydrology of the site and the diversity of the plants. The growing season is very short, and the plants are adapted to the harsh conditions. The soils are shallow, and the limited soil moisture restricts plant growth. Most of the vegetation is in areas that have adequate moisture from snowmelt and precipitation.

The air and soil temperatures are significantly cooler on this site than on most other sites on Mount Rainer, resulting in a shorter growing season. The vegetation is patchy and limited to areas that have sufficient soil moisture and available nutrients. Areas that have limited soil moisture may be completely barren of vegetation.

Common plants include Tiling’s monkeyflower (Mimulus tilingii), arctic lupine (Lupinus arcticus), partridgefoot (Luetkea pectinata), and black alpine sedge (Carex nigricans). Tiling’s monkeyflower is restricted to channels fed by melting snow, and black alpine sedge is common in saturated areas. Black alpine sedge is adapted to a short growing season (45 to 60 days) and can survive in snowfields. It also has the unique ability to flower within 7 days of snowmelt (Canaday, 1974).



62

State 1: Reference Community Phase 1.1: Black alpine sedge and Tiling’s monkeyflower



63

Structure: Meadow consisting dominantly of sedges and forbs

The reference community is sparsely vegetated with a mixture of sedges, forbs, and grasses that have been relatively undisturbed by natural and human influences. This subalpine ecosystem is on aspects from which snow melts in midsummer, limiting the growing season. Tiling’s monkeyflower, arctic lupine, and partridgefoot cover the landscape, and black alpine sedge is interspersed.

Minor natural disturbances such as frost heaving, wind blasting, and variations in snowpack can have a significant impact on the vegetation.

Community phase pathway 1.1A This pathway represents a major disturbance, such as continuous snowpack, avalanches, landslides, or slow mass movement, that removes most of the vegetation.

Community Phase 1.2: Black alpine sedge


Structure: Sedge and grass meadow

As the plant community recovers during periods without disturbance, grasses and forbs become established and increase in abundance. Common plants such as arctic lupine and black alpine sedge re-establish.

Community phase pathway 1.2A This pathway represents no further major disturbance and maturation of present species. Black alpine sedge continues to regenerate and other forbs re-establish. The plant community resembles the reference community.


Ecological sites R003XN544WA, Southern Washington Cascades Wet Alpine Tundra, and R003XN543WA, Southern Washington Cascades Alpine Tundra, have some similar climatic and physiological features. Ecological site R003XN544WA is at lower elevations that are slightly warmer and


64

receive more precipitation as compared to site R003XN543WA. Site R003XN544WA supports a wider variety of vegetation species that have higher production as compared to site R003XN543WA.

Other Established Classifications

National vegetation classification group: Vancouverian-Rocky Mountain Subalpine-Alpine Snowbed, Wet Meadow and Dwarf-shrubland

U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, plant association: CARNIG, MIMLEW










65

















66



Ecological Site Identification Site type: Rangeland Site name: Southern Washington Cascades Debris-covered Glaciers Site ID: R003XN545WA Major land resource area: 003—Olympic and Cascade Mountains



Ecological Site Concept This ecological site is on debris-covered termini of alpine glaciers at an elevation of 3,600 to 7,200 feet. Several large glaciers carved steep-sided valleys on Mount Rainier, and the valley walls formed in old moraines that consist of loose andesitic till. Gravity causes the loose till to move downslope onto the termini of the alpine glaciers. Other sources of debris include rockfalls; material released as a result of freezing and thawing, which impacts the availability of water; and waterborne and windborne sediment.

The soils that support this ecological site are in the gelic soil temperature regime and the udic soil moisture regime. They are coarse textured and very low in content of organic matter and have a low cation-exchange capacity. They are about 20 inches deep to permafrost. Because of the permafrost, the subsurface soil temperature is much cooler than that of other soils at similar elevations. Variations in the depth of the soils favor growth of species in early seral communities. The species are highly variable.

The forests and other habitats surrounding the glaciers provide an adequate seed source, which influences the biological diversity of the site. The early seral species become established in the limited debris cover and are affected by frequent disturbances (Fickert, 2007).

The length of the growing season is dependent on factors such as the duration of snow cover, soil temperature, and soil moisture. Areas on south-facing slopes support more drought-sensitive species, such as pearly everlasting and stonecrop (Sedum), and areas on north-facing slopes support species such as purple monkeyflower (Mimulus lewisii) and Mertens’ rush (Juncus mertensianus) (Fickert, 2007). Elevation is not a primary factor affecting the dynamics of the site.


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Physiographic Features This ecological site is on alpine glaciers (3,600 to 7,200 feet) in Mount Rainier National Park. The growing season on this site is shorter as compared to sites at lower elevations. Slope commonly is 5 to 65 percent. This site varies physiologically and is heavily influenced by disturbances.






None None

None None


None None

None None

Climatic Features Most of the annual precipitation is received in October through March. The mean annual precipitation is 88 to 160 inches, and the mean annual air temperature is 33 to 49 degrees F. The microclimate may vary depending on soil temperature and site-specific features. Generally, the summers are cool and dry and the winters are cold and wet.






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Minimum 13.5 9.8 9.3 6.3 4.3 3.3 1.8 1.8 4.3 7.3 13.5 11.8

Maximum 27 18.5 17.5 14.5 9.3 5.3 3.3 3.3 5.8 10.3 27 31



Minimum 25.6 25.1 26.8 29.7 35 40 45.9 46.5 42.6 35.4 28.8 24.4

Maximum 35.5 37.6 41.1 47.2 53.8 58.9 66.7 67.3 61.6 50.8 39.2 34.3


Influencing Water Features This site is at middle to high elevations on alpine glaciers in Mount Rainier National Park. It is not subject to flooding or ponding. It does not have a water table during the growing season.

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0


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es

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20

40

60

80


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ees

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Representative Soil Features Applicable soils: Tamanos

Applicable soil map unit in Mount Rainier National Park: 9263

The Tamanos soils are in the gelic soil temperature regime and the udic soil moisture regime. They are well drained and moderately deep to glacial ice. They are on alpine glaciers and formed in colluvium over ice. These soils do not have a water table during the growing season, and they are not subject to flooding or ponding. The Tamanos soils have more than 35 percent rock fragments in the particle-size control section. They are coarse textured and dominantly ashy loamy sand and ashy sand. None of the horizons has andic soil properties. Cryoturbation is the dominant pedogenic process. Podsolization is not evident in the soils because of the lack of coniferous forest cover. The Tamanos soils have an ochric epipedon.

Parent material: Colluvium over ice

Surface texture: (1) Ashy loamy sand (2) Ashy sand

Subsurface texture group: Ashy loamy sand, ashy loamy coarse sand, ashy sand

Drainage class: Well drained



Depth (inches): 20 30








This ecological site is on the debris-covered termini of alpine glaciers. Abiotic factors that affect this unique site include landscape position, landform, ice, and heavy snowpack. Gravity causes the loose till material to move downslope onto the termini of alpine glaciers. Other sources of debris include rockfalls; material released by freezing and thawing, which impacts the availability of water; and waterborne and windborne sediment.

The forests and other habitats surrounding the glaciers provide an adequate seed source that influences the biological diversity of the ecological site. Early seral species affected by frequent disturbances become established on the limited debris cover (Fickert, 2007). The site commonly is disturbed by mass movement, avalanches, and snow and ice cover, which limit the growth of plants to maturity.

Because of the permafrost, the subsurface soil temperature is much cooler than it is in other soils at similar elevations. This cooling effect causes a shift in the plant species composition to that of subalpine and alpine zones. The other major influence on species composition is the constant disturbance from shifting subsurface ice and deposition of loose till material from the valley walls. The variations in the depth of the soils favor growth of species in early seral communities. The species are highly variable.


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Seedlings of later seral species such as Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), and Sitka alder (Alnus viridis ssp. sinuata) may become established, but they rarely grow to full size. Coniferous trees rarely are more than 3 feet high; however, shrubs are as much as 10 feet high (Fickert, 2007). Common plants include fireweed (Chamerion angustifolium), Hornemann’s willowherb (Epilobium hornemannii), pearly everlasting (Anaphalis margaritacea), white hawkweed (Hieracium albiflorum), Drummond’s rush (Juncus drummondii), Mertens’ rush (Juncus mertensianus), and Scouler’s willow (Salix scouleriana). The diversity of the species varies depending on the proximity to a seed source.

The length of the growing season is dependent on factors such as the duration of the snow cover, soil temperature, and soil moisture. Areas on south-facing slopes favor more drought-sensitive species such as pearly everlasting and stonecrop (Sedum). Areas on north-facing slopes support species such as purple monkeyflower (Mimulus lewisii) and Mertens’ rush (Fickert, 2007).



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State 1: Reference Community Phase 1.1: Douglas-fir–western hemlock/Sitka alder–Scouler’s willow/Hornemann’s willowherb–pearly everlasting



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Structure: Dwarfed coniferous forest with a mix of shrubs and forbs

The reference community is comprised of early seral species that have a short lifespan as a result of extreme disturbances and harsh growing conditions. Douglas-fir and western hemlock become established, but the trees rarely are more than 3 feet high. Tree growth is stunted as a result of the ice in the soil profile, which limits root growth; the harsh growing conditions; and disturbances. Woody shrubs such as Sitka alder and Scouler’s willow grow slightly more successfully due to their ability to seed in disturbed areas, root in rocky and nutrient-poor areas, and withstand damage from avalanches (Uchytil, 1989). Shrubs typically reach a maximum height of 10 feet. The understory is composed of forbs and rushes, including fireweed, Hornemann’s willowherb, pearly everlasting, white hawkweed, Drummond’s rush, and Mertens’ rush.

Minimal data is available on how this ecological site will transition over long periods.

Community phase pathway 1.1A This pathway represents minor disturbances, such as extended snow cover, that maintain the overall structure of the reference community. Deposition of soil material from minor scouring temporarily affects the understory community, but it does not alter the composition of the overstory.

Community phase pathway 1.1B This pathway represents a change in the permanent ice, a powerful avalanche, or a series of avalanches that reclaims the original extent of the glacier.

Community Phase 1.2: Fireweed/purple reedgrass

Community phase 1.2 (emergent vegetation in upper left).

Structure: Bare ground with patchy herbaceous and grass cover

Community phase 1.2 represents an ecosystem that has been disturbed by avalanches, glacial movement, or ice. The vegetation may regenerate or initiate; however, the short growing season limits annual growth. Early seral colonizing species such as fireweed, purple reedgrass, and Merten’s rush may become established (Tesky, 1992). Small areas of Sitka alder and Scouler’s willow may be present.


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Community phase pathway 1.2A This pathway represents growth during a typical growing season and no significant disturbance. The vegetation is homogeneous and reaches the reference community state.

Community phase pathway 1.3A This pathway represents a change in the permanent ice, a powerful avalanche, or a series of avalanches that reclaims the original extent of the glacier.

Community Phase 1.3: Sitka alder-Scouler’s willow/Hornemann’s willowherb-pearly everlasting/Merten’s rush Structure: Herbaceous mixture of shrubs, forbs, and rushes

Community phase 1.3 represents an ecosystem in rapid establishment. Early seral and shade-intolerant species thrive under an open canopy, adequate growing conditions, and soil development. Sitka alder and Scouler’s willow mature from seedlings into pockets of bushy, multi-stemmed shrubs (Uchytil, 1989). Establishment of forbs commonly is determined by the aspect and microsite. Pearly everlasting and Hornemann’s willowherb commonly are adapted to south-facing slopes, and purple monkeyflower may be more prolific on north-facing slopes (Fickert, 2007). Some young Douglas-fir and western hemlock seedlings may sprout.


Ecological site R003XN545WA, Southern Washington Cascades Debris-covered Glaciers, has some features that are similar to those of site F003XN952WA, Southern Washington Cascades High Cryic Deciduous Forest. Both ecological sites are at high elevations that are subject to extreme disturbance regimes. Both sites are colonized with early seral species that are adapted to the high elevations and poor growing conditions. Ecological site R003XN545WA is uniquely distinguished by glacial conditions and permafrost. Under warmer conditions and glacier retreat, site R003XN545WA may transition to resemble site F003XN952WA. Over a long period without disturbance, site R003XN545WA may transition to a mature forest that resembles that of site F003XN951WA, Southern Washington Cascades High Cryic Coniferous Forest.

Other Established Classification National vegetation classification macrogroup: Vancouverian Subalpine Forest

Inventory Data Reference Type locality plot ID: 12-TMR-049


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References Crawford, R.C., C.B. Chappell, C.C. Thompson, and F.J. Rocchio. 2009. Vegetation classification of Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks. Natural Resource Technical Report NPS/NCCN/NRTR-2009/211. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.

Dwire, K., and J. Kauffman. 2003. Fire and riparian ecosystems in landscapes in the western United States. Forest Ecology and Management. Volume 178, pages 61-74.

Fickert, T., D. Friend, F. Gruninger, B. Molnia, and M. Richter. 2007. Did debris-covered glaciers serve as Pleistocene refugia for plants? A new hypothesis derived from observations of recent plant growth on glacier surfaces. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research. Volume 39, number 2, pages 245-257.








Tesky, Julie L. 1992. Calamagrostis purpurascens. In Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/graminoid/calpur/all.html


https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/graminoid/calpur/all.html

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Uchytil, Ronald J. 1989. Alnus viridis subsp. sinuata. In Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/shrub/alnvirs/all.html




Washington Department of Natural Resources, Natural Heritage Program. 2015. Ecological systems of Washington State. A guide to identification

https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/shrub/alnvirs/all.html



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Ecological Site Identification Site type: Rangeland Site name: Southern Washington Cascades Low Cryic Bog or Fen Site ID: R003XN640WA Major land resource area: 003—Olympic and Cascade Mountains



Ecological Site Concept This ecological site is in nonforested bogs and fens at low to middle elevations (2,100 to 4,600 feet) of the Southern Washington Cascade Mountains. Because of the scale of mapping, this site concept includes both bogs and fens and they are not distinguished differently. The site is influenced by the pH of the soils, availability of nutrients, physiography, and hydrologic dynamics. The summers are cool and dry, and the winters are cold and wet.

The soils that support this ecological site are in the cryic soil temperature regime and the aquic soil moisture regime. The site typically is in poorly drained areas that are subject to residual ponding from overbank flooding, groundwater discharge from nearby slopes, or a seasonal high water table associated with meltwater. The water table commonly is at or near the surface during much of the growing season, and the rate of organic material decomposition is slow because of the anaerobic and acidic conditions. These conditions result in a nutrient-poor environment. The soils are mucky and formed in organic material and bands of volcanic ash.

The site supports vegetation that is tolerant of frequent ponding and periodic saturation. Common plants include mannagrass (Glyceria spp.), American skunkcabbage (Lysichiton americanus), water sedge (Carex aquatilis), bluejoint reedgrass (Calamagrostis canadensis), white marsh marigold (Caltha leptosepala), black alpine sedge (Carex nigricans), rush (Juncus), bog Labrador tea (Ledum groenlandicum), and water parsley (Oenanthe sarmentosa).

Physiographic Features This ecological site is on debris aprons and in depressions in the Cascade Mountains (elevation 2,100 to 4,600 feet) of Mount Rainier National Park. The bogs commonly are in swales of depressions within closed hydrologic basins. The fens are on debris aprons that have hydrologic movement. The bogs and


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fens typically are small because they are limited by adjacent physiographic features. The steeper slopes impact the hydrology in the watershed (Chimner, 2010). Slope commonly is 0 to 5 percent.




Aspect: All Depth to water table (inches): 0 6


None None

None None


None None

Frequent

Long

Climatic Features Most of the annual precipitation is received in October through March. The mean annual precipitation is 51 to 111 inches, and the mean annual air temperature is 36 to 53 degrees F. Generally, the summers are cool and dry and the winters are cold and wet.







Minimum 9.3 5.8 5.3 3.8 3.3 1.8 0.8 0.8 1.8 3.3 7.8 7.3

Maximum 16.5 12.5 11.3 9.3 6.3 3.8 2.3 2.8 4.3 8.8 17.5 15.5

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0


Inch

es

Precipitation



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Minimum 28 27.5 29.5 32.1 37.5 42.3 47.4 47.8 43.6 37.1 31.1 26.7

Maximum 38.4 41 44.7 50.4 58 63.8 72 72.6 66.1 54.6 42.4 37

0

20

40

60

80


Degr

ees

F

Temperature

temp_min temp_max


Influencing Water Features This site is at low to middle elevations on debris aprons and in swales of depressions in Mount Rainier National Park. The site is subject to frequent, long periods of ponding in spring, which directly influence the plant community. The fens are continuously fed and filtered by hydrologic movement, and the bogs are in closed basins. The water table typically rises in spring and recedes in fall.

Representative Soil Features Applicable soils: Ghost


The Ghost soils are in the cryic soil temperature regime and the aquic soil moisture regime. They are very poorly drained and very deep. The soils are on debris aprons and in depressions. They formed in organic material and volcanic ash. The Ghost soils have a seasonal high water table at the surface at some time during the growing season. The soils are subject to frequent periods of ponding in April, May, and June. They have less than 35 percent rock fragments in the particle-size control section. The soils consist dominantly of organic material, primarily muck. The dominant pedogenic process is the accumulation of organic matter as a result of the slow rate of decomposition in the saturated environment. Sapric soil material is in all of the organic horizons, and andic soil properties are in all of the mineral horizons.

Soil moisture is a limiting factor to plant growth because of the frequent periods of ponding and the abundance of precipitation and snowmelt. The organic horizons consist of decomposing litter. These horizons help to protect the soils from wind and water erosion.

Parent material: Organic material, volcanic ash

Surface texture: (1) Muck (2) Woody muck



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Subsurface texture group: Muck, woody muck, ashy loamy sand

Drainage class: Very poorly drained











This ecological site is strongly influenced by physiography and hydrology. Mountain bogs and fens are unique ecosystems that impact carbon and hydrologic cycles. They host rare and unique plant and animal species that commonly are restricted to boreal and arctic regions (Chimner, 2010). Bogs are dominantly in depressions of closed hydrologic basins that are influenced primarily by snowpack and rainfall. They do not have an outlet for waterflow; therefore, they are more acidic. Fens are on debris aprons that are influenced by groundwater and aquifer recharge and discharge (Patterson, 2007).

This site is at the lower range in elevation for bogs and fens in Mount Rainier National Park. It has a longer growing season than do sites at higher elevations. This site commonly is shaded for at least part of the day because of the landscape position. Snow typically remains on the ground until late in spring or early in summer, which shortens the growing season.

The soils typically are very poorly drained and are subject to residual ponding from overbank flooding, groundwater discharge from nearby slopes, or a seasonal high water table associated with meltwater. The water table commonly is at or near the surface for much of the growing season, and the rate of organic material decomposition is slow because of the anaerobic and acidic conditions. These conditions result in a nutrient-poor environment. The soils are mucky and formed in organic material and bands of volcanic ash.

The duration and frequency of ponding directly influences the plant community. The vegetation is adapted to excessive soil moisture, ponding, and acidic conditions. Common plants include mannagrass (Glyceria spp.), American skunkcabbage (Lysichiton americanus), water sedge (Carex aquatilis), bluejoint reedgrass (Calamagrostis canadensis), white marsh marigold (Caltha leptosepala), black alpine sedge (Carex nigricans), rush (Juncus), bog Labrador tea (Ledum groenlandicum), and water parsley (Oenanthe sarmentosa). If the hydrological system is altered or restricted, this site will dry out over time and mature into a meadow ecosystem.


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State and Transition Diagram of Fens (bogs not represented in diagram)

State 1: Reference

Community Phase 1.1: Mannagrass-water sedge



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Structure: Wet meadow consisting dominantly of grasses, sedges, and rushes

The reference community is a meadow consisting dominantly of grasses, sedges, and rushes. The vegetation is influenced by a water table near or above the soil surface much of the growing season. The snow on this site melts in midsummer, restricting the growing season. Mannagrass, water sedge, and black alpine sedge are abundant. Water sedge and mannagrass are sod-forming species that create dense thickets as a result of the rhizomatous root system. They are intolerant of shade, but they are at multiple stages of succession (Hauser, 2006). Shrubs such as salmonberry and forbs such as American skunkcabbage typically are near the edges of the site, which are drier, are at higher elevations, and have a contrasting ecotone.

Community phase pathway 1.1A This pathway represents a climatic change toward drier conditions. If the site becomes drier because of decreased snowpack, decreased precipitation, or hydrologic restriction, the duration of the periods of ponding will decrease. This will increase the length of the growing season and alter the plant community.

Community phase pathway 1.1B This pathway represents a climatic change toward wetter conditions. If the site becomes wetter because of increased snowpack or precipitation, the duration of the periods of ponding will increase. This will decrease the length of the growing season and alter the plant community.

Community Phase 1.2: Water sedge-bluejoint reedgrass Structure: Wet meadow consisting of grasses, sedges, and rushes

Community phase 1.2 is a wet meadow consisting of grasses, sedges, and rushes. The vegetation is influenced by a water table above the soil surface during the growing season. Late snowmelt and extended periods of ponding restrict the diversity of the plants to those adapted to water and peat, such as water sedge, bluejoint reedgrass, and rushes. Water sedge and bluejoint reedgrass are rhizomatous, and they can colonize in disturbed environments (Hauser, 2006). These species adapt to an increase in the level of the water table, and they are present in the early seral stage under excessively wet conditions (Tesky, 1992).

Community phase pathway 1.2A This pathway represents a climatic change toward drier conditions. If the site becomes drier because of decreased snowpack or precipitation, the duration of the periods of ponding will decrease. This will impact the length of the growing season and alter the plant community.

Community Phase 1.3: Salmonberry-marsh marigold Structure: Dry meadow with shrub and forb encroachment

Community phase 1.3 is a dry meadow consisting of shrubs, forbs, grasses, and sedges. The vegetation is influenced by a water table at or below the soil surface during the growing season. The plant community is influenced by below-average snowpack and precipitation during several consecutive years. The drier conditions restrict the regeneration of wetland species such as water sedge, black alpine sedge, and rushes. Species at the edges of the site and ecotone, such as salmonberry, ladyfern, and marsh marigold, encroach in the open meadow and become more dominant.

Community phase pathway 1.3A This pathway represents a climatic change toward wetter conditions. If the site becomes wetter because of increased snowpack or precipitation, the duration of the periods of ponding will increase. This will impact the length of the growing season and alter the plant community.


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Ecological site R003XN640WA, Southern Washington Cascades Low Cryic Bog or Fen, has features that are similar to those of site R003XN641WA, Southern Washington High Cryic Bog or Fen. Both sites are influenced by ponding and similar disturbance patterns; however, elevation and the duration of ponding distinguish these ecosystems. Ecological site R003XN640WA is at an elevation of 2,100 to 4,600 feet, and site R003XN641WA is at an elevation of 3,600 to 6,500 feet. Both sites support similar plant species, but site R003XN640WA has a longer growing season and higher plant production.

Other Established Classifications National vegetation classification group: Vancouverian-Rocky Mountain Subalpine Snowbed, Wet Meadow

U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, plant association: CARAQU-(CARNIG)-CALLEP, ALNRUB/GLYSTR, RUBPAR-RUBSPE




Chimner, R., J. Lemly, and D. Cooper. 2010. Mountain fen distribution, types and restoration priorities, San Juan Mountains, Colorado, USA. Wetlands. Volume 30, pages 763-771.


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Goheen, E.M., and E.A. Willhite. 2006. Field guide to common diseases and insect pests of Oregon and Washington conifers. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region R6-NR-FID-PR-01-06.



Hauser, A. Scott. 2006. Carex aquatilis. In Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/graminoid/caraqu/all.html




Patterson, L., and D. Cooper. 2007. The use of hydrologic and ecological indicators for the restoration of drainage ditches and water diversions in a mountain fen, Cascade Range, California. Wetlands. Volume 27, number 2, pages 290-304.






Tesky, Julie L. 1992. Calamagrostis canadensis. In Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/graminoid/calcan/all.html



https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/graminoid/caraqu/all.html


http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/graminoid/calcan/all.html



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Ecological Site Identification Site type: Rangeland Site name: Southern Washington Cascades High Cryic Bog or Fen Site ID: R003XN641WA Major land resource area: 003—Olympic and Cascade Mountains

MLRA 3: Steep mountains and narrow to broad, gently sloping valleys characterize this MLRA. A triple junction of two oceanic plates and one continental plate is directly offshore from Puget Sound. Subduction of the oceanic plates under the westerly and northwesterly moving continental plate contributes to volcanic activity in the Cascade Mountains. Movement among these plates has resulted in major earthquakes and the formation of large stratovolcanoes. The Cascade Mountains consist primarily of volcanic crystalline rock with some associated metasedimentary rock. The mean annual precipitation is dominantly 60 to 100 inches, but it is 30 to 60 inches on the east side of the Cascade Mountains.


Ecological Site Concept This ecological site is in the nonforested bogs and fens at middle and high elevations (3,600 to 6,500 feet) of the Southern Washington Cascade Mountains. Because of the scale of mapping, the site concept includes bogs and fens and they are not distinguished differently. The site is influenced by the pH of the soils, availability of nutrients, and hydrologic dynamics. The summers are cool and dry, and the winters are cold and wet.

The soils that support this ecological site are in the cryic soil temperature regime and the aquic soil moisture regime. The site typically is in poorly drained areas that are subject to residual ponding from overbank flooding, groundwater discharge from nearby slopes, or a seasonal high water table associated with meltwater. The water table commonly is at or near the surface much of the growing season, and the rate of organic material decomposition is slow because of the anaerobic and acidic conditions. These conditions result in a nutrient-poor environment. The soils are mucky and formed in organic material and bands of volcanic ash. The cooler temperatures at the higher elevations result in a shorter growing season than that of similar sites at lower elevations or surrounded by a protective canopy of trees.

The site supports vegetation that is tolerant of frequent periods of ponding and periodic saturation. Common plants include tufted bulrush (Trichophorum cespitosum), American skunkcabbage (Lysichiton americanus), water sedge (Carex aquatilis), bluejoint reedgrass (Calamagrostis canadensis), white marsh marigold (Caltha leptosepala), black alpine sedge (Carex nigricans), rush (Juncus), bog Labrador tea (Ledum groenlandicum), and water parsley (Oenanthe sarmentosa).


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Physiographic Features This ecological site is in depressions and swales of terraces and cirques in the Cascade Mountains (elevation 3,600 to 6,500 feet) of Mount Rainier National Park. The bogs dominantly are in depressions within closed hydrologic basins. The fens are in swales that have hydrologic movement. The bogs and fens typically are small because of adjacent physiographic features. The steeper slopes impact the hydrology of the watershed (Chimner, 2010). Slope dominantly is 0 to 10 percent.




Aspect: All

Depth to water table (inches): 0 6


None None

None None


None None

Frequent

Long







87



Minimum 9.8 6.3 6.3 4.3 3.3 2.3 0.8 1.3 2.3 3.8 9.3 8.3

Maximum 18.5 13.5 12.5 10.3 6.8 4.3 2.3 3.3 4.8 10.3 19.5 17.5

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0


Inch

es

Precipitation

precip min precip max



Minimum 24.3 23.6 24.8 27.6 33 38.1 44.3 45.1 41.4 34.1 27.2 23.3

Maximum 34.4 36.2 39.2 44.5 51.1 56.1 64.7 65.4 59.3 48.5 37.7 33.4

0

20

40

60

80


Degr

ees

F

Temperature

temp min temp max


Influencing Water Features This site is at middle and high elevations in depressions and swales of terraces and cirques in Mount Rainier National Park. The site is subject to frequent, long periods of ponding in spring, which directly influences the plant community. The fens are continuously fed and filtered by hydrologic movement, but the bogs are restricted to closed basins. The water table typically rises in spring and recedes in fall.



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Representative Soil Features Applicable soils: Ghost


The Ghost soils are in the cryic soil temperature regime and the aquic soil moisture regime. They are very poorly drained and very deep. They are in depressions and swales of terraces and cirques and formed in organic material and volcanic ash. The soils have a seasonal high water table at the surface some time during the growing season. They are subject to frequent periods of ponding in April, May, and June. The soils have less than 35 percent rock fragments in the particle-size control section. They are dominantly organic material, primarily muck. The dominant pedogenic process is the accumulation of organic matter because of the slow rate of decomposition in the saturated environment. Sapric soil material is in all of the organic horizons, and andic soil properties are in all of the mineral horizons.

Soil moisture is a limiting factor to plant growth because of the frequent ponding and the abundance of precipitation and snowmelt. The organic horizons consist of decomposing litter. These horizons help to protect the soils from wind and water erosion.

Parent material: Organic matter and volcanic ash

Surface texture: (1) Muck (2) Woody muck

Subsurface texture group: Muck, woody muck, ashy loamy sand

Drainage class: Very poorly drained











This ecological site is strongly influenced by elevation and hydrology. Mountain bogs and fens are unique ecosystems that impact carbon and hydrologic cycles. They host rare and unique plant and animal species that commonly are restricted to boreal and arctic regions (Chimner, 2010). The bogs dominantly are in depressions of closed hydrologic basins and are influenced primarily by snowpack and rainfall. They do not have an outlet for waterflow, which creates an acidic environment. The fens are on debris aprons that are influenced by groundwater and aquifer recharge and discharge (Patterson, 2007).

This site is at the middle to high elevation range for bogs and fens in Mount Rainier National Park. The growing season is shorter on this site than it is on other bog and fen sites at lower elevations. The site commonly is shaded for at least part of the day because of the landscape position. Snow remains on the ground into midsummer, which shortens the growing season.


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This site typically is in very poorly drained areas that are subject to residual ponding from overbank flooding, groundwater discharge from nearby slopes, or a seasonal high water table associated with meltwater. The water table commonly is at or near the surface for much of the growing season, and the rate of organic material decomposition is slow because of the anaerobic and acidic conditions. These conditions result in a nutrient-poor environment. The soils are mucky, and they formed in organic material and bands of volcanic ash.

The duration and frequency of ponding directly influences the plant community. The vegetation is adapted to excessive soil moisture, ponding, a short growing season, and an acidic soil environment. Common plants include tufted bulrush (Trichophorum cespitosum), American skunkcabbage (Lysichiton americanus), water sedge (Carex aquatilis), bluejoint reedgrass (Calamagrostis canadensis), white marsh marigold (Caltha leptosepala), black alpine sedge (Carex nigricans), rush (Juncus), bog Labrador tea (Ledum groenlandicum), and water parsley (Oenanthe sarmentosa). If the hydrological system is altered or restricted, the site will dry out over time and mature into a meadow ecosystem.

State and Transition Diagram of Fens (bogs not represented in diagram)


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State 1: Reference Community Phase 1.1: Water sedge-rush


Structure: Wet meadow consisting dominantly of grasses, sedges, and rushes

The reference community is a meadow that consists dominantly of grasses, sedges, and rushes that are influenced by a water table near or above the soil surface much of the growing season. The snow melts in midsummer, which restricts the growing season. Water sedge and black alpine sedge are abundant. Water sedge is a sod-forming species that creates dense thickets as a result of the rhizomatous root system. It is intolerant of shade, but it is present at multiple stages of succession (Hauser, 2006). Shrubs such as Barclay’s willow typically are near the edges of the site. These areas are drier and at higher elevations, and they have a contrasting ecotone.

Community phase pathway 1.1A This pathway represents a climatic change toward drier conditions. If the site becomes drier from decreased snowpack or precipitation or from hydrologic restriction, the duration of the periods of ponding will decrease. This will increase the length of the growing season and alter the plant community.

Community phase pathway 1.1B This pathway represents a climatic change toward wetter conditions. If the site becomes wetter from increased snowpack or precipitation, the duration of the periods of ponding will increase. This will impact the length of the growing season and alter the plant community.


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Community Phase 1.2: Water sedge-bluejoint reedgrass Structure: Wet meadow consisting of grasses, sedges, and rushes

Community phase 1.2 represents a meadow consisting of grasses, sedges, and rushes that is influenced by a water table above the soil surface during the growing season. Late snowmelt and extended periods of ponding restrict the diversity of the plants to those that are adapted to water and peat, such as water sedge and bluejoint reedgrass. Because water sedge and bluejoint reedgrass are rhizomatous, they successfully colonize in disturbed environments (Hauser, 2006). Both species adapt to an increase in the depth to the water table. Early seral species are in excessively wet areas (Tesky, 1992).

Community phase pathway 1.2A This pathway represents a climatic change toward wetter conditions. If the site becomes wetter from increased snowpack or precipitation, the duration of the periods of ponding will increase. This will impact the length of the growing season and alter the plant community.

Community Phase 1.3: Barclay’s willow-marsh marigold Structure: Dry meadow with forb and shrub encroachment

Community phase 1.3 represents a meadow consisting of shrubs, forbs, grasses, and sedges that is influenced by a water table at or below the soil surface during the growing season. This plant community is impacted by below-average snowpack and precipitation over several consecutive years. The drier conditions restrict the regeneration of wetland species such as water sedge, black alpine sedge, and rushes. Species that are at the edges of the site and ecotone, such as Barclay’s willow and marsh marigold, begin to encroach in the open meadow and become more dominant.

Community phase pathway 1.3A This pathway represents a climatic change toward drier conditions. If the site becomes drier from decreased snowpack or precipitation, the duration of the periods of ponding will decrease. This will increase the length of the growing season and alter the plant community.


Ecological site R003XN641WA, Southern Washington Cascades High Cryic Bog or Fen, has features that are similar to those of site R003XN640WA, Southern Washington Cascades Low Cryic Bog or Fen. Both ecological sites are influenced by ponding and similar disturbance patterns; however, the elevation and duration of ponding distinguish the ecosystems.

Ecological R003XN640WA is at an elevation of 2,100 to 4,500 feet, and site R003XN641WA is at an elevation of 3,600 to 6,500 feet. Both sites have similar plant species; however, site R003XN640WA has a longer growing season and higher plant production.

Other Established Classifications National vegetation classification group: Vancouverian-Rocky Mountain Subalpine Snowbed, Wet Meadow & Dwarf-Shrubland

U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, plant association: CARAQU-(CARNIG)-CALLEP



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Type Locality

State: Washington County: Pierce Township: 17 North Range: 07 East Section: 23 Datum: NAD 83 Zone: 10 North Northing: 5199360 meters Easting: 584485 meters Latitude degrees: 46 Latitude minutes: 56 Latitude seconds: 32.6 Latitude decimal degrees: 46.942386 Longitude degrees: 121 Longitude minutes: 53 Longitude seconds: 23.7 Longitude decimal degrees: -121.889929


Chimner, R., J. Lemly, and D. Cooper. 2010. Mountain fen distribution, types and restoration priorities, San Juan Mountains, Colorado, USA. Wetlands. Volume 30, pages 763-771.







Hauser, A. Scott. 2006. Carex aquatilis. In Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/graminoid/caraqu/all.html


https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/graminoid/caraqu/all.html

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Patterson, L., and D. Cooper. 2007. The use of hydrologic and ecological indicators for the restoration of drainage ditches and water diversions in a mountain fen, Cascade Range, California. Wetlands. Volume 27, number 2, pages 290-304.






Tesky, Julie L. 1992. Calamagrostis canadensis. In Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/graminoid/calcan/all.html






http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/graminoid/calcan/all.html



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Ecological Site Identification Site type: Forestland Site name: Southern Washington Cascades Frigid Riparian Forest Populus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa-Tsuga heterophylla/Mahonia nervosa/Goodyera oblongifolia (black cottonwood-western hemlock/Cascade Oregon grape/western rattlesnake plantain) Site ID: F003XN940WA Major land resource area: 003—Olympic and Cascade Mountains



Ecological Site Concept This ecological site is on the flat, historic flood plains and terraces of river valleys. The soils that support this site have a seasonal high water table. Riparian ecological sites typically differ in topography, vegetation, geomorphology, and microclimate from areas of the surrounding uplands that support forest ecosystems (Dwire, 2003).

The most common natural disturbance is flooding. The volume and longevity of the flooding determine the effect on the dynamics of the forest.

The soils are in the frigid soil temperature regime and the udic soil moisture regime. They formed in alluvium derived from andesite mixed with volcanic ash. Growth of the forest is not limited by soil moisture because of the abundance of precipitation and the inherent water-holding properties of soils influenced by volcanic ash.

Black cottonwood (Populus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa) and western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) are the most common overstory species. Western redcedar (Thuja plicata), red alder (Alnus rubra), bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum), grand fir (Abies grandis), and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) are present. During longer periods between major floods, conifers establish and the overstory becomes more diverse. With the absence of disturbance, it is expected that the maturation and succession of the vegetation will result in an old-growth conifer forest.


95

Physiographic Features This ecological site is on flood plains and terraces of river valleys (elevation 1,600 to 2,100 feet) in Mount Rainier National Park. Slope commonly is 0 to 10 percent.




Aspect: All



None None

Rare None


None None

None None

Climatic Features Most of the annual precipitation is received in October through March. The mean annual precipitation is 75 to 84 inches, and the annual air temperature is 32 to 60 degrees F. Generally, the summers are temperate and dry and the winters are cool and wet.






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Minimum 11.3 8.3 7.3 5.3 4.8 3.3 1.3 2.3 3.5 6.8 10.8 11.3

Maximum 12.5 9.3 8.3 5.8 4.3 3.8 1.8 2.8 4 7.3 11.8 12.5

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14


Inch

es

Precipitation

precip min precip max



Minimum 34 35.3 38.7 42.7 48.8 54 59.4 59.7 54.1 45.5 37.7 32.5

Maximum 35.2 36.6 39.7 43.6 49.6 54.6 60 60.4 55 46.6 38.6 33.8

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70


Degr

ees

F

Temperature

temp min temp max


97


Influencing Water Features This site is at low elevations on terraces and flood plains in Mount Rainier National Park. The site is not subject to ponding. Flooding is rare; however, 100- or 500-year floods may dramatically alter the landscape. The water table typically rises in spring and recedes in fall.

Representative Soil Features Applicable soils: Carbon, Comet


The soils that support this ecological site are in the frigid soil temperature regime and udic soil moisture regime. The Carbon soils are moderately well drained, and the Comet soils are somewhat excessively drained. Both soils are very deep. The soils are on flood plains and terraces of river valleys. They formed in alluvium derived from andesite mixed with volcanic ash. The Carbon soils have a seasonal high water table at a depth of 20 to 40 inches at some time during the growing season. Both soils are subject to rare periods of flooding in April, May, October, and November. The Comet soils have more than 35 percent rock fragments in the control section. The soils are coarse textured and are primarily ashy loamy sand and ashy sandy loam. Podsolization in not evident because of the relatively young age of the soils. The soils have an umbric epipedon and may have a cambic horizon.

Soil moisture is not a limiting factor to forest growth because of the abundance of precipitation and the inherent water-holding properties of soils influenced by volcanic ash. A thin organic horizon consisting of decomposing twigs, needles, and litter is on the soil surface. This horizon helps to protect the soils from wind and water erosion.

Parent material: Alluvium derived from andesite mixed with volcanic ash

Surface texture: (1) Very gravelly ashy sandy loam (2) Very cobbly ashy loamy coarse sand(3) Extremely gravelly ashy loamy sand

Subsurface texture group: Very gravely ashy loamy sand, ashy fine sandy loam

Drainage class: Moderately well drained, somewhat excessively drained












98


This ecological site is on flat, historic flood plains and terraces along rivers. The soils have a seasonal high water table. Riparian ecological sites typically differ in topography, vegetation, geomorphology, and microclimate from the surrounding uplands that support forest ecosystems (Dwire, 2003). The frequency of flooding is rare; however, the volume and longevity of the flooding determine the effect on the dynamics of the forest. Small, frequent periods of peak flow do not tend to impact the flow of the channels, but they commonly transport a considerable amount of sediment. Extreme rain-on-snow flooding and debris flows can alter the stream channels through incision or aggradation and remove existing vegetation along the flood plain, resulting in a stand-replacing event (Czuba, 2012).

Black cottonwood (Populus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa) and western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) are the most common overstory species. Western redcedar (Thuja plicata), red alder (Alnus rubra), bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum), grand fir (Abies grandis), and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) are present. Black cottonwood and red alder germinate most successfully on the bare mineral soil scoured by flooding.

The understory commonly is shrubby. It includes Cascade Oregon grape (Mahonia nervosa), vine maple (Acer circinatum), salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), and devilsclub (Oplopanax horridus). Scattered areas of western rattlesnake plantain (Goodyera oblongifolia), ladyfern (Athyrium filix-femina), Canadian wildginger (Asarum caudatum), western brackenfern (Pteridium aquilinum), queencup beadlily (Clintonia uniflora), starry false lily of the valley (Maianthemum stellatum), and western swordfern (Polystichum munitum) are present. The shrubs may be less dense in the more flood-prone areas, allowing more light to reach the forest floor.

Location on the landscape is the most important factor determining species composition. Conifers are prevalent on the terraces and adjacent hillsides, and deciduous species are on the active flood plains that are subject to more frequent fluvial disturbances (Villarian, 2009). During longer periods between major floods, conifers establish and the overstory becomes more diverse. With the absence of disturbance, it is expected that the maturation and succession of the vegetation will result in an old growth conifer forest.


99



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State 1: Reference Community Phase 1.1: Black cottonwood-western hemlock/Cascade Oregon grape/western rattlesnake plantain


Structure: Mature deciduous forest with a mix of shrubs and conifer regeneration in the understory

Black cottonwood is the dominant overstory species. Red alder commonly makes up a higher percentage of the species composition, but the black cottonwood trees typically are 20 to 50 feet taller than the red alder trees. Black cottonwood trees live longer (as long as 200 years) than red alder trees, which start to actively decline after 60 to 80 years. Western hemlock typically is just outside the active flood plain, and it becomes widely established in the forest canopy (Villarin, 2009). The reference community represents a lack of major flooding for at least 100 years, which allows the pioneering deciduous species to form a mature canopy and the secondary coniferous species, such as western redcedar and western hemlock, to seed underneath. The lack of flooding also allows for vigorous growth of understory shrubs, including vine maple, Cascade Oregon grape, and baldhip rose. Common disturbances include small gap dynamics (openings of 1/2 acre or smaller) following the decline of red alder and minor scouring from flooding.

Community phase pathway 1.1A This pathway is represents minor disturbances that maintain the overall structure of the reference community. The mortality of some trees creates gaps in the understory, allowing sunlight to reach the forest floor. This promotes growth of forbs and shrubs and regeneration of overstory species. Soil deposition following minor scouring from flooding temporarily affects the understory vegetation, but it does not alter the composition of the overstory vegetation.


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Community phase pathway 1.1B This pathway represents a major 100- or 500-year flood that scours the stream channel, removes understory and overstory vegetation, and may alter the streamflow. This disturbance may completely reconfigure the sediment and reduce or eliminate the forest overstory.

Forest Overstory

Western redcedar is dominant in the forest canopy cover, and Douglas-fir, red alder, and black cottonwood are subcomponents. The forest has multiple layers. The upper canopy ranges from 100 to 175 feet in height, and the average is 105 feet. Black cottonwood is the tallest tree in the reference community. The diameter of the trees varies depending on species, but the average diameter at breast height is 21 inches. Deciduous trees are dominant, and they make up the highest basal area along the flood plains. The basal area of conifers is higher on terraces and hillslopes (Villarian, 2009).

Forest Overstory Characterization Summary

Forest canopy: Low canopy cover (%) RV canopy cover (%) High canopy cover (%)

35 60 85

Overstory plant type: Tree

Name Symbol Nativity Basal area (low)

Basal area

(high)

Western hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) TSHE N 0 40

Western redcedar (Thuja plicata) THPL N 0 230

Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) PSME N 0 100

Black cottonwood (Populus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa) POBAT N 0 40

Red alder (Alnus rubra) ALRU N 0 20

Forest Understory

The understory composition varies depending on the overstory and the competition for moisture. Overall cover of shrubs such as vine maple and Cascade Oregon grape is 10 to 15 percent in the reference community. Overall cover of forbs such as vanillaleaf, western rattlesnake plantain, and Oregon oxalis is as much as 40 percent. Overall cover of western swordfern is as much as 55 percent in some areas.


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Cover % (high)


(in.)

Top canopy height

(in.)

Vine maple (Acer circinatum) ACCI N 15 25 24 360

Cascade Oregon grape (Mahonia nervosa) MANE N 10 35 6 24

Baldhip rose (Rosa gymnocarpa) ROGY N 0 5 0 6



Cover % (high)


(in.)

Top canopy height

(in.)

Western rattlesnake plantain (Goodyera oblongifolia) GOOB2 N 0 5 1 6

Deerfoot vanillaleaf (Achlys triphylla) ACTR N 0 20 1 12

Western swordfern (Polystichum munitum) POMU N 0 55 12 48

Pathfinder (Adenocaulon bicolor) ABDI N 0 5 0 24

Oregon oxalis (Oxalis oregana) OXOR N 0 40 0 6


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Community Phase 1.2: Black cottonwood-red alder/vine maple/common ladyfern


Structure: Single story/shrub

Community phase 1.2 represents a riparian forest that is undergoing regeneration or stand initiation. Scattered remnant mature trees are in some areas. Successful regeneration is dependent on a local seed source, an adequate seedbed, and sufficient light and water (Nierenberg, 2000). Black cottonwood, red alder, and vine maple are the pioneering early seral species that become established first after a major disturbance. These deciduous species establish quicker than do conifers. Red alder fixes nitrogen in the soil on flood plains, which provides an early competitive advantage (Villarin, 2009). Seeds of deciduous species are light and can be transported long distances by wind and water, allowing for rapid recolonization. Most of the common shrubs, such as vine maple and baldhip rose, can readily regenerate by sprouting from the root crown that has been buried by flood deposits. The shrubs compete with seedlings and saplings until the tree species overtop them. A major disturbance allows seral forb species, such as western swordfern and Oregon oxalis, to become established.

Community phase pathway 1.2A This pathway represents growth over time with no further significant disturbance. The areas of regeneration go through the typical phases of stands, including competitive exclusion, maturation, and understory reinitiation, until they resemble the old-growth structure of the reference community.


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Community Phase 1.3: Black cottonwood-western redcedar/vine maple/common ladyfern-western rattlesnake plantain


Structure: Dense single story with diminished understory

Community phase 1.3 is a forest in the competitive exclusion stage. Scattered remnant mature trees are in some areas. Individual trees compete for available water and nutrients. Red alder trees begin to die 40 to 70 years after a disturbance, which allows more light to penetrate the nitrogen-rich soils (Naiman, 2009). As a result, conifer species become more dominant in this community phase. Downed logs are important for conifer establishment (Villarian, 2009). Canopy closure is nearly 100 percent, which leads to diminished understory. Some understory species that are better adapted to shade, such as vine maple, remain in the community. The shrub community decreases in areas farther from the flood plain, leading to a closed canopy forest (Villarian, 2009). If red alder is present, it can be inferred that frequent minor flooding has influenced the dynamics of the site (Nierenberg, 2000). Over time, the forest thins as a result of competition and a decrease in species that are not tolerant of shade.

Community phase pathway 1.3A This pathway represents a major 100- or 500-year flood that scours the stream channel, removes understory and overstory vegetation, and may alter the streamflow. This disturbance may completely reconfigure the sediment and dramatically reduce or eliminate the forest overstory.


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Community phase pathway 1.3B This pathway represents an area with no further major disturbance. Continued growth over time and ongoing mortality lead to increased vertical diversification. The community begins to resemble the structure of the reference community. It has small pockets of regeneration (both deciduous and coniferous) and a more diversified understory.

Transition state pathway T1A This pathway represents long-term growth uninhibited by natural disturbances, such as a 100-year flood. Deciduous overstory species are nearly absent, and the plant community shifts to an old-growth conifer forest.

Transition State 2: Western hemlock–Douglas-fir/salal–Cascade Oregon grape

Transition state 2.


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Structure: Multistory with small gap dynamics

Transition state 2 represents a mature old-growth forest that has been undisturbed by major flooding. Western hemlock is the most common overstory species. It is shade tolerant and has the ability to release quickly following extended periods of suppression (Packee, 1990). Douglas-fir and western redcedar are present, but Douglas-fir regeneration is minimal because of the closed canopy. Red alder and Pacific yew are minor components of the overstory, but they commonly become established in areas that have been disturbed and receive more sunlight. The dense canopy created by multiple age groups of hemlock may block most of the sunlight from the forest floor, leading to sparse understory in some areas. Dense clumps of vine maple also block the sunlight. Most of the understory is in areas that have gaps in the mid-canopy and overstory that allow sunlight to reach the ground. The understory is continuous in areas that do not have a mid-canopy. The most common natural disturbance on this site is the small gap dynamics following the mortality of one or two trees.

Community phase pathway T2A This pathway represents an area affected by major flooding, leading to the stand initiation phase of development.


Common and

scientific name

Symbol

Site index (low)

Site index (high)

CMAI (low)

CMAI (high)

Age at CMAI



Citation

ft. ft3/ac/yr yrs.

Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)

PSME 185

195

60 990 100TA King, James E. 1966. Site index curves for Douglas-fir in the Pacific Northwest. Weyerhauser Company, Forestry Research Center Forestry Paper 8.


Ecological site F003XN940WA, Southern Washington Cascades Frigid Riparian Forest, is similar to site F003XN943WA, Southern Washington Cascades Frigid Coniferous Forest. Site F003XN940WA is in an earlier forest successional stage because of frequent disturbance. It is expected that over a long period of time without disturbance, ecological site F003XN940WA will mature to resemble site F003XN943WA.

Other Established Classifications U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, plant association: TSHE/GASH-BENE

U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, plant association: POPBAL/GAUSHA/POLMUN, PSUMEN-TSUHET/GAUSHA/POLMUN


107


Type Locality State: Washington County: Pierce Township: 15 North Range: 07 East Section: 34 Datum: NAD 83 Zone: 10 North Northing: 5176745 meters Easting: 582965meters Latitude degrees: 46 Latitude minutes: 44 Latitude seconds: 27.806 Latitude decimal degrees: 46.739125 Longitude degrees: 121 Longitude minutes: 34 Longitude seconds: 5.767 Longitude decimal degrees: -121.914025










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Packee, E.C. 1990. Tsuga heterophylla. In Silvics of North America: Volume 1. Conifers. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Agriculture Handbook 654. Pages 613-622. https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/misc/ag_654_vol1.pdf





Scientia Silvica. 1997. Regeneration patterns in the mountain hemlock zone. Extension Series, Number 6.














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Ecological Site Identification Site type: Forestland Site name: Southern Washington Cascades Wet Frigid Coniferous Forest Thuja plicata-Alnus rubra/Lysichiton americanus-Oxalis oregana (western redcedar-red alder/American skunkcabbage-Oregon oxalis) Site ID: F003XN941WA Major land resource area: 003—Olympic and Cascade Mountains



Ecological Site Concept This ecological site is in depressions and swales and on terraces, glacial-valley walls, and debris aprons in Mount Rainier National Park. Climate is a key component in the succession of the forest dynamics. The site is in cool, wet areas at middle to high elevations (1,600 to 4,600 feet).

The soils that support this ecological site are in the frigid soil temperature regime and the aquic soil moisture regime. They are poorly drained and very deep. The soils have a seasonal high water table at the surface to a depth of 10 inches below the surface at some time during the growing season. They are subject to frequent periods of ponding in April, May, and June, which has a direct effect on the vegetative productivity of the site. A thin organic horizon consisting of decomposing twigs, needles, and litter is on the soil surface. This horizon helps to protect the soils from wind and water erosion.

Western redcedar (Thuja plicata) and red alder (Alnus rubra) are the most common overstory species, but some western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), and grand fir (Abies grandis) are present. The root penetration of western redcedar makes it well adapted to forested swamps. American skunkcabbage (Lysichiton americanus), Oregon oxalis (Oxalis oregana), western swordfern (Polystichum munitum), deer fern (Blechnum spicant), western oakfern (Gymnocarpium dryopteris), and twinflower (Linnaea borealis) are in scattered areas.


110

Physiographic Features This ecological site in depressions and swales and on terraces, glacial-valley walls, and debris aprons at middle to high elevations (1,600 to 4,600 feet) in Mount Rainier National Park. Slope commonly is 0 to 10 percent.




Aspect: All Depth to water table (inches): 0 10


None None

None None


None None

Frequent

Long

Climatic Features Most of the annual precipitation is received in October through March. The mean annual precipitation is 70 to 83 inches, and the mean annual air temperature is 41 to 45 degrees F. Generally, the summers are cool and dry and the winters are cool and wet.






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Minimum 11.3 8.3 6.8 4.8 3.3 2.3 .08 1.8 3.3 6.3 10.8 11.3

Maximum 13.5 9.3 8.3 5.8 4.3 3.8 1.8 2.8 3.8 7.3 12.5 13.5

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0


Inch

es

Precipitation




Minimum 31.2 31.9 33.8 37.6 44.3 49.7 57.2 57.9 52.7 43.3 34.1 30

Maximum 35.2 36.6 39.7 43.6 50.7 57.7 64.8 64.6 58.3 47.7 38.8 33.8

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0


Degr

ees

F

Temperature

temp_min temp_max




112

Influencing Water Features This ecological site is at middle to high elevations of flood plains in Mount Rainier National Park. The soils associated with this site have a seasonal high water table. They are subject to frequent, long periods of ponding during the growing season.

Representative Soil Features Applicable soils: Sunbeam

Applicable soil map units: 6101, 6110, 6120, 6125, 7110, 7120, 7125

The Sunbeam soils are in depressions and swales, on terraces of river valleys, and on debris aprons and glacial-valley walls of mountain slopes. The soils have a seasonal high water table at the surface to a depth of 10 inches below the surface some time during the growing season. They are subject to frequent periods of ponding in April, May, and June. The soils formed in volcanic ash, and they have less than 35 percent rock fragments in the particle-size control section. They are coarse textured and primarily ashy loamy sand and ashy sandy loam. The upper mineral horizon is mucky. These soils have an ochric epipedon and a cambic horizon. Podsolization is not evident in the profile.

Soil moisture is not a limiting factor to forest growth on these soils because of the abundance of precipitation and the inherent water-holding properties of soils influenced by volcanic ash. A thin organic horizon consisting of decomposing twigs, needles, and litter is on the soil surface. This horizon helps to protect the soils from wind and water erosion.


Surface texture: (1) Mucky ashy sandy loam (2) Mucky ashy loamy sand

Subsurface texture group: Ashy












This ecological site is in depressions and swales and on terraces, debris aprons, and glacial valley walls. The soils that support the site have a seasonal high water table. Western redcedar (Thuja plicata) and red alder (Alnus rubra) are the most common overstory species, but some western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), and grand fir (Abies grandis) are present. Vine maple (Acer circinatum), salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), devilsclub (Oplopanax horridus), and thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus) make up the dense subcanopy. American skunkcabbage (Lysichiton


113

americanus), Oregon oxalis (Oxalis oregana), western swordfern (Polystichum munitum), deer fern (Blechnum spicant), western oakfern (Gymnocarpium dryopteris), and twinflower (Linnaea borealis) are in scattered areas.

The most common natural disturbance is ponding. The volume and longevity of the ponding determine the effect on the dynamics of the forest. Windthrow occurs as a result of the seasonal high water table. In saturated areas, trees tip up because the roots grow laterally as a result of the shallow rooting depth. This creates openings in the canopy and allows more sunlight to reach the forest floor, which lead to a shrubby understory. Because of the frequent tip-ups, the site has a hummocky surface and an abundance of downed woody debris. Western redcedar regenerates in these disturbed areas and reproduces on fallen branches and trees (Minore, 1990).



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State 1: Reference Community Phase 1.1: Western redcedar-red alder/American skunkcabbage/Oregon oxalis


Structure: Mature mixed conifer and deciduous forest with shrubs and conifer regeneration in the understory

The reference community represents an absence of major disturbance for at least 50 years. Western redcedar and red alder are the dominant overstory species. Western redcedar is shade tolerant, and it can survive as long as 1,000 years (Minore, 1990). In contrast, red alder is relatively short lived. It matures at about 65 years of age and rarely survives longer than 100 years (Harrington, 1990). With the absence of disturbance and openings in the canopy, red alder will be replaced by shade-tolerant species. Douglas-fir and western hemlock are subcomponents of the forest; however, both species are poorly suited to areas that have a water table at a depth of less than 6 inches. Both species can become established in areas that are in an ustic or xeric soil moisture regime, but they grow poorly and rarely become as prolific or dominant as does western redcedar (Packee, 1990). If the soil moisture shifts over time to more well drained conditions, western hemlock and western redcedar may become dominant.

Vine maple (Acer circinatum), salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), devilsclub (Oplopanax horridus), and thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus) make up the dense subcanopy. Because of the frequent tip-up of trees, the site has a hummocky surface and an abundance of downed woody debris. American skunkcabbage (Lysichiton americanus), Oregon oxalis (Oxalis oregana), western swordfern (Polystichum munitum), deer fern (Blechnum spicant), western oakfern (Gymnocarpium dryopteris), and twinflower (Linnaea borealis) are in scattered areas. Common disturbances include small gap dynamics (openings of 1/2 acre or smaller) following the decline of shade-intolerant species and minor deposition of sediment, which leads to mortality of the vegetation.

Community phase pathway 1.1A This pathway represents minor disturbances that maintain the overall structure of the reference community. The mortality of one or two trees creates gaps that allow sunlight to reach the forest floor, promoting the growth of forbs and shrubs and the regeneration of overstory species. Deposition of soil


115

material as a result of ponding temporarily affects the understory community, but it does not alter the composition of the overstory.

Community phase pathway 1.1B This pathway represents excessive ponding, which results in a shallow rooting zone. This affects the stability of trees. Windthrow may create pockets of fallen trees in areas larger than 1 acre in size.

Forest Overstory

The forest canopy consists of western redcedar, western hemlock, Douglas-fir, grand fir, and red alder. The forest has multiple layers. The upper canopy ranges from 100 to 220 feet in height, and it averages 110 feet. The diameter of the trees varies depending on the species.


Forest canopy: Low canopy cover (%) RV canopy cover (%) High canopy cover (%)

40 55 65



Basal area

(high)

Grand fir (Abies grandis) ABGR N 0 10



Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) TSHE N 10 200



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Forest Understory

The understory varies depending on the overstory and competition for moisture and light. Overall cover of shrubs such as vine maple and devilsclub is as much as 35 percent. Shrubs are prolific in the reference community. Overall cover of forbs such as oxalis, common ladyfern, and western swordfern is as much as 30 percent.




Cover % (high)


(in.)

Top canopy height

(in.)


Cascade Oregon grape (Mahonia nervosa) MANE2 N 0 10 12 24

Red huckleberry (Vaccinium parvifolium) VAPA N 0 5 12 36

Devilsclub (Oplopanax horridus) OPHO N 0 30 12 120



Cover % (high)


(in.)

Top canopy height

(in.)

Oxalis (Oxalis oregana) OXOR N 0 20 1 8

Twinflower (Linnea borealis) LIBO3 N 0 3 1 6


Vanillaleaf (Achlys triphylla) ACTR N 0 10 1 12

Common ladyfern (Athyrium filix-femina) ATFI N 0 20 1 36

Western oakfern (Gymnocarpium dryopteris) GYDR N 0 15 3 6


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Community Phase 1.2: Red alder/American skunkcabbage



Community phase 1.2 represents a forest that is undergoing regeneration or stand initiation. Scattered remnant mature trees are in some areas. Red alder, salmonberry, and vine maple are the pioneering early seral species that establish first after a major disturbance. The seeds of these species are light and can be transported long distances by wind and water, allowing for rapid recolonization. Most of the common shrubs, such as vine maple, can readily regenerate by sprouting from the root crown that has been buried by sediment during periods of ponding. The shrubs compete with seedlings and saplings until the tree species overtop them. Major disturbances allow seral forb species to become established.

Community phase pathway 1.2A This pathway represents growth over time with no further significant disturbance. The areas of regeneration move through the typical phases of stands, including competitive exclusion, maturation, and understory reinitiation, until they resemble the old-growth structure of the reference community.


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Name Symbol

Site index (high)

CMAI Age at CMAI


Citation

ft ft3/ac/yr yrs

Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla)

TSHE 67 175 90 995 Wiley, K.N. 1978. Site index tables for western hemlock in the Pacific Northwest. Weyerhauser Company, Forestry Research Center Forestry Paper 17.


Ecological site F003XN941WA, Southern Washington Cascades Wet Frigid Coniferous Forest, is similar to sites F003XN942WA, Southern Washington Cascades Moist Frigid Coniferous Forest; F003XN943WA, Southern Washington Cascades Frigid Coniferous Forest; and F003XN945WA, Southern Washington Cascades Wet Low Cryic Coniferous Forest. The major distinctions among these sites are the depth to the water table, precipitation, and the duration and frequency of ponding. Ecological site F003XN941WA is wetter than are sites F003XN942WA and F003XN943WA, which have a lower water table and higher water-holding capacity. The vegetation ranges from the more wet-adapted species, such as western redcedar and American skunkcabbage, of site F003XN941WA to the drier species, such as western hemlock and Cascade Oregon grape, of site F003XN943WA. It is projected that under drier conditions over a long period, ecological sites F003XN941WA and F003XN942WA will progress toward an old-growth stand that resembles that of site F003XN943WA. The vegetation of ecological site F003XN945WA is similar to that of site F003XN941WA; however, site F003XN945WA receives more precipitation and commonly is at higher elevations.

Other Established Classifications National vegetation classification: Vancouverian Flooded and Swamp Forest Macrogroup-North Pacific Hardwood-Conifer Swamp Group

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, plant association: TSHE/LYAM, TSHE/OPHO-ATFI

U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, plant association: TSUHET-(THUPLI-ALNRUB)/LYSAME-ATHFIL; TSUHET-ABIAMA/VACALA/LYSAME



119









Harrington, C. 1990. Alnus rubra. In Silvics of North America: Volume 2. Hardwoods. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Agriculture Handbook 654. Pages 116-123. https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/misc/ag_654_vol2.pdf




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Minore, D. 1990. Thuja plicata. In Silvics of North America: Volume 1. Conifers. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Agriculture Handbook 654. Pages 590-600. https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/misc/ag_654_vol1.pdf



















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Ecological Site Identification Site type: Forestland Site name: Southern Washington Cascades Moist Frigid Coniferous Forest Tsuga heterophylla-Thuja plicata/Mahonia nervosa/Goodyera oblongifolia (western hemlock-western redcedar/Cascade Oregon grape/western rattlesnake plantain) Site ID: F003XN942WA Major land resource area: 003—Olympic and Cascade Mountains



Ecological Site Concept This ecological site is in Mount Rainier National Park at low to middle elevations (1,600 to 3,600 feet). Climate is a key component in the succession of the forest dynamics. This site is in depressions and stream channels of terraces, debris aprons, and valley walls.

The soils that support this ecological site are in the frigid soil temperature regime and the aquic soil moisture regime. They are somewhat poorly drained and very deep. They have a seasonal high water table at a depth of 10 to 20 inches at some time during the growing season. Soil moisture is not a limiting factor to forest growth because of the abundance of precipitation and the inherent water-holding properties of soils influenced by volcanic ash. A thin organic horizon consisting of decomposing twigs, needles, and litter is on the soil surface. This horizon helps to protect the soil from wind and water erosion.

Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) and western redcedar (Thuja plicata) are the most common overstory species. Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) are codominant tree species. In the absence of a major disturbance, the heavy shade provided by a hemlock and redcedar forest favors the gradual replacement of Douglas-fir with more shade-tolerant trees. Red alder (Alnus rubra) may be a minor component of the overstory in recently disturbed areas and forest openings.


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Physiographic Features This ecological site is in depressions and stream channels of terraces, debris aprons, and valley walls at low to middle elevations (1,600 to 3,600 feet) in Mount Rainier National Park. Slope is dominantly 0 to 35 percent.




Aspect: All



None None

None None


None None

None None

Climatic Features Most of the annual precipitation is received in October through March. The mean annual precipitation is 60 to 80 inches, and the mean annual air temperature is 23 to 45 degrees F. Generally, the summers are warm and dry and the winters are cool and wet.






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Minimum 11.8 8.3 6.8 4.8 3.3 2.3 .08 1.8 3.3 6.3 10.8 11.3

Maximum 13.5 9.3 8.3 5.8 4.3 3.8 1.8 2.8 3.8 7.3 12.5 13.5

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0


Inch

es

Precipitation




Minimum 31.2 31.9 33.8 37.6 44.3 49.7 57.2 57.9 52.7 43.3 34.1 30

Maximum 35.2 35.9 39.6 43.6 50.7 57.7 64.8 64.6 58.3 47.7 38.8 33.6

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0


Degr

ees

F

Temperature

temp_min temp_max

Precipitation and temperature data are from the PRISM Climate Group, Oregon State University, http://prism.oregonstate.edu. The tables were created February 26, 2015.



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Influencing Water Features This ecological site is in depressions and stream channels of terraces, debris aprons, and valley walls at low to middle elevations in Mount Rainier National Park. The soils have a high water table in March through June.

Representative Soil Features Applicable soils: Tokaloo

Applicable soil map units: 6110, 6120, 6125, 7110, 7120, 7125

The Tokaloo soils are in stream channels of terraces, on debris aprons of mountain slopes, and in swales of glacial-valley walls. The soils formed in volcanic ash over andesite colluvium. They have a seasonal high water table at a depth of 10 to 20 inches at some time during the growing season. The soils are not subject to flooding or ponding. They have less than 35 percent rock fragments in the control section. The soils are coarse textured and are primarily ashy sandy loam and ashy loamy sand. Pumice paragravel is in some areas. The Tokaloo soils have an ochric epipedon and andic properties. Podsolization is not evident.

Soil moisture is not a limiting factor to forest growth on these soils because of the abundance of precipitation and the inherent water-holding properties of soils influenced by volcanic ash. A thin organic horizon consisting of decomposing twigs, needles, and litter is on the soil surface. This horizon helps to protect the soil from wind and water erosion.

Parent material: Volcanic ash over andesite colluvium

Surface texture: (1) Paragravelly ashy sandy loam (2) Ashy sandy loam (3) Ashy loamy sand


Drainage class: Somewhat poorly drained











125


This ecological site is on the warm, moist, lower slopes of Mount Rainier at an elevation of as much as about 3,600 feet, depending on aspect. This site is in areas that have a seasonal high water table at a depth of 10 to 20 inches from the soil surface. Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) and western redcedar (Thuja plicata) are the most common overstory species. Some Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) are present.

In the absence of a major disturbance, the shade provided by the hemlock and western redcedar forest favors the gradual replacement of Douglas-fir with more shade-tolerant trees. Red alder (Alnus rubra) may be a minor component in the overstory. Cascade Oregon grape (Mahonia nervosa), vine maple (Acer circinatum), salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), devilsclub (Oplopanax horridus), and thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus) make up the dense subcanopy. The understory consists of western rattlesnake plantain (Goodyera oblongifolia), western swordfern (Polystichum munitum), deer fern (Blechnum spicant), western oakfern (Gymnocarpium dryopteris), Oregon oxalis (Oxalis oregana), twinflower (Linnaea borealis), and American skunkcabbage (Lysichiton americanus) in scattered areas.

The most common natural disturbance is windthrow, which commonly is a result of the seasonal high water table. The shallow rooting zone in saturated areas causes roots to grow laterally, resulting in frequent tip-ups. This creates openings in the canopy and allows more sunlight to reach the forest floor, leading to a shrubby understory. Because of the frequent tip-ups, the site has a hummocky surface with an abundance of downed woody debris.

Western hemlock is highly susceptible to rot diseases such as armillaria (Armillaria ostoyae), annosus (Heterobasidion annosum), laminated root rot (Phellinus weirii), and Indian paint fungus (Echinodontium tinctorium). The resulting openings in the canopy allow sunlight to reach the forest floor, benefiting the understory. Disturbance by fire is infrequent because of the high humidity and precipitation. Fires occur every 200 to 400 years, and they may be stand-replacing (Tesky, 1992).


126


127

State 1: Reference Community Phase 1.1: Western hemlock-western redcedar/Cascade Oregon grape/western rattlesnake plantain



This community phase represents a lack of major disturbance for at least 100 years. Western hemlock and western redcedar are the dominant overstory species. Both species are shade tolerant and release quickly following extended periods of suppression (Packee, 1990). Douglas-fir and Sitka spruce are present, but regeneration is minimal because of the absence of openings in the canopy. The dense canopy consisting of multiple ages of western hemlock and western redcedar may block most of the sunlight from the forest floor, leading to sparse understory in some areas. Most of the understory vegetation is in areas where there are gaps in the mid-canopy and overstory, which allow sunlight to reach the ground. The understory is more continuous in areas that do not have a mid-canopy. The most common natural disturbance on this site is small gap dynamics resulting from the mortality of one or two trees.


128

Community phase pathway 1.1A This pathway represents minor disturbances, such as small pockets of root disease, individual tree mortality, or windthrow, that maintain the overall structure of the reference community. The mortality of one or two trees creates gaps in the understory, which allow sunlight to reach the forest floor. This promotes growth of forbs and shrubs and regeneration of overstory species, perpetuating a multi-storied, uneven-aged forest.

Community phase pathway 1.1B This pathway represents a disturbance such as a windstorm, an insect infestation, or pockets of root rot. Historically, this pathway was caused by pockets of disease, such as annosum root rot (Heterobasidion annosum) or laminated root rot (Phellinus weirii); minor insect infestations; or low- to moderate-intensity fires. Areas of regeneration are 2 to 4 acres in size.

Community phase pathway 1.1C This pathway represents a major stand-replacing disturbance such as a high-intensity fire, large-scale windstorm, major insect infestation, or mass movement. The frequency of high-intensity fires is 200 to 400 years. Volcanic activity has the potential to disrupt the ecology beyond the boundaries of this site and the purpose of this site description.

Forest Overstory

The forest canopy consists of western hemlock, western redcedar, Douglas-fir, and Sitka spruce. The forest has multiple layers. The upper canopy is 140 to 250 feet in height, and it averages 155 feet. The diameter of the trees varies depending on the species.

Forest Overstory Characterization Summary Forest canopy: Low canopy cover % RV canopy cover % High canopy cover %

60 65 70



Basal area

(high)




Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) TSHE N 0 10


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Forest Understory

The composition of the understory varies depending on the overstory cover and competition for moisture and light. Overall cover of shrubs such as devilsclub and salmonberry may be as much as 10 to 15 percent in forest openings. Forbs such as western rattlesnake plantain, vanillaleaf, common ladyfern, and western swordfern are common.




Cover % (high)


(in.)

Top canopy height

(in.)


Cascade Oregon grape (Mahonia nervosa) MANE2 N 0 1 6 12

Red huckleberry Vaccinium parvifolium VAPA N 0 10 12 36


Salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis) RUSP N 0 15 24 96



Cover % (high)


(in.)

Top canopy height

(in.)








130

Community Phase 1.2: Douglas-fir–red alder/salmonberry/western swordfern


Structure: Mosaic of mature overstory and regenerating openings

Community phase 1.2 has some areas that resemble phase 1.1, but it also has moderate-sized openings (2 to 4 acres). The vegetation in the openings is dominantly shade-intolerant species such as Douglas-fir and red alder and some remnant species. Many of the shrubs, including salmonberry, vine maple, Cascade Oregon grape, and devilsclub, respond well to increased sunlight and may delay or prevent reforestation of the openings.

Community phase pathway 1.2A This pathway represents growth over time with no significant disturbance. The areas of regeneration move through the typical phases of stands, including competitive exclusion, maturation, and understory reinitiation, until they resemble the old-growth structure of the reference community.

Community phase pathway 1.2B This pathway represents a major stand-replacing disturbance such as a high-intensity fire, large-scale windstorm, major insect infestation, or mass movement.

Community Phase 1.3: Red alder/vine maple/western swordfern Structure: Open meadow with snags

Community phase 1.3 is an early seral plant community that has been impacted by a stand-replacing disturbance such as a wildfire, large-scale windstorm, mass movement, or major insect infestation. Only fire-resistant trees survive in the understory. The species composition depends on the natural seed sources present and the intensity of the disturbance. Standing, decaying snags are prevalent. Red alder quickly establishes after a disturbance in areas where soil moisture and sunlight are available. Tree seedlings and saplings begin to establish within 3 to 10 years, depending on the severity of the disturbance.

Douglas-fir can survive moderate-intensity fires because of the thick, corky bark. Depending on the severity of the fire and damage to the cambium, mature Douglas-fir may remain as a dominant overstory


131

species. Western redcedar and western hemlock may be in a full stand replacement phase post fire (Tesky, 1992).

After a moderate or severe fire, shrubs commonly outcompete tree seedlings. Vine maple, red huckleberry, salal, baldhip rose, and Cascade Oregon grape, which may have been moderately abundant previously, recover rapidly and spread when top-killed. This slows successful regeneration of the overstory. The surrounding, undisturbed forest and surviving trees provide seed sources that result in a mixed stand consisting of Douglas-fir, western hemlock, red alder, bigleaf maple, western redcedar, and grand fir.

Community phase pathway 1.3 This pathway represents growth over time with no further major disturbance.

Community Phase 1.4: Douglas-fir–red alder/vine maple–salmonberry/western swordfern Structure: Single story

Community phase 1.4 is an early seral forest in regeneration. Scattered remnant mature trees may be present. Red alder begins to be replaced by more shade-tolerant species. Douglas-fir and western redcedar regenerate rapidly and increase in dominance, creating thick patches of saplings. Vine maple and salmonberry remain prevalent in the forest openings, and western swordfern begins to re-establish.

Community phase pathway 1.4A This pathway represents growth over time with no further major disturbance.

Community phase pathway 1.4B This pathway represents a major stand-replacing disturbance such as a high-intensity fire, large-scale windstorm, major insect infestation, or mass movement that leads to the stand initiation phase of forest development.

Community Phase 1.5: Douglas-fir–western redcedar/vine maple–salmonberry/twinflower–western swordfern Structure: Dense single story with diminished understory

Community phase 1.5 represents the competitive exclusion stage of forest development. Scattered remnant mature trees may be present. Individual trees compete for available water and nutrients. The canopy closure is nearly 100 percent, and the understory is diminished. Some understory species better adapted to partial shade, such as twinflower and red huckleberry, begin to increase in abundance. Over time, the forest begins to self-thin as a result of competition. The species composition depends on the natural seed sources. The forest may consist of a single species or mixed species, including Douglas-fir, western hemlock, red alder, bigleaf maple, and western redcedar.



Community Phase 1.6: Western redcedar-western hemlock/Cascade Oregon grape-vine maple/western rattlesnake plantain Structure: Single story with a few small openings

Community phase 1.6 is a maturing forest that is differentiating vertically. Individual trees are dying from competition, disease, insects, or windthrow, which allows some sunlight to reach the forest floor. The understory increases in abundance, and pockets of overstory tree regeneration are present.


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Community phase pathway 1.6A This pathway represents growth over time with no further major disturbance. Continued growth and ongoing mortality lead to more vertical diversification. The community begins to resemble the structure of the reference community, including small pockets of regeneration and a more diversified understory.



Name Symbol

Site index (high)

CMAI Age at CMAI

Code for site

index curve

Citation

ft ft3/ac/yr yrs

Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis)

PISI 106 230 90 995 Hanson, E., D. Azuma, and B. Hiserote. 2002. Site index equations and mean annual increment equations for Pacific Northwest Research Station forest inventory and analysis inventories, 1085-2001. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station Research Note PNW-RN-533.

Supporting Information Pathogens

This ecological site is prone to rotting diseases. Annosus, armillaria, and laminated root rot can infest western hemlock and Douglas-fir forests. Indian paint fungus (Echinodontium tinctorium) can cause heart rot in true firs and hemlocks. Root and heart rot can cause mortality of individual trees to several acres of trees and result in widespread windthrow.

Annosus root disease (Heterobasidion annosum) affects nearly all conifer species in the Pacific Northwest. It is a slow-growing pathogen, but it can cause severe root and butt decay in affected stands. It commonly occurs in conjunction with armillaria and laminated root rot and precedes infestations of bark beetle.

Annosus commonly is challenging to differentiate from armillaria. Obvious signs include circular pockets of windthrown trees and dieback of the canopy. Annosus results in growth of a distinctive fruiting body, called a conk, in hollow stumps. Other identifying features include a reddish stain, decay, and “spongy” texture of the heartwood and roots (Goheen, 2006). Regeneration of conifers may be unsuccessful for several decades, until the soil is void of fungal inoculum. Application of borax on freshly cut tree stumps (within 24 hours) may reduce the spread of annosus in managed stands.


133

Armillaria root disease (Armillaria ostoyae) affects all conifer species and shrubs in the Pacific Northwest. It can affect several acres and cause widespread tree mortality. Western hemlock and western redcedar are susceptible to armillaria, but they commonly are more tolerant of the disease in mixed conifer stands. Young regenerating stands (less than 30 years) are most susceptible; therefore, maturation and succession of the forest may be delayed.

Identification of armillaria is similar to that of other root diseases; however, armillaria produces a distinct white mycelial fan between the wood and bark. Rhizomorphs (brown shoestrings of fungal mycelia) are common under the bark and roots of trees (Goheen, 2006). High resin flow and excessive sapping is also common. Management commonly is limited to use of less susceptible species in plantings.

Hemlock and Douglas-fir forests of the Washington and Oregon Cascades are highly susceptible to laminated root rot (Phellinus weirii), which causes moderate disturbances that result in openings in the forest. The fungus can cause severe root rot and butt decay, leading to stunted growth and mortality. Laminated root rot may affect western hemlock, but it rarely causes mortality of the species.

Laminated root results in pockets of dead and fallen trees, which are broken at or near ground level. Decay is identified by a brown to reddish brown speckled staining in the sapwood and wood that separates along the growth rings. Regeneration of highly susceptible species in areas affected by the fungus typically is unsuccessful (Goheen, 2006).

Associated Ecological Sites Ecological site F003XN942WA, Southern Washington Cascades Moist Frigid Coniferous Forest, is similar to sites F003XN941WA, Southern Washington Cascades Wet Frigid Coniferous Forest, and F003XN943WA, Southern Washington Cascades Frigid Coniferous Forest. The major distinctions among these sites are the depth to the water table, precipitation, and duration and frequency of ponding. Ecological site F003XN942WA is in the moisture spectrum between sites F003XN941WA and F003XN943WA. Site F003XN941WA is in areas that have a higher water table and higher susceptibility to ponding. Site F003XN943WA is drier; the depth to the water table and water-holding capacity are higher. The vegetation will progress from the more wet-adapted species such as western redcedar and American skunkcabbage of F003XN941WA, to the western redcedar and western swordfern of F003XN942WA, and then to the drier species such as western hemlock and Cascade Oregon grape of F003XN943WA. It is projected that under drier conditions for long periods, sites F003XN941WA and F003XN942WA will progress toward an old-growth stand that resembles that of site F003XN943WA.

Other Established Classifications National vegetation classification: Vancouverian Lowland and Montane Rainforest-North Pacific Maritime Douglas-fir-Western Hemlock Forest group

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, plant association: TSHE/POMU-TITR

U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, plant association: TSUHET-PSEMEN-(PHUPLI)/OPLHOR/POLMUN



134













135























136



Ecological Site Identification Site type: Forestland Site name: Southern Washington Cascades Frigid Coniferous Forest Tsuga heterophylla–Pseudotsuga menziesii/Gaultheria shallon–Mahonia nervosa (western hemlock–Douglas-fir/salal–Cascade Oregon grape) Site ID: F003XN943WA Major land resource area: 003—Olympic and Cascade Mountains



Ecological Site Concept This ecological site is on the warm, moist, lower slopes in the Carbon, Ohanapecosh, and Nisqually Valleys of Mount Rainier National Park. Elevation is 1,600 to 4,600 feet, depending on aspect. This site is on debris aprons, mountain slopes, valley walls, and ridges. It is on north- and east-facing slopes at the lower elevations and on south- and west-facing slopes at the higher elevations.

The soils that support this ecological site are in the frigid soil temperature regime and the udic soil moisture regime. They are well drained and are shallow over bedrock to very deep. Soil moisture is not a limiting factor to forest growth on these soils because of the abundance of precipitation and the inherent water-holding properties of soils influenced by volcanic ash.

The most common overstory species are western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii). Western redcedar (Thuja plicata), red alder (Alnus rubra), and Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia) may be minor components in the overstory. Regeneration is limited by the canopy cover; it commonly is limited to the gaps in the canopy where sunlight is most available.

The most common disturbance on this site is patchy, small pockets of windthrown overstory trees, which commonly occur in conjunction with root-, butt- or stem-rot. Western hemlock is highly susceptible to rot diseases such as Armillaria ostoyae, Heterobasidion annosum, Phellinus weirii, and Echinodontium tinctorium (Tesky, 1992). The historic fire regime for western hemlock consists of low frequency (150 to 300 years or more), moderate- or high-intensity, stand-replacing wildfires.


137

Physiographic Features This ecological site is on debris aprons, mountain slopes, glacial-valley walls, and ridges. It is at the lower elevations in the Carbon, Ohanapecosh, and Nisqually Valleys of Mount Rainier National Park. This site may be on all slopes, but it commonly is on slopes of 10 to 65 percent.






None None

None None


None None

None None

Climatic Features Most of the annual precipitation is received in October through April. The mean annual precipitation is 70 to 83 inches, and the mean annual air temperature is 41 to 45 degrees F. Generally, the summers are warm and dry and the winters are cool and wet.






138



Minimum 11.8 8.3 6.8 4.8 3.3 2.3 0.8 1.8 3.3 6.3 10.8 11.3

Maximum 13.5 9.3 8.3 5.8 4.3 3.8 1.8 2.8 3.8 7.3 12.5 13.5

02468

10121416


Inch

es

Precipitation

precip. min precip. max

Monthly Temperature (degrees F)


Minimum 31.2 31.9 33.8 37.6 44.3 49.7 57.2 57.9 52.7 43.3 34.1 29.9

Maximum 35.2 35.9 39.6 42.9 50.7 57.7 64.8 64.6 58.3 47.7 38.8 33.6

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug sep oct nov dec

Degr

ees

Fahr

enhe

it

Temperature

Temp. Min Temp. Max

Precipitation and temperature are data from the PRISM Climate Group, Oregon State University http://prism.oregonstate.edu. The tables were created February 26, 2015.



139

Influencing Water Features This ecological site is not influenced by wetland or riparian water features, but it may be on stream terraces or adjacent to wetland and riparian areas. The site is not subject to flooding or ponding.

Representative Soil Features Applicable soils: Kautz, Goldenlakes, Ingraham

Applicable soil map units: 6110, 6120, 6125, 7100, 7110, 7120, 7125

The soils that support this ecological site are in the frigid soil temperature regime and the udic soil moisture regime. They are well drained. The Kautz soils are deep or very deep, the Goldenlakes soils are moderately deep, and the Ingraham soils are shallow. Soil moisture is not a limiting factor for forest growth because of the abundance of precipitation and the inherent water-holding properties of soils influenced by volcanic ash. The soils commonly have a mantle of volcanic ash over colluvium or residuum derived from andesite. The shallow Ingraham soils consist of volcanic ash over andesite. The mantle of volcanic ash is characterized by low bulk density, high available water-holding capacity, gravel-sized pumice pararock fragments, and sandy loam and loamy sand. The subsoil, where present, consists of colluvium derived from andesite. It is sandy loam and has andesite fragments. Podsolization is the dominant pedogenic process in the soils. All of the soils exhibit an albic and a spodic diagnostic horizon. A thin organic horizon consisting of decomposing twigs, needles, and litter is on the soil surface. This horizon helps to protect the soils from wind and water erosion.

Parent material: Volcanic ash over colluvium derived from andesite, volcanic ash over andesite

Surface texture: (1) Ashy sandy loam (2) Paragravelly ashy sandy loam (3) Paragravelly ashy loamy sand

Subsurface texture group: Loamy, sandy












140


This ecological site is on the warm, moist, lower slopes of Mount Rainier. Elevation ranges to 4,600 feet, depending on aspect. The site is on north- and east-facing slopes at the lower elevations and on south- and west-facing slopes at the higher elevations. Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) are the most common overstory species. Western redcedar (Thuja plicata) is a minor component in the overstory. Red alder (Alnus rubra) and Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia) may be present.

The more open the forest canopy, the more dense and diverse the understory. Cascade Oregon grape (Mahonia nervosa), vine maple (Acer circinatum), red huckleberry (Vaccinium parvifolium), salal (Gaultheria shallon), baldhip rose (Rosa gymnocarpa), little prince’s pine (Chimaphila menziesii), and prince’s pine (Chimaphila umbellata) are the main shrub species in areas where the overstory canopy is open. Western rattlesnake plantain (Goodyera oblongifolia), deerfoot vanillaleaf (Achlys triphylla), twinflower (Linnaea borealis), pioneer violet (Viola glabella), and western swordfern (Polystichum munitum) are common forbs. The understory species included in the Canopy Cover Summary Table had at least a 40 percent rate of constancy in the 20 inventory plots.

The most common disturbance is the patchy, small pockets of windthrown overstory trees, which commonly occurs in conjunction with root-, butt- or stem-rot. Western hemlock is highly susceptible to rot diseases such as Armillaria ostoyae, Heterobasidion annosum, Phellinus weirii, and Echinodontium tinctorium (Tesky, 1992). The resulting openings in the canopy allow sunlight to reach the forest floor, which benefits the understory. The historic fire regime consists of low frequency (150 to 300 years or more), moderate- to high-intensity fires. The fires are stand-replacing although individual trees or patches of trees survive, providing a seed source for re-establishment.


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State 1: Reference Community Phase 1.1: Western hemlock–Douglas-fir/salal–Cascade Oregon grape



Western hemlock is the most common overstory species. It is shade tolerant and releases quickly after extended periods of suppression (Packee, 1990). Douglas-fir and western redcedar are present, but regeneration of Douglas-fir is minimal in the absence of canopy openings. Red alder and Pacific yew are minor components of the overstory; they commonly become established in areas that are disturbed and receive more sunlight. The dense canopy created by multiple age groups of hemlocks may block most of the sunlight from the forest floor, leading to sparse understory in some areas. Thick clumps of vine maple have the same effect. Most of the understory vegetation is in areas where there are gaps in the mid-canopy, which allow sunlight to reach the ground. The understory is more continuous in areas where there is no mid-canopy. The most common natural disturbance on this site is small gap dynamics following the mortality of one or two trees.

Community phase pathway 1.1A This pathway represents minor disturbances, such as small pockets of root disease, individual tree mortality, or windthrow, that maintain the overall structure of the reference community. Mortality of individual trees or clusters of trees creates gaps in the overstory, allowing more sunlight to reach the forest floor. This promotes growth of forbs and shrubs and regeneration of overstory species, perpetuating the multi-storied, uneven-aged forest.

Community phase pathway 1.1B This pathway represents disturbances such as a windstorm, an insect infestation, or a pocket of rot. Historically, these disturbances have included pockets of disease, such as annosum root rot (Heterobasidion annosum) or laminated root rot (Phellinus weirii), minor insect infestations, and low- or moderate-intensity fires. Areas of regeneration are 2 to 4 acres in size.


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Community phase pathway 1.1C This pathway represents a major stand-replacing disturbance such as a high-intensity fire, large-scale windstorm, major insect infestation, or mass movement. The frequency of fire is 150 to 300 years. Volcanic activity has the potential to disrupt the landscape ecology beyond the boundaries of the site and the purpose of this site description.

Forest Overstory

Western hemlock and Douglas-fir make up 50 to 95 percent of the forest canopy cover. The forest has multiple layers. The upper canopy is 90 to 170 feet in height, and it averages 133 feet. The diameter of the trees varies depending on the species, but the average diameter at breast height 23 inches. Alder and western redcedar trees typically are smaller than western hemlock and Douglas-fir trees.


Forest canopy: Low canopy cover % RV canopy cover % High canopy cover %

50 70 95



Basal area (high)

Red alder (Alnus rubra) ALRU2 N 0 10


Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia) TABR2 N 0 10



Forest Understory

The composition of the understory varies depending on the overstory cover and competition for moisture. Overall cover of shrubs such as Cascade Oregon grape, vine maple, and red huckleberry is 1 to 40 percent, and overall cover of salal is as much as 80 percent in some areas. Overall cover of forbs such as western rattlesnake plantain, deerfoot vanillaleaf, and twinflower is 1 to 25 percent, and overall cover of western swordfern is as much as 45 percent in some areas. Grass species were not recorded for this ecological site.


144




Cover % (high)


(in.)

Top canopy height

(in.)

Cascade Oregon grape (Mahonia Nervosa) MANE2 N 1 35 1 24



Salal (Gaultheria shallon) GASH N 1 80 2 36

Baldhip rose (Rosa gymnocarpa) ROGY N 1 10 1 36

Little prince’s pine (Chimaphila menziesii) CHME N 1 5 1 6

Prince’s pine (Chumaphila umbellate) CHUM N 1 5 1 8



Cover % (high)


(in.)

Top canopy height

(in.)



Twinflower (Linnaea borealis) LIBO3 N 1 15 1 6

Pioneer violet (Viola glabella) VIGL N 1 10 1 6


Community Phase 1.2: Western hemlock–Douglas-fir/salal–Cascade Oregon grape Structure: Mosaic of mature overstory and regenerating openings

Community phase 1.2 has some areas that resemble community phase 1.1, but it also has moderate-sized openings (2 to 4 acres). Depending on the seed sources present, the overstory species of community phase 1.1 as well as bigleaf maple and grand fir may be in the openings. Many of the shrub


145

species, including vine maple, red huckleberry, Cascade Oregon grape, and baldhip rose, also respond well to increased sunlight. The shrubs may delay or prevent reforestation of the openings.



Community Phase 1.3: Red alder/red huckleberry-vine maple/fireweed Structure: Open meadow with snags

Community phase 1.3 is an early seral plant community that has been impacted by a stand-replacing disturbance such as a wildfire, a large-scale windstorm, a major insect infestation, or mass movement. Only some fire-resistant trees may survive in the understory. The species composition depends on the natural seed sources present and the intensity of the disturbance. Standing and decaying snags are prevalent. After a disturbance, red alder quickly establishes in areas where soil moisture and sunlight are available. Tree seedlings and saplings will begin to establish within 3 to 10 years, depending on severity of the disturbance.

Douglas-fir can survive moderately intense fires because of its thick, corky bark. Depending on the severity of the fire and the extent of the damage to the cambium, mature Douglas-fir trees may remain dominant in the overstory. Western redcedar and western hemlock may be at a stage of full stand replacement post fire (Tesky, 1992).

After a moderate or severe fire, shrubs commonly outcompete tree seedlings. Vine maple, red huckleberry, salal, baldhip rose, and Cascade Oregon grape, which may have been only moderately abundant previously, recover and spread rapidly when top-killed, slowing successful regeneration of the overstory. Seed sources for tree species are from the surrounding, undisturbed forests and any trees that survived the disturbance. This results in a mixed stand that can include Douglas-fir, western hemlock, red alder, bigleaf maple, western redcedar, and grand fir.


Community Phase 1.4: Douglas-fir–western hemlock/vine maple–red huckleberry/western swordfern–deerfoot vanillaleaf Structure: Single story

Community phase 1.4 is an early seral forest in regeneration. Scattered remnant mature trees may be present. Red alder begins to be replaced by more shade-tolerant species. Douglas-fir and western hemlock regenerate rapidly and increase in dominance, creating thick patches of saplings. Vine maple and bigleaf maple remain prevalent in the forest openings, and western swordfern begins to re-establish on the forest floor.


Community phase pathway 1.4B This pathway represents a major stand-replacing disturbance such as a high-intensity fire, a large-scale windstorm, a major insect infestation, or mass movement. This leads to the stand initiation phase of forest development.


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Community Phase 1.5: Douglas-fir–western hemlock/vine maple–red huckleberry/twinflower–western swordfern



Community phase 1.5 is in the competitive exclusion stage of forest development. Scattered remnant mature trees may be present. Individual trees compete for available water and nutrients. The canopy closure is nearly 100 percent, which leads to diminished understory. Some understory species better adapted to partial shade, such as twinflower and red huckleberry, begin to increase in abundance. Over time, the forest begins to self-thin as a result of competition. The species composition depends on the original seed sources available. The forest may be composed of a single species or mixed species, including Douglas-fir, western hemlock, red alder, bigleaf maple, western redcedar, and grand fir.


Community phase pathway 1.5B This pathway represents a major stand-replacing disturbance such as a high-intensity fire, a large-scale windstorm, a major insect infestation, or mass movement.

Community Phase 1.6: Western hemlock–Douglas-fir/Cascade Oregon grape–vine maple/western rattlesnake plantain–deerfoot vanillaleaf Structure: Single story with few small openings

Community phase 1.6 is a maturing forest that is beginning to differentiate vertically. Individual trees are dying due to competition, disease, insects, or windthrow, which allows some sunlight to reach the forest floor. The understory increases in abundance, and the overstory tree species regenerate in some pockets.


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Community phase pathway 1.6A This pathway represents growth over time with no further major disturbance. Continued growth and ongoing mortality result in more vertical diversification. The community begins to resemble the structure of the reference community, including small pockets of regeneration and a more diversified understory.

Community phase pathway 1.6B This pathway represents a major stand-replacing disturbance such as a high-intensity fire, a large-scale windstorm, a major insect infestation, or mass movement.

Section II: Ecological Site Interpretations Forest Productivity

Common and scientific

name Symbol

Site index (low)

Site index (high)

CMAI (low)

CMAI (high)

Age at

CMAI

Site index curve code

Site index curve basis

Citation

ft ft3/ac/yr yrs


PSME 100 120 136 175 90 795 50BH King, James E. 1966. Site index curves for Douglas-fir in the Pacific Northwest. Weyerhaeuser Company, Forestry Research Center Forestry Paper 8.


TSHE 95 140 222 314 60 990 100TA Barnes, George H. 1962. Yield of even-aged stands of western hemlock. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station Technical Bulletin 1273.

Animal Community Old-growth western hemlock and Douglas-fir forests are primary habitat for the endangered northern spotted owl. Old growth forests provide nesting and forage habitat, and less mature forests provide key dispersal habitat. This ecological site also provides habitat for a wide variety of migratory songbirds. Woodpeckers and cavity-nesting birds thrive in the dead or dying trees. Douglas-fir has low palatability for elk and deer, but it provides important forage when preferred species are low in abundance (Campbell, 1974). Douglas-fir seeds are highly palatable to small mammals, and they provide an important food source for mice, voles, shrews, and chipmunks (Hemstrom, 1987).


148

Recreational Uses This area of Mount Rainier National Park is accessible for hiking, camping, bike riding, photography, and sightseeing.

Wood Products The ecological site has moderate accessibility, and it supports a productive forest suitable for commercial forest products. Douglas-fir provides valuable wood commonly used as building material and some high-value poles. Western hemlock is a valuable source of wood fiber, and it is suitable for use as building products, pilings, poles, and railway ties.


This ecological site is prone to rotting diseases. Annosus, armillaria, and laminated root rots can infest western hemlock and Douglas-fir forests. Echinodotium tinctorium (Indian paint fungus) can cause heart rot in true firs and hemlocks. Root rot and heart rot can result in mortality of individual trees, widespread mortality of several acres, and windthrow.

Annosus root disease (Heterobasidion annosum) can affect nearly all conifer species in the Pacific Northwest. It is a slow-growing pathogen, but it can cause severe root and butt decay in stands. It commonly affects stands in conjunction with armillaria and laminated root rots and precedes infestations of bark beetle.

Signs and symptoms of annosus commonly are difficult to differentiate from those of armillaria. Obvious signs include circular pockets of windthrown trees and canopy dieback. A distinctive fruiting body, called a conk, is in hollow stumps affected by annosus. Other identifying features include a reddish stain, decay, and a spongy texture in the heartwood and roots (Goheen, 2006). Regeneration of conifers may be unsuccessful for several decades, until the soil is void of fungal inoculum. Application of borax on freshly cut tree stumps (within 24 hours) may reduce the spread in managed stands.

Armillaria root disease (Armillaria ostoyae) affects conifer species and shrubs in the Pacific Northwest. It can affect several acres and cause widespread mortality of trees. Western larch, cedar, ponderosa pine, western white pine, and lodgepole pine are susceptible to armillaria, but they commonly are more tolerant of the disease in mixed conifer stands. The disease is most devastating in young regenerating stands (less than 30 years old), and it can delay the maturation and succession of these stands.

Armillaria produces a distinct white mycelial fan between the wood and bark. Rhizomorphs, or brown shoestrings of fungal mycelia, are common under the bark and roots of trees (Goheen, 2006). High resin flow and excessive sapping are also common.

Hemlock and Douglas-fir forests in the Cascade Mountains of Washington and Oregon are susceptible to laminated root rot (Phellinus weirii), which causes moderate disturbances and results in openings in the forests. The fungus can cause severe root rot and butt decay, resulting in stunted growth and mortality. Western hemlock, Pacific silver fir, subalpine fir, and noble fir may be affected by laminated root rot, but these species rarely are killed by the disease.

Signs and symptoms of laminated root rot include pockets of dead and fallen trees that are broken at or near ground level. Decay is identified by brown to reddish-brown speckled stains in the sapwood and by separations in the wood along the growth rings. Regeneration of highly susceptible species typically is unsuccessful in areas infected by the fungus (Goheen, 2006).

Indian paint fungus (Echinodontium tinctorium) affects true firs and hemlocks. It is common in the mixed conifer forests in Washington. The decay commonly is in the mid-trunk of an infected tree and occurs as a distinctive hoof-shaped conk. Breakage of trees is common. This disease can affect 25 to 50 percent of hemlocks and true firs in old-growth stands. Management is limited to plantings of alternative conifer species (Goheen, 2006).


149

Associated Ecological Sites Ecological site F003XN943WA, Southern Washington Cascades Frigid Coniferous Forest, is similar to sites F003XN941WA, Southern Washington Cascades Wet Frigid Coniferous Forest, and F003XN942WA, Southern Washington Cascades Moist Frigid Coniferous Forest. The major distinctions among these sites are the depth to the water table, precipitation, and duration and frequency of ponding. Ecological site F003XN941WA is in areas that have a higher water table and susceptibility to ponding. Site F003XN943WA is drier; it has a lower water table and higher water-holding capacity. The vegetation progresses from the more wet-adapted species of site F003XN941WA, such as western redcedar and American skunkcabbage; to the western redcedar and western swordfern of site F003XN942WA; and then to the drier species of site F003XN943WA, such as western hemlock and Cascade Oregon grape. It is projected that under drier conditions for long periods, sites F003XN941WA and F003XN942WA will progress toward an old-growth stand that resembles that of site F003XN943WA.

Other Established Classifications National vegetation classification: G240—North Pacific Maritime Douglas-fir Western Hemlock Forest group

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, plant association: • TSHE/POMU-GASH • TSHE/POMU-BENE • TSHE/GASH-BENE • TSHE/GASH • TSHE/ACCI-BENE • TSHE/BENE • TSHE/BENE-CHME

U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, plant association: • PSEMEN-TSUHET/GAUSHA/POLMUN • PSEMEN-TSUHET/MAHNER/POLMUN • PSEMEN-TSUHET/GAUSHA-MAHNER • PSEMEN-TSUHET/GAUSHA-VACPAR • PSEMEN-TSUHET/MAHNER • PSEMEN-TSUHET/ACHTRI



150

Type Locality State: Washington County: Lewis Township: 15 North Range: 10 East Section: 33 Datum: NAD 83 Zone: 10 North Northing: 5177385 meters Easting: 609370 meters Latitude degrees: 46 Latitude minutes: 44 Latitude seconds: 27.806 Latitude decimal degrees: 46.741044 Longitude degrees: 121 Longitude minutes: 34 Longitude seconds: 5.767 Longitude decimal degrees: -121.56841


Campbell, Dan L. 1974. Establishing preferred browse to reduce damage to Douglas-fir seedlings by deer and elk. In Wildlife and Forest Management in the Pacific Northwest: Proceedings of a Symposium. Hugh C. Black, editor. Oregon State University, School of Forestry, Forest Research Laboratory 187-192. Corvallis, Oregon. Crawford, R.C., C.B. Chappell, C.C. Thompson, and F.J. Rocchio. 2009. Vegetation classification of Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks. Natural Resource Technical Report NPS/NCCN/NRTR-2009/211. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.




Hemstrom, Miles A., Sheila E. Logan, and Warren Pavlat. 1987. Plant association and management guide: Willamette National Forest. Series R6-Ecol 257-B-86. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region.



151












152



Ecological Site Identification Site type: Forestland Site name: Southern Washington Cascades Low Cryic Riparian Forest Populus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa-Abies amabilis/Acer circinatum/Polystichum munitum (black cottonwood-Pacific silver fir/vine maple/western swordfern) Site ID: F003XN944WA Major land resource area: 003—Olympic and Cascade Mountains



Ecological Site Concept This ecological site is in cold, moist areas of Mount Rainier National Park at middle to high elevations (2,000 to 6,100 feet). Elevation and climate are key components in the succession of the forest dynamics. The cold winters and mild summers affect the rates of growth and maturity of species. This site is along active flood plains, valleys, and terraces of river valley bottoms that have a seasonal high water table, which influences the dynamics of the vegetation. The most common natural disturbance is flooding. The volume and longevity of the flooding determine the effect on the dynamics of the forest.

The soils that support this ecological site are in the cryic soil temperature regime and the udic soil moisture regime. The soils are subject to rare periods of flooding in April, May, October, and November. Soil moisture is not a limiting factor to forest growth because of the abundance of precipitation and the inherent water-holding properties of soils influenced by volcanic ash. Slope and aspect are not defining features of this site.

Black cottonwood (Populus balsamifera ssp. Trichocarpa) and Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis) are the most common overstory species. The site supports a variety of species, including western redcedar (Thuja plicata), Sitka alder (Alnus viridis ssp. sinuata), western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii), and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii). Regeneration commonly is limited by the frequency of flooding.


153

Physiographic Features This ecological site occurs on terraces of river valley bottoms, active flood plains, and valleys at middle to high elevations (2,000 to 6,100 feet) in Mount Rainier National Park. Slope commonly is 0 to 15 percent.






None None

Rare None


None None

None None







154



Minimum 9.3 5.8 5.3 3.8 3.3 1.8 0.8 0.8 1.8 3.3 7.8 7.3

Maximum 16.5 12.5 11.8 9.8 6.8 3.8 1.8 3.3 4.8 9.8 18.5 16.5

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0


Inch

es

Precipitation




Minimum 28.8 29.5 32.7 37.2 43.5 48.4 55.8 56.5 51.6 42.1 32.6 27.5

Maximum 34.3 35.5 39.1 43.4 49.6 56.7 63.3 63.3 57.2 46.7 37.9 33

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0


Degr

ees

Fahr

enhe

it

Temperature

temp_min temp_max




155

Influencing Water Features This site is at middle to high elevations of active flood plains, valleys, and terraces of river valley bottoms in Mount Rainier National Park. The site is not subject to ponding. The frequency of flooding is rare; however, 100- or 500-year floods may dramatically alter the landscape. The water table typically rises in spring and recedes in fall.

Representative Soil Features Applicable soils: Flett, Narada


The soils that support this site are in the cryic soil temperature regime and the udic soil moisture regime. The Narada soils are moderately well drained, and the Flett soils are somewhat excessively drained. Both soils are very deep. The soils are on active flood plains, valleys, and terraces of river valley bottoms. They formed in alluvium derived from andesite mixed with volcanic ash. The Narada soils have a seasonal high water table at a depth of 20 to 40 inches at some time during the growing season. Both soils are subject to rare periods of flooding in April, May, October, and November. The Flett soils have more than 35 percent rock fragments in the control section. Both soils are coarse textured and primarily ashy loamy sand and ashy sandy loam. Podsolization is not evident in the soils because of the relative young age in terms of soil formation. Both of the soils have an ochric epipedon and a cambic horizon


Surface texture: (1) Very stony ashy coarse sandy loam (2) Ashy very fine sandy loam (3) Gravelly ashy loamy sand

Subsurface texture group: Sandy-skeletal

Drainage class: Moderately well drained, somewhat excessively drained











This ecological site is on active flood plains, valleys, and terraces of river valley bottoms that have a seasonal high water table. Black cottonwood (Populus balsamifera ssp. Trichocarpa) and Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis) are the most common overstory species. The forest supports a variety of species, including western redcedar (Thuja plicata), Sitka alder (Alnus viridis ssp. sinuata), western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii), and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii).


156

The most common natural disturbance is flooding. The volume and longevity of the flooding determine the effect on the dynamics of the forest. Small, frequent periods of peak flow do not tend to impact the flow of the channel, but a considerable amount of sediment commonly is transported during these periods. Extreme rain-on-snow flooding and debris flows can alter the stream channel through incision or aggradation and remove existing vegetation along the flood plains, resulting in a stand-replacing event (Czuba, 2012).

Black cottonwood and red alder germinate most successfully on the barren mineral soils scoured by flooding. During a long period between major floods, conifers become established and the overstory becomes more diverse. The understory commonly is shrubby. Vine maple (Acer circinatum), Barclay’s willow (Salix barclayi), and red huckleberry (Vaccinium parvifolium) make up the dense subcanopy. In the more flood-prone areas, the shrubs may be less dense, allowing more light to reach the forest floor. An herb layer consisting of western swordfern (Polystichum munitum), fireweed (Chamerion angustifolium), and prince’s pine (Chimaphila umbellata) is in scattered areas.

Location on the landscape is the most important factor determining the species composition of this ecological site. Conifers are prevalent on the terraces and adjacent hillsides, and deciduous species are on the active flood plains that are subject to more frequent fluvial disturbances (Villarin, 2009). In the absence of disturbance, it is expected that the maturation and succession of the forest will result in an old-growth conifer forest.



157

State 1: Reference Community Phase 1.1: Black cottonwood-Pacific silver fir/vine maple/western swordfern



The reference community represents an absence of major flooding for at least 80 years. Conifers are prevalent on the terraces and adjacent hillsides, and deciduous species are on the active flood plains, where frequent fluvial disturbances occur. Remnant mature early seral species, such as black cottonwood, are in the overstory. Over time, shade-tolerant conifers such as Pacific silver fir, Douglas-fir, western hemlock, and western redcedar regenerate in the understory. The absence of flooding allows for growth of a vigorous understory of shrubs, including vine maple, prince’s pine, salal, and red huckleberry. Common disturbances include small gap dynamics (openings of 1/2 acre or smaller) following the decline of the shade-intolerant species and minor scouring from flooding.

Community phase pathway 1.1A This pathway represents minor disturbances that maintain the overall structure of the reference community. The mortality of one or two trees creates gaps in the understory that allow sunlight to reach the forest floor. This promotes growth of forbs and shrubs and regeneration of overstory species. Deposition of soil material following minor scouring from flooding temporarily affects the understory community, but it does not alter the composition of the overstory.

Community phase pathway 1.1B This pathway represents a major 100- to 500-year flood that results in complete or nearly complete loss of the overstory.


158

Forest Overstory

Douglas-fir, Pacific silver fir, western redcedar, western hemlock, red alder, and black cottonwood make up the forest canopy. The forest has multiple layers. The upper canopy is 100 to 200 feet in height, and it averages 90 feet. The diameter of the trees varies depending on species, but the average diameter at breast height is 20 inches.



50 65 80



Basal area

(high)

Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis) ABAM N 0 40

Black cottonwood (Populus balsamifera ssp. Trichocarpa)

POBAT N 0 40





Forest Understory

The composition of the understory varies depending on the overstory cover and competition for moisture. Overall cover of shrubs such as salal and red huckleberry is 15 to 25 percent in the reference community. Overall cover of forbs such as twinflower, western rattlesnake plantain, and pipsissewa is as much as 20 percent.


159




Cover % (high)


(in.)

Top canopy height

(in.)

Salal (Gaultheria shallon) GASH N 0 25 4 36


Prince’s pine (Chimaphila menziesii) CHME N 0 1 0 30



Cover % (high)


(in.)

Top canopy height

(in.)




Pipsissewa (Chimaphila umbellate) CHUM N 0 20 0 6

White hawkweed (Hieracium albiflorum) HIAL2 N 0 1 1 24


160

Community Phase 1.2: Black cottonwood-red alder/vine maple/western swordfern


Structure: Single story

Community phase 1.2 represents a forest that is undergoing regeneration or stand initiation. Scattered remnant mature trees are in some areas. Successful regeneration is dependent on a local seed source, an adequate seedbed, and sufficient light and water (Nierenberg, 2000). Black cottonwood, red alder, and vine maple are the pioneering early seral species that become established first after a major disturbance. These deciduous species establish quickly as compared to conifers. Red alder fixes nitrogen, which allows the species to establish rapidly (Villarin, 2009). The seeds of deciduous species are light and can be transported long distances by wind and water, allowing for rapid recolonization. Most of the common shrubs, such as vine maple, can readily regenerate by sprouting from the root crown that has been buried by flood deposits. The shrubs compete with seedlings and saplings until the tree species overtop them. A major disturbance allows for seral forb species to become established. Herbivory by elk, deer, and beaver commonly restricts the maturity of the vegetation (Rot, 1999).

Community phase pathway 1.2A This pathway represents growth over time with no further significant disturbance. The areas of regeneration go through the typical stand phases, including competitive exclusion, maturation, and understory reinitiation, until they resemble the old-growth structure of the reference community.


161

Community Phase 1.3: Black cottonwood–Douglas-fir/vine maple/western swordfern



Community phase 1.3 is a forest in the competitive exclusion stage. Scattered remnant mature trees are in some areas. Individual trees compete for available water and nutrients. Red alder begins to die 40 to 70 years after a disturbance, which allows more light to penetrate the nitrogen-rich soil (Naiman, 2009). Conifer species become more dominant. Downed logs, which are more prevalent in established stands, are important for conifer establishment (Villarin, 2009). The canopy closure is nearly 100 percent, and the understory is diminished. Douglas-fir, a somewhat shade-tolerant species, is dominant in the overstory; however, more shade-tolerant species such as Pacific silver fir, western redcedar, and western hemlock regenerate in the understory. Shrubs are less abundant in areas farther from the flood plains, leading to a closed canopy forest in these areas (Villarin, 2009). If red alder is present, it can be inferred that frequent minor flooding has influenced the dynamics of the site (Nierenberg, 2000). Some understory species that are better adapted to at least partial shade, such as vine maple, remain in the community. Over time, the forest begins to self-thin as a result of competition and a decrease in species that are not tolerant of shade.

Community phase pathway 1.3A This pathway represents a major disturbance from flooding, leading to the stand initiation phase of development.

Community phase pathway 1.3B This pathway represents no further major disturbance. Continued growth over time and ongoing mortality lead to increased vertical diversification. The community begins to resemble the structure of the reference community, including small pockets of regeneration (both deciduous and coniferous) and a more diversified understory.


162

Transition state pathway T1A This pathway represents long-term growth without natural disturbances. Deciduous overstory species are nearly absent, and the plant community shifts to an old-growth conifer forest.

Transition State 2: Pacific silver fir-western hemlock/black mountain huckleberry/twinflower

Transition state 2.


Transition state 2 represents a mature old-growth forest that has been undisturbed by major flooding. Pacific silver fir and western hemlock are the most common overstory species. This transition state and the reference community are considered the most characteristic of Mount Rainier National Park (Crawford, 2009). Pacific silver fir and western hemlock are perhaps the most shade tolerant of any tree species in North America (Crawford, 1990). Douglas-fir, noble fir, and western redcedar are present; however, minimal, if any, Douglas-fir regeneration occurs in closed-canopy forests. The dense canopy consisting of multiple ages of hemlocks may block most of the sunlight from the forest floor, leading to sparse understory vegetation in some areas. The majority of the understory plants become established in areas where gaps in the mid-canopy and overstory allow sunlight to reach the ground. The understory tends to be more continuous in areas where there is no mid-canopy. The most common natural disturbance is small gap dynamics resulting from the mortality of one or two trees or from windthrow. Common understory species include twinflower, black mountain huckleberry, rattlesnake plantain, Cascade Oregon grape, red huckleberry, common beargrass, and deerfoot vanillaleaf.

Community phase pathway T2B This community phase represents a forest that is undergoing regeneration or stand initiation following a 100- to 500-year flood. Scattered remnant mature trees are in some areas.


163


Name Symbol

Site index (low)

Site index (high)

CMAI (low)

CMAI (high)

Age at

CMAI



Citation

ft ft3/ac/yr yrs


PSME 134 154 201 241 90 990 990 DeMars, D., and F. Herman. 1987. Estimates of site index and height growth for Douglas-fir in high-elevation forests of the Oregon-Washington Cascade Range: Curves and tables for field application. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station Research Paper PNW-RP-378.


Ecological Site F003XN944WA, Southern Washington Cascades Low Cryic Riparian Forest, has features that are similar to those of site F003XN940WA, Southern Washington Frigid Riparian Forest. Both ecological sites are influenced by flood dynamics and similar disturbance patterns; however, elevation distinguishes the sites.

Ecological site F003XN940WA is at an elevation of 1,600 to 2,100 feet, and site F003XN944WA is at an elevation of more than 2,100 feet. Site F003XN944WA supports species more common at higher elevations, such as Pacific silver fir. The productivity of the forest on site F003XN940WA is higher as a result of the longer growing season, warmer temperatures, and reduced snowpack. It is expected that in the absence of flooding, ecological site F003XN944WA will mature into an old-growth forest resembling that of site F003XN947WA, Southern Washington Cascades Low Cryic Coniferous Forest.

Other Established Classifications U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, plant association: ABAM/GASH-BENE

U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, plant association: ALNRUB/RUBSPE, POPBAL/GAUSHA/POLMUN


164


Type Locality State: Washington County: Lewis Township: 15 North Range: 10 East Section: 21 Datum: NAD 83 Zone: 10 North Northing: 5180900 meters Easting: 610640 meters Latitude degrees: 46 Latitude minutes: 46 Latitude seconds: 21 Latitude decimal degrees: 46.772494 Longitude degrees: 121 Longitude minutes: 33 Longitude seconds: 3.0 Longitude decimal degrees: -121.550839










165











Rot, B., R. Naiman, and E. Bilby. 1999. Stream channel configuration, landform, and riparian forest structure in the Cascade Mountains, Washington. Canadian Journal of Fish and Aquatic Science. Volume 57, pages 699-707.








Villarin, L., D. Chapin, D., and J. Jones. 2009. Riparian forest structure and succession in second-growth stands of the central Cascade Mountains, Washington, USA. Forest Ecology and Management. Volume 257, pages 1375-1385.







166



Ecological Site Identification Site type: Forestland Site name: Southern Washington Cascades Wet Low Cryic Coniferous Forest Thuja plicata-Alnus rubra/Oplopanax horridus/Lysichiton americanus (western redcedar-red alder/devilsclub/American skunkcabbage) Site ID: F003XN945WA Major land resource area: 003—Olympic and Cascade Mountains



Ecological Site Concept This ecological site is in cold, wet areas at middle to high elevations (1,800 to 5,700 feet) of Mount Rainier National Park. Climate is a key component in the succession of the forest dynamics. The site is in depressions and swales and on terraces and debris aprons that have a seasonal high water table.

The soils that support this ecological site are in the cryic soil temperature regime and the aquic soil moisture regime. They are poorly drained and very deep, and they have a seasonal high water table at the surface to a depth of 10 inches below the surface some time during the growing season. The soils are subject to frequent periods of ponding in April, May, and June. The most common natural disturbance is ponding. The volume and longevity of the ponding determine the effect on the dynamics of the forest.

Western redcedar (Thuja plicata) and red alder (Alnus rubra) are the most common overstory species, but western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), and Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis) are present. The root penetration of western redcedar makes it well adapted to forested swamps. An herb layer consisting of American skunkcabbage (Lysichiton americanus), western swordfern (Polystichum munitum), deer fern (Blechnum spicant), western oakfern (Gymnocarpium dryopteris), five-leaved bramble (Rubus pedatus), and twinflower (Linnaea borealis) is in scattered areas.


167

Physiographic Features This ecological site is in depressions and swales and on terraces and debris aprons at middle to high elevations (1,800 to 5,700 feet) in Mount Rainier National Park. Slope commonly is 0 to 10 percent.






None None

None None


None None

Frequent

Long







168



Minimum 9.3 5.3 4.8 3.8 2.8 1.8 0.8 0.8 1.8 3.3 7.3 7.3

Maximum 17.5 12.5 11.8 9.8 6.8 3.8 2.3 3.3 4.8 9.8 18.5 16.5

0.02.04.06.08.0

10.012.014.016.018.020.0


Inch

es

Precipitation




Minimum 27.2 27.4 30.8 35.6 41.8 46.9 54.1 54.9 50.2 41.1 31.1 25.9

Maximum 34.8 35.7 39 43.3 50 57 64 63.9 57.6 47.2 38.4 33.5

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0


Degr

ees

F

Temperature

temp_min temp_max




169

Influencing Water Features This site is at middle to high elevations along depressions, swales, terraces, and debris aprons in Mount Rainier National Park. It is subject to frequent, long periods of ponding.

Representative Soil Features Applicable soils: Frogheaven

Applicable soil map units: 8101, 8110, 8120, 8125, 8130, 8150, 9110, 9120, 9125

The Frogheaven soils are in depressions and swales and on terraces, and debris aprons. They have a seasonal high water table at the surface to a depth of 10 inches below the surface some time during the growing season. They are subject to frequent periods of ponding in April, May, and June. The soils formed in volcanic ash, and they have less than 35 percent rock fragments in the particle-size control section. They are coarse textured and primarily ashy loamy sand and ashy sandy loam. The upper mineral horizon is mucky. The soils have an ochric epipedon and a cambic horizon. Podsolization is not evident in the soils.


Surface texture: (1) Mucky ashy fine sandy loam (2) Mucky ashy sandy loam

Subsurface texture group: Coarse-loamy












This ecological site is in depressions and swales and on terraces and debris aprons that have a seasonal high water table. Western redcedar (Thuja plicata) and red alder (Alnus rubra) are the most common overstory species. These are early seral tree species that regenerate successfully following disturbances. They are well adapted to excessive soil moisture and ponding. Over time, shade-tolerant trees such as Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) will establish in areas that are less susceptible to frequent periods of ponding, such as on hummocks, terraces, and debris aprons.

The most common natural disturbance is ponding. The volume and longevity of the ponding determine the effect on the dynamics of the forest. This site is susceptible to windthrow because of the seasonal high water table. The shallow rooting zone in saturated areas causes roots to grow laterally, resulting in


170

frequent tip-ups. This results in openings in the canopy that allow sunlight to reach the forest floor, leading to a shrubby understory.

Because of the frequent tip-ups, this site has a hummocky surface and an abundance of downed woody debris. Western redcedar reproduces on fallen branches and trees and can regenerate successfully in disturbed areas (Minore, 1990). Many species grow only on the hummocks, and some herb species grow only in the depressions created by the downed woody debris and fallen trees.

Devilsclub (Oplopanax horridus), vine maple (Acer circinatum), salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), and thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus) make up the dense understory. An herb layer consisting of American skunkcabbage (Lysichiton americanus), western swordfern (Polystichum munitum), deer fern (Blechnum spicant), western oakfern (Gymnocarpium dryopteris), five-leaved bramble (Rubus pedatus), and twinflower (Linnaea borealis) is in scattered areas.



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State 1: Reference Community Phase 1.1: Western redcedar-red alder/devilsclub/American skunkcabbage



The reference community represents a lack of major disturbance for at least 50 years. Western redcedar and red alder are the dominant overstory species. Western redcedar is shade tolerant and can survive up to 1,000 years of age (Minore, 1990). In contrast, red alder is short lived. It matures at about 65 years of age and rarely lives more than 100 years (Harrington, 1990). Without disturbance and openings in the canopy, red alder will be replaced by shade-tolerant species. Pacific silver fir, Douglas-fir, and western hemlock are subcomponents of the forest; however, they are poorly suited to areas where the water table is less than 6 inches below the soil surface. These species can become established in areas that tend toward an ustic or xeric soil moisture regime. They rarely are more prolific or dominant in the overstory than is western redcedar (Packee, 1990). If the soil moisture conditions change over time to more well drained, western hemlock and western redcedar may become dominant.

Devilsclub (Oplopanax horridus), vine maple (Acer circinatum), salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), and thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus) make up the dense understory. An herb layer consisting of American skunkcabbage (Lysichiton americanus), western swordfern (Polystichum munitum), deer fern (Blechnum spicant), western oakfern (Gymnocarpium dryopteris), five-leaved bramble (Rubus pedatus), and twinflower (Linnaea borealis) is in scattered areas. Common disturbances include small gap dynamics (openings of 1/2 acre or smaller) following the decline of shade-intolerant species and minor sediment deposition or mortality of vegetation as a result of ponding.


172

Community phase pathway 1.1A This pathway represents minor disturbances that maintain the overall structure of the reference community. The mortality of one or two trees creates gaps that allow sunlight to reach the forest floor, promoting growth of forbs and shrubs and regeneration of overstory species. Deposition of soil material after minor scouring from ponding temporarily affects the understory community, but it does not alter the composition of the overstory.

Community phase pathway 1.1B This pathway represents excessive ponding, which results in areas of windthrown trees more than 1 acre in size.

Forest Overstory

Pacific silver fir, western redcedar, Douglas-fir, western hemlock, and red alder make up the forest canopy. The forest has multiple layers. The upper canopy is 130 to 220 feet in height, and it averages 110 feet. The diameter of the trees varies depending on the species.



15 40 65



Basal area (high)







173

Forest Understory

The composition of the understory varies depending on the overstory cover and competition for moisture and light. Overall cover of shrubs such as devilsclub is 0 to 50 percent, and they can be prolific in the reference community. Overall cover of western swordfern is as much as 50 percent.




Cover % (high)


(in.)

Top canopy height

(in.)

Dwarf bramble (Rubus lasiococcus) RULA2 N 0 5 1 8

Thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus) RUPA N 0 1 1 3





Cover % (high)


(in.)

Top canopy height

(in.)




Vanillaleaf (Achlys triphylla) ACTR N 0 30 1 18


American skunkcabbage (Lysichiton americanus) LYAM3 N 0 5 12 36


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Community Phase 1.2: Red alder/salmonberry/American skunkcabbage



Community phase 1.2 represents a forest that is undergoing regeneration or stand initiation. Scattered remnant mature trees are in some areas. Red alder, salmonberry, and vine maple are the pioneering early seral species that become established first after a major disturbance. The seeds are light and can be transported long distances by wind and water, allowing for rapid recolonization. Most of the common shrubs, such as vine maple, can readily regenerate by sprouting from the root crown that has been buried by excessive ponding. The shrubs compete with the seedlings and saplings until the tree species overtop them. A major disturbance allows seral forb species to become established.



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Name Symbol

Site index (high)

CMAI Age at

CMAI


Citation

ft ft3/ac/yr yrs


TSHE 104 149 60 100TA Barnes, George H. 1962. Yield of even-aged stands of western hemlock. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station Technical Bulletin 1273.


Ecological F003XN945WA, Southern Washington Cascades Wet Low Cryic Coniferous Forest, has features similar to those of sites F003XN946WA, Washington Cascades Moist Low Cryic Coniferous Forest, and F003XN947WA, Washington Cascades Low Cryic Coniferous Forest. The differentiating features include the depth to the water table, precipitation, and the duration and frequency of ponding.

Ecological site F003XN945WA is wetter than sites F003XN946WA and F003XN947WA. Site F003XN945WA is prone to frequent periods of ponding, and it has a higher seasonal water table. As a result, this site supports species adapted to wetness, such as western redcedar, red alder, and American skunkcabbage. Ecological F003XN946WA is drier, and it supports species such as Pacific silver fir, western redcedar, and devilsclub. Ecological site F003XN947WA is driest; it receives less precipitation than the other sites. The soils of this site are well drained. Species adapted to the drier conditions, such as Pacific silver fir, western hemlock, and black mountain huckleberry, are common.

It is projected that under drier conditions for long periods, ecological sites F003XN945WA and F003XN946WA will progress toward an old-growth stand that resembles that of site F003XN947WA.

Other Established Classifications National vegetation classification: Vancouverian Flooded and Swamp Forest Macrogroup-North Pacific Hardwood-Conifer Swamp Group

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, plant association: TSHE/OPHO-ATFI

U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, plant association: • TSUHET-(THUPLI-ALNRUB)/LYSAME-ATHFIL • TSUHET-ABIAMA/VACALA/LYSAME • ALNRUB/ATHFIL-LYSAME


176


Type Locality State: Washington County: Lewis Township: 15 North Range: 09 East Section: 26 Datum: NAD 83 Zone: 10 North Northing: 5179790 meters Easting: 604090 meters Latitude degrees: 46 Latitude minutes: 45 Latitude seconds: 48.8 Latitude decimal degrees: 46.763543 Longitude degrees: 121 Longitude minutes: 38 Longitude seconds: 12.7 Longitude decimal degrees: -121.636858











177
























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Ecological Site Identification Site type: Forestland Site name: Southern Washington Cascades Moist Low Cryic Coniferous Forest Abies amabilis-Thuja plicata/Oplopanax horridus/Polystichum munitum (Pacific silver fir-western redcedar/devilsclub/western swordfern) Site ID: F003XN946WA Major land resource area: 003—Olympic and Cascade Mountains



Ecological Site Concept This ecological site is at middle to high elevations (1,800 to 5,700 feet) in Mount Rainier National Park. Climate is key in the succession of the forest dynamics. The cold, wet winters and dry, cool summers impact the species composition and site productivity. This ecological site is in swales and on terraces and debris aprons of glacial-valley walls.

The soils that support this site are in the cryic soil temperature regime and the aquic soil moisture regime. They are somewhat poorly drained and very deep. They have a seasonal high water table in March through June. The most common natural disturbance is windthrow due to the seasonal high water table. Soil moisture is not a limiting factor for forest growth because of the abundance of precipitation and the inherent water-holding properties of soils influenced by volcanic ash. A thin organic horizon consisting of decomposing twigs, needles, and litter is on the soil surface. This horizon helps to protect the soil from wind and water erosion.

Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis) and western redcedar (Thuja plicata) are the most common overstory species. Bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum), western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), and red alder (Alnus rubra) may be codominant. Devilsclub (Oplopanax horridus), vine maple (Acer circinatum), salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), and thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus) make up the dense subcanopy.


179

Physiographic Features This ecological site is in swales and on terraces and debris aprons of glacial-valley walls at middle to high elevations (1,800 to 5,700 feet) in Mount Rainier National Park. Slope commonly is 0 to 35 percent.






None None

None None


None None

None None








Minimum 9.3 5.3 4.8 3.8 2.8 1.8 0.8 0.8 1.8 3.3 7.3 7.3

Maximum 17.5 12.5 11.8 9.8 6.8 3.8 2.3 3.3 4.8 9.8 18.5 16.5

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0


Inch

es

Precipitation



180



Minimum 27.2 27.4 30.8 35.6 41.8 46.9 54.1 54.9 50.2 41.1 31.1 25.9

Maximum 34.8 35.7 38.9 42.9 50 57 64 63.9 57.6 47.2 38.4 33.5

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0


Degr

ees

F

Temperature

temp_min temp_max


Influencing Water Features In general, this ecological site is not influenced by wetland or riparian water features. The soils have a seasonal high water table at a depth of 10 to 20 inches at some time during the growing season. The water table typically rises in spring and recedes in fall.

Representative Soil Features Applicable soils: Vantrump

Applicable soil map units: 8110, 8120, 8125, 8130, 8150, 9100, 9110, 9120, 9125

The Vantrump soils formed in volcanic ash over andesite colluvium. They have a seasonal high water table at a depth of 10 to 20 inches at some time during the growing season. They are not subject to flooding or ponding. The particle-size control section is less than 35 percent rock fragments. The soils are coarse textured and are primarily ashy sandy loam or ashy loamy sand. Pumice paragravel is in some pedons. The soils have an ochric epipedon, redoximorphic features, and andic properties. Podsolization in not evident in the profile.

Parent material: Volcanic ash over andesite colluvium

Surface texture: (1) Ashy sandy loam (2) Paragravelly ashy sandy loam (3) Ashy loamy sand






181










This ecological site is on the cool, moist slopes of Mount Rainier at elevations of 1,800 to 5,700 feet, depending on aspect. A seasonal high water table is at a depth of 10 to 20 inches from the soil surface. Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis) and western redcedar (Thuja plicata) are the most common overstory species. Bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum), western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), and red alder (Alnus rubra) may be minor components of the overstory.

The most common natural disturbance is windthrow due to the seasonal high water table. The shallow rooting zone in the saturated areas causes roots to grow laterally, resulting in frequent tip-ups. This results in openings in the canopy that allow more sunlight to reach the forest floor, leading to a shrubby understory. Because of the frequent tip-ups, this site has a hummocky surface with an abundance of downed woody debris. Western redcedar regenerates successfully in the disturbed areas and reproduces on fallen branches and trees (Minore, 1990).

Devilsclub (Oplopanax horridus), vine maple (Acer circinatum), salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), and thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus) make up the dense subcanopy. This site has an herb layer that consists of common western swordfern (Polystichum munitum), deer fern (Blechnum spicant), western oakfern (Gymnocarpium dryopteris), and twinflower (Linnaea borealis) in scattered areas.

Pacific silver fir, western hemlock, and Douglas-fir on this site are highly susceptible to forest pathogens, particularly annosus (Heterobasidion annosum). Disturbance by fire is infrequent because of the high humidity and precipitation. The frequency of high-intensity, stand-replacing wildfires is approximately 500 years or more (Tesky, 1992).


182


183

State 1: Reference Community Phase 1.1: Pacific silver fir-western redcedar/devilsclub/western swordfern



Pacific silver fir and western redcedar are the most common overstory species in the reference community. Pacific silver fir is considered very shade tolerant, perhaps the most of any tree species in North America (Crawford, 1990). Western redcedar is shade tolerant, and it can survive up to 1,000 years of age (Minore, 1990). Douglas-fir is present, but regeneration is minimal under a closed canopy. Because of this, it may be absent in some areas. Common understory species include devilsclub (Oplopanax horridus), vine maple (Acer circinatum), salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus), western swordfern (Polystichum munitum), deer fern (Blechnum spicant), western oakfern (Gymnocarpium dryopteris), and twinflower (Linnaea borealis).

The dense canopy created by multiple age groups of trees may block most of the sunlight from the forest floor, leading to sparse understory in some areas. Most of the understory plants become established in areas where gaps in the mid-canopy and overstory allow sunlight to reach the ground. The understory tends to be more continuous in areas where there is no mid-canopy. A common disturbance is small gap dynamics (openings of 1/2 acre or smaller) following the decline of shade-intolerant species or mortality of vegetation.


184

Community phase pathway 1.1A This pathway represents minor disturbances, such as small pockets of root disease, individual tree mortality, and windthrow, that maintain the overall structure of the reference community. Mortality of individual trees or clusters of trees creates gaps in the canopy that allow sunlight to reach the forest floor. This promotes growth of forbs and shrubs and regeneration of overstory species, maintaining a multi-storied, uneven-aged forest.

Community phase pathway 1.1B This pathway represents a larger disturbance, such as a windstorm, insect infestation, or pocket of root rot. Areas of regeneration are 2 to 4 acres in size. Historically, this spatial pattern was caused by pockets of disease such as annosum root rot (Heterobasidion annosum), minor insect infestations, or fires of low to moderate intensity. Pacific silver fir is subject to windthrow. The small openings in the forest allow trees that are less tolerant of shade to establish (Crawford, 1990).

Community phase pathway 1.1C This pathway represents a major stand-replacing disturbance such as a fire of high intensity, large-scale windstorm, major insect infestation, or large mass movement. The frequency of fire on this ecological site typically is 500 years. Volcanic activity may disrupt the ecology of the landscape beyond the boundaries of the site and the purpose of this site description.

Forest Overstory

The forest has multiple canopy layers. The upper layer is 160 to 225 feet in height, and it averages 115 feet. The diameter of the trees varies depending on species, but the average diameter at breast height is 25 inches. Some Pacific silver fir and western hemlock trees have a diameter of more than 30 inches.



40 60 80



Basal area (high)







185




Cover % (high)


(in.)

Top canopy height

(in.)

Black mountain huckleberry (Vaccinium membranaceum) VAME N 0 15 6 36






Cover % (high)


(in.)

Top canopy height

(in.)







186

Community Phase 1.2: Pacific silver fir–Douglas-fir/devilsclub/western swordfern



Community phase 1.2 has some areas that resemble community phase 1.1, but it also has moderate-sized openings (2 to 4 acres). Pacific silver fir is subject to windthrow. The small openings in the forest allow trees that are less tolerant of shade to establish (Crawford, 1990). Many of the shrubs in the plant community, such as devilsclub, salmonberry, and vine maple, respond well to increased sunlight. This may delay or prevent reforestation of the openings.

Community phase pathway 1.2A This pathway represents growth over time with no further significant disturbance. The areas of regeneration go through the typical phases of stands, including competitive exclusion, maturation, understory re-initiation, until they resemble the old-growth structure of the reference community.

Community phase pathway 1.2B This pathway represents a major stand-replacing disturbance, such as a high-intensity fire (typical fire interval of 500 years), large-scale windstorm, major insect infestation, or large mass movement. This results in the initiation phase of forest development.

Community Phase 1.3: Red alder/vine maple/western swordfern Structure: Open meadow with snags

Community phase 1.3 is an early seral plant community that has been impacted by a stand-replacing disturbance, such as a wildfire, large-scale windstorm, large mass movement, or major insect infestation. Most of the trees are destroyed. Some fire-resistant trees may survive in the overstory.


187

Standing, decaying snags are prevalent. The understory is dominantly shrubs and forbs such as red alder, vine maple, devilsclub, and salmonberry. Some grasses will establish, but they will be replaced by shrubs over time. Tree seedlings and saplings will begin to establish within 3 to 10 years, depending on the severity of the disturbance.


Community Phase 1.4: Douglas-fir–red alder/devilsclub–vine maple/western swordfern Structure: Single story

Community phase 1.4 is an early seral forest in regeneration. Scattered remnant mature trees may be present. The species composition depends on the natural seed sources present and the intensity of the disturbance. After a moderate or severe fire, shrubs are likely to outcompete tree seedlings. Vine maple, red alder, red huckleberry, black mountain huckleberry, and devilsclub, which may have been moderate in abundance previously, have the capacity to recover rapidly and spread if top-killed. This slows regeneration of the overstory. Seed sources for tree species are from the surrounding, undisturbed forests and surviving trees. This results in a mixed stand that may include Douglas-fir, western hemlock, and western redcedar.


Community phase pathway 1.4B This pathway represents a major stand-replacing disturbance, such as a high-intensity fire, large-scale windstorm, major insect infestation, or large mass movement. This results in the initiation phase of forest development.

Community Phase 1.5: Douglas-fir–western redcedar/devilsclub/western swordfern



Community phase 1.5 is a forest in the competitive exclusion stage. Scattered remnant mature trees may be present. Individual trees compete for available water and nutrients. Douglas-fir and western redcedar are dominant in the overstory canopy; however, saplings of more shade-tolerant species such as Pacific silver fir and western hemlock increase in basal area. The canopy is almost 100 percent closed, which leads to diminished shrubs and forbs. Some understory species better adapted to at least partial shade, such as twinflower and black mountain huckleberry, will increase in abundance. Over time, the forest will begin to self-thin from competition. The species composition depends on the original


188

seed sources available. The forest may include a single species or mixed species, including Douglas-fir, western redcedar, western hemlock, and Pacific silver fir.


Community phase pathway 1.5B This pathway represents a major stand-replacing disturbance, such as a high-intensity fire, large-scale windstorm, major insect infestation, or large mass movement. This leads to the initiation phase of forest development.

Community Phase 1.6: Western redcedar-Pacific silver fir/devilsclub/western swordfern Structure: Single story with few small openings

Community phase 1.6 is a maturing forest that is beginning to differentiate vertically. Individual trees are dying as a result of competition, disease, insects, or windthrow, allowing some sunlight to reach the forest floor. In these areas, the understory increases and overstory tree species may regenerate. The abundance of less shade-tolerant species such as Douglas-fir increases, and the abundance of very shade-tolerant species such as western redcedar, western hemlock, and Pacific silver fir decreases.

Community phase pathway 1.6A This pathway represents growth over time with no further major disturbance. Continued growth over time and ongoing mortality lead to increased vertical diversification. The community begins to resemble the structure of the reference community, including small pockets of regeneration and a more diversified understory.



189


Name Symbol

Site index (low)

Site index (high)

CMAI (low)

CMAI (high)

Age at CMAI



Citation

ft ft3/ac/yr yrs


TSHE NA 123 NA 277 90 990 100TA Barnes, George H. 1962. Yield of even-aged stands of western hemlock. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station Technical Bulletin 1273.

Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis)

ABAM 96 151 104 192 90 60 100BH Hanson, E., D. Azuma, and B. Hiserote. 2002. Site index equations and mean annual increment equations for Pacific Northwest Research Station forest inventory and analysis inventories, 1085-2001. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station Research Note PNW-RN-533.


190


Annosus root disease (Heterobasidion annosum) can affect nearly all conifer species in the Pacific Northwest. This disease is slow growing, but it can cause severe root and butt decay in affected stands. It commonly affects stands in conjunction with armillaria and laminated root rots and precedes bark beetle infestations.

Signs and symptoms of annosus commonly are difficult to differentiate from those of armillaria. Obvious signs include circular pockets of windthrown trees and canopy dieback. A distinctive fruiting body, called a conk, is in hollow stumps of forests affected by annosus. Other identifying features include a reddish stain, decay, and a spongy texture in the heartwood and roots (Goheen, 2006). Regeneration of conifers may be unsuccessful for several decades, until the soil is void of fungal inoculum. Application of borax on freshly cut tree stumps (within 24 hours) may reduce the spread in managed stands.

Associated Ecological Sites Ecological site F003XN946WA, Southern Washington Cascades Moist Low Cryic Coniferous Forest, is similar to sites F003XN945WA, Southern Washington Cascades Wet Low Cryic Coniferous Forest, and F003XN947WA, Southern Washington Cascades Low Cryic Coniferous Forest. The dominant differentiating features among these sites are the depth to the water table, precipitation, and the duration and frequency of ponding.

Ecological site F003XN946WA is in the middle of the moisture spectrum between that of sites F003XN945WA and F003XN947WA. Site F003XN945WA is prone to ponding and has a high seasonal water table. It is suited to more wet-adapted species, such as western redcedar, red alder, and American skunkcabbage. Site F003XN947WA receives less precipitation and is not subject to ponding. Drier species such as Pacific silver fir, western hemlock, and black mountain huckleberry are common on this site. It is projected that under drier conditions for long periods, sites F003XN945WA and F003XN946WA will progress toward an old-growth stand that resembles that of site F003XN947WA.

Other Established Classifications National vegetation classification: Vancouverian Flooded and Swamp Forest Macrogroup-North Pacific Montane Riparian Woodland

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, plant association: ABAM/OPHO

U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, plant association: ABIAMA-TSUHET/OPLHOR



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Type Locality

State: Washington County: Pierce Township: 17 North Range: 10 East Section: 33 Datum: NAD 83 Zone: 10 North Northing: 5196285 meters Easting: 610750 meters Latitude degrees: 46 Latitude minutes: 54 Latitude seconds: 39.1 Latitude decimal degrees: 46.910873 Longitude degrees: 121 Longitude minutes: 32 Longitude seconds: 44.3 Longitude decimal degrees: -121.545652












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Ecological Site Identification Site type: Forestland Site name: Southern Washington Cascades Low Cryic Coniferous Forest Abies amabilis-Tsuga heterophylla/Vaccinium membranaceum/Linnaea borealis (Pacific silver fir-western hemlock/black mountain huckleberry/twinflower) Site ID: F003XN947WA Major land resource area: 003—Olympic and Cascade Mountains



Ecological Site Concept This ecological site is in cold, moist areas. It is at middle elevations (about 2,600 to 4,900 feet) on the west side of the Cascade Crest in Mount Rainier National Park. The site commonly is on debris aprons, bedrock benches, ridges, and glacial-valley walls. The temperate climate supports a variety of flora and fauna.

The soils that support this ecological site are in the low cryic soil temperature regime and the udic soil moisture regime. They are moderately well drained or well drained and are shallow to bedrock to very deep. Laughingwater soils have a seasonal high water table at a depth of 19 to 40 inches some time during the growing season. Soil moisture is not a limiting factor to forest growth because of the abundance of precipitation and the inherent water-holding properties of soils influenced by volcanic ash. Slope and aspect are not defining features of this ecological site.

Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis) and western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) are the most common overstory species. Some noble fir (Abies procera), western redcedar (Thuja plicata), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), western white pine (Pinus monticola), and Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii) are present. Common understory shrubs include black mountain huckleberry (Vaccinium membranaceum), red huckleberry (Vaccinium parvifolium), prince’s pine (Chimaphila umbellata), bunchberry dogwood (Cornus canadensis), and vine maple (Acer circinatum).

The most common disturbance on this site is windthrow because of the seasonal high water table. The resulting openings in the canopy allow more sunlight to reach the forest floor. Other disturbances include forest pathogens, such as root rot, and high-intensity, low-frequency (300 years or more) fires that are stand replacing.


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Physiographic Features This ecological site is on debris aprons of mountain slopes, bedrock benches, glacial-valley walls, and ridges at the lower montane elevations (2,600 to 4,900 feet). The site is on all aspects. Slope is dominantly 5 to 45 percent. This site is the second largest in extent in Mount Rainier National Park.




Aspect: All



None None

None None


None None

None None

Climatic Features Most of the annual precipitation is received in October through April. The mean annual precipitation is 72 to 87 inches, and the mean annual air temperature is 42.0 to 47.5 degrees F. Generally, the summers are cool and dry and the winters are cold and wet.




Mean annual air temperature (degrees F): 42 47.5


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Minimum 11.8 8.3 6.8 4.8 3.3 2.3 0.8 1.8 3.3 6.3 10.8 11.3

Maximum 13.5 9.3 8.3 5.8 4.3 3.8 1.8 2.8 3.8 7.3 12.5 13.5

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Minimum 31.8 31.9 33.8 37.6 44.3 49.7 57.2 57.9 52.7 43.3 34.1 30

Maximum 35.2 35.9 39.6 43 50.7 57.7 64.8 64.6 58.3 47.7 38.8 33.6

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Influencing Water Features Generally, this ecological site is not influenced by wetland or riparian water features. The site is not subject to flooding or ponding. The Laughingwater soils have a seasonal high water table at a depth of 19 to 40 inches some time during the growing season. The water table typically rises in spring and recedes in fall.

Representative Soil Features Applicable soils: Longmire, Laughingwater, Arahustan, Ohanapecosh

Applicable soil map units: 8110, 8120, 8125, 8130, 8150, 9100, 9101, 9110, 9120, 9125

The Longmire and Laughingwater soils are deep or very deep, the Arahustan soils are moderately deep, and the Ohanapecosh soils are shallow. The Laughingwater soils have a seasonal high water table at a depth of 19 to 40 inches some time during the growing season. Generally, the soils have a mantle of volcanic ash over colluvium or residuum derived from andesite. The shallow Ohanapecosh series have volcanic ash directly over andesite. The mantle of volcanic ash is characterized by low bulk density, high available water-holding capacity, gravel-sized pumice parafragments, and sandy loam or loamy sand textures. The subsoil, where present, consists of colluvium derived from andesite. It is sandy loam and has andesite fragments. Podsolization is the dominant pedogenic process in the soils. All of the soils have an albic and a spodic diagnostic horizon. A thin organic horizon that consists of decomposing twigs, needles, and litter is on the soil surface. This horizon helps to protect the soil from wind and water erosion.

Parent material: Volcanic ash over colluvium derived from andesite; volcanic ash and colluvium derived from andesite over andesite

Surface texture: (1) Ashy sandy loam (2) Paragravelly ashy sandy loam (3) Paragravelly ashy loamy sand

Subsurface texture group: Loamy, sandy












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This ecological site is in cold, moist areas at the middle elevations (2,600 to 4,900 feet) on the west side of the Cascade Crest. The site commonly is on debris aprons, bedrock benches, ridges, and glacial-valley walls. The mild, temperate climate supports a variety of flora and fauna.

The most common overstory species are Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis) and western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla). Other common species include noble fir (Abies procera), western redcedar (Thuja plicata), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), western white pine (Pinus monticola), and Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii).

Common understory shrubs include black mountain huckleberry (Vaccinium membranaceum), red huckleberry (Vaccinium parvifolium), prince’s pine (Chimaphila umbellata), bunchberry dogwood (Cornus canadensis), and vine maple (Acer circinatum). Common forbs include twinflower (Linnaea borealis), western swordfern (Polystichum munitum), deerfoot vanillaleaf (Achlys triphylla), myrtle pachistima (Paxistima myrsinites), and common beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax). As the stand ages, competition for moisture and sunlight increases mortality of the vegetation. This results in a wide range of snag maturation and an abundance of coarse woody debris on the forest floor.

The most common disturbance on this site is windthrow. Pacific silver fir and western hemlock are susceptible to windthrow. The resulting openings in the canopy allow more sunlight to reach the forest floor. Other disturbances include forest pathogens, such as root rot, and high-intensity, low-frequency (300 years or more) fires that are stand replacing.


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State 1: Reference Community Phase 1.1: Pacific silver fir-western hemlock/black mountain huckleberry/twinflower



Pacific silver fir and western hemlock are the most common overstory species in the reference community. This forest group and reference community are considered most characteristic of Mount Rainier National Park (Crawford, 2009). Pacific silver fir and western hemlock are perhaps the most shade-tolerant tree species in North America (Crawford, 1990). Douglas-fir, noble fir, and western redcedar are present; however, minimal, if any, regeneration of Douglas-fir occurs in closed-canopy forests. The dense canopy created by multiple age groups of hemlocks may block most of the sunlight from the forest floor, leading to sparse understory in some areas. Gaps in the mid-canopy and overstory allow sunlight to reach the ground. Most of the understory plants are in these areas. The understory is more continuous in areas where there is no mid-canopy. The most common natural disturbance is the small gap dynamics resulting from the mortality of trees or from windthrow. Common understory species include twinflower, black mountain huckleberry, rattlesnake plantain, Cascade Oregon grape, red huckleberry, common beargrass, and deerfoot vanillaleaf.

Community phase pathway 1.1A This pathway represents a minor disturbance, such as small pockets of root disease, individual tree mortality, and windthrow, that maintain the overall structure of the reference community. Mortality of individual trees or clusters of trees creates gaps in the understory that allow sunlight to reach the forest floor. This promotes growth of forbs and shrubs and regeneration of overstory species, and it perpetuates a multi-storied, uneven-aged forest.

Community phase pathway 1.1B This pathway represents a larger disturbance, such as a windstorm, insect infestation, or pocket of root rot. Areas of regeneration are 2 to 4 acres in size. Historically, this spatial pattern was caused by


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pockets of disease, such as annosum root rot (Heterobasidion annosum) or laminated root rot (Phellinus weirii), minor insect infestations, or fires of low to moderate intensity. Pacific silver fir is susceptible to windthrow. The resulting small openings in the forest allow less shade-resistant trees to establish (Crawford, 1990).

Community phase pathway 1.1C This pathway represents a major stand-replacing disturbance, such as a high-intensity fire, large-scale windstorm, major insect infestation, or large mass movement. The frequency of fire is 300 to 500 years. Volcanic activity may disrupt the ecology of the landscape beyond the boundaries of the ecological site and the purpose of this site description.

Forest Overstory

The forest has multiple canopy layers. The upper canopy is 90 to 195 feet in height, and it averages 115 feet. The diameter of the trees varies depending on the species. The average diameter at breast height is 22 inches. The diameter of Douglas-fir and western hemlock trees is the largest; it is more than 30 inches in some areas.



20 43 95



Basal area (high)




Noble fir (Abies procera) ABPR N 10 190



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Cover % (high)


(in.)

Top canopy height

(in.)



Cascade Oregon grape (Mahonia nervosa) MANE N 1 40 1 36

Princes pine (Chumaphila umbellata) CHUM N 1 40 1 18




Cover % (high)


(in.)

Top canopy height

(in.)

Twinflower (Linnaea borealis) LIBO3 N 1 40 2 12




Common beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax) XETE N 1 45 1 36

Community Phase 1.2: Pacific silver fir-western hemlock/black mountain huckleberry/twinflower Structure: Mosaic of mature overstory and regenerating openings

Community phase 1.2 has some areas that resemble community phase 1.1, but it also has moderate-sized openings (2 to 4 acres). Pacific silver fir is susceptible to windthrow, which results in small openings in the forest that allow less shade-resistant trees to establish (Crawford, 1990). Many of the shrubs in the ecological site, including red huckleberry, black mountain huckleberry, Cascade Oregon grape, and vine maple, respond well to increased sunlight. This may delay or prevent reforestation of the openings.


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Community phase pathway 1.2A This pathway represents growth over time with no further significant disturbance. The areas of regeneration go through the typical phases of stands, including competitive exclusion, maturation, and understory re-initiation, until they resemble the old-growth structure of the reference community.

Community phase pathway 1.2B This pathway represents a major stand-replacing disturbance, such as a high-intensity fire (typical interval of 300 to 500 years), large-scale windstorm, major insect infestation, or large mass movement. This leads to the initiation phase of forest development.

Community Phase 1.3: Red alder/fireweed-common beargrass Structure: Open meadow with snags

Community phase 1.3 is an early seral plant community that has been impacted by a stand-replacing disturbance such as a wildfire, large-scale windstorm, mass movement, or major insect infestation. Most of the trees are destroyed, but some trees may survive in the overstory. Standing, decaying snags are prevalent. The understory is dominantly shrubs and forbs such as red alder, fireweed, common beargrass, and arctic lupine. Some grasses will become established, but they will be replaced by shrubs over time. Tree seedlings and saplings will begin to establish within 3 to 10 years, depending on the severity of the disturbance.


Community Phase 1.4: Western white pine–Douglas-fir/red alder–vine maple/fireweed Structure: Single story

Community phase 1.4 is an early seral forest under regeneration. Scattered remnant mature trees may be present. The species composition depends on the natural seed sources present and the intensity of the disturbance. Following a moderate or severe fire, shrubs are likely to outcompete tree seedlings. Vine maple, red alder, red huckleberry, black mountain huckleberry, and Cascade Oregon grape, which may have been moderate in abundance previously, have the capacity to recover rapidly and spread when top-killed. This slows the successful regeneration of the overstory. Seed sources for tree species are from the surrounding areas of undisturbed forest and from surviving trees. The mixed stand can include Douglas-fir, western hemlock, and noble fir.



Community Phase 1.5: Douglas-fir–noble fir/vine maple/common beargrass Structure: Dense single story with diminished understory

Community phase 1.5 is in the competitive exclusion stage. Scattered remnant mature trees may be present. Individual trees compete for the available water and nutrients. Douglas-fir and noble fir are dominant in the overstory; however, more shade-tolerant species such as saplings of Pacific silver fir and western hemlock increase in basal area as saplings. Vine maple commonly is prolific in the understory, but it decreases in abundance as the canopy becomes more dense. The canopy is nearly 100 percent closed; thus, the shrub and forb layers are diminished. Some understory species better adapted to at least partial shade, such as twinflower and black mountain huckleberry, will increase in abundance. Over time, the forest will begin to self-thin as a result of the competition. The species composition depends on the available seed sources. The forest may consist of a single species or mixed species, including Douglas-fir, western hemlock, noble fir, Alaska cedar, or Pacific silver fir.


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Community Phase 1.6: Douglas-fir–western hemlock/black mountain huckleberry/western rattlesnake plantain


Structure: Single story with few small openings

Community phase 1.6 is a maturing forest that is becoming differentiated vertically. Individual trees are dying from competition, disease, insects, or windthrow, which allows some sunlight to reach the forest floor. The understory increases, and the overstory tree species regenerate in some areas. The abundance of less shade-tolerant species such as Douglas-fir and noble fir decreases, and the abundance of more shade-tolerant species such as western hemlock and Pacific silver fir increases.

Community phase pathway 1.6A This pathway represents growth over time with no further major disturbance. Continued growth over time and ongoing mortality result in further vertical diversification. The community begins to resemble the structure of the reference community, including small pockets of regeneration and a more diversified understory.



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Name Symbol

Site index (low)

Site index (high)

CMAI (low)

CMAI (high)

Age at CMAI



Citation

ft ft3/ac/yr yrs




TSHE 91 137 215 307 90 990 100TA Barnes, George H. 1962. Yield of even-aged stands of western hemlock. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station Technical Bulletin 1273.

Animal Community Forests of old-growth Pacific silver fir provide important habitat for mountain goats and northern spotted owl. The old-growth forests provide nesting and forage habitat for northern spotted owl, and the less mature forests provide key dispersal habitat. The seeds of Pacific silver fir are sought after by birds, rodents, and squirrels; however, Pacific silver fir is not palatable to elk (Cope, 1992).


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Recreational Uses This ecological site provides hiking and backpacking opportunities in May through October, when the site is free of snow.

Supporting Information Pathogen Information

Annosus, armillaria, and laminated root rots can infest Pacific silver fir and western hemlock forests. White pine blister rust impacts early seral forests of western white pine, and it may increase the rate of re-establishment of firs after a stand-replacing event. Foliar diseases, such as balsam woolly adelgid and western spruce budworm, are major pests in true fir forests. Outbreaks can cause severe dieback and mortality, depending on the level and duration of the infestation.

Annosus root disease (Heterobasidion annosum) affects nearly all conifer species in the Pacific Northwest. It is slow growing, but it can cause severe root and butt decay. It commonly affects stands in conjunction with armillaria and laminated root rots and precedes bark beetle infestations.

Signs and symptoms of annosus commonly are difficult to differentiate from armillaria. Obvious signs include circular pockets of windthrown trees and canopy dieback. A distinctive fruiting body, called a conk, is in hollow stumps of forests affected by annosus. Other identifying features include a reddish stain, decay, and a spongy texture in the heartwood and roots (Goheen, 2006). Regeneration of conifers may be unsuccessful for several decades, or until the soil is void of fungal inoculum. Applying borax on freshly cut tree stumps within 24 hours may reduce the rate of spread in managed stands. Stands impacted by annosus are highly susceptible to damage from the fir engraver beetle (Scolylus ventralis), which may cause devastating mortality of Pacific silver fir stands.

Armillaria root disease (Armillaria ostoyae) affects conifers and shrubs in the Pacific Northwest. It has the potential to affect several acres and cause widespread mortality of trees. Western larch, cedar, ponderosa pine, western white pine, and lodgepole pine are susceptible to armillaria, but mixed conifer stands commonly are more tolerant of the disease. Young regenerating stands (less than 30 years) are most affected, which may delay the maturation and succession of the forest.

Identifiers of armillaria are similar to those of other root diseases; however, armillaria produces a distinct white mycelial fan between the wood and bark. Rhizomorphs, or brown shoestrings of fungal mycelia, are common under the bark and roots (Goheen, 2006). High resin flow and excessive sapping is also common. Management may be limited to planting of less susceptible species.

Hemlock and Douglas-fir forests of the Washington and Oregon Cascade Mountains are highly susceptible to laminated root rot (Phellinus weirii), which results in moderate disturbances and openings in the forest. The fungus can cause severe root rot and butt decay and result in stunted growth and mortality. Western hemlock, Pacific silver fir, subalpine fir, and noble fir may be affected by laminated root rot; however, these species rarely are killed by the disease.

Signs and symptoms of laminated root rot include pockets of dead and fallen trees that are broken at or near ground level. Decay is identified by a brown to reddish brown speckled staining in the sapwood and wood that separates along the growth rings. Regeneration of highly susceptible species in the area affected by the fungus typically is unsuccessful (Goheen, 2006).

White pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola) affects early seral white pine forests and causes mortality of the young trees. The disease commonly increases the rate of succession and transition by girdling affected trees. It affects five-needle pines. Mountain pine beetle commonly attacks large stands of western white pine that are stressed or dying from the fungus. The fungus requires an alternate currant (Ribes spp.) host to complete its lifecycle.

Identifiers of blister rust include swellings on branches, which may exude sap in spring. Cankers and pustules develop on tree branches and boles, and they have yellow-orange blisters (aeciospores) by midsummer. Management may include removing the currant (Ribes spp.), pruning affected branches, and planting genetically improved stock (Goheen, 2006).


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Balsam woolly adelgid (Adelges piceae) is common in the Cascade Mountains of Washington. It affects Pacific silver fir. The insects suck sap from the branches and boles of trees, resulting in an infection. Outbreaks may stress, deform, or kill trees and impair cone production. Most mortality is caused by a secondary attack by bark beetles. An identifier is swelling on the branches and tips of needles.

Western spruce budworm (Choristoneura occidentalis) affects true firs, Douglas-fir, Engelmann spruce, and western larch. During outbreaks, it commonly feeds on pines and understory trees. The budworm larvae consume the current year’s foliage during the first year of infestation. Multiple years of infestation result in dieback of branches, complete defoliation, and mortality.

Identifiers include chewed and discolored needles of the current year’s foliage. Needles turn reddish brown from the tips, and the discoloration extends along the branches toward the bole of the tree. Larvae are light brown and have a dark-colored head. They develop into adult moths by midsummer. Females lay larvae on the underside of the needles. The larvae overwinter in sheltered spots, such as in crevasses of the bark. Outbreaks typically last 8 years. They can disrupt the successional pattern in fir-dominant forests by opening up the understory, which allows less shade-tolerant species to become more dominant (Goheen, 2006).

Associated Sites Ecological site F003XN947WA, Southern Washington Cascades Low Cryic Coniferous Forest, is similar to site F003XN945WA, Southern Washington Cascades Wet Low Cryic Coniferous Forest, and site F003XN946WA, Southern Washington Cascades Moist Low Cryic Coniferous Forest. The most differentiating features among these sites are the depth to the water table, precipitation, and the duration and frequency of ponding.

Ecological site F003XN947WA is at the drier end of the moisture spectrum as compared to sites F003XN945WA and F003XN946WA. Site F003XN945WA is susceptible to ponding and has a high seasonal water table. It supports more wet-adapted species, such as western redcedar, red alder, and American skunkcabbage. Ecological site F003XN946WA is drier than site F003XN945WA. Site F003XN946WA supports species such as Pacific silver fir, western redcedar, and devilsclub. Moisture is less readily available on site F003XN947WA; thus, it supports species such as Pacific silver fir, western hemlock, and black mountain huckleberry.

Other Established Classifications National vegetation classification: A3387—Abies amabilis-Tsuga heterophylla/Vaccinium membranaceum Cold Forest Alliance

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, plant association: • ABAM/VAME/CLUN • ABAM/VAME/XETE

U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, plant association: • ABIAMA-(PSEMEN)/VACMEM/ACHTRI • ABIAMA-(PSEMEN-ABIPRO)/VACMEM/XERTEN



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Cope, Amy B. 1992. Abies amabilis. In Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/abiama/all.html

Crawford, P.D. 1990. Abies amabilis. In Silvics of North America: Volume 1. Conifers. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Agriculture Handbook 654. Pages 17-25. https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/misc/ag_654_vol1.pdf

Crawford, R.C., C B. Chappell, C.C. Thompson, and F.J. Rocchio. 2009. Vegetation classification of Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks. Natural Resource Technical Report NPS/NCCN/NRTR-2009/211. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.








https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/abiama/all.html




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Ecological Site Identification Site type: Forestland Site name: Southern Washington Cascades Low Cryic Deciduous Forest Alnus viridis ssp. sinuata-Acer circinatum/Sambucus racemosa/Rubus parviflorus (Sitka alder-vine maple/red elderberry/thimbleberry) Site ID: F003XN948WA Major land resource area: 003—Olympic and Cascade Mountains



Ecological Site Concept This ecological site is in cold, moist areas at an elevation of 2,100 to 6,600 feet. It is in active avalanche chutes of debris cones on glacial-valley walls. The most common disturbances are avalanches, rockfalls, and debris flows. Wildfires are not common; however, the steep slopes facilitate rapid upslope movement of wildfires.

The soils that support this ecological site are in the cryic soil temperature regime and the udic soil moisture regime. They are formed in mixed colluvium and volcanic ash. The soils are well drained and very deep. They are not subject to flooding or ponding. Soil moisture is not a limiting factor for forest growth because of the abundance of precipitation and the inherent water-holding properties of soils influenced by volcanic ash. A thin organic horizon consisting of decomposing twigs, needles, and litter is on the soil surface. This horizon helps to protect the soil from wind and water erosion.

As a result of the frequent disturbances, this site primarily supports early seral species such as Sitka alder (Alnus viridis ssp. sinuata) and vine maple (Acer circinatum). Common understory shrubs include red elderberry (Sambucus racemosa), thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus), salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), and devilsclub (Oplopanax horridus).


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Physiographic Features This ecological site typically is in avalanche chutes of debris cones at middle to high elevations (2,100 to 6,600 feet) in Mount Rainier National Park. Although the site typically is confined to avalanche paths and runout areas, but it may be in similar areas that are frequently disturbed, such as talus slopes or areas of debris torrent deposits. The site is on most slopes, but it commonly is on slopes of 35 to 80 percent.




Aspect: All



None None

None None


None None

None None

Climatic Features Most of the annual precipitation is received as snow in October through March. The snow commonly persists until late in spring or early in summer. The mean annual precipitation is 63 to 110 inches, and the mean annual air temperature is 36 to 45 degrees F. Generally, the summers are cool and dry and the winters are cold and wet.






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Minimum 9.8 6.3 5.8 4.3 3.3 2.3 0.8 1.3 2.3 3.8 8.3 8.3

Maximum 16.5 12.5 11.8 9.8 6.8 3.8 1.8 3.3 4.8 8.8 18.5 15.5

0.0

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10.0

15.0

20.0


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Minimum 28.8 29.2 31.7 35.5 42.1 47.5 54.7 55.9 50.9 41.3 32 27.3

Maximum 34.3 34.9 37.4 41.3 48.1 54.1 61.3 61.2 55.8 46.4 37.6 32.8

0.010.020.030.040.050.060.070.0


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Influencing Water Features This site is at middle to high elevations on debris cones in Mount Rainier National Park. The site receives runoff from upslope areas. It is not directly influenced by wetland or riparian features.

Representative Soil Features Applicable soils: Summerland

Applicable soil map units: 8130, 9101

The soils that support this plant community are in the cryic soil temperature regime and the udic soil moisture regime. They are well drained and very deep. They are dominantly on debris cones of glacial-valley walls. The soils formed in mixed colluvium and volcanic ash. They are not subject to flooding or ponding. They have more than 35 percent rock fragments in the particle-size control section. The fine-earth fraction is coarse textured and primarily ashy loamy sand and ashy sandy loam. Podsolization is not evident in the profile because of the active landscape positions, frequent avalanches, and rockfalls. The soils have an umbric epipedon and a cambic horizon.

Parent material: Mixed colluvium and volcanic ash

Surface texture: (1) Extremely stony ashy sandy loam (2) Very gravelly ashy sandy loam (3) Very cobbly ashy loamy sand

Subsurface texture group: Ashy-skeletal












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This ecological site is in cold, moist areas at an elevation of 2,100 to 6,600 feet. It is in active avalanche chutes. Because of the frequent disturbance, the site primarily supports early seral species such as Sitka alder (Alnus viridis ssp. sinuata) and vine maple (Acer circinatum). These species are well adapted to colonizing talus slopes and avalanche chutes. The seeds of Sitka alder are particularly adapted to soils exposed by recent avalanches (Uchytil, 1989). Sitka alder and vine maple have resilient wood, and they grow nearly prostrate in response to the snow load and recurring avalanches.

Frequent avalanches do not allow for the establishment of forest overstory, but seedlings of species such as Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis), noble fir (Abies procera), western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), and western redcedar (Thuja plicata) may encroach from the forested edges. Over time, the majority of the rigid-trunked trees will be snapped off by the avalanches. Common understory shrubs include red elderberry (Sambucus racemosa), thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus), salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), and devilsclub (Oplopanax horridus). Common forbs include fireweed (Chamerion angustifolium), ladyfern (Athyrium filix-femina), claspleaf twistedstalk (Streptopus amplexifolius), and common beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax).

Wildfires may occur on this site. Because of the rapid movement of fire on the steep slopes, the damage commonly is not severe and recovery is relatively quick. Early seral species such as Sitka alder and vine maple regenerate post fire. Sitka alder is resistant to damage from wildfires because of its nonflammable bark and non-resinous leaves. Vine maple is able to resprout from the roots very quickly after a fire (Uchytil, 1989).



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State 1: Reference Community Phase 1.1: Sitka alder-vine maple/red elderberry/thimbleberry


Structure: Mosaic of shrubs and forbs

The reference community represents a lack of major disturbance for at least 10 years. Large areas of continuous canopy cover of Sitka spruce develop, especially at the lower, less sloping end of the avalanche chutes. These areas generally have less diverse shrubs, but they have more forbs and ferns, such as fireweed, ladyfern, and common beargrass. Tall shrubs, such as red elderberry, salmonberry, and devilsclub, are in areas where the Sitka alder canopy is patchy. All of these species readily sprout from the root crown; therefore, they persist in avalanche chutes.

Community phase pathway 1.1A This pathway represents an extended time with minimal disturbance by avalanches.

Community phase pathway 1.1B This pathway represents an extended time with no disturbance from avalanches, which allows trees to become established.


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Forest Overstory

Pacific silver fir, western hemlock, and noble fir are along the outer edges of the reference community. The canopy cover is 2 to 5 percent, and the canopy height is 25 to 130 feet.



Basal area (high)




Forest Understory

The composition of the understory varies depending on the extent of the disturbance and competition for moisture. Overall cover of shrubs such as Sitka alder and vine maple is as much as 80 percent in the reference community. Overall cover of thimbleberry is as much as 40 percent.




Cover % (high)


(in.)

Top canopy height

(in.)

Sitka alder (Alnus viridis ssp. sinuata) ALVIS N 0 80 6 180




Red elderberry (Sambucus racemosa) SARA2 N 0 20 24 120


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Cover % (high)


(in.)

Top canopy height

(in.)



Common beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax) XETE N 0 20 12 36


Pacific trillium (Trillium ovatum) TROV2 N 0 5 1 12

Community Phase 1.2: Pacific silver fir-western hemlock/Sitka alder/common ladyfern


Structure: Sparse overstory encroaching avalanche paths from forested edges, and shrubby understory

Community phase 1.2 represents the forest encroaching on the avalanche chutes. The forest surrounding the avalanche chutes provides a seed source for the plant community. Typically, the rigid-stemmed species in the main snow path do not survive repeated avalanches. They may slowly encroach


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from the forested edges in areas where mature trees provide some protection against snow movement. Over time and under certain conditions, this can lead to a narrowing of the original chute.

Community phase pathway 1.2A This pathway represents a disturbance such as a wildfire or a major avalanche or series of avalanches that reclaims the original extent of the avalanche chute.


Name Symbol Site index average

CMAI average

Age at CMAI

Code for site

index curve

Basis for site

index curve

Citation

ft ft3/ac/yr yrs


TSHE 100 142 60 990 100TA Barnes, George H. 1962. Yield of even-aged stands of western hemlock. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station Technical Bulletin 1273.


Ecological site F003XN948WA, Southern Washington Cascades Low Cryic Deciduous Forest, is similar to site F003XN952WA, Southern Washington Cascades High Cryic Deciduous Forest. Both sites are in active avalanche chutes. Ecological site F003XN948WA typically is at lower elevations and dominantly supports tree species such as Pacific silver fir and western hemlock. Site F003XN952WA typically is at higher elevations and dominantly supports species such as subalpine fir, mountain hemlock, and Alaska cedar.

Other Established Classifications National vegetation classification group: Vancouverian Flooded and Swamp Forest, North Pacific Lowland-Montane Riparian and Wet Slope Shrubland

U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, plant association: • ALNVIR • ALNVIR-ACECIR



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Uchytil, R. 1989. Acer circinatum. In Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/shrub/acecir/all.html

Uchytil, R. 1989. Alnus viridis subsp. sinuata. In Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/shrub/alnvirs/all.html






https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/shrub/acecir/all.html




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Ecological Site Identification Site type: Forestland Site name: Southern Washington Cascades High Cryic Riparian Forest Callitropsis nootkatensis-Alnus viridis spp. sinuata/Salix barclayi/Rubus pedatus (Alaska cedar-Sitka alder/Barclay’s willow/five-leaved bramble) Site ID: F003XN949WA Major land resource area: 003—Olympic and Cascade Mountains



Ecological Site Concept This ecological site is in cold, moist areas at low to high elevations (1,700 to 6,900 feet) in Mount Rainier National Park. The site is on flood plains and terraces of river valleys. The most common natural disturbance is flooding. The volume and longevity of the flooding determine the effect on the dynamics of the forest. Elevation and climate are key components in the succession of the forest. The cold, wet winters and cool, dry summers impact the rate of growth and time to maturity.

The soils that support this site are in the cryic soil temperature regime and the udic soil moisture regime. They are somewhat excessively drained and very deep. Soil moisture is not a limiting factor to forest growth because of the abundance of precipitation and the inherent water-holding properties of soils influenced by volcanic ash. A thin organic horizon consisting of decomposing twigs, needles, and litter is on the soil surface. This horizon helps to protect the soils from wind and water erosion.

Alaska cedar (Callitropsis nootkatensis) and Sitka alder (Alnus viridis ssp. sinuata) are the most common overstory species. Some Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis), Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii), black cottonwood (Populus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa), and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) are present.


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Physiographic Features This ecological site is on flood plains and terraces of river valley bottoms at an elevation of 1,700 to 6,900 feet in Mount Rainier National Park. Slope commonly is 0 to 15 percent.




Aspect: All



None None

Rare None


None None

None None







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Minimum 10.8 7.8 8.3 5.8 4.3 3.3 1.3 1.3 2.8 4.8 11.8 9.8

Maximum 18.5 13.5 12.5 10.3 6.8 4.3 2.3 3.3 4.8 9.3 21 18.5

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0


Inch

es

Precipitation




Minimum 31.8 31.9 33.2 35.3 38.8 41.7 46 46.5 43.8 38.6 33.4 31

Maximum 34.3 35.5 39.1 43.4 49.6 56.7 63.3 63.3 57.2 46.7 37.9 33

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0


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Influencing Water Features This site is at low to high elevations on terraces and flood plains in Mount Rainier National Park. The frequency of flooding is rare; however, 100- or 500-year floods may dramatically alter the landscape. The water table typically rises in spring and recedes in fall.

Representative Soil Features Applicable soils: Flett, cold

Applicable soil map units: 8200

The Flett soils are on flood plains and terraces of river valleys. The soils formed in alluvium derived from andesite mixed with volcanic ash. They are subject to rare periods of flooding in April, May, October, and November. The soils have more than 35 percent rock fragments in the particle-size control section. They are coarse textured and primarily ashy loamy sand and ashy sandy loam. Podsolization is not evident in the profile because the soils are relatively young in terms of soil formation. The soils have an ochric epipedon and a cambic horizon.


Surface texture: (1) Very stony ashy coarse sandy loam (2) Gravelly ashy coarse sandy loam (3) Very gravelly ashy loamy sand


Drainage class: Somewhat excessively drained











This ecological site is along rivers on flat, historic flood plains and terraces. Alaska cedar (Callitropsis nootkatensis) and Sitka alder (Alnus viridis ssp. sinuata) are the most common overstory species. Some Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis), Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii), black cottonwood (Populus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa), and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) are present. The understory commonly is shrubby. Barclay’s willow (Salix barclayi) and vine maple (Acer circinatum) make up the dense subcanopy.

The most common natural disturbance is flooding. The volume and longevity of the flooding determine the effect on the dynamics of the forest. Frequent periods of peak flow generally do not impact the channel flow, but they transport a considerable amount of sediment. Extreme rain-on-snow flood events


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and debris flows can alter the stream channel by incision or aggradation. These events remove the existing vegetation along the flood plain and are stand replacing (Czuba, 2012).

The landscape position is perhaps the most important factor that determines the species composition. Conifers are more prevalent on the terraces, and deciduous species are more prevalent on the active flood plains, where more frequent fluvial disturbances occur (Villarian, 2009). Black cottonwood and red alder germinate successfully on the bare mineral soil present after the site is scoured by flooding. In the more flood-prone areas, shrubs may be less dense and more light may reach the forest floor. An herb layer that includes five-leaved bramble (Rubus pedatus), fireweed (Chamerion angustifolium), and pearly everlasting (Anaphalis margaritacea) is in scattered areas. During a long the period between major floods, conifers establish and the overstory becomes more diverse. With the absence of disturbance, it is expected that the maturation and succession of the forest will result in an old growth conifer community.



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State 1: Reference Community Phase 1.1: Alaska cedar-Sitka alder/Barclay’s willow/five-leaved bramble



The reference community represents a lack of major flooding for at least 80 years. Conifers are more prevalent on the terraces, and deciduous species are on the active flood plains, where more frequent fluvial disturbances occur. Over time, shade-tolerant conifers such as Alaska cedar, Pacific silver fir, and Engelmann spruce regenerate in the understory. The lack of flooding allows for growth of a vigorous understory of shrubs, including Barclay’s willow and vine maple. Other common disturbances include small gap dynamics (openings of 1/2 acre or smaller) following the decline of shade-intolerant species and minor scouring from flooding.

Community phase pathway 1.1A This pathway represents minor disturbances that maintain the overall structure of the reference community. The death of one or two trees creates gaps that allow sunlight to reach the understory, promoting the growth of forbs and shrubs and the regeneration of overstory species. Deposition following minor scouring from flooding temporarily affects the understory community, but it does not alter the composition of the overstory.

Community phase pathway 1.1B This pathway represents a major 100- or 500-year flood that results in complete or nearly complete loss of the overstory.


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Community phase pathway 1.1B.

Community Phase 1.2: Barclay’s willow/fireweed Structure: Single story/shrub

Community phase 1.2 represents a forest that is undergoing regeneration or stand initiation. Scattered remnant mature trees are in some areas. Successful regeneration is dependent on the local seed source, an adequate seedbed, and sufficient light and water (Nierenberg, 2000). Sitka alder, Barclay’s willow, and vine maple are the pioneering early seral species that become established first after a major disturbance. Seeds of deciduous species are light and can be transported long distances by wind and water, which allows for rapid recolonization. The shrubs compete with seedlings and saplings until the tree species overtop them. A major disturbance allows for establishment of seral forb species such as five-leaved bramble and fireweed.



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Ecological site F003XN949WA is similar to site F003XN944WA, Southern Washington Cascades Low Cryic Riparian Forest. Both sites are associated with the Flett soils and are subject to intense flooding. Site F003XN949WA is in colder, wetter areas at high elevations; thus, the growing conditions are harsher. Ecological site F003XN944WA supports black cottonwood and Pacific silver fir in the reference community, and site F003XN949WA supports Alaska cedar and Sitka alder. The rates of maturity and growth of species are lower on site F003XN949WA than they are on site F003XN944WA.


Type Locality State: Washington County: Pierce Township: 1 North Range: 07 East Section: 25 Datum: NAD 83 Zone: 10 North Northing: 5188685 meters Easting: 586255 meters Latitude degrees: 46 Latitude minutes: 50 Latitude seconds: 46 Latitude decimal degrees: 46.84612 Longitude degrees: 121 Longitude minutes: 52 Longitude seconds: 7.2 Longitude decimal degrees: -121.643714







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Ecological Site Identification Site type: Forestland Site name: Southern Washington Cascades Moist High Cryic Coniferous Forest Tsuga mertensiana-Callitropsis nootkatensis/Rhododendron albiflorum/Rubus lasiococcus (mountain hemlock-Alaska cedar/Cascade azalea/dwarf bramble) Site ID: F003XN950WA Major land resource area: 003—Olympic and Cascade Mountains



Ecological Site Concept This ecological site is in cold, moist areas of Mount Rainier National Park at an elevation of 3,200 to 7,900 feet, depending on aspect. Elevation and climate are key components in the succession of the forest. The cold winters, deep snowpack, short growing season, and mild summers impact the rates of growth and maturity. Fog and a heavy cloud cover may provide moisture in summer for forests along the timberline (Crawford, 2009).

The soils that support this ecological site are in the cryic soil temperature regime and the aquic soil moisture regime. They are on debris aprons of mountain slopes, moraines, cirque floors, lahars, and swales of glacial-valley walls. The seasonal high water table is at a depth of 10 to 20 inches during part of the growing season. Soil moisture is not a limiting factor to forest growth because of the abundance of precipitation and the inherent water-holding properties of soils influenced by volcanic ash. A thin organic horizon consisting of decomposing twigs, needles, and litter is on the soil surface. This horizon helps to protect the soil from wind and water erosion.

The most common natural disturbance is windthrow due to the seasonal high water table. The shallow rooting zone in saturated areas causes roots to grow laterally and results in frequent tip-ups. Other disturbances include forest pathogens, such as root rot, and high-intensity, low-frequency wildfires that are stand replacing.

Mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) and Alaska cedar (Callitropsis nootkatensis) are the most common overstory species. Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis), noble fir (Abies procera), subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa), Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii), and Sitka alder (Alnus viridis ssp. sinuata) may be minor components of the overstory. Cascade azalea (Rhododendron albiflorum), devilsclub


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(Oplopanax horridus), vine maple (Acer circinatum), salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), and thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus) make up the dense subcanopy.

Physiographic Features This ecological site is on debris aprons of mountains slopes, lahars, cirque floors, swales of glacial-valley walls, and moraines at the upper montane elevations (3,200 to 7,900 feet). The site is on all aspects and slopes; however, it is dominantly on slopes of 0 to 35 percent.






None None

None None


None None

None None

Climatic Features Most of the annual precipitation is received in October through April. The mean annual precipitation is 67 to 110 inches, and the mean annual air temperature is 35 to 41 degrees F. Generally, the summers are cool and dry and the winters are cold and wet.






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Minimum 9.3 5.8 5.3 3.8 3.3 1.8 0.8 0.8 1.8 3.3 7.8 7.8

Maximum 25 17.5 16.5 13.5 8.8 4.8 2.8 3.8 5.8 9.8 25 27

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0


Inch

es

Precipitation



Temperature Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

Minimum 21.7 22 24.1 28.5 34.9 40.4 48 48.9 44.3 34.8 25.6 21.8

Maximum 31.9 32.6 34.8 39.3 45.8 51.1 58.5 59.4 53.8 44.4 35.2 30.9

0.010.020.030.040.050.060.070.0


Degr

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it

Temperature

temp_min temp_max




234

Influencing Water Features Generally, this ecological site is not influenced by wetland or riparian water features. The soils have a seasonal high water table at a depth of 10 to 20 inches some time during the growing season. The water table typically rises in spring and recedes in fall.

Representative Soil Features Applicable soils: Mysticlake, Wonderland

Applicable soil map units: 8201, 8203, 8210, 8211, 8220, 8225, 8230, 9210, 9220, 9225, 9994

The Mysticlake soils formed in volcanic ash over colluvium derived from andesite, and the Wonderland soils formed in mixed colluvium, till, and lahar deposits. The Mysticlake soils have less than 35 percent rock fragments in the particle-size control section, and the Wonderland soils have more than 35 percent rock fragments in the particle-size control section. The Mysticlake soils are coarse textured and primarily medial sandy loam and medial loamy sand. Pumice paragravel is in some areas. The Wonderland soils are coarse textured and have andesite fragments. They are primarily very gravelly ashy sandy loam and very gravelly ashy loamy sand. Both of the soils have an ochric epipedon, redoximorphic features, and andic properties. Podsolization in not evident in the soils.

Parent material: Volcanic ash over colluvium derived from andesite; mixed colluvium, till, and lahar deposits

Surface texture: (1) Medial sandy loam (2) Very gravelly ashy fine sandy loam (3) Medial loamy sand

Subsurface texture group: Ashy, ashy-skeletal











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Mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) and Alaska cedar (Callitropsis nootkatensis) are the most common overstory species. Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis), noble fir (Abies procera), subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa), Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii), and Sitka alder (Alnus viridis ssp. sinuata) may be minor components of the overstory.

The most common natural disturbance is windthrow due to the seasonal high water table. The shallow rooting zone in saturated areas causes roots to grow laterally and results in frequent tip-ups. The openings in the canopy allow more sunlight to reach the forest floor, leading to a shrubby understory. Cascade azalea (Rhododendron albiflorum), devilsclub (Oplopanax horridus), vine maple (Acer circinatum), salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), and thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus) make up the dense subcanopy. Frequent tip-ups result in a hummocky surface and an abundance of downed woody debris. The site has an herb layer consisting of common dwarf bramble (Rubus lasiococcus), deer fern (Blechnum spicant), western oakfern (Gymnocarpium dryopteris), and twinflower (Linnaea borealis) in scattered areas.

Other disturbance factors include forest pathogens, such as root rot, and high-intensity, low-frequency wildfires that are stand replacing. The frequency of wildfires is relatively low because of the position on the landscape at the higher elevations and the extended periods of snowpack. The fire regime for mountain hemlock is 400 to 800 years. The fires commonly are stand replacing because of the dense forest canopy and the physiology of the trees that includes low, non-self-pruning branches (Tesky, 1992).


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State 1: Reference Community Phase 1.1: Mountain hemlock-Alaska cedar/Cascade azalea/dwarf bramble



Mountain hemlock is the dominant overstory species in the reference community, and it is the most shade tolerant-species. Alaska cedar, subalpine fir, Pacific silver fir, and noble fir are subspecies. Reproduction of these species is restricted under a closed canopy of mountain hemlock (Means, 1990). The dense canopy created by multiple age groups of hemlock may block most of the sunlight from the forest floor, which leads to sparse understory in some areas. Gaps in the mid-canopy and overstory allow sunlight to reach the ground. The majority of the understory plants become established in these areas. The understory is more continuous in areas where there is no mid-canopy. Common understory species include rusty menziesia, black mountain huckleberry, dwarf bramble, Cascade azalea, and Sitka valerian. The most common natural disturbance is small gap dynamics following the death of some trees. From recorded plot data, the average diameter at breast height of mountain hemlock is 19 inches and the average age is 270 years. The growing conditions of this ecological site limit timber production.

Community phase pathway 1.1A This pathway represents minor disturbances, such as small pockets of root disease, individual tree mortality, and windthrow, that maintain the overall structure of the reference community. Mortality of individual trees or clusters of trees creates openings that allow sunlight to reach the forest floor. This promotes the growth of forbs and shrubs and regeneration of overstory species and maintains the multi-storied, uneven-aged forest.


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Community phase pathway 1.1B This pathway represents a larger disturbance, such as a windstorm, insect infestation, or root rot pocket. Areas of regeneration are 2 to 4 acres in size. Historically, this spatial pattern was caused by pockets of disease, such as annosum root rot (Heterobasidion annosum) or laminated root rot (Phellinus weirii), minor insect infestations, or low- or moderate-intensity fires. Because mountain hemlock is shallow rooted, it is susceptible to laminated root rot and windthrow (Tesky, 1992).

Community phase pathway 1.1C This pathway represents a major stand-replacing disturbance, such as a high-intensity fire, large-scale windstorm, major insect infestation, or large mass movement. The frequency of fire on this ecological site is 400 to 800 years. Volcanic activity has the potential to disrupt the landscape ecology beyond the boundaries of the ecological site and the purpose of this site description.

Forest Overstory

The forest has multiple canopy layers. The upper canopy is 90 to 135 feet in height, and the average is 80 feet. The diameter of the trees varies depending on the species, but the average diameter at breast height is 19 inches.



50 65 80



Basal area (high)

Mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) TSME N 0 20

Subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) ABLA N 0 140


Alaska cedar (Callitropsis nootkatensis) CANO9 N 0 40


Forest Understory

The composition of the understory varies depending on the overstory cover and competition for sunlight and moisture. As the overstory community matures toward the reference state, the understory vegetation is less prevalent. At the higher elevations, the density of the understory species is higher because the trees are less mature and the canopy is not closed. Overall cover of shrubs such as Cascade azalea and black mountain huckleberry is 30 to 50 percent. Dense pockets of shrubs are in some areas. Overall cover of forbs such as common beargrass, Sitka valerian, five-leaved bramble, and dwarf bramble is 5 to 30 percent.


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Cover % (high)


(in.)

Top canopy height

(in.)



Cascade azalea (Rhododendron albiflorum) RHAL2 N 0 50 24 60

Sitka mountain ash (Sorbus sitchensis) SOSI2 N 0 10 4 60

Rusty menziesia (Menziesia ferruginea) MEFE N 0 20 6 36



Cover % (high)


(in.)

Top canopy height

(in.)

Common beargrass (Xerophyllum) XETE N 0 15 12 24


Five-leaved bramble (Rubus pedatus) RUPE N 0 5 1 4



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Community Phase 1.2: Mountain hemlock-Alaska cedar/Cascade azalea/dwarf bramble



Community phase 1.2 resembles community phase 1.1 in some areas, but it also has moderate-sized openings (2 to 4 acres). Many of the shrubs respond well to increased sunlight and may delay or prevent reforestation of the openings.


Community phase pathway 1.2B This pathway represents a major stand-replacing disturbance such as a high-intensity fire, large-scale windstorm, major insect infestation, or large mass movement. This leads to the initiation phase of forest development.

Community Phase 1.3: American bistort-common beargrass Structure: Open meadow with snags

Community phase 1.3 is an early seral plant community that has been impacted by a stand-replacing disturbance such as a wildfire, large-scale windstorm, mass movement, or major insect infestation. Mountain hemlock is susceptible to damage from fire because of its low-hanging branches. It is not expected to survive moderate- or high-intensity fires; therefore, the fires are dominantly stand replacing (Tesky, 1992). Most of the trees are destroyed, but some fire-resistant trees may survive in the overstory. Standing, decaying snags are prevalent. The understory is dominantly shrubs and forbs such as American bistort, fireweed, common beargrass, and arctic lupine. Some grasses will establish, but they will be replaced by shrubs over time. Tree seedlings and saplings begin to establish within 3 to 10 years, depending on the severity of the disturbance.



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Community Phase 1.4: Western white pine-subalpine fir/Sitka mountain ash/American bistort-arctic lupine Structure: Single story

Community phase 1.4 is an early seral forest in regeneration. Scattered remnant mature trees that are fire resilient may be present. The species composition depends on the natural seed sources present and the intensity of the disturbance. Western white pine and subalpine fir are suited to reproduction after a disturbance (Means, 1990). After a moderate or severe fire, shrubs and forbs may outcompete tree seedlings. American bistort, artic lupine, and partridgefoot, which may have been moderate in abundance previously, rapidly recover and spread when top-killed. This slows the regeneration of the overstory species. Tree species, including early successional species such as western white pine, commonly regenerate from an existing seed source. The stand is mixed and may include western white pine, Douglas-fir, mountain hemlock, and subalpine fir.



Community Phase 1.5: Subalpine fir-mountain hemlock/black mountain huckleberry/arctic lupine Structure: Dense single story with diminished understory

Community phase 1.5 is a forest in the competitive exclusion stage. Scattered remnant mature trees may be present. Competition among individual trees for available water and nutrients increases. The canopy closure is nearly 100 percent, which leads to a diminished understory. Some understory species better adapted to at least partial shade, such as Sitka valerian, increase in abundance. Over time, the forest will begin to self-thin due to competition. The species composition depends on the original seed sources available. The forest may be composed of a single species or mixed species, including subalpine fir, mountain hemlock, Pacific silver fir, Alaska cedar, and Engelmann spruce.



Community Phase 1.6: Mountain hemlock-Pacific silver fir/rusty menziesia/dwarf bramble Structure: Single story with few small openings

Community phase 1.6 is a maturing forest that is beginning to become differentiated vertically. Individual trees are dying from competition, disease, insects, or windthrow, which allows some sunlight to reach the forest floor. The understory increases in abundance, and some pockets of overstory regeneration develop.

Community phase pathway 1.6A This pathway represents growth over time with no further major disturbance. Continued growth over time and ongoing mortality lead to increased vertical diversification. The community begins to resemble the structure of the reference community, including small pockets of regeneration and a more diversified understory.


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Name Symbol

Site index (low)

Site index (high)

CMAI (low)

CMAI (high)

Age at CMAI



Citation

ft ft3/ac/yr yrs


TSME 50 NA 30 NA 100 60 100BH Hanson, E., D. Azuma, and B. Hiserote. 2002. Site index equations and mean annual increment equations for Pacific Northwest Research Station forest inventory and analysis inventories, 1085-2001. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station Research Note PNW-RN-533.




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Mountain hemlock forests of the Washington and Oregon Cascade Mountains are highly susceptible to laminated root rot (Phellinus weirii), which results in moderate disturbances and openings in the forest. The fungus can cause severe root rot and butt decay that can stunt the growth of trees and cause mortality. Pacific silver fir, subalpine fir, and noble fir may be affected by laminated root rot, but they rarely are killed by the disease.

Signs and symptoms of root rot include pockets of dead and fallen trees that are broken at or near ground level. The decay is identified by brown to reddish brown speckled staining in the sapwood and wood that separates along the growth rings. Regeneration of highly susceptible species in infected areas typically is unsuccessful (Goheen, 2006).

White pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola) affects early seral white pine forests, and it may result in mortality of young trees. This disease commonly increases the rates of succession and transition by girdling infected trees. It affects five-needled pines. It commonly precedes an attack by mountain pine beetles in areas where large stands of western white pine are stressed or dying. This fungus requires an alternate currant (Ribes spp.) host to complete its lifecycle.

An identifier of blister rust commonly is swellings on branches, which exude sap in spring. Cankers and pustules that have yellow-orange blisters (aeciospores) by midsummer develop on branches and boles of trees. Management may include removal of the currant (Ribes spp.), pruning affected branches, and planting genetically improved stock (Goheen, 2006).

Associated Ecological Sites Ecological site F003XN950WA, Southern Washington Cascades Moist High Cryic Coniferous Forest, is similar to site F003XN951WA, Southern Washington Cascades High Cryic Coniferous Forest. The dominant differentiating features are the depth to the water table and soil drainage class. The soils associated with site F003XN950WA have a higher water table depth during part of the growing season and are somewhat poorly drained. The vegetation on this site, such as Alaska cedar, Cascade azalea, and Sitka mountain ash, is suited to wetter environments. The soils associated with site F003XN951WA are moderately well drained or well drained. The vegetation on this site, such as subalpine fir and mountain heather, is suited to drier conditions. It is hypothesized that under long periods of drier conditions, F003XN950WA will progress toward an old-growth stand that resembles that of site F003XN951WA.

Other Established Classifications National vegetation classification: North Pacific Mountain Hemlock-Silver Fir Forest and Tree Island Group

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, plant association: • ABAM/RHAL • TSME/RHAL

U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, plant association: TSUMER-ABIAMA/RHOALB



244

Type Locality State: Washington County: Pierce Township: 17 North Range: 09 East Section: 03 Datum: NAD 83 Zone: 10 North Northing: 5205375 meters Easting: 603125 meters Latitude degrees: 46 Latitude minutes: 59 Latitude seconds: 38 Latitude decimal degrees: 46.993893 Longitude degrees: 121 Longitude minutes: 38 Longitude seconds: 37.4 Longitude decimal degrees: -121.643714














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Ecological Site Identification Site type: Forestland Site name: Southern Washington Cascades High Cryic Coniferous Forest Tsuga mertensiana-Abies lasiocarpa/Menziesia ferruginea/Xerophyllum tenax (mountain hemlock-subalpine fir/rusty menziesia/common beargrass) Site ID: F003XN951WA Major land resource area: 003—Olympic and Cascade Mountains



Ecological Site Concept This ecological site is in cold, moist areas at high elevations (3,200 to 6,500 feet, or treeline) in Mount Rainier National Park. Elevation and climate are key components in the succession of the forest dynamics. The cold winters, deep snowpack, and mild summers impact the rate of growth and time to maturity. The fog and heavy cloud cover may provide necessary moisture in summer for areas along the timberline (Crawford, 2009).

The soils that support this ecological site are in the high cryic soil temperature regime and the udic soil moisture regime. They are moderately well drained or well drained. They are shallow to bedrock to very deep. Soil moisture is not a limiting factor to forest growth because of the abundance of precipitation and the inherent water-holding properties of soils influenced by volcanic ash. Slope and aspect are not defining features of the site.

The most common overstory species are mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) and subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa). Other common species include Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis), noble fir (Abies procera), Alaska cedar (Callitropsis nootkatensis), and Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii).

Disturbance factors include forest pathogens, such as root rot, and high-intensity, low-frequency fires that are stand replacing. The frequency of fire is relatively low because of the extended periods of snowpack at the higher elevations.


247

Physiographic Features This ecological site is on debris aprons of mountains slopes, glacial-valley walls, and ridges at the upper montane elevations (3,200 to 6,500 feet). The site is on all aspects and slopes, but it is dominantly on slopes of 15 to 65 percent. The site covers 24 percent of Mount Rainier National Park.




Aspect: All



None None

None None


None None

None None

Climatic Features Most of the annual precipitation is received in October through April. The mean annual precipitation is 49 to 155 inches, and the mean annual air temperature is 30 to 45 degrees F. Generally, the summers are cool and dry summers and the winters are cold and wet.






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Minimum 9.3 5.8 5.3 3.8 3.3 1.8 0.8 0.8 1.8 3.3 7.8 7.8

Maximum 25 17.5 16.5 13.5 8.8 4.8 2.8 3.8 5.8 10.3 25 27

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Minimum 20.6 20.8 22.5 26.4 32.8 38.3 45.8 46.6 42.0 33.0 23.6 19.9

Maximum 34.6 35.2 37.5 41.1 47.2 52.7 59.7 59.9 54.7 41.5 37.7 33.2

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Influencing Water Features Generally, this ecological site is not influenced by wetland or riparian water features. It is not subject to flooding or ponding. The Unicornpeak soils have a seasonal high water table at a depth of 19 to 40 inches some time during the growing season. The water table typically rises in spring and recedes in fall.

Representative Soil Features Applicable soils: Tipsoo, Unicornpeak, Owyhigh, Ipsut, Glacierisland, Sheepskull, Sluiskin Applicable soil map units in Mount Rainier National Park: 8201, 8203, 8210, 8211, 8220, 8225, 8230, 8250, 8251, 8252, 8255, 8256, 8257, 9200, 9201, 9210, 9220, 9225, 9252, 9253, 9254, 9258, 9259, 9993, 9994 The Tipsoo, Unicornpeak, Owyhigh, and Ipsut soils are in the more stable landscape positions, and they formed in volcanic ash and colluvium derived from andesite. The Glacierisland, Sheepskull, and Sluiskin soils are on young, active geomorphic surfaces, and they formed in till, colluvium, and lahar deposits. The Tipsoo, Unicornpeak, and Glacierisland soils are deep or very deep, the Owyhigh and Sheepskull soils are moderately deep, and the Ipsut and Sluiskin soils are shallow. The soils in the more stable positions have a mantle of volcanic ash (primarily Mount St. Helens P and Y tephra) over colluvium derived from andesite. The Tipsoo, Unicornpeak, Owyhigh, and Ipsut soils consist of volcanic ash mixed with colluvium over andesite. The mantle of volcanic ash has low bulk density and high available water holding capacity. It is sandy loam or loamy sand and has gravel-sized pumice parafragments. The subsoil, where present, consists of colluvium derived from andesite. It is sandy loam and has andesite fragments. Podsolization is the dominant pedogenic process in the soils. All of these soils have an albic horizon and a spodic horizon. The soils in younger, more active positions formed in till and lahar deposits. These soils are on moraines and lahars, generally in large glacial valleys at the base of the mountains. The Glacierisland, Sheepskull, and Sluiskin soils consist of till and lahar deposits over andesite. Podsolization is not evident in the soils because of the relatively young age in terms of soil formation. The soils have volcanic ash in the profile and have andic soil properties. They are coarse textured, have low cation-exchange capacity, and have more than 35 percent rock fragments throughout. Parent material: Volcanic ash over colluvium derived from andesite; volcanic ash and colluvium derived from andesite over andesite; till and lahar deposits; till and lahar deposits over andesite; mixed colluvium and till Surface texture: (1) Ashy sandy loam (2) Very gravelly ashy loamy sand (3) Paragravelly ashy sandy loam Subsurface texture group: Loamy, sandy Drainage class: Well drained, moderately well drained Saturated hydraulic conductivity: High or very high










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This ecological site is in cold, moist areas at high elevations (3,200 feet to 6,500 feet). The cold winters, deep snowpack, and mild summers impact the rates of growth and time to maturity. Fog and heavy cloud cover may provide necessary moisture in summer to areas along the timberline (Crawford, 2009).

The most common overstory species are mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) and subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa). Other common species include Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis), noble fir (Abies procera), Alaska cedar (Callitropsis nootkatensis), and Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii).

Common understory shrubs include rusty menziesia (Menziesia ferruginea), black mountain huckleberry (Vaccinium membranaceum), Sitka mountain ash (Sorbus sitchensis var. sitchensis), and Cascade azalea (Rhododendron albiflorum). Common forbs include common beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax), Sitka valerian (Valeriana sitchensis), sidebells wintergreen (Orthilia secunda), smooth woodrush (Luzula glabrata), dwarf bramble (Rubus lasiococcus), and five-leaved bramble (Rubus pedatus). Regeneration commonly is limited by heavy snowpack at the higher elevations. Mature trees are on mounds in areas where the snow melts earlier than in other areas (Scientia Silvica, 1997).

Disturbances include forest pathogens, such as root rot, and high-intensity, low-frequency fires that are stand replacing. Mountain hemlock and Pacific silver fir are susceptible to laminated root rot (Phellinus weirii), which will result in patches of mortality. Subalpine fir is less susceptible, and Alaska cedar and whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) are tolerant. This fungus can alter the composition of the forest.

Because of the extended periods of snowpack at the higher elevation, the frequency of fire is relatively low. The fire regime for mountain hemlock and subalpine fir is 400 to 800 years. The wildfires commonly are stand replacing because of the dense forest canopy and the low, non-self-pruning branches of the trees (Tesky, 1992). Western white pine (Pinus monticola) commonly occurs as an early succession species after a stand-replacing fire.


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State 1: Reference Community Phase 1.1: Mountain hemlock-subalpine fir/rusty menziesia/common beargrass



Mountain hemlock is the dominant overstory species in the reference community, and it is the most shade-tolerant species. Subalpine fir, Pacific silver fir, noble fir, and Alaska cedar are subspecies. Reproduction of these species commonly is restricted under a closed canopy of mountain hemlock (Means, 1990). The dense canopy created by multiple age groups of hemlock may block most of the sunlight from the forest floor, which leads to sparse understory in some areas. Gaps in the mid-canopy and overstory allow sunlight to reach the ground. Most of the understory plants are in these areas. The understory is more continuous in areas where there is no mid-canopy. Common understory species include rusty menziesia, black mountain huckleberry, dwarf bramble, sidebells wintergreen, Sitka valerian, common beargrass, and pink mountain heather. The most common natural disturbance on this site is small gap dynamics following the death of some trees. From recorded plot data, the average diameter at breast height of mountain hemlock is 24 inches or more at an age of at least 300 years. The growing conditions of this ecological site limit timber production.

Tree islands are in the alpine areas of this community phase. The krummholtz forests of mountain hemlock and Pacific silver fir are in cold and windy areas along the timberline. The pockets of mature vegetation are 2 to 4 acres in size. The canopy cover in these areas is 25 percent to continuous. With a lack of disturbance and the general warming pattern of the climate in the Pacific Northwest, it is expected that the tree islands will regenerate and expand over time (Means, 1990). The rate of succession of subalpine fir into the overstory is higher in warmer, drier microsites that have an understory of heather (Phyllodoce) (Rochefort, 1996).


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Community phase pathway 1.1A This pathway represents minor disturbances, such as small pockets of root disease, individual tree mortality, and windthrow, that maintain the overall structure of the reference community. Mortality of individual trees or clusters of trees creates gaps in the understory that allow sunlight to reach the forest floor. This promotes the growth of forbs and shrubs and regeneration of overstory species and perpetuates the multi-storied, uneven-aged forest.

Community phase pathway 1.1B This pathway represents a larger disturbance, such as a windstorm, insect infestation, or pocket of root rot. Areas of regeneration are 2 to 4 acres in size. Historically, this spatial pattern was caused by pockets of disease, such as annosum root rot (Heterobasidion annosum) or laminated root rot (Phellinus weirii); minor insect infestations; or low- to moderate-intensity fires. Because mountain hemlock is shallow rooted, it is susceptible to laminated root rot and windthrow (Tesky, 1992).

Community phase pathway 1.1C This pathway represents a major stand-replacing disturbance, such as a high-intensity fire, large-scale windstorm, major insect infestation, or large mass movement. The frequency of fire is 400 to 800 years. Volcanic activity has the potential to disrupt the landscape ecology beyond the boundaries of the ecological site and the purpose of this site description.

Forest Overstory

Overall cover of mountain hemlock, subalpine fir, Pacific silver fir, Alaska cedar, and noble fir is 40 to 75 percent. The forest has multiple canopy layers. The upper canopy is 80 to 145 feet in height, and it averages 119 feet. The diameter of the trees varies depending on the species, but the average diameter at breast height is 19 inches. The diameter at breast height of noble fir typically is lower than that of mountain hemlock and subalpine fir. The canopy cover and basal area of the tree islands are lower than are those of the reference community.



30 60 75



Basal area (high)

Mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) TSME N 0 220



Alaska cedar (Callitropsis nootkatensis) CANO9 N 0 130


Forest Understory

The composition of the understory varies depending on the overstory cover and competition for sunlight and moisture. As the overstory community matures toward the reference state, the understory vegetation is less prevalent and more sparse. At the higher elevations, the density of the understory species is higher because the trees are less mature and the canopy is not closed. Overall cover of


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shrubs such as black mountain huckleberry, sidebells wintergreen, and white rhododendron is 1 to 55 percent. Dense pockets of shrubs develop in some areas. Overall cover of forbs such as common beargrass, Sitka valerian, five-leaved bramble, and arctic lupine is 1 to 30 percent.




Cover % (high)


(in.)

Top canopy height

(in.)


Sidebells wintergreen (Orthilia secunda) ORSE N 0 40 0 12

White rhododendron (Rhododendron albiflorum) RHAL N 0 35 0 72

Western mountain ash (Sorbus sitchensis) SOSI2 N 0 10 0 36





Cover % (high)


(in.)

Top canopy height

(in.)

Common beargrass (Xerophyllum) XETE N 0 40 0 36


Five-leaved bramble (Rubus pedatus) RUPE N 0 30 0 6


White avalanche-lily (Erythronium montanum) ERMO8 N 0 20 0 24


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Community Phase 1.2: Mountain hemlock-subalpine fir/rusty menziesia/common beargrass Structure: Mosaic of mature overstory and regenerating openings following root rot infestation

Community phase 1.2 has some areas that resemble community phase 1.1, but it also has moderate-sized openings (2 to 4 acres). Many of the shrubs, including rusty menziesia, common beargrass, dwarf bramble, and Sitka valerian, respond well to increased sunlight. This may delay or prevent reforestation of the openings.



Community Phase 1.3: American bistort/fireweed-common beargrass Structure: Open meadow with snags

Community phase 1.3 is an early seral plant community that has been impacted by a stand-replacing disturbance such as a wildfire, large-scale windstorm, mass movement, or major insect infestation. Mountain hemlock is susceptible to damage from fire because of its low-hanging branches. It is not expected to survive moderate- or high-intensity fires; therefore, the fires are dominantly stand replacing (Tesky, 1992). Most of the trees are destroyed, but some fire-resistant trees may survive in the overstory. Standing, decaying snags are prevalent. The understory is dominantly shrubs and forbs such as American bistort, fireweed, common beargrass, and arctic lupine. Some grasses will establish, but they will be replaced by shrubs over time. Tree seedlings and saplings begin to establish within 3 to 10 years, depending on severity of the disturbance.

Community phase Pathway 1.3 This pathway represents growth over time with no further major disturbance.

Community Phase 1.4: Western white pine-subalpine fir/American bistort/arctic lupine Structure: Single story

Community phase 1.4 is an early seral forest in regeneration. Scattered remnant mature trees that are fire-resilient may be present. The species composition depends on the natural seed sources present and the intensity of the disturbance. Western white pine and subalpine fir are suited to reproduction after a disturbance (Means, 1990). After a moderate or severe fire, shrubs and forbs may outcompete tree seedlings. American bistort, arctic lupine, and partridgefoot, which may have been moderate in abundance previously, rapidly recover and spread when top-killed. This slows the regeneration of the overstory species. Tree species, including early successional species such as western white pine, commonly regenerate from an existing seed source. The stand is mixed and may include western white pine, Douglas-fir, mountain hemlock, and subalpine fir.




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Community Phase 1.5: Subalpine fir-mountain hemlock/mountain heather/arctic lupine



Community phase 1.5 is a forest in the competitive exclusion stage. Scattered remnant mature trees may be present. Individual trees compete for available water and nutrients. The canopy closure is nearly 100 percent, which leads to a diminished understory. Some understory species better adapted to at least partial shade, such as Sitka valerian, increase in abundance. Over time, the forest will begin to self-thin due to competition. The species composition depends on the original seed sources available. The forest consists of a single species or mixed species, including subalpine fir, mountain hemlock, Pacific silver fir, Alaska cedar, and Engelmann spruce.



Community Phase 1.6: Subalpine fir-mountain hemlock/rusty menziesia/dwarf bramble Structure: Single story with few small openings

Community phase 1.6 is a maturing forest that is beginning to differentiate vertically. Individual trees are dying from competition, disease, insects, or windthrow, which allows some sunlight to reach the forest floor. The understory increases in abundance, and some pockets of overstory regeneration develop.

Community phase pathway 1.6A This pathway represents growth over time with no further major disturbance. Continued growth over time and ongoing mortality lead to increased vertical diversification. The community begins to resemble the


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structure of the reference community, including small pockets of regeneration and a more diversified understory.



Name Symbol

Site index (low)

Site index (high)

CMAI (low)

CMAI (high)

Age at CMAI



Citation

ft ft3/ac/yr yrs


TSME 71 116 80 172 55 60 100BH Hanson, E., D. Azuma, andB. Hiserote. 2002.Site index equationsand mean annualincrement equationsfor PacificNorthwest ResearchStation forestinventory andanalysis inventories,1085-2001. U.S.Department ofAgriculture, ForestService, PacificNorthwest ResearchStation ResearchNote PNW-RN-533.


ABLA 40 57 28 47 125 60 100BH Hanson, E., D. Azuma, andB. Hiserote. 2002.Site index equationsand mean annualincrement equationsfor PacificNorthwest ResearchStation forestinventory andanalysis inventories,1085-2001. U.S.Department ofAgriculture, ForestService, PacificNorthwest ResearchStation ResearchNote PNW-RN-533.


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Animal Community Migratory birds nest throughout Mount Rainier National Park in summer. Mammals such as elk, deer, and black bear forage at the higher elevations during peak periods in summer. Mountain goats, pika, and marmots maintain habitat in the high alpine and subalpine communities.

Recreational Uses The alpine environment of this site provides hiking opportunities when free of snow in June through September.


Mountain hemlock forests of the Washington and Oregon Cascade Mountains are highly susceptible to laminated root rot (Phellinus weirii), which results in moderate disturbances and openings in the forest. The fungus can cause severe root rot and butt decay that stunt the growth of trees and cause mortality. Pacific silver fir, subalpine fir, and noble fir may be affected by laminated root rot, but they rarely are killed by the disease.

Signs and symptoms of root rot include pockets of dead and fallen trees that are broken at or near ground level. The decay is identified by brown to reddish brown speckled staining in the sapwood and wood that separates along the growth rings. Regeneration of highly susceptible species in infected areas typically is unsuccessful (Goheen, 2006).

White pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola) affects the early seral white pine forest, and it may result in mortality of young trees. This disease commonly increases the rates of succession and transition by girdling infected trees. It affects five-needled pines. It commonly precedes an attack by mountain pine beetles in areas where large stands of western white pine are stressed or dying. This fungus requires an alternate currant (Ribes spp.) host to complete its lifecycle.

An identifier of blister rust commonly is swellings on branches, which exude sap in spring. Cankers and pustules that have yellow-orange blisters (aeciospores) by midsummer develop on branches and boles of trees. Management may include removal of the currant (Ribes spp.), pruning affected branches, and planting genetically improved stock (Goheen, 2006).

Associated Ecological Sites Ecological site F003XN951WA, Southern Washington Cascades High Cryic Coniferous Forest, is similar to site F003XN950WA, Southern Washington Cascades Moist High Cryic Coniferous Forest. The dominant differentiating features are the depth to the water table and soil drainage class. The soils associated with site F003XN950WA have a higher water table during part of the growing season and are somewhat poorly drained. The vegetation on this site, such as Alaska cedar, Cascade azalea, and Sitka mountain ash, is suited to wetter environments. The soils associated with site F003XN951WA are moderately well drained or well drained soils. The vegetation on this site, such as subalpine fir and mountain heather, is more suited to drier conditions.

Other Established Classifications National vegetation classification: North Pacific Mountain Hemlock-Silver Fir Forest and Tree Island Group

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, plant association: • TSME/VAME-VASI• TSME/VAME-XETE

U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, plant association: • TSUMER-ABILAS/VACDEL-PHYEMP• PHYEMP-VACDEL-(CASMER)


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Ecological Site Identification Site type: Forestland Site name: Southern Washington Cascades High Cryic Deciduous Forest Alnus viridis ssp. sinuata-Acer circinatum/Sorbus sitchensis var. sitchensis/Valeriana sitchensis (Sitka alder-vine maple/Sitka mountain ash/Sitka valerian) Site ID: F003XN952WA Major land resource area: 003—Olympic and Cascade Mountains



Ecological Site Concept This ecological site is in cold, moist areas at an elevation of more than 3,600 feet. It is in active avalanche chutes on debris cones of glacial-valley walls. The most common disturbances are avalanches, rockfalls, and debris flows. Wildfires are less common, but the steep slopes facilitate the rapid movement of fire to upslope areas.

The soils that support this site are in the cryic soil temperature regime and the udic soil moisture regime. They formed in mixed colluvium and volcanic ash. They are well drained and very deep. The soils are not subject to flooding or ponding. Soil moisture is not a limiting factor to forest growth because of the abundance of precipitation and the inherent water-holding properties of soils influenced by volcanic ash. A thin organic horizon that consists of decomposing twigs, needles, and litter is on the soil surface. This horizon helps to protect the soil from wind and water erosion.

As a result of the frequent disturbances, this site primarily supports early seral species such as Sitka alder (Alnus viridis ssp. sinuata) and vine maple (Acer circinatum). Common understory shrubs include Sitka mountain ash (Sorbus sitchensis var. sitchensis) and devilsclub (Oplopanax horridus).

Repeated avalanches do not allow for the establishment of a coniferous overstory. Seedlings of tree species such as Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis), subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa), noble fir (Abies procera), Alaska cedar (Callitropsis nootkatensis), and mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) may encroach from the forested edges. Over time, the majority of these rigid-trunked trees will be snapped off by avalanches.


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Physiographic Features This ecological site is dominantly on debris cones at middle to high elevations (above 3,600 feet) in Mount Rainier National Park. Typically, the site is confined to avalanche paths and runout areas, but it may be in other areas that are disturbed frequently, such as talus slopes or areas of debris torrent deposits. The site is on all slopes, but it is dominantly on slopes of 15 to 65 percent.




Aspect: All



None None

None None


None None

None None

Climatic Features Most of the annual precipitation is received as snow in October through March. The snow commonly persists until late in spring or early in summer. The mean annual precipitation is 63 to 110 inches, and the mean annual air temperature is 36 to 45 degrees F. Generally, the summers are cool and dry and the winters are cold and wet.






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Minimum 9.8 6.3 5.8 4.3 3.3 2.3 0.8 1.3 2.3 3.8 8.3 7.8

Maximum 23 16.5 15.5 12.5 8.3 4.8 2.8 3.3 5.3 10.3 23 25

0.0

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10.0

15.0

20.0

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30.0


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es

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Minimum 20.6 20.9 22.9 26.8 33.2 38.7 46.5 47.3 42.6 33.3 24.5 20.3

Maximum 32.2 33.0 35.8 39.9 47.1 52.7 59.7 59.9 54.3 45.0 35.6 31.0

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Influencing Water Features This site is at middle to high elevations in Mount Rainier National Park and is dominantly on debris cones. The site receives runoff from upslope areas. It is not directly influenced by wetland or riparian features.

Representative Soil Features Applicable soils: Summerland, cold

Applicable soil map units: 8230, 9201, 9993

The soils that support this native plant community are in the cryic soil temperature regime and the udic soil moisture regime. They are well drained and very deep. They are on dominantly on debris cones of glacial-valley walls. These soils formed in mixed colluvium and volcanic ash. They are not subject to flooding or ponding. They have more than 35 percent rock fragments in the particle-size control section. The fine-earth fraction is coarse textured. The soils are dominantly ashy loamy sand or ashy sandy loam. Podsolization in not evident in the profile because of the active landscape positions, frequent avalanches, and potential for rockfalls. The soils have an umbric epipedon and a cambic horizon.

Parent material: Mixed colluvium and volcanic ash

Surface texture: (1) Extremely stony ashy sandy loam (2) Very gravelly ashy sandy loam(3) Very cobbly ashy loamy sand













This ecological site is in cold, moist areas at the middle to high elevations (above 3,600 feet) on active avalanche chutes. As a result of the frequent disturbances, this site primarily supports early seral species such as Sitka alder (Alnus viridis ssp. sinuata) and vine maple (Acer circinatum). Both species are adapted to colonizing talus slopes and avalanche chutes. These species have resilient wood and grow nearly prostrate in response to the snow load and recurring avalanches. The seeds of Sitka alder are particularly adapted to soils exposed by avalanches (Uchytil, 1989).

Repeated avalanches do not allow for the establishment of a coniferous overstory. Seedlings of tree species such as Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis), subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa), noble fir (Abies


265

procera), Alaska cedar (Callitropsis nootkatensis), and mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) may encroach from the forested edges. Over time, the majority of these rigid-trunked trees will be snapped off by avalanches. Common understory shrubs include Sitka mountain ash (Sorbus sitchensis var. sitchensis) and devilsclub (Oplopanax horridus). Common forbs include Sitka valerian (Valeriana sitchensis), fireweed (Chamerion angustifolium), false hellebore (Veratrum viride), and common beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax).

Wildfires may occur on this site. The damage commonly is not severe because of the rapid movement of fire on the steep slopes; therefore, recovery is relatively quick. Early seral species such as Sitka alder and vine maple regenerate post fire. Sitka alder is resistant to damage from wildfires because of its nonflammable bark and non-resinous leaves. Vine maple is able to resprout from the roots very quickly after a fire (Uchytil, 1989).



266

State 1: Reference Community Phase 1.1: Sitka alder-vine maple/Sitka mountain ash/Sitka valerian


Structure: Mosaic of shrubs and forbs

The reference community represents a lack of major disturbance for at least 10 years. Large areas of continuous canopy cover of Sitka alder develops, especially in the less sloping areas at the lower end of avalanche chutes. These areas generally have less diverse shrubs, but they have more forbs and ferns, such as fireweed, ladyfern, arctic lupine, thimbleberry, and Sitka valerian. Tall shrubs, such as black huckleberry and Sitka mountain ash, are in areas where the Sitka alder canopy is patchy. All of these species readily sprout from the root crown; therefore, they persist in avalanche chutes.

Community phase pathway 1.1A This pathway represents an extended time with minimal disturbance by avalanches.

Community phase pathway 1.1B This pathway represents an extended time with no disturbance from avalanches, which allows trees to become established.


267

Forest Overstory

Pacific silver fir, mountain hemlock, Alaska cedar, Douglas-fir, and subalpine fir are along the outer edges of the reference community. The canopy cover is 2 to 5 percent, and the canopy height is 30 to 100 feet.



Basal area (high)


Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) TSME N 0 20

Forest Understory

The composition of the understory varies depending on the extent of the disturbance and the competition for moisture. Overall cover of shrubs such as Sitka alder, Sitka mountain ash, and rusty menziesia is as high as 40 percent in the reference community. Overall cover of thimbleberry and common ladyfern can be as high as 65 percent.




Cover % (high)


(in.)

Top canopy height

(in.)

Sitka alder (Alnus viridis ssp. sinuata) ALVIS N 0 20 24 144

Sitka mountain ash (Sorbus sitchensis var. sitchensis)

SOSIS2 N 0 40 24 120





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Cover % (high)


(in.)

Top canopy height

(in.)



False hellebore (Veratrum viride) VEVI N 0 1 6 12



Community Phase 1.2: Subalpine fir-mountain hemlock/Sitka alder/Sitka valerian


Structure: Sparse overstory species encroaching avalanche path from edges and shrubby understory

Community phase 1.2 represents the forest encroaching on the avalanche chutes. The forest surrounding the avalanche chutes provides a seed source for the plant community. Typically, the rigid-stemmed species in the main snow path do not survive repeated avalanches. They may slowly encroach from the forested edges in areas where mature trees provide some protection against snow movement. Over time and under certain conditions, this can lead to a narrowing of the original chute.


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Community phase pathway 1.2A This pathway represents disturbance by a major avalanche or series of avalanches that reclaims the original extent of the avalanche chute.


Ecological site F003XN952WA, Southern Washington Cascades High Cryic Deciduous Forest, is similar to site F003XN948WA, Southern Washington Cascades Low Cryic Deciduous Forest. Both sites are in active avalanche chutes. Ecological site F003XN948WA commonly is at the lower elevations and supports tree species such as Pacific silver fir and western hemlock. Site F003XN952WA is at the higher elevations and supports tree species such as subalpine fir, mountain hemlock, and Alaska cedar.

Other Established Classifications National vegetation classification: Vancouverian Subalpine Forest North Pacific Mountain Hemlock-Silver Fir Forest and Tree Island Group

U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, plant association: • CUPNOO/OPLHOR-(ALNVIR)• ALNVIR• ALNVIR-ACECIR





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Uchytil, R. 1989. Acer circinatum. In Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/shrub/acecir/all.html

Uchytil, R. 1989. Alnus viridis subsp. sinuata. In Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/shrub/alnvirs/all.html





https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/shrub/acecir/all.html



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ReferencesArmstrong, J., D. Crandell, D. Easterbrook, and J. Noble. 1965. Late Pleistocene

stratigraphy and chronology in southwestern British Columbia and northwestern Washington. Geological Society of America Bulletin 76:321–330.

Birkeland, P.W. 1999. Soils and geomorphology. Third edition. Oxford University Press, New York.

Burtchard, G.C. 1998. Environment, prehistory, and archaeology of Mount Rainier National Park, Washington. International Archaeological Research Institute. Submitted to National Park Service, Seattle.

Catton, T. 1996. Wonderland: An administrative history of Mount Rainier National Park. National Park Service Cultural Resources Program. Seattle, Washington.

Crandell, D. 1969a. Surficial geology of Mount Rainier National Park, Washington. U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1288.

Crandell, D. 1969b. The geologic story of Mount Rainier National Park, Washington. U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1288. 1 plate.

Crandell, D., and R. Miller. 1974. Quaternary stratigraphy and extent of glaciation in the Mount Rainier region, Washington. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 847.

Crandell, D., and D. Mullineaux. 1967. Volcanic hazards at Mount Rainier, Washington. U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1238.

Fiske, R., C. Hopson, and A. Waters. 1963. Geology of Mount Rainier National Park, Washington. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 444.

Fiske, R., C. Hopson, and A. Waters. 1988. Geologic map and section of Mount Rainier National Park, Washington. U.S. Geological Survey Map I-432, scale 1:62,500.

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