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Laura L. Murray Dept. of Speech and Hearing Sciences

Indiana University Bloomington, IN

! High-level, interrelated, supervisory/top-down processes responsible for generating, choosing, organizing, and regulating goal-directed, adaptive, and nonautomatic responses (Alvarez & Emory, 2006; Aron, 2008; Burgess et al., 2006; Chan et al., 2008; Diamond, 2013; Eslinger et al., 2013; Miyake & Friedman, 2012; Stuss, 2011; Wood & Liossi, 2007; Toplak et al., 2013)

" Multidimensional construct " flexible adaptation to situational and environmental changes " independent participation in daily activities and relationships

! Planning/organization ! Self-regulation and monitoring

" Awareness of strengths and limitations (Markova & Berrios, 2006; O’Keeffe et al., 2007) ! Different types of cognitive awareness

o  Intellectual o  Emergent o  Anticipatory

! Cognitive flexibility/set shifting ! Initiation ! Inhibition ! Reasoning ! Problem solving

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! Theoretical models are not yet well specified ! Currently no consensus over (Chan et al., 2008;

Constantinidou et al., 2012; Mueller & Dollaghan, 2013):

" vernacular " which skills are executive functions " which, if any, executive functions are mutually

exclusive ! Implications for assessing and treating EFs

! Frontal lobes (Guild & Levine, 2015; Kreuger et al., 2011; Lovstad et al., 2012; Mitchell, 2008; Rosen & Viskontas, 2008; Stuss, 2011) " Dorsolateral, orbitofrontal, and medial cortex " Frontal poles

! Other brain regions (Avarez & Emory, 2006; Mueller & Dollaghan, 2013)

" Cerebellum (Highnman & Bleile, 2011; Paquier & Marien, 2005)

" Subcortical structures (Guild & Levine, 2015; Montoya et al., 2006) ! Corticostriatal and corticothalamic circuits (Bastos-

Leite et al., 2007; Vataja et al., 2005)

! Neurotransmitters (Arciniegas & Silver, 2007; Bowiratt et al., 2012; Bales et al., 2009; Halbauer et al., 2009)

" Dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin

! Different developmental trajectories for different EF skills (Anderson et al., 2001; Bell & Deater-Deckard, 2007; Catroppa & Anderson, 2006; Diamond, 2013; Kelly, 2000) " Significant advances/development in:

! Inhibition and detection of errors during toddler and preschool years

! Cognitive flexibility and self-monitoring around 6 to 12 years

! Goal setting beyond 12 years ! Others not until late adolescence/early adulthood

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! All EFs vulnerable in TBI (Azouvi et al., 2009; Godefroy et al., 2010; Horton et al., 2010; Miotto et al., 2010; Morton & Barker, 2010; Paz Fonseca et al., 2012; Ponsford et al., 2014; Sveen et al., 2013; Zimmermann et al., 2015)

" Pervasive regardless of injury severity " Commonly persistent

! Related to: " Common lesion locations in TBI (Cicerone et al., 2006)

" Disruption of neurotransmitter systems " Concomitant symptoms: e.g., PTSD (Nidiffer et al., 2007)

! Anosognosia (Dockree et al., 2015; Morton & Barker, 2010; O’Keeffe et al., 2007; Pagulayan et al., 2007; Rasmussen & Bernsten, 2014; Vanderploeg et al., 2007; Wilson et al., 2011)

! Disinhibition (Ganesalingam et al., 2006; Osborne-Crowley et al., 2016; Salmond et al., 2005)

! Apathy/abulia ! Perseveration ! Concreteness ! Lack of flexibility ! Egocentricity ! Poor planning (Cazalis et al., 2001)

! Most common cognitive deficit in acute stroke (Bour et al., 2011; Lesniak et al., 2008; Nys et al., 2007)

! Deficits in several EFs (Bour et al., 2011; Cocchini et al., 2010; Godefroy et al., 2010; Meteyard et al., 2015; Nicholas et al., 2011; Penn et al., 2010; Pulsipher et al., 2013; Salas et al., 2014; Su et al., 2015; van den Berg et al., 2009; Votruba et al., 2013; Yu et al., 2013)

! Limited data require substantiation

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! MCI criteria (Faucounau et al., 2010; Ries et al., 2007)

" Does not fulfill DSM major neurocognitive disorder criteria " Cognitive problems identified via:

! Self- and/or informant report and impairment on objective tests ! Decline over time on objective tests

" Preserved ADLs and nominal problems with IADLs

! MCI statistics (Alzheimer’s Association, 2015)

! Highly variable cognitive profiles (Aretouli & Brandt, 2010; Chen et al., 2009; Krueger et al., 2011; Libon et al., 2010; Reinvang et al., 2012; Springate & Tremont, 2012)

" Single domain vs. multi-domain " Variety of EF symptoms frequently reported and formally

identified

! Deficits in all EFs possible (Butts et al., 2015; Chen et al., 2009; Coleman et al., 2011; Gyurak et al., 2012; Hanna-Pladdy et al., 2015; Kertesz, 2010; Krueger et al., 2011; Taylor et al., 2013; Troster, 2011; van den Berg et al., 2009)

" Common in progressive neurological disorders, even those without dementia (e.g., Sandry et al., 2016; Wyman-Chick, 2016)

" Nature and severity of EF disorder will depend on source of dementia

" Early prominent symptom in certain dementias (Butts et al., 2015; Eslinger et al., 2011; Hoth et al., 2007; Kirshner, 2012)

! Anosognosia (Amanzio et al., 2013; Ecklund-Johnson & Torres, 2005; Hoth et al., 2007; Leicht et al., 2010; Wilson et al., 2015)

" Common but difficult to assess/establish

! Aphasia and general language skills (Coleman et al., 2011; Fillingham et al., 2006; Meyer et al., 2014; Sung et al., 2009; Taylor et al., 2013; Tomic et al., 2009)

! Cognitive-communicative disorders (Dahlberg et al., 2006)

! Pragmatics and discourse skills ! Other cognitive symptoms (Hill et al., 2012; Nys et al., 2005, 2006;

Rusconi et al., 2002; Struchen et al., 2008)

! Ability to participate in and/or profit from rehabilitation (Fish et al., 2009; Nicholas et al., 2011; Nys et al., 2005; Purdy & Dietz, 2010; Purdy & Koch, 2006; Schutz, 2005; Seniow et al., 2009; Skidmore et al., 2010; Wallace, 2010; Votruba et al., 2013; Yeung & Law, 2010)

! Social-behavioral and neuropsychiatric problems (Bornhofen & McDonald, 2008; Bour et al., 2011; Ciccia et al., 2009; Gyurak et al., 2012)

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! Vocational and/or educational outcomes and community integration (Aben et al., 2008; Hoofien et al., 2004; Jokinen et al., 2015; Lesniak et al., 2008; Ponsford et al., 2008; Schutz, 2005; Spitz et al., 2012; Tierney et al., 2007; Visser-Keizer et al., 2002; Wingo et al., 2013; Wolfe et al., 2012)

! Social interactions (Ganesalingam et al., 2006, 2007; Hommel et al., 2009; Struchen et al., 2008)

! Caregiver Burden (Choi-Kwon et al., 2005; Davis & Tremont, 2007; Grigorovich et al., 2015; Morton & Barker, 2010; Schulz & Sherwood, 2008; Springate & Tremont, 2012)

! Independent living (Johnson et al., 2007; Poulin et al., 2012; Tierney et al., 2007)

! Quality of life (Nicholas et al., 2015)

! Many health professionals rely on cognitive screening tools to identify/monitor EF deficits (Koh et al., 2009; Korner-Bitensky et al., 2011; Poulin et al., 2013)

! Most cognitive screening tests either: " Do NOT screen EF status (e.g., MMSE) " Only weakly screen EF status (i.e., 1 or 2 items) (e.g.,

Montreal Cognitive Assessment/MoCA; Nasreddine et al., 2005)

" Only suggest presence/absence of cognitive problem

! Brief Cognitive Assessment Tool (Mansbach et al., 2012)

" Emphasis on verbal memory and EFs (total 21 items) " Sensitive discrimination of dementia vs. mild cognitive impairment

vs. normal aging

! Nine-Card Sorting Test (Vigliecca & Baez, 2015)

" Evaluates EF and global cognitive functioning " Sensitive discrimination of acquired cognitive impairment or

dementia vs. normal aging

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!  Case history !  Observations and interview

" Essential component ! Must supplement formal test data (Lovstad et al., 2012) ! Primary dx procedure in acute settings (Constantinidou et al., 2012)

!  Formal tests " Test battery and tests of specific executive functions

!  Indirect Assessment " Conditions to ⇑/⇓ linguistic or extra-linguistic demands " Strategy use " Sense of effort or self-awareness measures

! Observations should precede formal testing " Formal testing context can mask EF deficits (Birkett & Sperry,

2012)

" Utilize information from other team members (Constantinidou et al., 2012)

" Essential to identifying influential contextual factors ! Interview patient and caregivers (Sbordone et al., 1998)

" Must attend to interview format (Nolin et al., 2006) " Important component of awareness assessment

! Published rating protocols available: " Barkley Deficits in Executive Functioning Scale (Barkley,

2011) " Comprehensive Executive Function Inventory (Goldstein &

Naglieri, 2014) " Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function – Adult

Version (Roth et al., 2005)

! Weak/small effects for relationship between rating and performance-based EF measures (Isquith et al., 2014; Toplak et al., 2013)

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!  Adult Population " Behavioral Assessment of Dysexecutive Syndrome (BADS; Wilson et al.,

1996) " Executive Interview (EXIT; Royall et al., 1992)

!  Adult and Pediatric Population " Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS; Delis et al., 2001)

!  Pediatric Population " BADS-C (Wilson et al., 2004): Ages 8 - 16 "  NEPSY-II (Korkman et al., 2007): Ages 3 - 16:11

! Planning tests " NAB Mazes Test (Stern & White, 2009)

" Tower tests ! Tower of Hanoi ! Tower of LondonDx – 2 (Cullbertson & Zillmer, 2012)

! Card sorting/rule attainment tests " Modified Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (Schretlen,

2011)/Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST; Heaton et al., 1993)

" Brixton Spatial Anticipation Test (Burgess & Shallice, 1997; Vordenberg et al., 2014)

! Fluency tests " Controlled Oral Word Association Test (Benton et

al., 1994)

" Ruff Figural Fluency Test (Ruff, 1996)

" Test of Verbal Conceptualization and Fluency (Reynolds & Horton, 2007)

" Calibrated Ideational Fluency Assessment (Schrelten & Vannorsdall, 2011)

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! Problem solving/reasoning tests " Progressive Matrices (Raven, 1998)

" Test of Nonverbal Intelligence - 4 (Brown et al., 2010)

" Comprehensive Test of Nonverbal Intelligence - 2 (Hammill et al., 2009)

" Rapid Assessment of Problem Solving (Marshall et al., 2003)

" Functional Assessment of Verbal Reasoning and Executive Strategies (FAVRES; MacDonald, 2005)

! Student-FAVRES (S-FAVRES; MacDonald, 2013)

! Clock drawing (Freedman et al., 1994)

" Various administration protocols ! e.g., bedside CLOX (Royall et al., 1998)

! e.g. digitized pen version (dCDT; Souillard-Mandar et al., 2015)

" Various scoring protocols (e.g., Nyborn et al., 2013)

! Inhibition tests " Tasks of Executive Control (Isquith et al., 2010)

" Stroop " NIH Toolbox Dimensional Change Card Sort (NIH,

2012; Zelazo et al., 2014)

! Spanish version and norms available (Casaletto et al., 2016)

! 3 frequently used approaches (Leicht & Gertz, 2009; Leicht et al., 2010; Starkstein et al., 2010) " Clinician rates the patient’s level of awareness " Administer questionnaires to patient and caregiver " Compare test performance with patient’s self-assessment of his/

her performance " Clinical ratings and questionnaire discrepancies closely related

! VATA-L: Visual-Analogue Test Assessing Anosognosia for Language Impairment (Cocchini et al., 2010)

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! Relate to ICF levels of personal activities and/or society participation (Poulin et al., 2013; WHO, 1998)

" Photocopy Tasks (Crepeau et al., 1997)

" Executive Function Route-Finding Task (Boyd & Sauter, 1994) " Multiple Errands Test (Aitken et al., 1993; Birkett & Sperry, 2012;

Cipresso et al., 2014; Rand et al., 2009; Morrison et al., 2013)

" Cooking task (Chevignard et al., 2008; 2010) ! Still underused by clinicians (Constantindou et al., 2012)

! Inadequate norms for the elderly, ethnocultural minorities, and people with aphasia, neglect, and/or motor speech deficits

! Ecological and content validity (Birkett & Sperry, 2012; Burgess et al., 2006; Mueller & Dollaghan, 2013; Pickens et al., 2010; Poulin et al., 2013)

! Other psychometric concerns (Mueller & Dollaghan, 2013; for review see Poulin et al., 2013)

" Few tests report or have established: ! Test-retest reliability or responsiveness ! Floor and/or ceiling effects ! Inter-rater reliability, particularly for functional/naturalistic tests ! Norms that consider educational differences

! For patients with significant motor speech and/or language disorders: " Choose tests that have minimal language demands " Give non-standardized administration of verbal,

executive function tests " Any accommodations negate use of test norms

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! Observe EF skills when assessing other cognitive, communication, motoric, or ADL/IADL skills

! Assess communication under conditions with low vs. high EF demands

!  Sense of effort or self-awareness measures (Chiou et al., 2011; Markova & Berrios, 2006)

" Compare pre- and post-task completion predictions " Compare on- vs. off-line ratings/self-corrections " Compare patient and caregiver ratings

! www.ancds.org " Links to systematic, evidence-based reviews of

treatments for a variety of neurogenic communication disorders

! www.moving-ahead.com.au " Centre of Research Excellence in Brain Recovery –

links to assessment and treatment resources, including evidence-based review of moderate to severe acquired brain injury

! www.psychbite.com " psychBite - evidence-based practice resource for

cognitive disorders treatments

! EF treatments most successful if (Catroppa & Anderson, 2006; Cicerone et al., 2011; Gordon et al., 2006; Schutz & Trainor, 2007): " Provided to patients who:

! Can concentrate for > 20 min ! Don’t have abulia or anosognosia

" Start with individual and move to group tx setting " Use contextualized learning " Focus on training metacognitive strategies - i.e., top-down

approach – to teach patients to (CDC, 2014; Eskes et al., 2015; Mateer, 2009; Singer & Bashir, 1999; Sohlberg & Turkstra, 2011; Tate et al., 2014):

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! Should be first/primary target in treatment (Fleming & Ownsworth, 2006; Kennedy et al., 2008; Kortte & Hillis, 2011; Murray & Clark, 2015; Nilsson et al., 2011; Ownsworth et al., 2008, 2010; Schmidt et al., 2012; Tate et al., 2014) " Education regarding etiology and symptoms " Prediction paradigms (Cheng & Man, 2006; Goverover et al., 2007)

" Tracking own performance/guided self-evaluation " Direct corrective feedback (Richardson et al., 2014; Tate et al., 2014) " Videotape review/diaries (Schmidt et al., 2013)

" Self-advocacy videos " Role playing/role reversal " Peer teaching " Stopping strategy (used with Wernicke’s aphasia) " Road to Awareness game (Chittum et al., 1996)

! Treatment of Aphasia Perseveration (Helm-Estabrooks et al., 1987; Helm-Estabrooks & Albert, 1991)

! Munoz (2011)

" 1 participant in single subject design " Interstimulus interval manipulation + semantic feature analysis

! Use of cueing (Corbett et al., 2008; Frankel & Penn, 2007)

" Phonemic, word, and sentence cues " Other strategies

! Goal management training (GMT) and similar protocols (Bertens et al., 2013, 2015a, 2015b; Chen et al., 2011; Dawson et al., 2009; Grant et al., 2012; Hickey & Saunders, 2010; Krasny-Pacini et al., 2014; Kurowski et al., 2013; Levine et al., 2011; Metzler-Baddeley & Jones, 2011; Miotto et al., 2009; Novakovic-Agopian et al., 2011; Rand et al., 2009; Tornas et al., 2016)

" Overall treatment goal ! “stop ongoing behavior in order to define goal hierarchies and

monitor performance” (Levine et al., 2011, p. 2)

" Suitable for: ! Individual and group tx settings ! Pediatric and adult patient populations ! Various etiologies

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! Steps for GMT/problem solving metacognitive strategy instruction " Set goal/identify problem " Separate relevant and irrelevant info; suppress

irrelevant " Generate subgoals/steps/solutions " Select/rehearse/apply a solution " Monitor effectiveness of steps/solutions (i.e.,

checking/stopping)

! Outcomes (Anand et al., 2010; Constantinidou et al., 2008; Man et al., 2008; Soong et al., 2005; Tate et al., 2014; Vas et al., 2011)

! ⇑ trained activities/skills ! Transfer to untrained but related cognitive skills ! ⇑ daily/functional measures ! Self-perceived change in problem solving greatest in

face-to-face group (Man et al., 2008)

! 6-mon maintenance of gains on body structure and activity/participation measures (Vas et al., 2011)

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! Behavior modification (Clark-Wilson et al., 2014; Noguchi et al., 2013)

" Discrimination training (e.g., Alderman, 1996)

" Response cost/time out (Alderman et al., 1995; Giles et al., 1988)

" Behavior modification generally: ! Option in cases with severe cognitive deficits ! Task/context-specific outcomes

! Inconsistent findings (Finn & McDonald, 2011; Flavia et al., 2010; Gagnon & Belleville, 2012; Jean et al., 2010; Lebowitz et al., 2012; Talassi et al., 2007)

" +ive ! Fosters at-home practice ! May serve as respite time for caregivers ! ⇑ body structure/function measures similar to trained tasks ! Compared to no tx, ⇓ depression and/or ⇑ self-efficacy

" -ive ! Nominal change on impairment measures ! Nominal change on mood or activity/participation measures ! Task-specific, short-term learning ! Construct and ecological validity issues ! Weak designs and methodological issues

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" Cognitive skills targeted: ! Spatial attention/neglect ! Route learning ! Working and episodic memory tasks ! Daily activities (e.g., ATM use, cooking) ! Driving

" Healthy aging and acute in- and outpatient participants " Outcomes

! ⇑ on virtual and “in vivo” task performance " Concluded need for:

! stronger study designs, extend to telerehab, haptic input

! Patient and/or caregiver implemented accommodations (Catroppa & Anderson, 2006)

" Primary intervention approach in clients who (Schutz & Trainor, 2007): ! Have profound, diffuse brain damage ! Have protracted antisocial behavior and/or

personality disorder ! Are children still experiencing cognitive

development

! Avoid distracting environments and numerous response choices (Brush & Calkins, 2008; Catroppa & Anderson, 2006; Sander et al., 2007)

! Reduce stress (Diamond, 2013)

! Pacing strategies (Sander et al., 2007; Sohlberg & Mateer, 2001)

! Task demand modifications ! Organizational systems/structured environment (Day et

al., 2000; Kessler et al., 2015; Michel & Mateer, 2006)

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!  Low tech and specialized and main stream high tech !  Specific vs. variety of settings !  Can support recall and use of EF strategies and directly

support EF skills (e.g., initiation, planning) !  Factors influencing device/strategy use (de Joode et al., 2010; Murray

& Clark, 2015; O’Connell et al., 2003; Velikonja et al., 2014; Wild, 2013)

!  Must explicitly and systematically train device/strategy use (Charter et al., 2015; Ehlhardt Powell et al., 2013; Mateer, 2009; Murray & Clark, 2015; Skidmore et al., 2014; Velikonja et al., 2014)

" Application " Acquisition " Adaptation

! External cueing (Manly et al., 2002; Murray & Clark, 2015)

! Aids in initiation, planning, organization, goal management

! Cueing and scheduling software for pagers and mobile/smart phones " Memo to Me (www.memotome.com) " Jogger " CellMinder

" Medprompt (www.medprompt.com) ! Variety of patient populations

! Important component of contextualized rehabilitation (Sander et al., 2009; WHO, 2012)

! Provide with educational and counseling resources " e.g., www.bianys.org/learnet/tutorials.html

! Assure they understand: " rationale for treatment procedures/strategies so they utilize

them and encourage patient’s strategy use " importance of keeping time for themselves

!  Teach and train to use previously mentioned accommodations and /or tx strategies (O’Shea et al., 2011; Togher et al., 2004; Wade et al., 2005):

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! Benefits of caregiver interventions (Noguchi et al., 2013; WHO, 2012)

" Delay in nursing home admission " Allay caregiver burden/stress " ⇓ health care costs

! Interventions most successful if: " Structured " Intensive " Multicomponent " Started early in the case of progressive disorders

! Variation (Bornhofen & MacDonald, 2008; Piras et al., 2011) " Tasks

" Stimuli (Ehlhardt et al., 2008; Jackson-Waite et al., 2003)

" Contexts ! Relevance (Dawson et al., 2009; Ehlhardt et al., 2008; Horton et

al., 2011; Wressle et al., 2002; Velikonja et al., 2014)

! Intensity and duration (Ehlhardt et al., 2008; Piras et al. 2011)

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