Effects of Gender, Listening Proficiency and Perceptual...
259
Effects of Gender, Listening Proficiency and Perceptual Learning Style Preference on Listening Strategy Use of EFL Students Seyoum Teshome A Thesis Submitted to The Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures Presented in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Teaching English as a Foreign Language, TEFL) Addis Ababa University Addis Ababa, Ethiopia June 2012
Transcript of Effects of Gender, Listening Proficiency and Perceptual...
Effects of Gender, Listening Proficiency and Perceptual Learning
Style Preference on Listening Strategy Use of EFL Students
Seyoum Teshome
A Thesis Submitted to
The Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures
Presented in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
(Teaching English as a Foreign Language, TEFL)
Addis Ababa University Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
June 2012
Addis Ababa University
School of Graduate Studies This is to certify that the thesis prepared by Seyoum Teshome, entitled Effects
of Gender, Listening Proficiency and Perceptual Learning Style Preference on
Listening Strategy Use of EFL Students and submitted in fulfilment of the
requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Teaching English as a
Foreign Language) complies with the regulations of the University and meets
the accepted standards with respect to originality and quality.
Signed by the Examining Committee: Examiner --------------------------- Signature ------------ Date---------- Examiner --------------------------- Signature ------------ Date---------- Supervisor --------------------------- Signature ------------ Date---------
Declaration
I, the undersigned, declare that this thesis is my original work and has not
been presented for a degree in any other university, and that all sources of
materials used for the thesis have been duly acknowledged.
Name Seyoum Teshome
Signature ----------------------
Place Institute of Language Studies,
Addis Ababa University
Date of Submission June , 2012
i
ABSTRACT
Effects of Gender, Listening Proficiency and Perceptual Learning Style
Preference on Listening Strategy Use of EFL Students Seyoum Teshome Addis Ababa University, 2012
This study was an attempt to gain insights into effects of gender, listening
proficiency, and perceptual learning style preference on listening strategy use
of EFL students. The study also sought to assess the course instructors’ and
students’ practices and perceptions of teaching and learning listening skills in
English.
The study employed mixed methods design. The participants of the study were
first year English majoring students at Bahir Dar University (BDU) and Debre
Markos University (DMU). Using comprehensive sampling, all 70 students who
were taking listening skills course were chosen to participate in the study. The
two course instructors were other participants of the study.
Data were collected using questionnaires, listening tests and interviews. The
questionnaires (the adapted SILL and PLSPQ) were used to investigate learners’
listening strategy use and their perceptual learning style preferences
respectively. TOEFL listening tests were used to assess learners’ overall
listening proficiency. On the other hand, interviews were conducted with the
course instructors and six students to investigate their practices and
perceptions regarding teaching and learning listening skills in English.
Analyses of the data indicated that female students used more listening
strategies than male students and students with higher listening proficiency
used more listening strategies than those having lower listening proficiency. In
ii
both cases, the differences were statistically significant. Positive and significant
correlations were found between kinesthetic learning style and affective
listening strategy category; and group learning style preference with memory,
compensation and metacognitive listening strategies. On the other hand, a
significant and negative correlation was found between individual learning style
preference with both cognitive and metacognitive listening strategy categories.
It was also found that memory listening strategy category, listening proficiency,
cognitive listening strategy category, metacognitive listening strategy category,
kinesthetic, individual and group learning styles had relatively many significant
correlations with other addressed variables. The findings regarding course
instructors’ and students’ practices and perceptions of teaching and learning
listening skills were also presented and discussed.
iii
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor, Dr. Berhanu Bogale,
for his encouragement and constant support during my academic pursuits. His
patience and guidance enabled me to complete this thesis.
My special thanks go to Ato Yinager T/Selassie and Ato Haile Shibabaw,
listening skills course instructors at Bahir Dar University and Debre Markos
University, respectively. My research depended on their consent, their
collaboration, and their students. I also wish to thank those EFL students who
were involved in my research.
My warmest thanks are due to my mother W/ro Yeshalem Tadelle and all my
sisters and brothers for their moral support and loving endurance cheered me
on from the beginning.
I gratefully acknowledge my father who was with me at the beginning of this
thesis, giving me emotional support and love, but has since then died.
Finally, I would also like to send my thanks to my friends Zewdu Emiru,
Simachew Gashaye, Nigusse Mitiku, Zerihun Mekonnen and Mulugeta Yitayew
for their understanding and friendly support during the entire period of my
doctoral study.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTENTS PAGE ABSTRACT …………………………………………………………………………… i
Acknowledgments ………………………………………………………………….. iii
List of Tables ………………………………………………………………………… ix
List of Figures ……………………………………………………………………….. x
List of Abbreviations and Acronyms …………………………………………… xi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study ……………………………………………………. 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem …………………………………………………… 5
1.3 Research Questions ………………………………………………………….. 8
1.4 Objectives of the Study ………………………………………………………. 9
1.4.1 General Objectives ………………………………………………………. 9
1.4.2 Specific Objectives ………………………………………………………. 9
1.5 Significance of the Study ……………………………………………………. 9
1.6 Scope of the Study ……………………………………………………………. 10
1.7 Limitations of the Study …………………………………………………….. 11
1.8 Organization of the Paper …………………………………………………… 11
1.9 Definition of Terms …………………………………………………………… 12
CHAPTER TWO: THE THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY
2.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………. 14
2.2 The Place of Listening Strategy in Language Teaching Methods
and Approaches ……………………………………………………………….
14
2.3 Listening Strategies in Learning Theories ………………………………. 18
2.4 A Cognitive Framework ……………………………………………………… 19
2.5 Conceptual Framework (Model) …………………………………………… 22
v
CHAPTER THREE: A REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
3.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………… 24
3.2 Learning Strategy: Terminology and Definition ………………………..... 24
3.3 Features of Language Learning Strategies ………………………………… 26
3.4 Taxonomy of Language Learning Strategy ………………………………… 29
3.4.1 O’Malley’s Classification of Language Learning Strategies ……… 29
3.4.2 Rubin’s Taxonomy ……………………………………………………….. 30
3.4.3 Oxford’s Classification of Language Learning Strategies ………… 31
3.4.4 Stern’s Classification of Language Learning Strategies ………… 32
3.4.5 Summary of Taxonomies ……………………………………………….. 33
3.5 Factors Related to Language Learning Strategy Use ………………….. 36
3.5.1 Gender ……………………………………………………………………… 36
3.5.2 Proficiency ………………………………………………………………….. 39
3.5.3 Perceptual Learning Style Preference…………………………………. 42
3.5.3.1 What is Perceptual Learning Style Preference? ................... 42
3.5.3.2 Studies on Perceptual Learning Style Preference ……………. 44
3.6 Listening in Language Learning: An Overview ………………………….. 46
3.6.1 The Nature of Listening …………………………………………………. 46
3.6.2 The Role of Listening Skills in Language Learning ………………. 49
3.7 Listening Strategies …………………………………………………………… 50
3.7.1 Types of Listening Strategies …………………………………………… 50
3.7.1.1 Direct Listening Strategies ………………………………………… 51
3.7.1.1.1 Memory Strategy ………………………………………………………….. 51
3.7.1.1.2 Cognitive Strategies ……………………………………………. 53
3.7.1.1.3 Compensation Strategies ……………………………………… 57
3.7.1.2 Indirect Listening Strategies ………………………………………. 61
3.7.1.2.1 Metacognitive Strategies ………………………………………. 61
3.7.1.2.2 Affective Strategies ……………………………………………... 63
3.7.1.2.3 Social Strategies ………………………………………………… 64
vi
3.7.2 Research on Listening Strategy Use …………………………………… 69
3.7.3 Listening Strategy Research in the Local Context …………………. 71
3.8 Summary of the Chapter ……………………………………………………… 72
CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
4.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………… 74
4.2 Design of the Study ……………………………………………………………. 74
4.3 Research Sites and Participants of the Study ……………………………. 76
4.3.1 Research Sites ……………………………………………………………… 76
4.3.2 Participants of the Study ………………………………………………… 76
4.4 Data Collection Instruments …………………………………………………. 77
4.4.1 Questionnaires ……………………………………………………………. 77
4.4.1.1 Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) …………….. 78
4.1.1.1.1 Rationale for Using SILL ………………………………………. 79
4.1.1.1.2 Rationale for Adapting the SILL …………………………….. 80
4.1.1.1.3 Reliability and Validity of the Adapted SILL ……………… 81
4.4.1.2 Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire
(PLSPQ) ……………………………………………………………..
4.4.1.3 Validity and Reliability of PLSPQ ……………………………….
83
84
4.4.2 Listening Tests ……………………………………………………………... 85
4.4.3 Interviews ……………………………………………………………………. 86
4.4.3.1 Teacher Interview …………………………………………………….. 86
4.4.3.2 Student Interview …………………………………………………….. 87
4.5 Data Collection Procedures ………………………………………………….. 87
4.6 Methods of Data Analyses …………………………………………………… 89
4.6.1 Methods of Quantitative Data Analyses …………………………….. 89
4.6.2 Methods of Qualitative Data Analyses ………………………………. 91
4.7 The Pilot Study ……………………………………………………………….... 92
4.7.1 Purposes of Conducting the Pilot Study …………………………….. 93
4.7.2 Setting of the Pilot Study ……………………………………………….. 93
vii
4.7.3 Data Collection Procedures of the Pilot Study ……………………… 94
4.7.4 Lessons Gained from the Pilot Study ………………………………… 95
CHAPTER FIVE: DATA ANALYSES, FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
5.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………........ 98
5.2 Quantitative Data Analyses and Findings ……………………………….. 98
5.3 Qualitative Data Analyses and Findings …………………………………. 120
5.3.1 Analyses and Findings of Open-ended Question of the Adapted
SILL …………………………………………………………………………..
120
5.3.2 Interview Data Analyses and Findings ……………………………….. 121
5.3.2.1 Teacher Interview Data Analyses and Findings ………………. 121
5.3.2.2 Student Interview Data Analyses and Findings ………………. 129
5.4 Discussions ………………………………………………………………………. 136
CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………........ 149
6.2 Summary ………………………………………………………………………… 149
6.3 Conclusions …………………………………………………………………….. 158
6.4 Implications and Recommendations ………………………………………. 160
REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………………… 164
APPENDICES …………………………………………………………………………. 175
Appendix A: Adapted Strategy Inventory Questionnaire ………………… 175
Appendix B: Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) ………… 181
Appendix C: Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire
(PLSPQ) …………………………………………………………………
185
Appendix D: Teacher-made Listening Test (Pilot study) ………………… 188
Appendix E: Listening Text (Script) (Pilot study) ………………………….. 190
viii
Appendix F: TOEFL Listening Test …………………………………………… 193
Appendix G: Script for TOEFL Listening Test …………………………….. 201
Appendix H: Learners’ Listening Results on Teacher-made and
Standardized Tests (Pilot study) ………………………………..
209
Appendix I: Adapted SILL Validation Form ………………………………… 210
Appendix J: PLSPQ Validation Form ………………………………………… 217
Appendix K: Learners’ Result on TOEFL Listening Tests (Main study).. 221
Appendix L: Interrelationships among Variables (Main study) ………… 223
Appendix M: Students’ Responses to Open-ended Question of the
Adapted SILL (Main study) …………………………………….
224
Appendix N: Teacher Interview Questions …………………………………... 225
Appendix O: Student Interview Questions ………………………………… 226
Appendix P: Transcription of Teachers Interview ………………………….. 227
Appendix Q: Transcription of Students Interview ………………………… 235
ix
List of Tables
Table
3.1 A Summary of Different Taxonomies ……………………………………….. 35
5.1 Independent Sample t-tests for Male and Female Participants’
on Individual Listening Strategy Categories ………………………………..
99
5.2 Independent Sample T-test Results for Male and Female
Participants’ Overall Listening Strategy Use ……………………………….
101
5.3 The Relationship between Gender and Listening Strategy Use ……….. 102
5.4 Male and Female Students Direct and Indirect
Listening Strategy Use ………………………………………………………….
103
5.5 Descriptive Statistics of the Three Groups and Individual Listening
Strategy Category Use ……………………………………………………………
104
5.6 Independent Sample T-tests on Listening Proficiency Levels ………….. 106
5.7 Results of the Independent Sample T-test for Higher Proficiency and
Lower Proficiency Participants’ Overall Listening Strategy Use ………
107
5.8 Higher and Lower Listening Proficiency Students’ Direct and Indirect
Listening Strategy use …………………………………………………………..
108
5.9 Independent Sample T-tests for Higher and Lower Proficiency
Participants’ Direct and Indirect Listening Strategy Use ……………….
109
5.10 Effect of Listening Proficiency on Listening Strategy Use ……………. 110
5.11 The Relation between Students’ Listening Proficiency and Overall
Listening Strategy Use ………………………………………………………..
111
5.12 Descriptive Statistics Concerning Perceptual Learning Style Preferences.......................................................................................
112
5.13 Pearson Correlation Matrix ………………………………………………..... 114
5.14 Correlations among Listening Strategy Categories …………………….. 117
5.15 Multiple Regressions of SILL Subscales on Independent Variables... 119
x
List of Figures
Figure 2.1 Information Processing Model ……………………………………… 21
2.2 The Model Representing the Relationships among
Variables …………………………………………………………………
23
3.1 Direct Listening Strategies …………………………………………. 59
3.2 Indirect Listening Strategies ……………………………………….. 66
3.3 Interrelations between Direct and Indirect Listening
Strategies and among the Six Strategy Groups …………………
68
4.1 The Relationship between Independent and Dependent
Variables …………………………………………………………………
75
xi
List of Abbreviations and Acronyms
The following are the most widely used acronyms and abbreviations in this
paper.
BDU-Bahir Dar University
CLS- Cognitive Learning Strategies
CLT- Communicative Language Teaching
DListnSs- Direct Listening Strategies
DMU-Debre Markos University EFL- English as a Foreign Language ESL- English as a Second Language
ESLAT- English as a Second Language Achievement Test
GTM- Grammar Translation Method
IDListnSs- Indirect Listening Strategies
Int- Interviewer
LS- Learning Strategy
ListnSs- Listening Strategies
LLS – Language Learning Strategy
MANOVA- Multiple Analysis of Variance
MLS- Metacognitive Learning Strategies
PLSPQ- Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire
SAT- Scholastic Achievement Test
SILL- Strategy Inventory for Language Learning
SSBI- Styles and Strategies-Based Instruction
TEFL- Teaching English as a Foreign Language
TOEFL- Test of English as a Foreign Language
TOEIC- Test of English for International Communication
xii
1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study There has been a prominent shift within the field of education over the last few
decades. This has given emphasis to learners and learning rather than
teachers and teaching. This, according to Oxford (1990), is the result of the
disappointing research results which revealed that any single method,
instruction or material could not guarantee effectiveness on its own in learning.
This change has been reflected in various ways in language education and
applied linguistics (Reiss, 1983; Nunan, 1995; Tudor, 1996). In parallel to this
new shift of interest since the late 1970s, how learners process new
information and what kind of strategies they employ to understand, learn or
remember the information has been one of the primary concerns of the
researchers dealing with the area of foreign language learning (Cohen and
Macaro, 2007). In short, the shift from focusing on teachers and teaching to
learners and learning has given prominence to language learning strategies.
Language learning strategies have paramount importance in foreign language
learning and teaching. According to Grenfell & Harris (1999) and Chamot
(2005), learning strategies are important in foreign language learning and
teaching for two major reasons. First, by examining the strategies used by
foreign language learners during the language learning process, we gain
insights into the metacognitive, cognitive, social, and affective processes
involved in language learning. The second reason is that less successful
learners can be taught new strategies, thus helping them become better
language learners.
Since the importance of language learning strategy was recognized, different
researchers examined it from different perspectives. In most of earlier research
on language learning strategies, the primary concern has been on “identifying
2
what good language learners report they do to learn a second or foreign
language, or, in some cases, are observed doing while learning a second or
foreign language” (Wenden and Rubin, 1987:19). In other words, early studies
have focused on language learners’ characteristics. Some early works on these
characteristics, for instance Rubin (1975) and Stern (1975) suggested that a
model of “the good language learner” could be constructed by looking at special
strategies used by successful L2 students. In addition, those early studies of
so-called “good language learners” determined that such learners consistently
used certain types of learning strategies, such as guessing meaning from the
context. Those early research, however, are not without critiques. Cohen (1998)
mentioned that the prescriptive view of good language learners, such as that
listed by Rubin, does not take learners differences into account. Grenfell and
Macaro (2007: 12), on the other hand, state the weakness of the strategy lists
of good language learners made by Stern as follows: “ The list is conceptual
and speculative (rather than being based on empirical investigation) in that
Stern’s main source for these strategies was his own experience as a teacher,
together with a review of relevant literature.” What is more, later studies found
that there was no single set of strategies always used by good language
learners (Oxford, 1990).
In an attempt for better understanding of second/foreign language strategy
use, different studies came up with different taxonomy of language learning
strategies (O’Malley et al., 1985; Rubin, 1987; Oxford, 1990; and Stern, 1992).
In the past decades with the identification of specific language learning strategy
types a number of language learning strategy measures (data gathering
techniques) have been developed and employed in different studies so as to
assess learners strategy use (Oxford, 1990; 1996; Cohen, 1998; Chamot, 2004
and Cohen and Macaro, 2007).
3
Even if more than thirty years have passed in the field of language learning
strategy study, there are still some contentious issues among scholars of the
field. Because of this, O’Malley et al. (1985:22) as cited by Griffiths (2004:2) and Ellis (1994), state that the field of learning strategy is characterized by “no
consensus”. However, as literature (of LLS) tells us, most of the disparities
created among scholars of the field are related to different terminologies used
for ‘learning strategy’ and different taxonomy of language learning strategies
(See literature part). According to Oxford (1996), Griffiths (2004) and Cohen
and Macaro (2007), though different scholars do not use uniform terminology
for ‘ learning strategy’ and lack a clear-cut classification of language learning
strategies, this couldn’t lead us to the above O’Malley et al. and Ellis’s
generalizations. Substantiating the aforementioned idea Cohen and Macaro
(2007:283) further state that:
It is unlikely that complete consensus will ever be reached on the unit of analysis (a strategy) even though we should continue to strive for such a consensus and towards a definite model of a strategy within a cognitive framework. In the absence of consensus, researchers should state clearly the theoretical framework on which they are basing their research and why there might be a need to use different terminology rather than building on established terminology.
A shift in the research perspectives has been made in the field of language
learning strategy since 1990s. It was realized that language learning strategy is
a far more complex issue than thought before. Hence, simply focusing on the
surface manifestations i.e., the general language learning strategies that
successful and unsuccessful learners actually employ does not do the field of
study justice (Dörnyei, 2005). Therefore, three major shifts of attention are
made. The first shift of attention is related to strategy instruction. Some
scholars in the field of LLS propose that it is necessary to provide students with
some language learning strategy instruction (Griffiths, 2004; Macaro et al.,
2007). In order to make strategy training more pertinent to the students’ needs,
students’ language learning strategy use should be investigated first. In
4
investigating learners’ language learning strategies, some strategies are found
skill and task-based. Thus, the second change is a shift of research focus from
general to skill and task-based language learning strategies (Oxford et al.,
2004). Owing to this change, some studies have been conducted on reading
and writing strategies employed by language learners (Macaro et al., 2007).
Examining what strategies learners use leads to exploring how to help learners
enhance strategy use. Yet, not all language learners use the same skill-based
LLSs even if they study the same material, in the same classroom, under the
same conditions (Oxford, 1990). That is, there are variables which could
influence the choice and use of language learning strategies. Thus, the third
shift of research attention has turned toward examining variables that were
more dynamic in affecting skill-based language learning strategies (Oxford,
2002; Dörnyei, 2005; Macaro et al., 2007).
However, research into the interrelationship between specific language
modalities (e.g., speaking or writing) and varied factors (e.g., preferred learning
styles and personalities) has been a less investigated area. In particular, the
relation between learners listening strategy use and varied variables (e.g.,
perceptual learning style and personalities) is the least examined area (Macaro
et al., 2007).
As far as the knowledge of the researcher is concerned, no research has
addressed effects of gender, proficiency and learning style preference together
on EFL learners’ listening strategy use. To bridge this gap, research
investigating the influence of these variables on learners’ listening strategy use
is necessary.
The main purpose of this study is, therefore, to investigate effects of gender,
listening proficiency and perceptual learning style preference on listening
strategy use of Bahir Dar University (BDU) and Debre Markos University (DMU)
English major students.
5
1.2 Statement of the Problem We are increasingly living in a global world where the ability to communicate in
English can be not just an added bonus but rather a true necessity. This is
because, English language is becoming a ‘language of international
communication’ and the ability to communicate in the language would mean
having an opportunity to be successful in education, science, business and
other fields (Wharton, 2000; Brown, 2002). These days, many instructors of higher institutions in Ethiopia, including EFL
teachers, widely complain that students of different levels lack the expected
command of English in general and listening skills in particular (Tewolde,
1988; Seime, 1989; Hiwot, 2006). Without mentioning the specific case of
listening skills, Teshome (2003), on his part, argues that the English language
proficiency of most Ethiopian students in recent years is deteriorating.
The researcher’s experience as an English teacher at a higher institution has
shown him that most EFL students (in the institution) experience difficulty in
performing listening tasks and activities. The researcher has observed this from
his personal classroom contact with those students (both in the regular and
summer programs) and the subsequent low scores these EFL students scored
on listening skills tests and examinations. Furthermore, from the discussion
the researcher has made with colleagues from BDU and other institutions, he
has learned that they have observed similar difficulty experienced by their
students in learning listening skills.
The poor listening performance of the students may be due to different reasons.
However, the researcher feels that this could happen partly because these
students have problem of using appropriate strategies which fit the nature of
tasks and activities given.
6
If language learners learn with the major goal of developing communicative
skills and if the effectiveness or otherwise of these learners’ development of
these language skills is related to the strategies they use, L2 instruction should
be geared towards helping students discover and employ relevant strategies to
the given language tasks and activities (Williams and Burden,1997).
On the basis of the theoretical rationales (explained in the background and
significant sections) about the role of learning strategies in EFL education and
the difference in strategy use among language learners, we EFL teachers are
expected to identify our students’ language learning strategy use to facilitate
the teaching-learning process.
As stated earlier, language learners will have the opportunity to develop
different language skills effectively when they use appropriate language
learning strategies which suit their learning purposes (Oxford, 1990; Williams
and Burden, 1997). Particularly in the context of learning English as a Foreign
Language (EFL), effectiveness in using learning strategies especially in listening
classes will have a multiplier effect on students’ performance not only in
English but also in other subjects. This is because, listening is the most
fundamental skill to develop the other three skills (speaking, reading, and
writing) and note-taking abilities, and academically useful for better
accomplishment (Nunan, 2002). In addition, it is the most frequently used skill
in the classroom (Feyten, 1991; Yang, 1996). At tertiary level where the
medium of instruction is English, the academic environment often requires
that EFL students be prepared to listen attentively and take notes either during
lectures in university classrooms or other academic settings. Hence, with
increased attention to listening skills of a foreign language instruction,
teachers should understand the listening strategies their students adopt in
order to help them in improving their English proficiency (Long and Macian,
1994).
7
However, identifying strategies students use is only half of the job since
language learning strategy use is affected by a number of variables (Oxford,
2002; Cohen and Macaro, 2007 and Yang, 2007). Those variables might have
profound effects on how learners approach language learning tasks and how
successful they are (Cook, 2001). Hence if we, language teachers, do not know,
among other things, the relation and effects of gender, listening proficiency and
perceptual learning style preference on learners strategy use in general and on
specific skills and tasks in particular, it is likely to be unfinished job (ibid).
This is because, unless EFL teachers have this kind of knowledge, they might
not help their students recognize the power of consciously using language
learning strategies to take responsibility for their own learning by enhancing
learner autonomy, independence, and self-direction (Oxford, 2002). While many
studies suggest that LLSs play an important role in L2 learning, the use of
strategies varies according to many individual factors. This could be the reason
why identifying variables and investigating their influences on language
learners strategy use has got an important place in the field of LLS research
(Oxford, 1996; Dörnyei, 2005; Cohen and Macaro, 2007).
In Ethiopia, as far as the knowledge of the researcher is concerned, only few
local studies are conducted on learners’ listening strategy use. Berhanu (1993)
carried out a research (case study) to know the type and frequencies of
observable listener strategies used in collaborative discourse. In the study
conducted on fourth year Addis Ababa University students, the results showed
that students used ‘listening response or backchanelling’ most frequently.
Besides ‘specific request for confirmation’, ‘potential request for confirmation’
and ‘minimal query’ were frequently used by students to indicate or solve
problems of understanding as they are arranged in descending order. Lastly,
the result indicated that students used ‘shifting role’ and ‘topic switching’ only
in discussion to designate change of topic or take new role as speaker.
8
Abdi (2005), on his part, investigated the overall contributions of strategies
used by students and teachers to the development of listening skills of the
students in English classrooms - in preparatory school. The overall results of
the study indicated that learners used more frequently metacognitive and
cognitive strategies of task evaluation, self-evaluation, self-monitoring,
arranging and planning for their learning, elaboration, organizing, and
predicting selective attention.
Though these local studies have indicated that EFL students use different
strategies (in type and frequency) in learning listening, they haven’t addressed
other important dimension-effects of variables (i.e. gender, proficiency and
perceptual learning style preference) on learners’ listening strategy use.
The main purpose of the current study is, therefore, to investigate effects of
gender, listening proficiency, and perceptual learning style preference on
listening strategy use of university EFL students.
1.3 Research Questions This study seeks to answer the following basic research questions: 1. Does gender difference bring about significant difference in listening strategy
use of EFL learners?
2. Are there significant differences in listening strategy use between higher and
lower listening proficiency students?
3. Do students with different perceptual learning style preferences use
significantly different listening strategies?
4. To what extent do students’ gender, listening proficiency and perceptual
learning style preferences and their listening strategy use relate to each
other?
5. What do the course instructors and students say of their practices of
teaching and learning listening skills in English?
9
1.4 Objectives of the Study
1.4.1 General Objectives The main objective of this research was to investigate the influence that gender,
listening proficiency and perceptual learning style preference have on English
majoring students’ language learning strategy use, with a special focus on
learning listening skills. In addition, it was intended to assess the course
instructors’ and students’ practices and perceptions regarding teaching and
learning listening skills in English.
1.4.2 Specific Objectives
To help achieve the above main objectives of the study, this research
specifically aimed to: 1. Investigate the impact of gender difference on listening strategy use of
English majoring students.
2. Investigate the impact of students’ listening proficiency differences on their
listening strategy use.
3. Explore the impact of perceptual learning style preference differences on
listening strategy use of English majoring students.
4. Investigate the interrelationship among gender, listening proficiency and
perceptual learning style preferences with learners’ listening strategy use.
5. Assess the course instructors’ and students’ practices and perceptions of
teaching and learning listening skills in English.
1.5 Significance of the Study Studies on language learning strategy show how learners are similar and
different in terms of learning a second/foreign language. Despite the common
systems of memory and language and cognitive processing in the brain,
language learners vary in terms of factors such as: aptitudes, demographic
variables, affective variables, learning styles, and learning strategies when they
10
start learning a second /foreign language (Cook, 2001). These variables might
have profound effects on how the learners approach language learning tasks
and how successful they are. Gaining more information about how language
learners actually learn can help teachers to make any teaching method more
effective and help them put their hunches on a firmer basis (ibid). Ehrman et
al. (2003) also suggested that the more we learn about individual differences
(i.e. how individuals learn a language); the more we gain a sense of how many
different ways we can understand the complex system of language learning and
teaching.
It is hoped that the findings of the study may benefit both teachers
(instructors) and students for they provide information on the effects of gender,
listening proficiency and learning style preference on language learners
listening strategy use so that they would react accordingly. From a practical
point of view, knowledge of the relationship between listening strategy use and
these variables (i.e. gender, listening proficiency and perceptual learning style
preference) will provide insight to EFL teachers’ taking into account the
appropriate factors in language learning strategy training in general and a
listening focused Styles and Strategies-Based Instruction (SSBI) in particular.
It will also offer invaluable feedback to curriculum designers and textbook or
module writers on the effects of students learning style preferences on their
strategy use to take necessary measures. Moreover, it may serve as a
springboard for further study.
1.6 Scope of the Study As the main purpose of this study is to examine effects of gender, listening
proficiency and perceptual learning style preference on EFL learners’ listening
strategy use, thus
1. It is delimited to an academic EFL university-level classroom setting where
students are taking listening skills in English ;
11
2. It is concentrated on listening strategy use. And it may not be generalizable
to other language skills strategy (e.g. reading).
1.7 Limitations of the Study The data collection and analyses were carried out with caution in order to
ensure reliability and validity of the study. However, there were some
limitations of the study. First, due to time and financial constraints the
research sites were limited to only two universities. Thus the number of
participant students was limited to 70. Consequently, caution will be required
when attempting to make generalizations of the findings to larger populations
in Ethiopian context or to other populations with different educational
backgrounds. Second, the study was cross-sectional rather than longitudinal.
Third, the instruments used to assess students’ listening strategy and
perceptual learning style preference were mainly the adapted SILL and PLSPQ,
respectively based on a 5-point Likert-scale system, the characteristics of a
retrospective self-reported survey may be problematic. Validity of the results of
the study depends on the participants’ honesty, willingness, and ability to
respond accurately to each question. In addition, the adapted SILL self-
reported questionnaire may not report the whole range of listening strategy
use. Some strategies might be missed. However, the open-ended question at
the end of the adapted survey was added to counter this problem.
1.8 Organization of the Paper In this study, chapter two deals with the theoretical and conceptual
framework of the study. Chapter three is devoted to a review of related
literature; while chapter four describes design, setting, data collection
instruments, data collection procedures and data analyses methods of the
study. It also treats purposes, setting, data collection procedures of the pilot
study and lessons gained from the pilot study. In chapter five, the findings,
12
analyses and discussions of the study are reported. Finally, chapter six is
devoted to the summary, conclusions, implications and recommendations.
1.9 Definition of Terms The key terms in this study are defined operationally as follows: Listening strategies - Are specific plans, actions, behaviours, steps or
techniques that individual learners use to learn and/or improve their English
listening skills.
Listening proficiency - Is learners’ overall listening performance as measured
by standardized (TOEFL) listening tests.
Language learning strategies – Language learning strategies are “specific
actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable,
more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations”
(Oxford, 1990:8).
Perceptual learning style preference - A preferred way of learning using one’s
perceptions and social aspect of channeling with which the student is the most
comfortable.
Affective listening strategies - Strategies related to control feelings,
motivations and attitudes in learning listening skills.
Cognitive listening strategies - Strategies which help students think about
and understand listening skills.
Compensation listening strategies - Strategies used by students to help
them overcome knowledge limitation in learning listening skills.
13
Memory listening strategies - strategies used by students to help them
remember new language items in learning listening skills.
Metacognitive listening strategies - Are strategies which involve how
listeners listen to the listening text and which strategies they use to plan,
monitor and evaluate listening comprehension (Oxford, 1990).
Social listening strategies - Strategies used by students which involve
interaction with other students or people in learning listening skills.
Kinesthetic learners - Are learners who learn best through experience and by
being involved physically in classroom.
Tactile learners - Are learners who learn best with one’s hands through using
manipulation of resources such as building a model, taking notes and working
in a laboratory.
14
CHAPTER TWO: THE THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY 2.1 Introduction The main objective of this study is to investigate effects of gender, listening
proficiency and perceptual learning style preference on listening strategy use of
EFL students. Hence, it is very important to look into teaching methods,
approaches and learning theories that form the underpinnings of the present
study. The first part of this chapter deals with the place of listening strategy in
language teaching methods and approaches. Next to this, listening strategy in
learning theories will be discussed. Then, a cognitive framework and
conceptual framework (Model) of the study will be presented one after the
other.
2.2 The place of Listening Strategy in Language Teaching Methods and Approaches Over the years, as noted by Griffiths and Parr (2001), different language
teaching methods and approaches, each with its own theoretical basis, have
come in and gone out of fashion. Most of these methods and approaches
emphasize teaching rather than learning. They gave no explicit attention to
learning, learners and the use of language learning strategies. In other words,
the role of a learner in language learning was not considered well. Accordingly,
the importance of learning strategies in general and listening strategy in
particular, seems to have little place in these methods and approaches.
However, since the work done by researchers such as Rubin (1975) and Stern
(1975), awareness has been slowly growing about the importance of the
strategies used by learners in the language learning process. Since then,
15
strategies are increasingly attracting the interest of contemporary educators
because of their potential to enhance learning (Cohen and Macaro, 2007).
Though the methods and approaches did not seem to give explicit attention to
learners and the importance of learning strategies before the mid seventies, it
is invaluable to look at the theory underlying language learning strategies
beginning from the perspective of the various teaching methods and
approaches from which and alongside language learning strategy theory in
general and listening strategies in particular have developed.
The Grammar-Translation Method (GTM) relied heavily on the teaching of
grammar and practicing translation as its main teaching and learning activities
(Richards and Rodgers, 1986). The major focus of this method was tended to be
reading and writing, with very little attention paid to speaking and listening.
High priority was given to accuracy and to the ability to construct correct
sentences. And vocabulary was typically taught in lists. The possibility that
students might use language learning strategies in general and listening
strategies in particular to promote their own learning had little place in GTM
theory. In light of this, Tarone and Yule (1989:133) stated that “relatively little
attention seems to have been paid in any consistent way, to considerations of
the whole process from the learner’s point of view.” Although learner’s role in
learning language was not given due attention, the importance of the learner’s
contribution to the learning process was perhaps there in. For instance,
suggestions for how to remember vocabulary lists (mnemonics, grouping,
repetition, etc) were quite common in grammar-translation classrooms.
Audiolingual Teaching Method (which emphasized speaking and listening
before writing and reading) depends heavily on drills and repetitions. Since
audiolingual method was contingent on the automatic patterning of behavior,
little attention was given to any conscious contribution which the individual
16
learner might make in the learning process. As Richards and Rogers (1986)
state, even learners were discouraged from taking initiative in the language
learning situation because they might make mistakes. If anything, there was in
a very limited form in the exercising of memory and cognitive listening
strategies by means of repetition and substitution exercises.
An important theoretical principle underlying the communicative language
teaching (CLT) approach was called “communicative competence” by Hymes
(1972). Communicative competence is the ability to use language to convey
and interpret meaning. Later, Canale and Swain (1980) divided the
communicative competence into four separate components: grammatical
competence (which relates to the learner’s knowledge of the vocabulary,
phonology and rules of the language), discourse competence (which relates to
the learner’s ability to connect utterances into a meaningful whole),
sociolinguistic competence (which relates to the learner’s ability to use
language appropriately) and strategic competence (which relates to a learner’s
ability to employ strategies to compensate for imperfect knowledge). Strategic
competence is the practice individual learners adopted to hold conversations
and repair breakdowns in communication (Grenfell and Macaro, 2007).
The other foundation of CLT approach is the belief that how language function
is vital for communication purposes. The concept of the communicative
functions of language promoted by Wilkins (1976) has had a strong influence
on contemporary language-learning activities and teaching materials (i.e.
textbooks). Other prominent figures in the field have consolidated and extended
the theories of communicative language teaching. Littlewood (1981), for
instance, stresses the need to give the learners extensive opportunities to use
the target language for real communicative purposes. Widdowson (1990:160),
on his part, believes that by using communicative approach, language can be
developed incidentally as a by-product of using it and that “knowing will
emerge from doing”.
17
Although “the communicative approach implicitly encourages learners to take
greater responsibility for their own learning” (Oxford et al, 1989:33), it has
given relatively less attention to how learners learn, as in previous methods
and approaches. In other words, much attention has been given to how
teachers teach.
Language learning strategy theory fits easily with a wide variety of different
language teaching methods and approaches. For instance, memory and
cognitive strategies are involved in the development of vocabulary and grammar
knowledge on which the Grammar-Translation Method depends. Memory and
cognitive strategies can be involved in the patterning of automatic responses of
Audiolingual Method. Methods such as Silent way and Suggestopedia
incorporate affective strategies. Community Language Learning entails affective
and social strategies (Williams and Burden, 1997). On the other hand,
compensation and social strategies can easily be assimilated into the
Communicative Language Teaching Approach. The fact that language learning
strategy theory can work so easily alongside other theories, language teaching
methods and approaches means that it has the potential to be an invaluable
component of contemporary eclectic syllabuses.
Having modern interest in eclecticism, educators are becoming increasingly
interested in the contribution made by the language learners themselves in the
teaching-learning process. Awareness has been slowly growing for some time
that “any learning is an active process” (Rivers, 1983:134), and the idea that
language learners are individuals who can take responsibilities for their own
learning and achieve autonomy by the use of learning strategies has been
widely accepted by educators.
18
2.3 Listening Strategy in Learning Theories The view of listening has changed from the mastery of discrete skills in the
1970s to new theoretical models of comprehension from the field of cognitive
psychology in the 80s and 90s (Richards, 2003). Cognitive psychology is
concerned with the ways in which the human mind thinks and learns.
Therefore, cognitive psychologists are interested in the mental processes such
as how people build up and draw upon their memories and the way in which
they become involved in the process of learning (Williams and Burden, 1997).
In cognitive psychology, a language learner is seen as an active participant in
the learning process, using various mental strategies in order to sort out the
system of the language to be learned (ibid).
Strategies have a prominent role in the cognitive view of learning because they
represent the dynamic mechanisms underlying thinking and learning
processes. Macaro (2006) indicated that learning strategies are located in
working memory as resources to aid the system of information processing. He
mentioned that “in order to manage these resources, the central executive
[working memory] has to exert control over their deployment” (p.327).
Strategies for learning and using language then require conscious mental
activity. Even automatized strategies, or strategies that the learners use quickly
with minimal attention and effort, can be brought back to attention and
evaluated by the learners.
To a certain extent the cognitive theory can be used to describe learning
strategies in general and listening strategies in particular (e.g. Oxford’s (1990)
memory strategies, cognitive strategies, and metacognitive strategies) that
occur in the human brain. However, some strategies do not occur in the brain.
Instead, they are performed as actions or behaviors to aid learning or using of a
foreign language. These strategies include compensation strategies, affective
19
strategies, and social strategies, which may be better described from other
perspectives such as the theory of communicative competence (Canale and
Swain 1980; Oxford, 1990), the humanistic perspective (Stevick 1976, cited in
Williams and Burden 1997), and social interactionism (Vygotsky, 1960, 1962,
1978 and Feuerstein et al., 1979, 1991 cited in Williams and Burden, 1997).
2.4 A Cognitive Framework For the last four decades, cognitive perspective and its applications have been
extensively explored in many education fields including applied linguistics
(Bruning et al., 1999).
According to Chamot and O’Malley (1994), language learning strategies in
general and listening strategies in particular can be described within the
cognitive model of learning. The cognitive model of learning indicates that
learning is an active, dynamic process in which learners select information
from their environment, organize the information, relate it to what they already
know, retain what they consider to be important, use the information in
appropriate contexts, and reflect on the success of their learning efforts (ibid).
In the view of cognitive psychologists, a learner is assigned a vital role in
learning that they think is a product of the interactions among the background
knowledge the learner accumulates, the information s/he acquires and the
approaches or strategies s/he adopts (Bruning et al., 1999). In other words, a
learner not only primarily contributes and controls her/his learning, but also
ultimately takes the responsibility for her/his learning.
The cognitive theory describes language comprehension as “active and complex
processes in which individuals construct meaning from aural or written
information” (O’Malley and Chamot, 1990:33). To Thompson (1987) the ability
to comprehend spoken information depends mainly on being able to recognize
and retrieve information stored in memory. Hence, the basic approach of
20
cognitive theory is the information processing model of the holding system.
Psychologists who take this approach to learning are mainly concerned with
the way in which learners take in information, process it and act upon it.
Based on this, factors such as attention, perception and memory become the
focus of the work of information processing theorists (Williams and Burden,
1997).
During the process of learning, cognitive theories of learning differentiate
between three functions in memory (See Figure 2.1). Sensory memory retains
stimuli briefly in a sensory store (registers) so that perceptual analysis can
occur. With the language knowledge of the listeners, the incoming data that is
kept only for one minute or less may be processed and recognized as sound
patterns (Bruning et al., 1999). Once it is recognized, it is forwarded to short-
term memory for further processing (ibid). New information that gets into
short-term memory replaces the former information very quickly. Working
memory is memory in which information is manipulated (O’Malley and
Chamot, 1990). Further understanding and retention of new information (in
short-term memory) can be reinforced by relating the new information to the
information existing in the long-term memory. Long-term memory is the long-
lasting repository of the information we accumulate. Long-term memory is
used to store information derived from personal experience and education. To
O’Malley and Chamot (1990) retaining propositions, the basic units of meaning
involved in comprehension, is one of the major functions that long-term
memory is responsible for. By propositions, listeners can understand an
utterance or speech.
21
Source: Anderson, 1985
Figure 2.1: Information Processing Model
Anderson (1985) indicates that most information is stored in long-term memory
as either declarative knowledge (what we can declare) or procedural knowledge
(what we know how to do). He claims that by use of these two kinds of
knowledge, listeners can easily locate propositions.
Declarative knowledge entails two kinds of knowledge: linguistic knowledge and
real world knowledge. Real world knowledge enables listeners to use top-down
strategies that process information by predicting, anticipating and inference.
On the other hand, linguistic knowledge enables listeners to apply bottom-up
strategies to analyze individual word meaning and grammatical characteristics
(O’Malley et al., 1989). Procedural knowledge, in its part, includes the
execution of all cognitive skills (Bruning et al., 1999).
os
22
Strategies have a vital role in the cognitive view of learning listening skills
because they represent the dynamic mechanisms underlying thinking and
learning processes. Macaro (2006) denoted that learning strategies are located
in working memory as resources to aid the system of information processing.
He mentioned that “In order to manage these resources, the central executive
[working memory] has to exert control over their deployment” (p.327). Listening
strategies for learning and using language then require conscious mental
activity. Even automatized strategies, or strategies that the learners use quickly
with minimal attention and effort, can be brought back to attention and
evaluated by the learners (ibid).
2.5 Conceptual Framework (Model) Over the last three decades, a prominent shift has been made within the field of
language education with a greater emphasis given to learners and learning
rather than teachers and teaching. As learners gain a prominent place in
foreign language research, language learning strategies in general and skill
based strategies i.e. listening strategies, in particular have received much
attention from language educators and researchers (Oxford, 1990; Cohen and
Macaro, 2007). Contemporary language learning strategy theory in general and listening
strategy in particular postulates that, even if language learners study the same
material, in the same classroom, under the same conditions, yet, not all
language learners use the same LLSs (Oxford, 1990). This implied that, there
could be other variables which influence learners’ listening strategy use.
However, the relation between learners listening strategy use and varied
variables (e.g., learning style and personalities) is the least examined area
(Macaro et al., 2007). There is still lack of research which cohesively addresses
these variables together on listening strategy use.
23
Thus, the main purpose of the current study is to examine effects of gender,
listening proficiency and perceptual learning style preference on listening
strategy use of EFL students. The following figure (Figure 2.2) shows the
conceptual framework of the study.
Figure 2.2: The Model Representing the Relationships among Variables The three variables are located on the boundary of the circle as all of them are
the independent variables that this study aimed to see their effects on the
interior part of the circle i.e. the dependent variable - listening strategy, in
general and listening strategy categories, in particular.
The broken lines (of a circle and arrows) in this model show the gap that this
research intended to investigate.
Gender Listening Proficiency
Perceptual Learning Style Preference
Cognitive Memory
Metacognitive Listening Compensation
Strategy Social Affective
24
CHAPTER THREE: A REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
3.1 Introduction This chapter discusses literature and research into the areas that form the
underpinnings for the present study. It is divided into eight sections. In the
first section, terminologies used for strategy are presented along with
definitions of learning strategy and language learning strategy. Then, features
and classifications of language learning strategies are discussed in detail. The
fifth section deals with pertinent literature and studies conducted on factors
influencing language learning strategy use. Overview of listening skills in
language learning is discussed under the sixth section. Then listening
strategies and research on listening strategy use are treated consecutively.
Lastly, summary of the chapter is presented.
3.2 Learning Strategy: Terminology and Definition Though it is used by many prominent researchers in the field (such as Rubin,
1975; O’Malley et al., 1985; Oxford, 1990) the term strategy is not without its
controversy. In other words some scholars used different terms other than
strategy. Substantiating this idea Griffiths ( 2004:2), states “Consensus is not
assisted by some writers’ use of conflicting terminology such as learning
behaviours (Wesche ,1997;Politzer and McGroarty, 1985),tactics (Seliger ,1984)
and techniques (Stern, 1992) more or less (but not always exactly)
synonymously with the term strategy.” As the focus of this study is on learners’
listening strategy use, the researcher opts for using the term learning strategies
rather than learner strategies.
Like the terms used, the literature abounds in various definitions of learning
strategy (LS). Weinstein and Mayer (1986:315) defined learning strategies
broadly as “behaviors and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning”
25
which are “intended to influence the learners encoding process.” To Wenden
and Rubin (1987:19) learning strategies are “ any set of operations, steps,
plans, routines used by the learner to facilitate the obtaining ,storage, retrieval,
and use of information.” Later Mayer (1988:11) more specifically defined LSs as
“behaviors of a learner that are intended to influence how the learner processes
information.” The early definitions reflect the roots of learning strategies in
Cognitive Psychology, with its essential assumptions that human beings
process information and that learning involves such information processing. It
also manifested the importance of the contribution made by learners during
the process of learning (Williams and Burden, 1997 and Griffiths and Parr,
2001).
On the basis of the general notion stated above, language researchers have
coined the term ‘Language Learning Strategy’ (LLS), which is specifically related
to language learning situations. Language learning strategies have been defined
in different ways. Rubin (1987:23) defined language learning strategies as
“strategies which contribute to the development of the language system which
learners construct and affect learning directly.” O’Malley and Chamot (1990:1),
based on a cognitive information processing view of human thought and action,
described language learning strategies as “special thoughts or behaviors that
individuals use to comprehend learning or retain new information.” While
earlier definitions of language learning strategies focused on products of
learning and behaviors reflecting unobservable cognitive processes, definitions
ultimately evolved into a clearer understanding of what learners think and do
during language learning. Cohen’s (1998) work recognizes the element of
consciousness as key to distinguishing strategic from nonstrategic thinking
processes. He explained that if learners are not able to identify any strategies
associated with learning behavior, then the behaviors would simply be referred
to as a process, not a strategy. For instance, a learner may guess new words in
context while reading or listening for better understanding. If the learner is
conscious about why the guess is taking place, then it would be called a
26
strategy. On the basis of the aforementioned explanation, as to Cohen language
learning strategies are “the steps or actions selected consciously by learners
either to improve the learning of a second [foreign] language or the use of it or both” (1998:5).
One of the most frequently cited and applicable definitions of language learning
strategies to date is that of Oxford (1990:1), which described learning strategies
as conscious “steps taken by students to enhance their [language] learning”;
more particularly, “specific actions taken by the learner to make [language]
learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and
more transferrable to new situations” (Oxford, 1990:8). The definition reflects
the intent of the learner and the specific actions a learner can take in learning
a language. It also, importantly, includes how context plays a role in the
language learning process. In general, the aforementioned definitions refer to
LLSs as operations, techniques, steps, processes, behaviors, or thoughts used
by learners to guide, facilitate, and solve problems in their language learning
and language use.
3.3 Features of Language Learning Strategies Even though the terminology used and definitions given for language learning
strategies are not uniform among scholars in the field, there are a number of
basic characteristics accepted by them. First, language learning strategies are
learner generated; they are steps or actions taken by language learners. Second,
LLSs enhance language learning and help develop language competence,
as reflected in the learner’s skills in listening, speaking, reading, or writing the
second/foreign language. Third, LLSs may be visible (behaviours, steps,
techniques, etc.) or unseen (thoughts, mental processes). Fourth, LLSs involve
information and memory (vocabulary knowledge, grammar rules, etc.)
(Griffiths, 2004).
27
In addition to the above stated features, Oxford (1990) summarizes her view of
language learning strategy by listing other key characteristics as follows:
1) Language learning strategies are problem-oriented. Language learning, as
learning in general, has to be internalized and strategies are problem solving
mechanisms or techniques used by learners to cope with the complex process
of learning. In other words, LLSs are used since there is a problem to solve, a
task to accomplish, an objective to achieve, or a goal to attain (ibid).
2) LLSs allow learners to become more self–directed. If students properly learn
how and when to use language learning strategies, they become self-reliant and
better to learn independently (Oxford, 1990). When students begin to
understand their own learning processes and exert some control over these
processes, they tend to take more responsibility for their own learning. This
self-knowledge and skill in regulating one's own learning and making learners
self-directed and independent is one of the main characteristics of language
learning strategies.
3) They expand the role of language teachers. In addition to teachers’ functions
as facilitator, helper, guide, consultant, advisor, coordinator, idea-person,
diagnostician, and co-communicator; new roles of teachers include identifying
students’ learning strategies, conducting training on learning strategies, and
helping learners become more independent (ibid). These activities expand the
role of language teachers. These changes strengthen teachers’ roles making
them more varied and more creative.
4) They involve many aspects, not just the cognitive. LLSs are not limited to
cognitive functions. They also include metacognitive, affective (emotional),
social and other functions.
28
5) LLSs are often conscious. Strategies are most often conscious and goal-driven
especially in the beginning stages of tackling unfamiliar language tasks. Once a
learning strategy becomes familiar through repeated use or practice, it may be
used with some automaticity, but most learners will, if required, be able to call
the strategy to conscious awareness (Oxford, 1990). In light of this Cohen’s
(1998) work recognizes the element of consciousness as key to distinguishing
strategic from nonstrategic thinking processes.
6) Language learning strategies are flexible. This means that in most cases they
are not found in predictable sequences or in precise patterns. There is a variety
and individuality in the way that learners choose and utilize strategies.
However, sometimes there are situations that will allow students to use
strategies in a predictable way. Substantiating this through examples Oxford
(1990:13) states “ in reading a passage, learners often preview the material by
skimming or scanning, then they read it more closely while using guessing to
fill in any gaps, and finally they organize the material by taking notes or
summarizing.”
7) They are influenced by a variety of factors. The choice and use of language
learning strategies is affected by a number of variables.
8) Strategies can be taught and modified. Though some aspects of a learner’s
make-up and personality traits are very difficult to change, learning strategies
are easier to teach and modify. It is possible to do this through strategy
training. Strategy training helps learners to become more conscious of strategy
use and more skilled at employing appropriate strategies (p. 9-13).
The aforementioned features work for listening strategies as well (ibid).
29
3.4 Taxonomy of Language Learning Strategies Categorization of learning strategies was a logical outgrowth of research which
attempted to identify and define strategic behaviors of language learners.
Language learning strategies have been classified in various ways by different
scholars such as O’Malley et al. (1985), Rubin (1987), Oxford (1990) and Stern
(1992). Let’s see each classification one after the other.
3.4.1 O’Malley’s Classification of Language Learning Strategies O’Malley, Chamot, Stewner-Manzanares, Russo, and Küpper (1985) conducted
a study concerning the range and frequency of learning strategies used by ESL
learners and the effectiveness of learning strategy training on student
advancement. The study was carried out with 70 high schools, ESL students
and 22 teachers to identify the strategies already in use by students identified
as high in academic ability. From the data collected, using observation and
interview techniques, the study identified three main categories of strategies:
cognitive, metacognitive and socio-affective strategies.
Cognitive strategies are more limited to specific learning tasks. They are
directly related to the performance of information processing. Repetition,
translation, note-taking, deduction, recommendation, contextualization,
elaboration, transfer and inferencing are among the most important cognitive
strategies. Metacognitive is a term to express higher-order executive skills or
functions, strategies which require planning for learning, thinking about
learning process as it is taking place, monitoring of one’s production, and
evaluating learning after an activity is completed. Directed attention, selective
attention, self-management, functional planning, self-monitoring and self-
evaluation are among the main metacognitive strategies. Socio-affective
strategies are related to interactions with others in learning. They are generally
considered to be applicable to various tasks. Questioning for clarification,
30
cooperation with others to solve a problem, rephrasing, and self-talk are some
examples of socio-affective strategies (O’Malley et al., 1985).
3.4.2 Rubin’s Taxonomy Rubin, who is the pioneer in the field of language learning strategies, draws a
distinction between strategies directly contributing to learning and those
contributing indirectly to learning. According to Rubin (1987), there are four
types of strategies used by learners that contribute directly or indirectly to
language learning.
The first category, direct learning strategies, consists of two main types:
cognitive and metacognitive learning strategies. They are strategies directly
contributing to the language system constructed by the learner. Cognitive
learning strategies (CLS) refer to the steps or processes used in learning or
problem-solving tasks that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis
of learning materials. Rubin (1987) identified six main cognitive learning
strategies directly contributing to language learning: clarification/verification,
guessing/inductive inferencing, deductive reasoning, practice, memorization,
and monitoring. Metacognitive learning strategies (MLS) are used to supervise,
regulate or self-direct language learning. They involve a variety of processes as
planning, prioritizing, setting goals, and self-management.
The second category consists of communication strategies, which are less
directly related to language learning because they focus on the process of
participating in a conversation and getting meaning across or clarifying what
the speaker intended. These strategies are used by speakers when faced with
some difficulty due to the fact that their communication ends outrun their
communication means or when confronted with misunderstanding by a co-
speaker.
31
Social strategies comprise the last category, which are manipulated when the
learners are engaged in tasks that afford them opportunities to be exposed to
and practice their knowledge. Even though these strategies provide exposure
to the target language, they contribute indirectly to the obtaining, storing,
retrieving, and using of language (Rubin and Wenden, 1987).
3.4.3 Oxford’s Classification of Language Learning Strategies Among all the existing language learning strategy taxonomies, Oxford (1990)
provides the most comprehensive and detailed classification system of learning
strategies using the two major groups proposed by Rubin’s (1987) model: direct
and indirect strategies (Ellis,1994). Each category was broken down into
subcategories reflecting the specific strategies that would fit under the labels.
Direct strategies which are directly related to learning/producing the target
language are subdivided into memory strategies, cognitive strategies and
compensation strategies. Memory strategies (also called mnemonics) are those
strategies which help learners store and retrieve new information. Creating
mental links, applying images and sounds, reviewing well and employing
action are the major memory strategies. Cognitive strategies are the mental
strategies learners use to make sense of their learning. They include
practicing, receiving and sending message strategies, analyzing and reasoning,
and creating structure for input and output strategies. The last divisions
under direct strategies, compensation strategies, help learners to overcome
knowledge gaps to continue communication. Guessing intelligently and
overcoming limitations in speaking and writing are examples of compensation
strategies (Oxford, 1990). One of the significant differences in Oxford’s
classification is the addition of the compensation strategies, which have not
been treated in any of the major classification systems earlier (Ellis, 1994).
32
According to Oxford (1990) indirect strategies are those that enable direct
strategies to occur and/or increase their successful application. Indirect
strategies are further divided into three groups: metacognitive strategies,
affective strategies, and social strategies. In Oxford’s system, metacognitive
strategies (i.e. centering one’s learning, arranging and planning one’s learning
and evaluating one’s learning) help learners to regulate their learning. Affective
strategies (i.e. lowering anxiety, encouraging oneself and taking one’s
emotional temperature ) are concerned with controlling emotions in language
learning, where as social strategies (e.g. asking questions, cooperating with
others and empathizing with others) lead to increased interaction with others
in the target language.
From Oxford’s (1990) classification we understand that 62 kinds of strategies
are divided into two major classes: direct and indirect. These two classes are
further divided into six groups (memory, cognitive and compensation under
the direct class; metacognitive, affective, and social under the indirect class).
Though strategies are categorized into two major classes and six groups, they
are equally important and serve to support each other in many ways.
Substantiating this idea Oxford (1990:14) states that “…each strategy group is
capable of connecting with and assisting every other strategy group.”
3.4.4 Stern’s Classification of Language Learning Strategies According to Stern (1992), there are five main language learning strategies.
They are management and planning strategies, cognitive strategies,
communicative – experiential strategies, interpersonal strategies and affective
strategies.
Management and planning strategies are related with learner’s intention to
direct his/her own learning. A learner can take charge of the development of
his/her own program when he/she is helped by a teacher whose role is that of
33
an advisor and resource person. Which means, the learner must decide what
commitment to make the language learning; set him /herself reasonable goals;
decide on appropriate methodology, select appropriate resources, and monitor
progress and evaluate his/her achievement in light of previously determined
goals and expectations (Stern, 1992).
Cognitive strategies are steps or operations used in learning or problem
solving that require direct analysis, transformation or synthesis of learning
material. Clarification / verification, guessing / inductive inferencing,
deductive reasoning, practice, memorization and monitoring are some of the
cognitive strategies.
To Stern (1992) communication strategies, such as circumlocution, gesturing,
paraphrasing, or asking for repetition and explanation are used by learners so
as to keep a conversation going. The purpose of using these techniques is to
avoid interrupting the flow of communication. On the other hand,
interpersonal strategies are related to learners’ acquaintance with the target
culture. Finally affective strategies are concerned with controlling emotions
and feelings in language learning (ibid).
3.4.5 Summary of Taxonomies Though there are differences among different language learning strategy
taxonomies, they have many similarities. Their differences may be due to their
perception on how learners process and retrieve information for language
learning. Regarding this Macaro (2001) points out that classification of
language learning strategies has primarily followed the theory of cognition.
Cognition refers to how the brain works for information processing and
retrieval (ibid). A concise summary of strategy classification systems are shown
in Table 3.1 on page 35.
34
For this study Oxford’s (1990) classification is adopted for the following
reasons. First, it classifies and details commonly used LLSs in a systematic
way. In light of this, Ellis (1994) pointed out that Oxford’s (1990) system was
developed from strong theoretical bases and describes metacognitive and
cognitive strategies more explicitly than earlier works. What is more, one of the
significant differences in Oxford’s classification is the addition of the
compensation strategies, which have not been treated in any of the major
classification systems stated (ibid). Thirdly, the taxonomy has been found to
be quite consistent with learners’ strategy use (e.g., Hsiao & Oxford, 2002).
Finally, it links individual strategies and groups of strategies with each of the
four language skills: listening, reading, speaking and writing (Oxford & Burry-
Stock, 1995).
35
Table 3.1: A Summary of Different Taxonomies Study Strategy Description
O’Malley et al.(1985) Cognitive strategies Performing information processing Metacognitive strategies Regulating language learning and including high executive skills or function Socioaffective strategies Interacting with others in learning and using
mental control to reduce anxiety
Direct Strategies Cognitive Clarifying ,memorizing, guessing , inductive inferencing, & deductive reasoning
Rubin (1987) Metacognitve Planning, prioritizing, setting-goals & self management
Indirect Strategies Communication Creating opportunities for practice, using production Tricks, using synonyms
Social Strategies manipulated when the learners are engaged in tasks that afford them opportunities to be exposed to and practice their knowledge Oxford (1990) Direct strategies Memory Storing and retrieving new information Cognitive Manipulating and transforming the target language Compensation Filling in the gaps or missing knowledge of the target language Indirect strategies Metacognitive Controlling cognitive process in learning, managing, or regulating language learning Affective Controlling emotions and feelings to lower learning anxiety Social Interacting and cooperating with others in learning
Stern (1992) Management & Planning Learner’s intention to direct his/her own learning Cognitive Performing information processing ,problem solving Communicative- experiential Filling the gaps to keep a conversation going Interpersonal Interacting and cooperating with native speakers in learning, acquaintance with the target culture Affective Controlling emotions and feelings
36
3.5 Factors Influencing Language Learning Strategy Use Different variables might have influence on students’ language learning
strategy use. The variables most relevant to the current study and studies
pertaining to the interrelation of language learning strategies with those
variables will be discussed in this section.
3.5.1 Gender One of the factors which might affect learners’ language learning strategy use is
gender. The effect of gender on strategy use has been investigated separately
and along with other variables as well (Ehrman and Oxford, 1989; Oxford and
Nyikos, 1989; Oxford, 1993; and Wharton, 2000). In the majority of these
studies, females have consistently been reported of using LLSs more frequently
than males.
For example, according to Coyle et al (2007:71) Politzer’s (1983) work can be
cited as one of the first empirical studies that discovered gender differences in
language learning strategy use. The sample for the study comprised 90
American students in a university context. The findings revealed that female
students use social strategies significantly more than male students. Then,
Ehrman and Oxford (1989) conducted a study on the relationship between
gender and strategy use of different occupational groups. They found that a
much more frequent use of four strategy categories (general learning,
functional, searching for/communicating meaning, and self-management) by
female students.
After Ehrman and Oxford (1989) study, Oxford and Nyikos (1989) continued to
investigate the link between gender and learning in second languages with
university students. Oxford’s and Nyikos’s (1989) research encompassed 1,200
university students in a questionnaire and a self-report survey, the Strategy
Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) devised by Oxford(1986) to determine
37
strategies chosen by each gender. Strategies were grouped into cognitive,
metacognitive, compensation, social and affective.
Oxford and Nyikos (1989: 296) found that women were more deliberate in their
use of learning strategies than men; men were more willing to admit to the use
of translation (to L1) than women; and that men used more bottom-up
strategies than women. They concluded that sex differences ‘‘had a profound
influence’’ upon strategy choice in second language learning.
Later, Bacon (1992) investigated the learning strategies used by fifty learners of
Spanish at an American university when listening to and comprehending
authentic text (e.g., radio broadcasts in Spanish). Bacon employed a self-report
survey method, interviewing those fifty, first year students who were studying
Spanish. Students were asked to try to be aware of the strategies that they
were using while listening to the passages. Though no significant differences in
levels of comprehension were found, the study revealed that females and males
reported using different strategies. The findings did support previous work by
Ehrman and Oxford (1989) and Oxford and Nyikos (1989). Females reported
using a significantly higher proportion of metacognitve strategies than males
did. Women tended to plan for listening, monitor their comprehension, and
evaluate their strategy use more than did men. Males appeared to use cognitive
strategies more than females (e.g., summarizing and translation strategies). Lee
(1994), cited in Cohen and Macaro (2007), investigated the factors that affect
the use of language learning strategies of Korean middle, high school, and
college students, and reported that girls showed more frequent use of strategies
than boys in middle school, but not in high school and college. Whereas, in
another study on Korean learners by Ok (2003), cited in Cohen and Macaro
(2007), it was found that Korean high school girls scored significantly higher in
five of the six strategy categories than boys did. The other study conducted by
Kaylani (1996) revealed that gender is related in complex ways to the frequency
of strategy use. Although she found significant memory, cognitive,
38
compensation and affective strategies use differences between males and
females in favor of females, it was found that successful female students’
language learning strategy profile resembled more of the strategy profile of
successful males than that of the unsuccessful females. What is more, in a
larger-scale with 1,006 Chinese EFL students (of whom 51 percent were male
and 49 percent female), Peacock and Ho (2003), cited in Cohen and Macaro
(2007) found that females had reported a significantly higher use of all six
categories on the SILL than did males.
Several explanations have been given why these differences appear. The most
pertinent to those studies is socialization, which has been suggested one of the
main causes of gender differences (Cohen and Macaro, 2007). On the other
hand, Oxford and Nyikos (1989) attribute the difference to women’s greater
willingness to accept existing norms and their greater verbal ability.
It is noteworthy; however, that other studies reported different findings from
those studies presented earlier. For instance, Ehrman and Oxford (1990) failed
to discover any evidence of differing language learning strategy use between the
sexes. In addition, Oh (1996), who conducted a study involving 60 EFL
students from the National Fisheries Universities in Korea, found that sex
difference did not affect the use of strategy and suggested that in the Korean
context, college students' attitude influenced strategy use more strongly than
did sex. Moreover, in Griffiths’s (2003) study no significant LLS use difference
was found in relation to gender, which suggests that further studies are needed
to look into the effects of gender on strategy use among language learners with
differing characteristics.
On the other hand, in Wharton’s (2000) study, which examined the strategy
use of 678 bilingual students at a university in Singapore reported greater use
of strategies by males, mostly memory, metacogntive, and cognitive strategies.
Wharton explained that this seemingly contradictory evidence of gender
39
differences in strategy use was possibly due to the bilingual composition of the
sample. The study suggested that socialization and life experience regarding
previous language learning experience (e.g., bilingual education) may be more
influential than gender on certain types of learning strategy use.
From the studies conducted and reviewed so far many researchers disclosed
that males and females employ different strategies in relation to their gender
characteristics. However, looking from a broader perspective, studies which
have examined the relationship between gender and strategy use have come up
with mixed results. Thus it appears that further studies are needed to look into
the effects of gender on strategy use among language learners with differing
characteristics, in both ESL and EFL context.
3.5.2 Proficiency The other variable which might affect students’ language learning strategy use
is proficiency and /or/ achievement. Some research has suggested a strong
positive relationship between L2 proficiency or achievements and the use of
strategies. In the study by Green and Oxford (1995), the English proficiency of
374 university students in Puerto Rico was measured by the English as a
Second Language Achievement Test (ESLAT), which is equivalent to the
Scholastic Achievement Test (SAT). The study revealed significant differences in
students’ use of strategies and levels of English proficiency. They found that
successful language learners engaged in four types of strategy use during
language learning with both greater frequency and to a higher degree than less
successful learners: cognitive (F=21.47, p<.0001), compensation (F=11.33,
p<.0001), metacognitive (F=6.08, p<.0025), and social (F=4.85, p<.008).
Findings also revealed that almost all of the strategies used by more successful
students involved the active use of the target language, with a strong emphasis
on practice in natural or naturalistic situations.
40
In the same way, in another study conducted by Dreyer and Oxford (1996), a
significant relationship was also found between learners’ strategy use and their
ESL achievement. Using standardized English proficiency tests (e.g., TOEFL,
TOIEC) as indices, Park (1997) examined how 332 Korean university students
chose learning strategies differently according to their English proficiency
levels. The findings revealed that all six categories of strategies measured by
the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) (Oxford, 1990) were
significantly correlated with the participants’ TOEFL scores. However, cognitive
and social strategies (r= .33 and r= .30, respectively) were more predictive of the
TOEFL scores than the other four strategy groups (compensation,
metacognitive, memory, and affective strategies). The study reported a linear
relationship between strategy use and English proficiency, indicating that
those with higher TOEFL scores used more strategies. In another study on
Jordan high school EFL learners by Kaylani (1996), the findings revealed that
the use of memory, cognitive and metacognitive strategies was significantly
higher for successful students than less successful ones.
In another study, Griffiths (2003) examined the relationship between course
level and learning strategies use by 348 ESL learners (aged 14-64) at a private
language school in New Zealand. These ESL students were placed in seven
different levels by their English proficiency according to their score on the
Oxford Placement Test, which consists of a grammar section and a listening
section. Lower level scores were between 80 and 90 out of 200, and the top
level scores were between 140 and 150, which were those of advanced learners.
The study found a significant relationship between strategy use and course
level, indicating that students in higher levels used more strategies than
students in lower levels. His findings also accord with the findings of Green
and Oxford’s (1995) study reporting more strategy use by more proficient or
successful learners.
41
In contrast, some studies reported negative or no relationship between L2
proficiency and/or/achievement and strategy use. For instance, Phillips’s
(1991) study revealed a different relationship between learners’ strategy use
and their language proficiency. Using the TOEFL as the instrument for
measuring English proficiency, Phillips’s study involved 141 ESL students
attending the IEPs at seven American universities. She divided the sample into
three groups determined by TOEFL scores (600 as a maximum score): low
(397-480), middle (481-506), and high (507-600). Phillips found a curvilinear
relationship between the use of learning strategies and language proficiency,
indicating a higher use of strategies by students with intermediate language
proficiency. The mid-range TOEFL score group reported significantly greater
strategy use than either higher or lower proficiency groups (F=3.31, p≤.04). The
researcher concluded that this may occur because of less awareness of the
strategies among lower level students and less need for conscious applications
of strategies by higher level students than by mid-level students.
In addition, a study by Mullins (1992) , cited in Graham et al. (2007), used the
scores from the English section of a Thai university entrance examination and
an English placement test as English language proficiency measures of 110
Thai students. The findings revealed that language proficiency did not strongly
correlate with overall strategy use and reported a negative correlation between
English proficiency and the use of affective strategies (r=-.323, p<0.05). In other
words, the students with higher English proficiency showed lower scores on
strategy use, especially affective strategy use. Mullins argued that the
relationship between strategy use and proficiency is complex, and the results
may be due to a possible mismatch between the discrete item of the university
English entrance exams and placement exams (grammar-based) and the SILL
(Oxford, 1990), which is a measure of global use of language-learning
strategies.
42
On the other hand, in another study conducted by Peter (1999), cited in
Graham et al. (2007), no difference is found in the number of strategies used
between successful and less successful ability listeners (based on their
listening test achievement).
3.5.3 Perceptual Learning Style Preference The other factor, though scarcely investigated, is perceptual learning style
preference. Regarding this Oxford (1989: 241) claims “it is likely that a strong
relationship exists between the individual’s use of learning strategies and the
individual’s learning style… Sadly little research has been dedicated to the
relationship between learning strategy use and perceptual learning style.”
In this section what is meant by perceptual learning style preference and
studies conducted on perceptual learning style will be presented. 3.5.3.1 What is Perceptual Learning Style Preference? Perceptual learning style preference is one of the learning style dimensions
(Shipman &Shipman, 1985). Hence, first let’s see what learning style is.
Learning style refers to “individual’s characteristic ways of processing
information, feeling and behaving in learning situations” (Smith, 1982:24). The
term learning style is used to encompass four aspects of the person: cognitive
style, i.e., preferred or habitual patterns of mental functioning; patterns of
attitudes and interests that affect what an individual will pay most attention
to in a learning situation; a tendency to seek situations compatible with one's
own learning patterns; and a tendency to use certain learning strategies and
avoid others (Lawrence, 1984). Learning style is inherent and pervasive which
is operated across all subject areas (Willing, 1988; Kroonenberg, 1995; Reid,
1995; 1998) and is a blend of cognitive, affective, and behavioral elements
(Oxford & Ehrman, 1988). Learning styles are relatively constant and
congenial (Oxford, 1990).
43
As stated earlier, perceptual learning style refers to information processed in a
preferred way according to one’s habitual style or characteristics. Among the
six categories embodied under perceptual learning style preferences, the first
four (i.e. visual, auditory, kinesthetic: movement-oriented and tactile: touch-
oriented) are grouped under sensory preferences (Reid, 1987; 1995). Sensory
preferences refer to the physical, perceptual learning channels with which the
student is the most comfortable.
According to Reid (1987) visual learners like to read and obtain a great deal
from visual stimulation. They are most comfortable with pictures, images and
graphs while studying and retaining information. For them, lectures,
conversations, and oral directions without any visual backup can be very
confusing. In contrast, auditory learners learn best when hearing the
information and, perhaps, listening to a lecture. In other words, auditory
students are comfortable without visual input and therefore enjoy and profit
from unembellished lectures, conversations, and oral directions. Thus, the
learner needs to express verbally what he/she learns, solve problems by talking
about them and discusses the material in the class. They are excited by
classroom interactions in role-plays and similar activities. They sometimes,
however, have difficulty with written work (Reid, 1987; 1995).
Kinesthetic and tactile students like lots of movement and enjoy working with
tangible objects, collages, and flashcards. Sitting at a desk for very long is not
for them; they prefer to have frequent breaks and move around the room.
Kinesthetic learners prefer active participation experiences, for example drama,
role-play or moving around. Such students learn best by experience and by
being involved physically in classroom experiences. A combination of stimuli,
for example an audio tape combined with an activity helps learner understand
new material. Tactile learners prefer hands on work, for example, handling
materials or taking notes. Working on an experiment in the laboratory is the
best way for such students to learn new material. Writing notes or instruction
44
can help such learners to remember information easily and physical
involvement in the class plays major role in their retention of the information
(ibid).
Group learners prefer studying with others. Group studying make them feel
comfortable and it is best way for them to acquire knowledge. Students also
value class interaction and class work with other students, and they remember
information when they work with two or three classmates. The stimulation of
group work will help such learner to understand new information better. On
the contrary, individual learners prefer studying alone and they learn best
independently. Such students learn new material best when reading it
themselves. Progress and achievement is best visible when they learn alone
(ibid).
Reid (1987) also classified styles as major, minor, or negative. Each student has
major, minor, and negative learning style preference. Major learning styles
indicate that an individual could function well as a learner. Minor learning
style preferences indicate that an individual still can function well. Negative
learning style preferences indicate that the students may have difficulty in
learning.
3.5.3.2 Studies on Perceptual Learning Style Preference There are few studies conducted on learners’ perceptual learning style
preference. For instance, Reid (1987) carried out a research with respect to the
learning style preferences of ESL learners. The learning style preferences of
ESL learners from different languages, different educational and cultural
backgrounds sometimes differed significantly from each other. For instance,
the Korean students were found to be the most visual in their learning style
preferences. They were significantly more visual than the US and Japanese
learners. Many studies, including Reid’s, found that Hispanic learners were
45
frequently auditory. Japanese learners, on the other hand, appeared to be the
very non- auditory of all learners and were significantly less auditory than
Arabic and Chinese learners. Most ESL students from a variety of cultures were
tactile and kinesthetic in their sensory preferences.
The overall results of the research indicated that ESL learners strongly
preferred kinesthetic and tactile learning styles when compared to audio and
visual. In addition, most groups showed a negative preference for group
learning (ibid).
The other study conducted with respect to perceptual learning styles was made
by Rossi-Le (1989) , cited in Oxford and Burry-Stock (1995),“found a significant
relationship (p < .0005) between sensory preference (visual, auditory, tactile,
and kinesthetic) and overall strategy use on the ESL/EFL SILL through a
MANOVA, and she also found significant predictive relationships through
multiple regression” (p. 11). The results Rossi-Le obtained from the MANOVA
indicated that the auditory learners used memory strategies more frequently
than did the other learners. When compared with other learning style students,
kinesthetic learners did not make use metacognitive strategies as frequently as
the others did.
In another study, Braxton (1999), cited in Graham et al. (2007:172) found that
visual and auditory learning style preferences influenced the listening
strategies of ESL university students.
In this study, among other variables, effects of perceptual learning strategy
preference (i.e. both sensory and social learning styles) on learners’ listening
strategy use will be examined.
In addition to the aforementioned variables, others (i.e. culture, ethnicity and
age) which might influence language learners’ strategy use were investigated
46
(by different researchers) in an attempt to understand second/foreign language
learning process. In light of this, a number of studies provided many insights into relationships
of variables, i.e. culture (Horwitz 1987, 1988; Oxford, 1996), ethnicity (Yang,
2007), and age (Purdie and Oliver, 1999) to language learning strategy use.
However, no consistent picture has emerged.
From a review of earlier studies describing factors affecting language learning
strategy use, it is possible to deduce that the interrelationship between specific
language modalities and varied factors is the least examined area.
3.6 Listening in Language Learning: An Overview In this section the nature of listening, and the role of listening skills in
language learning will be discussed.
3.6.1 The Nature of Listening
For many people, being able to claim of a second/foreign language means being
able to speak and write in that language. Because of this, for a long time,
listening was considered as a secondary skill in second and foreign language
learning (Nunan, 2002). In addition, traditionally, L2 listening was considered
to be a passive skill and merely exposing the students to the spoken language
was thought to be adequate instruction in listening comprehension. However,
different studies indicate that listening is not a passive process; successful
listeners actively employ a variety of listening strategies to understand and
interpret what is spoken. Regarding this O’Malley et al. (1989:434) enlarge the
scope of listening comprehension and state that “Listening comprehension is
an active and conscious process in which the listener constructs meaning by
using cues from contextual information and from existing knowledge, while
relying upon multiple strategic resources to fulfill the task requirements.”
47
Substantiating the active role of a listener, Anderson and Lynch (1988:6) state
“understanding is not something that happens because of what a speaker says:
the listener has a crucial part to play in the process, by activating various types
of knowledge, and by applying what he knows to what he hears and trying to
understand what the speaker means.” Moreover, Vandergrift (1999:168), as
cited by McDonough and Shaw (2003:117), state the nature of listening skills
and comprehension and the role expected from a listener as follows:
It [ listening ] is a complex, active process in which the listener must discriminate between sounds, understanding vocabulary and structures, interpret stress and intonation, retain what was
gathered in all the above, and interpret it within the immediate as well as the larger socio-cultural context of utterance.
Coordinating all this involves a great deal of mental activity on the part of the learner. Listening is hard work.
Listening is a complex, problem-solving skill and it is more than perception of
sounds. Attention has drawn to the role of consciousness in language learning,
and in particular to the role of noticing in learning listening. In light of this
Schmidt (1990) distinguished the difference between input and intake. To him
input is “what the learner hears” whereas intake is “that part of the input that
the learner notices” (p.139). His argument is that we won’t learn anything from
input we hear and understand unless we notice something about the input.
Only intake can serve as the basis for language development (ibid). In other
words, ‘‘Listening includes comprehension of meaning bearing words, phrases,
clauses, sentences and connected discourse’’ (Oxford, 1993:206). As a result,
listening is usually a hard skill to master in one’s own language, let alone in
another language (ibid). The problem will be serious when it is an academic
listening in a foreign language. Regarding this Flowerdew and Miller (1995)
noted that academic listening has its own distinct features and demands
placed upon listeners, as compared with conversational listening:
48
1. Type of background knowledge required. 2. Ability to distinguish between what is relevant and what is not relevant. 3. Application of the turn-taking conventions. 4. Amount of implied meaning or number of indirect speech acts. 5. Ability to concentrate on and understand long sketches of talk without the opportunity of engaging in the facilitating functions of interactive discourse. 6. Note-taking. 7. Ability to integrate the incoming message with information derived from other media ( e.g., textbook, handouts, chalkboard) (pp.11-12). In addition, most L2 listeners consider the rapid speed of native speakers to be
a major cause of their listening difficulties (Rost, 1990). Difficulties in learning
listening are also closely associated with characteristics of the spoken text
which are different from those of the written text. The nature of the spoken
language in everyday life is unplanned discourse (Buck, 2001), while written
language is self monitored (Halliday, 1987). Which means, what listeners have
to listen to consist of hesitation, false starts, vocabulary repair, even
grammatically incorrect sentences (Hatch,1983) which are characteristics of
unplanned spoken language. Moreover, listening which takes place in
classroom provides little or no chance of review and processing in most cases
(Weir, 1993), which involves a different process from reading, where the reader
faces a permanent written text. Furthermore, though in a classroom listening
materials are recorded and can be played again for the students to listen, it is
usually under the control of the teacher (Underwood, 1989). It is to mean that
it is mainly the teacher who is going to decide how many times the cassette
(listening text) should be played for the students (ibid).
The other situation that makes listening difficult is that it is not only a
linguistic skill, but also a cognitive and social skill (Rost, 1990). He further
states that the development of listening ability involves the balanced enactment
of linguistic, ideational and interpersonal domains of language. Oxford (1990)
also speculates the importance of the L2 listener’s ability to employ: cognitive
49
strategies, memory strategies, compensation strategies (e.g. guessing
intelligently about the meaning of what is heard); indirect strategies of a
metacognitive nature, affective strategies and social character (e.g. asking for
clarification or repetition of what is heard).
3.6.2 The Role of Listening Skills in Language Learning
In the last three decades, the communicative and interaction-based approaches
to language teaching have placed increased importance on listening as a
methodological concern in foreign language education (Rost, 1994; Nunan,
2002; Cohen and Macaro, 2007). There are a number of reasons for this growth
and popularity. Focusing on the role of comprehensible input, second language
acquisition research has given a major boost to listening. Listening and
speaking have got much greater eminence as the vehicles through which
language learning takes place, especially in instructed environments claiming
to be ‘communicative’ in nature (Cohen and Macaro, 2007).
As we learn a language, our focus is on the meaning of the message used for
communicative purposes. Dunkel (1986) indicated that this goal (i.e., the
development of communicative competence and oral fluency) is achieved by
putting the horse (e.g. listening comprehension) before the cart (e.g. oral
production). In other words, the key to achieving proficiency in speaking is
developing proficiency in listening.
According to Feyten (1991), of the total time people spend on communication,
45% is on listening, 30% on speaking, 16% on reading, and 9% on writing.
Among the four language skills, listening is the one which usually develops
faster than speaking and which affects the development of reading and writing
abilities in learning a new language (Scarcella & Oxford, 1992; Vandergrift,
1997). It is also the most frequently used skill in the classroom and in daily life
(Yang, 1996). Vandergrift (1997) claimed that listening internalized not only the
50
rules of language but also facilitated the emergence of other language skills.
Oxford (1993) also claimed that listening is the most fundamental skill to
develop the other three skills (speaking, reading, and writing). With increased
attention to listening skills of second /foreign language instruction, teachers
must understand the listening strategies their students adopt in order to help
them in improving their English proficiency. As Rost (1994) points out,
listening is essential in the language classroom because it provides input for
the learner. Without understanding input at the right level, any learning simply
cannot begin. Listening, therefore, is a fundamental skill in language learning.
3.7 Listening Strategies Listening strategy research has for most part based on its theoretical
framework on research on language learning strategies (Bacon, 1992;
Vandergrift, 1997; Macaro et al., 2007). For this reason, in previous sections
features of language learning strategies and taxonomies of language learning
strategies upon which this study draws were discussed.
In this section listening strategy types and research conducted on listening
strategy will be treated one after the other.
In discussing listening strategy types, Oxford’s (1990) categorizing system is
adopted for organizational purposes. The researcher chooses Oxford’s (1990)
taxonomy for many reasons (See 3.4.5).
3.7.1 Types of Listening Strategies According to Oxford (1990) there are two general types of listening strategies:
direct strategies and indirect strategies.
51
3.7.1.1 Direct Listening Strategies Direct listening strategies are divided into three subcategories: Memory,
Cognitive and Compensation Strategies.
3.7.1.1.1 Memory Strategies Memory strategies help the learner store new information in memory and
retrieve it later. They are particularly said to be useful in vocabulary learning
which is “the most sizeable and unmanageable component in the learning of
any language” (Oxford, 1990:39). Memory strategies help listeners (i.e. students
who are learning listening skills in a foreign language) by making them store
verbal material and then retrieve it when needed for communication. Arranging
things in order, making associations and reviewing are very simple principles of
memory strategies. These principles all involve meaning. Creating mental
linkage, applying images and sounds, reviewing well and employing action are
sole strategies which help learners store in memory the important things they
hear in the new language, thus enlarging their knowledge base (ibid).
A. Creating mental linkage: Listeners can use these strategies by grouping,
associating /elaborating and using context strategy types.
Grouping- Listeners can use this memory strategy by classifying or
reclassifying what is heard into meaningful groups. Thus the listener reduces
the number of unrelated elements (Oxford, 1990).
Associating /elaborating- This memory strategy involves associating new
things heard with familiar concepts already known (ibid).
Placing new words into a context- This strategy involves new words or
expressions that have been heard into meaningful contexts, such as spoken or
written sentences as a way of remembering them (ibid).
52
B. Applying images and sounds: The following four strategies for applying
images and sounds are useful for remembering new expressions that have
been heard.
Using imagery- This strategy is a good way to remember what has been
heard (in a foreign language) is to create a mental image of it (ibid).
Semantic mapping- This memory strategy involves arranging concepts and
relationships on paper to create a diagram in which the key concepts heard
are highlighted and all are linked with related concepts via arrow or lines
(ibid).
Using key words- This strategy combines sounds and images so that learners
can more easily remember what they hear in the target language (ibid).
Representing sounds in memory- This strategy help learners remember what
they hear by making auditory rather than visual representations of sounds.
Rhymes are a well-known example of representing sounds in memory (ibid).
C. Reviewing well: Structured reviewing is useful to remember new ideas and
concepts heard in the target language (ibid).
D. Employing action: It includes two memory strategies: physical response or
sensation and using mechanical techniques.
Physical response or sensation- These strategies help learners to remember
new words/phrases or expressions by physically acting out a new expression
that has been heard (ibid).
53
Using mechanical techniques- To remember what has been heard mechanical
techniques are sometimes helpful. For example, flashcards, writing a new
word (heard in a listening text) and its meaning on different sides of it, is both
familiar and useful (ibid).
3.7.1.1.2 Cognitive Strategies The second groups of direct strategies are the cognitive listening strategies.
According to research results (e.g., O’Malley et al., 1989; Oxford, 1990; Bacon,
1992) cognitive strategies are the most common type of strategies used by
learners. To Oxford (1990) cognitive listening strategies can be categorized
under four sets: practicing, receiving and sending messages, analyzing and
reasoning, and creating structure for input and output. Each set of strategy is
further classified into different strategies.
A. Practicing: Strategies for practicing are among the most important cognitive
listening strategies. This set contains four listening strategies: repeating, formal
practicing with sounds and writing systems, recognizing and using formulas
and patterns, and practicing naturalistically.
Repeating- One use of this strategy is repeatedly listening to native speakers of
the new language on a tape or recorder, with or without silent rehearsal
(repeating the words to oneself mentally). Repetition might involve saying or
writing the same thing several times (Oxford, 1990).
Formal practicing with sounds and writing systems – This strategy, in listening,
is usually used for perception of sounds (pronunciation and intonation) rather
than on comprehension of meaning (ibid).
Recognizing and using formulas and patterns- Recognizing and using routine
formulas and patterns in the target language greatly enhance student’s
54
listening comprehension. If students use these routines properly, they will help
them to build their self-confidence and increase their listening comprehension
(ibid).
Practicing naturalistically- In listening, this learning strategy involves
comprehending the meaning of the spoken language in as naturalistic context
as much as possible (ibid).
B. Receiving and sending messages: This set consists of two strategies i.e.
getting the idea quickly, and using resources for receiving and sending
messages.
Getting the idea quickly- This listening strategy help learners to focus on what
they want to understand from a listening text. The two techniques involved in
this strategy are skimming and scanning. Skimming involves searching for the
central idea the speaker wants to get across, whereas scanning means
searching for specific details of interest to the listener (ibid).
Using resources for receiving and sending messages- This strategy involves
using resources to find out the meaning of what is heard in the target
language. For better understanding of what is heard, printed resources such as
dictionaries, grammar books, Encyclopedias etc. can provide important
background information so that learners can better understand the spoken
language. Non-printed resources like TV, tape, video cassettes and radio are
among other resources (ibid).
C. Analyzing and reasoning: This set of strategies help learners(listeners) to use
logical thinking to understand and use the grammar rules and vocabulary to
understand listening texts (in the target language) better. This set of strategies
is further divided into five listening strategies: reasoning deductively, analyzing
55
expressions, analyzing contrastively, translating, and transferring (Oxford,
1990).
Reasoning deductively- This strategy help learners derive hypothesis (guesses)
about the meaning of what is heard by means of general rules (of the target
language) the learner already knows (ibid).
Analyzing expressions- This strategy helps listeners to comprehend something
spoken in the target language by breaking down a new word, phrase, sentence
or even paragraph into its meaningful components (ibid).
Analyzing contrastively- This listening strategy involves analyzing elements
(sounds, words, syntax) of the target language to determine similarities and
differences in comparison with the learner’s mother tongue (ibid).
Translating - As long as it is used with care, this strategy can be helpful in early
language learning (ibid).
Transferring - This strategy involves directly applying background knowledge to
facilitate learning listening skills in the target language. Transferring can
involve applying linguistic knowledge from the learner’s mother tongue to the
target language or conceptual knowledge from one field to another or from one
skill to another (ibid).
D. Creating structure for input and output: This set consists of three strategies:
taking notes, summarizing, and highlighting. These strategies help learners
sort and organize information heard in the target language that comes their
way. Besides, these strategies allow students to demonstrate their listening
comprehension tangibly for using it for writing and speaking (Oxford, 1990).
56
Taking notes- This is a crucial strategy for listening. The focus of taking notes
should be on understanding, not writing (ibid).
Summarizing- This is making condensed, short version of the original listening
passage or text. It is the other strategy that helps listeners new input and show
they understand the listening text they heard (ibid).
Highlighting- This is the other strategy that benefit learners by supplementing
notes and summaries. It focuses on showing the major or most important
points heard in a dramatic way like through colour, underlining, capital letters,
initial capitals, bold writing, stars, circles etc. (ibid).
While Oxford provides a detailed description of all cognitive listening strategies,
Bacon (1992) categorizes them under two main headings: top-down and
bottom-up strategies.
Bottom-up Strategies: They are text based strategies because they depend on
using clues or evidence from the existing text to understand new information.
That includes strategies like repeating some words that the listener heard
probably because they seem to be key words as long as they occur frequently
than other words. Some listeners used these strategies to acquire the meaning
of the message based on the incoming language data from sounds, to words, to
grammatical relationships, and ultimately to the meaning. Students build
meaning from lower level sounds to words and then to grammatical
relationships and finally to lexical meanings in order to arrive at the final
message; learners use linguistic knowledge to understand the meaning of a
message (Nunan, 2002; Rost, 2002).
On the other hand, listeners can get some information from the text through
paying attention to intonation and pauses that help them recognize chunks of
57
words as particular speech patterns, each of which carries one piece of
information (Rixon, 1986).
Top-down strategies: Unlike bottom-up strategies, this type of strategy is
thought to be a higher cognitive level in the sense that it deals with more
abstract clues. Thus, to deduce the meaning from and interpret the message,
listeners use top-down strategies by relating what they hear with their
schemata knowledge. Schemata knowledge includes learner’s background
knowledge and global understanding. Background knowledge can be
knowledge of the topic, the listening context, the text-type, the culture or other
information stored in long-term memory as schemata (typical sequences or
common situations around which world knowledge is organized) (Nunan, 2002;
Rost, 2002). Having such knowledge, listeners can keep up with the listening
text because they formulate some expectations and predictions before and
while listening (Bacon, 1992).
However, since listening is an interactive and interpretive process where
listeners use both prior knowledge and linguistic knowledge to make sense of
the incoming message, students are expected to use both strategies accordingly
(Rost, 1994; Nunan, 2002). The degree to which listeners use the one strategy
or the other will depend on their knowledge of the language, familiarity with the
topic or the purpose for listening. For example, listening for gist involves
primarily top-down processing and strategies, whereas listening for specific
information, as in a weather broadcast, involves primarily bottom-up strategies
to comprehend all the desired details (ibid). 3.7.1.1.3 Compensation Strategies
If used effectively, compensatory strategies can help learners to overcome
knowledge limitations when they do not hear something clearly or cannot catch
all the words. They are also useful when learners face with a situation in which
58
the meaning is only implicit or intentionally vague. When learners are
confronted with unknown expressions or words, they can make use a variety of
clues so as to guess the meaning of those expressions or words. Therefore,
Oxford (1990) considers these strategies as the tools for ‘guessing intelligently’
because listeners do not have to recognize and understand every single word as
long as they can guess ‘systematically’ through using clues such as:
Using linguistic clues- Learner’s background knowledge of the target language,
her/his own language or some other languages can provide linguistic clues to
the meaning of what is heard (Oxford, 1990). Listeners can use such clues like
word order, word formation (e.g. identifying suffixes and prefixes) and word
stress to facilitate their listening comprehension. Though some guesses can be
based on partial knowledge of the target language, learners need to have
sufficient grammatical Knowledge of the target language to fill-in gaps when
they listen to ‘messy pronunciation’ (ibid).
Using other clues- These are clues from other sources –excluding clues coming
purely from knowledge of language. Hence, some of these clues are related to
the type of vocabulary used that listeners need to be familiar with in order to
guess what is ‘beyond’ the language. For example, listeners can make a good
guess about the social status of certain participants (people in the listening
text) from the way they addressed such as ‘Mrs.’ and ‘Miss’. In other words,
“Forms of address, such as titles or nicknames, help learners guess the
meaning of what they hear” (Oxford,1990: 92). Besides, the speaker tone of
voice, which indicates his or her statues of mind, makes it possible for the
listener to correctly interpret what is heard (ibid).
For further information on direct listening strategies see Figure 3.1.
59
1. Grouping
2 .Associating / elaborating/
A. Creating mental linkages 3. Placing new words into a context
B. Appling images and sounds 1. Using imagery 1.Memory strategies(CARE) 2. Semantic mapping
3. Using key words C. Reviewing Well Structured reviewing 4. Representing sounds in memory 1. Using physical response or sensation D. Employing action
2. Using mechanical techniques
1. Repeating
2. Formally practicing with sounds and writing systems
A. Practicing 3. Reenergizing and using formulas and patterns 4. Practicing naturalistically B. Receiving and sending message 1. Getting the idea quickly
2. Cognitive strategies 2. Using resources for receiving and sending messages C. Analyzing and reasoning 1. Reasoning deductively (PRAC) 2. Analyzing expression 3. Analyzing contrastively (across languages)
4. Translating
D. Creating structure 5. Transferring
for input and output 1. Taking notes 2. Summarizing Figure 3.1: Direct Listening Strategies (Source: original) 3. Highlighting
60
1. Using linguistic clues
Guessing intelligently 2. Using other clues 3. Compensation strategies
Figure 3.1 (Continued)
61
3.7.1.2 Indirect Listening Strategies The second group of strategies, that is, indirect listening strategies, consists of
three subcategories: Metacognitive, Affective, and Social Strategies.
3.7.2.1.1 Metacognitive Strategies Metacognitive strategies involve the use of listening comprehension activities
and utilize individual perceptions to help listeners increase their levels of
listening comprehension. Metacognitive strategies go beyond the cognitive
devices and provide a way for learners to coordinate with their own learning
process. In light of this (Oxford, 1990:135) argues that “Metacognitive
strategies allow learners to control their own cognition-that is to coordinate
the learning process by using functions such as centering, arranging,
planning, and evaluating.” In other words, these strategies help listeners (who
are learning listening skills in a foreign language) coordinate their own
learning process. They occur pre-listening, during listening and post-listening,
and they increase listeners’ levels of listening comprehension and better
develop an awareness of listening (Bacon, 1992).
Metacognitive strategies consist three sets: centering one’s learning, arranging
and planning one’s learning, and evaluating one’s learning.
A. Centering one’s learning: Centering for learning or finding a focus is a
crucial matter in learning listening skills in a foreign language (Oxford, 1990).
B. Arranging and planning one’s learning: This set of metacognitve strategy
focuses on investigating the nature of language learning, organizing to learn
establishing aims, considering task purposes , planning for tasks ,and looking
for chances to practice listening (Oxford, 1990).
62
As is the case in real life situations, learners, who are learning listening skills
in a foreign language, need to set a purpose for listening in order to set the
right channels for attention. Among other things, if goals and objectives are
set properly earlier, learners might have opportunities to self-monitor their
learning and self-evaluate their listening progress (ibid). Thus, setting a
purpose help them be better prepared before listening because they will
probably have a kind of mental plan to follow (Bacon, 1992). Planning includes
being aware of what needs to be accomplished in a listening task and
developing appropriate plans to overcome listening difficulties.
C. Evaluating your learning: Self-monitoring and self-evaluation are the
two strategy types in this set of metacognitive listening strategy. They
relate to monitoring one’s own error and evaluating one’s overall
progress in learning listening skills (Oxford, 1990).
Self-monitoring - Listeners need to be self-conscious while listening to be
able to monitor their comprehension. In other words, listeners can
monitor their understanding as they continue listening as long as they
can notice their error or any inaccurate guesses and try to improve on
them (ibid).
Self-evaluation- After the listening activity is completed, some listeners
evaluate their overall comprehension progress and asses how well they
have done. Oxford (1990) points out that any self-evaluation must take
into consideration the difficulty of the situation or the language and that
learners should try to be as specific as possible for an accurate
evaluation. Thus, listeners are expected to be more realistic in
evaluating their listening comprehension (Bacon, 1992).
63
3.7.1.2.2 Affective Strategies Though it is difficult to describe affective domain within definable limits, to
Brown (2002), it encompasses such concepts as self-esteem, attitudes,
motivation, anxiety, culture shock, inhibition, risk-taking, and tolerance of
ambiguity. Oxford (1990:140) claims that “the affective side of the learner is
probably one of the very biggest influences on language learning success or
failure.” Knowing how to control one’s emotions and attitudes about learning
may influence the language learning process positively since it will make the
learning more effective and enjoyable. It is also known that negative feelings
can hinder progress. Good language learners often know how to control their
emotions and attitudes about learning (ibid). There are many cases in which
learners have no problems dealing with technical aspects of the language. For
instance, students may perfectly understand a listening text, but they would
not be able to perform the listening task successfully if the text is culturally
offensive. The control over such factors is gained through the manipulation of
affective strategies (Bacon, 1992).
According to Oxford (1990) there are three sets of affective strategies: lowering
one’s anxiety, encouraging oneself, and taking one’s emotional temperature.
A. Lowering one’s anxiety: Anxiety may have a debilitating effect in learning
listening skills in a foreign language. Learners may have a feeling of being
unable to perform listening tasks and activities in a foreign language
classroom when foreign language anxiety emerges (Horwitz et al., 1986).
Foreign language classroom anxiety is a situational specific form of language
anxiety induced by the need to perform classroom tasks and activities in
another language. Lowering anxiety is helpful to be effective in performing
listening tasks and activities (ibid). Strategies such as using progressive
relaxation, deep breathing or mediation, listening to soothing music (before
the listening text), and using laughter (i.e. Watching a funny movie, listening
64
to jocks and so on) help learners to lower their anxiety either at home or in the
classroom (Oxford, 1990).
B. Encouraging oneself: In addition to other peoples’ encouragement “the most
potent encouragement–and the only available encouragement in many
independent language learning situations-may come from inside the learner”
(Oxford, 1990: 143). In most cases listening in a foreign language is a personal
activity carried out by individual learners. Thus, self-encouragement strategies
should be taken into account in learning listening skills because they are ways
to keep learners spirits up and preserve as they try to comprehend listening
texts. Self-encouragement listening strategies include saying positive
statements to oneself, prodding oneself to take risks wisely, and providing
rewards to oneself (ibid).
C. Taking one’s emotional temperature: According to Oxford (1990) this set of
affective strategies involves getting in touch with feelings, attitudes and
motivation through a variety of ways. Listeners are expected to take into
account these affective strategies so that they start to exert some control over
them.
This set includes specific affective listening strategies such as listening to your
body, using a checklist, writing a language learning diary, and discussing your
feelings with someone else (ibid).
3.7.1.2.3 Social Strategies
Since language is a form of social behaviour, it involves communication
between and among people. In learning situations, there are mixed ability
groups within which learners can develop some appropriate strategies for
sharing ideas and asking for help. Social listening strategies enable language
learners to learn with others by making use of strategies such as asking
65
questions (i.e. asking for clarification or verification), cooperating with others,
and empathizing with others (Oxford,1990). Their appropriate use is extremely
important since they determine the nature of communication in a learning
context.
A. Asking for clarification or verification: As listeners, learners can ask for
clarification when they want the speaker, who could be the teacher or other
more proficient speaker, to slow down, repeat or explain something. They can
ask verification to check that they have understood something heard correctly
(ibid).
B. Cooperating with others: As language in all aspects is a social activity,
learners have the chance to learn from their peers. If they are put into groups
to work on a particular listening task, there is a possibility that less successful
listeners make use of some of the strategies used by successful listeners as
they work together cooperatively and observe how their peers manage to
succeed (ibid).
C. Empathizing with others: Understanding a listening text involves empathy
with other people, particularly with individuals from the target culture.
Students’ background knowledge of the new culture often help them for better
understanding of what is heard in the new language. In addition, “becoming
aware of fluctuations in thoughts, and feelings of particular people who use the
new language help learners understand more clearly what is communicated
(what is said and what is left unsaid)” (Oxford, 1990:173). This in turn help
listeners, as learners, to become more aware of the mind set of other people
(ibid).
For further information on indirect listening strategies see Figure 3.2.
66
1. Overviewing and linking with already known material
A. Centering your learning 2. Paying attention
3 Delaying speech production to focus on listening
1.Metacognitive strategies (CAPE) 1. Finding out about language learning
2. Organizing 3. Setting goals and objectives B. Arranging and planning your learning 4. Identifying the purpose of a language task (Purposeful listening)
5. Planning for a language task 6. Seeking practice opportunities
C. Evaluating your learning 1. Self-monitoring
2. Self-evaluating
Figure 3.2: Indirect Listening Strategies (Source: Original)
67
1. Using progressive relation, deep breathing or mediation 2. Using music
A. Lowering your anxiety 3. Using laughter
1. Making positive statements 2. Affective strategies B. Encouraging yourself 2 . Taking risks wisely 3. Rewarding yourself (LET)
1. Listening to your body C. Taking your emotional temperature 2. Using a check list 3. Writing a language learning diary
4. Discussing your feeling with someone else
Asking for clarification or verification
A. Asking questions
3.Social strategies( ACE) B. Cooperating with others 1. Cooperating with peers
2. Cooperating with proficient users of the new language
C. Empathizing with others 1. Developing central understanding
2. Becoming aware of others thoughts and feelings
Figure 3.2 (Continued)
Though direct and indirect listening strategies have their own roles in learning
listening skills, they are complementary for effective learning. For further
information on the interrelationships between direct and indirect listening
strategies, and among strategy groups (See Figure 3.3 below).
Memory
Strategies
( Direct )
Cognitive Social
Strategies Strategies
(Direct) (Direct)
Compensation Affective
Strategies Strategies
(Direct) (Indirect)
Metacognitive
Strategies
(Indirect)
Figure 3.3: Interrelations between Direct and Indirect Listening Strategies
and Among the Six Strategy Groups (Source: Original)
69
3.7.2 Research on Listening Strategy Use There are some studies which provide information regarding listening strategy
use. Some research looked into the listening strategies used by L2 learners of
different target languages, such as French (Vandergrift, 1997), Italian (Laviosa,
1991), Spanish (Bacon, 1992), ESL (O'Malley et al., 1989), Japanese EFL (Ross
& Rost, 1991), and Chinese EFL (Huang & Naerssen, 1987). Some other
studies have examined the listening strategies employed by EFL learners in
Taiwan (Yang, 2007).
Majority of studies describing listening strategies have given much attention to
whether more successful listeners can be differentiated from less successful
ones by their strategy use (Graham et al., 2007).
A study by Vandergrift (2003) compared the listening comprehension strategies
of more-skilled and less-skilled Canadian seventh-grade students of French.
They were classified as ‘more skilled’ or ‘less skilled’ in listening via a multiple
choice listening test. Students listened to several French texts and were
prompted to think aloud during the process. The more skilled listeners used
more metacognitive strategies than did their less skilled peers. In addition, the
research results revealed that more skilled listeners engaged in questioning for
clarification, whereas the less skilled used more translation.
Moreover, differences in strategy use by listening success have been reported
by Goh (1998), cited in Graham et al. (2007), between higher and lower
listening ability students. The research indicated that “lower ability listeners
(based on their academic listening achievement) failed to use certain strategies
that higher ability listeners did successfully” (Graham et al., 2007:171). A
study conducted by Yu (2003), as cited in Cohen and Macaro (2007), on
university medical majors in China, found that learners’ strategy use was
strongly correlated with listening proficiency. On the other hand, by analyzing
70
diaries from 12 learners, Halbach (2000) reported that subjects who got higher
marks during their final term listening exam reported using strategies more
frequently than did the less successful students.
On the contrary, in another study conducted by Peter (1999), as cited in
Graham, et al. (2007), no difference is found in the number of strategies used
between successful and less successful ability listeners (based on their
listening test achievement).
Learners’ listening proficiency success, however, has been measured in a
number of different ways. For instance, in some studies participant students
were simply designated as successful or otherwise by their teachers; by the
students self-rated listening proficiency; via free recall tasks; by multiple-
choice task; via national listening test; via listening tests and a reading test
together, and by general proficiency tests (Graham et al., 2007).
Some other studies have examined learners’ strategic reactions to particular
types of listening texts. For instance, Kim (1999) as cited in Graham et al.
(2007:173) identified Korean listeners’ dispositions towards authentic material.
Among the strategies reportedly used were ‘concentrating’, ‘pre-reading of a
task’, ‘catching the first word in a sentence’, and ‘focusing on interrogatives’.
The research also revealed that the learners’ dispositions to authentic material
were related whether they were able to deploy some strategies.
Other studies have investigated listening strategy elicitation techniques (e.g.
O’Malley, Chamot, and Küpper, 1989).
Generally, when we see studies conducted on listening strategies so far, little
attention has been given to group differences as variables interacting with
listening strategy use. Gender and preferred learning styles are among those
less investigated variables (Graham et al., 2007).
71
3.7.3 Listening Strategy Research in the Local Context Many studies have been carried out in the area of listening skills in local
context. The studies focused on listening abilities (Tewelde, 1988; Seime, 1989;
Hiwot, 2006), motivation in listening classes (Mulugeta, 1997), the relevance of
the contents of listening materials (Adinew, 2000), and listening
comprehension teaching practice (Haregewoin, 2003). Nevertheless, none of the
above mentioned studies were on listening strategy use.
The only researches conducted related to students’ listening strategy use were
that of Berhanu (1993) and Abdi (2005).
The purpose of Berhanu’s study was to find out what observable listening
strategies Addis Ababa University fourth year students use to shape the
spoken discourse they practice in order to:
a) indicate understanding/attention;
b) indicate problems of understanding, and
c) indicate desire to shift topic or role and maintain it.
In short, the research was aimed to investigate the various strategies listeners
actually use in collaborative discourse to negotiate meaning. The subjects (the
six students) were recorded, using audio and video recordings, while carrying
out two texts and a discussion related to their senior essays with their
advisors. The results showed that students used ‘listening response or
backchanelling’ most frequently. Besides ‘specific request for confirmation’,
‘potential request for confirmation’ and ‘minimal query’ were frequently used by
students to indicate or solve problems of understanding as they are arranged
in descending order. Lastly, the result indicated that students used ‘shifting
role’ and ‘topic switching’ only in discussion to designate change of topic or
take new role as speaker.
72
On the other hand, the general objective of Abdi’s study was to investigate the
overall contributions of strategies used by students and teachers for the
development of listening skills of students in preparatory school English
language classrooms. It also assessed whether the course teachers were aware
of the properties, procedures, values and challenges of listening in English by
the learners both in the classroom teaching-learning process and in real life
communication situations.
The overall result of the study indicated that learners used more frequently
metacognitive and cognitive strategies of task evaluation, self-evaluation, self-
monitoring, arranging and planning for their own learning, elaboration,
organizing, predicting, and selective attention.
It was found that the learners had greater problems in overall linguistic
abilities. The results also indicated positive relationship between learners’
metacognitive and cognitive strategies with their performance in listening
comprehension. Moreover, the findings of the study revealed that social and
affective strategies were less frequently used.
3.8 Summary of the Chapter This chapter presented the related literature for this study. Language learning
strategies by definition are operations, techniques, steps, processes, behaviors,
or thoughts used by learners to guide, facilitate, and solve problems in their
language learning and language use. And listening strategies by definition are
specific plans, actions, behaviors, steps or techniques that individual learners
use to learn and/or improve their English listening skills. In other words,
listening strategies reflect the ways in which students choose and use to learn
listening in a target language.
73
As reflected in the literature review, some ambiguities about learning strategies
still exist and the need for further study is supported. On the whole, research
on foreign language learning strategies in general and listening strategy use, in
particular is in its infancy. Regarding this Grenfell and Macaro (2007:28) claim
“It may seem surprisingly that, after 30 years, language learning strategy
research is still quite an immature field.” The current study is an attempt to
further examine effects of gender, listening proficiency and preferred perceptual
learning styles on listening strategy use of EFL learners. There is still lack of
current research which cohesively addresses each of these areas.
74
CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 4.1 Introduction The main purpose of this study was to investigate effects of gender, listening
proficiency, and learners’ perceptual learning style preference on their language
learning strategy use, with emphasis on academic listening in English as a
foreign language context. Besides, it was intended to assess the course
instructors’ and students’ practices and perceptions regarding teaching and
learning listening skills in English.
This chapter deals with design of the study, research sites and participants of
the study, data collection instruments, data collection procedures and methods
of data analyses consecutively. Finally, the pilot study is discussed under the
last section of the chapter.
4.2 Design of the Study
A mixed methods (quantitative and qualitative) design was chosen for this
study due to the complex nature of issues raised in the study. As Mertens
(2005) cited in Dornyei (2007:149) claims, “mixed methods design has a
practical value when we want to examine an issue that is embodied in a
complex educational or social context.” In order to gather information related to
the research questions, questionnaires, listening tests and interviews were
used. The questionnaires (the adapted SILL and PLSPQ) were used to
investigate learners’ listening strategy use and their perceptual learning style
preferences respectively. TOEFL listening tests were used to assess learners’
overall listening proficiency. On the other hand, interviews with the course
instructors and students were conducted to investigate their practices and
perceptions regarding teaching and learning listening skills in English. Figure
4.1 demonstrates the features of the variables interactions as the study is
intended to determine the degrees of the contributions of the independent
75
variables on predicting the variability of the dependent variables (listening
strategy categories).
Different statistical techniques were used to analyze the quantitative data. For
instance, t-tests were carried out to examine the influence of each independent
variable on students’ listening strategy categories. Pearson’s product-moment
correlations were computed to check relationships between variables. On the
other hand, stepwise regression analyses were used to examine the
interrelationships among the independent variables, dependent variables and
independent and dependent variables. Moreover, multiple regressions were
used to examine the predictor level of the independent variables for the
variability of the dependent variables i.e. listening strategy categories. Coding
technique was employed to analyze the qualitative data i.e., learners’ responses
to open-ended question of the adapted SILL. On the other hand, course
instructors’ and students’ interview results were analyzed thematically.
Figure 4.1: The Relationship between Independent and Dependent Variables
Independent Variables
A) Gender B) Listening Proficiency C) Perceptual Learning style
Preference Auditory Visual Tactile Kinesthetic Group Individual
Dependent Variable(S)
Listening Strategies
Memory Cognitive Compensation Metacognitive Affective Social
76
4.3 Research Sites and Participants of the Study 4.3.1 Research Sites The main study was conducted at Debre Markos and Bahir Dar universities. As
the study is mainly ex post facto type, relatively large number of participants
was expected to be included (Gray, 2004; Blaxter et al., 2006). Bahir Dar
University was chosen because it was providing the course-listening skills to
English major students. In addition, the researcher is a staff member there in
the Department of English, and had better access to the Department and its
students as subjects. To increase the number of participant students of the
study, one university other than BDU was chosen to be included. DMU is
selected for the following reasons. Firstly, it was selected for its place-proximity
to the researcher. Secondly, it was the only one which gave the course,
listening skills, to English major students from the proximal universities (e.g.
from Gondar University).
4.3.2 Participants of the Study The participants of the main study were first year English major students who
were taking English Listening Skills at Debre Markos and Bahir Dar
universities. In addition, the two course instructors who were teaching English
listening skills were also other participants of the study. The data were
collected during the second semester of 2010/2011 G.C. or 2003 E.C. at Debre
Markos University and first semester of 2011/2012 G.C. or 2004 E.C.
academic year at Bahir Dar University, respectively. English majoring students
were selected because the main concern of this study was to see effects of
gender, listening proficiency, and perceptual learning style preference on EFL
students listening strategy use. They were the only group of English major
students who took the course (Listening skills) during the two semesters of the
academic years stated above.
77
According to the information obtained from the respective departments of
English, the total number of first year English majoring students was 72 (39
males and 33 females). That is, 38 participants (25 males and 13 females) were
from DMU and the rest 34 i.e. 14 male and 20 female participant students were
from BDU. Using comprehensive sampling technique all of the students were
chosen to participate in the main study. All of the students were selected for
the main study for it is advisable to take a large number of subjects for a
correlational (Ex post facto) study like this (Wiersma, 2000; Dorneyi, 2007).
However, two students (i.e. one male and one female - from DMU and BDU,
respectively) who were absent during the PLSPQ administration were excluded
from the study. Thus, the data was analyzed for those 70 students (38 males
and 32 females) who participated successfully in filling the questionnaires and
taking the listening tests. Thus, the ratio of gender was 54.29% male and
45.71% female participants. Though age difference was not the concern of this
study, it may be necessary to state the range and mean age of the participants.
Their age ranged from eighteen to thirty two, with a mean age of 20.61 (See
Appendix K).
4.4 Data Collection Instruments
In gathering data required for the study, questionnaires, listening tests and
interviews were utilized.
4.4.1 Questionnaires In this study two questionnaires (i.e. adapted SILL and PLSPQ) were used.
Literature on language learning strategies indicates that, there are several ways
of gathering data on what strategies learners employ and, on how they utilize
strategies in learning target languages. These strategy assessment tools include
learning strategy inventories (questionnaires), interviews, observation, verbal
78
report, diaries, dialogue journals and computer tracking (Cohen and Scott,
1996). Some of these are well established while some others are increasing
gaining ground. Cohen and Scott (1996) point out that a number of factors like
the number of participants of the study may affect the appropriateness of a
particular tool.
As described earlier, the data were collected from English major students of
two universities. The best cost effective and the most practical way of reaching
a large sample to identify listening strategy use is through questionnaire.
To assess learners’ listening strategy use, therefore, adapted Strategy Inventory
for Language Learning (SILL, 7.0 Version) was employed.
4.4.1.1 Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) The SILL was originally developed by Oxford to measure the frequency of use of
the language learning strategies of adult learners of foreign languages (Oxford,
1986). Later, the SILL was revised by Oxford to yield two more versions: 1) The
SILL 5.1 version for English speakers learning a new language (80 items), 2)
The SILL 7.0 version for speakers of other languages learning English (50
items). Oxford (1990) developed this original Strategy Inventory for Language
Learning (SILL, ESL/EFL 7.0 Version), whose questions are classified into six
strategy categories: memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective
and social strategies (See Appendix B).
The adapted SILL (7.0 version) is a self-report questionnaire, and the 45 items
in the questionnaire are grouped into six categories of listening strategies:
memory-storing and retrieving information (9 items: 1-9), cognitive-
understanding and producing the language (13 items :10-22), compensation-
overcoming limitations in learning listening skills in English ( 3 items : 23-25),
metacognitive-centering and directing learning (9 items : 26-34), affective-
79
controlling emotions, motivation (6 items :35-40), social-cooperating with
others in learning listening skills in English (4 items :41-44) and one open-
ended question (See Appendix A).
The adapted SILL uses a five-point Likert scale system for each strategy
ranging from 1 to 5 (1= never or almost never true of me, 2= generally not true
of me, 3= somewhat true of me, 4= generally true of me, and 5= always or
almost always true of me). The average scores for groups of strategies on the
SILL are interpreted based on the reporting scale established by Oxford
(1990:300). Oxford (1990) points out that the overall average shows how often
the learner is inclined to use learning strategies in general, while the means for
each section of the SILL stand for which strategy groups the learner is liable to
use most frequently. Generally, this is categorized into three levels specifically
designed to inform students as to how often they use strategies for learning
listening skills in English: 1) ‘High Usage’= Always used with a mean of 4.5-5.0
or usually used with a mean of 3.5-4.4 ; 2) ‘Medium usage’= Sometimes used
with a mean of 2.5-3.4 ; and 3) ‘Low usage’= Generally not used with a mean of
1.5-2.4 or Never used with a mean of 1.0-1.40 (ibid).
4.4.1.1.1 Rationale for Using SILL SILL is chosen for this study for the following reasons. Firstly, Oxford’s
classification is ‘‘more systematic in linking individual strategies, as well as
strategy groups’’ (Oxford, 1990:14). It is also more systematic because it links
individual strategies, as well as strategy groups, with each of the four language
skills: listening, reading, speaking and writing. Secondly, it is ‘‘the most
comprehensive one to date’’ (Ellis, 1994:539); thirdly, SILL is the most often
used strategy instrument around the world (Cohen and Macaro, 2007). Oxford
and Burry-Stock (1995) estimated that 40-50 studies have used the SILL,
involving approximately 9,000 language learners. And it is the only language
learning strategy instrument that has been extensively field-tested for reliability
80
and validated in multiple ways (Oxford & Burry-Stock, 1995). A number of
studies using the ESL/EFL SILL as an instrument have reported high reliability
and validity of the SILL. Almost all studies reported high reliability (above .90)
of the SILL. The apparently stronger association of SILL (Strategy Inventory for
Language Learning) with students’ language learning strategy use, consistent
with Bedell and Oxford (1996) findings, appears to lend support to Chamot’s
(2004) claim that the SILL is an appropriate measure for learners’ language
learning strategy use. In other words, SILL is a standardized measuring tool
with versions for students of a variety of languages, and as such can be used to
collect and analyze information about large numbers of language learners (Yang, 2007). Furthermore, it has also been used in studies that correlate
strategy use with different variables such as ethnicity, age, gender, and culture
(Bedell and Oxford, 1996; Chamot, 2004 and Yang, 2007). However as to the
purpose of the study the original SILL had to be adapted.
4.4.1.1.2 Rationale for Adapting the SILL Since the SILL was originally designed to investigate learners’ overall language
learning strategy use, it doesn’t help to go deep in eliciting learners’ specific
language skills strategy use. Thus, it was necessary to adapt the original SILL
so as to assess language learners’ listening strategy use.
Before the adaptation was made, a pre-pilot assessment was conducted in the
first week of Tir (January) 2009/2010 or 2002 E.C at Bahir Dar University on
first year English majoring students. The pre-pilot assessment was made
mainly to get information on the capability of the original SILL in investigating
learners’ listening strategy use. During the pre-pilot assessment, after ten
minutes the inventory was distributed, students began asking questions and
didn’t seem to respond in a way expected. From the discussions made with
those students, the researcher came to realize that it was due to the general
nature of the questions and their being questions of general learning strategies
81
rather than of specific listening strategies. This is to mean that from the pre-
pilot study, the researcher has learned that the original SILL was found
unsuitable to assess learners’ listening strategy use. Thus, the SILL was
adapted based on the feedback obtained from the pre-pilot assessment and on
the basis of Oxford’s (1990) detailed explanation on the application of direct
and indirect strategies to the four language skills in general, and listening
skills, in particular (See Oxford,1990: pp.57-134,151-192 ).
One item (i.e. 32 in the original SILL) is adopted. Adaptation was made on 43
items of the original SILL. In adapting the original SILL items, changes were
made at phrase, clause and sentence levels so that they will meet the objectives
of the study. For instance, the word ‘English’; and a phrase ‘English skills’
used in the original SILL were consistently replaced by ‘listening skills lessons’
and ‘listening skills’ respectively. In addition, the following sentences (in the
original SILL) “I review English lessons often” and “I encourage myself to speak
English even when I feel afraid of making a mistake” are changed to “When I
personally listen to a text or a tape, I often review it” and “I encourage myself to
do more listening even if the listening lesson gets quite hard and requires a lot
of thought and/or practice”, respectively in the adapted SILL. On the other
hand, six items in the original SILL (i.e. 16, 25,26,29,46 and 49) which did not
relate (i.e. directly or indirectly) to learners’ listening strategy use are cancelled
out from the questionnaire. What is more, one open-ended question is added
by the researcher in order to elicit any additional listening strategy used by the
subjects (See Appendix A and Appendix B).
4.4.1.1.3 Reliability and Validity of the Adapted SILL A number of studies using the ESL/EFL SILL as an instrument have reported
its validity and reliability. Many studies reported high internal consistency
reliability of the SILL, which ranges from 0.89 to 0.98 Cronbach’s alpha (Park,
82
1997; Griffiths, 2004). The content validity of the SILL is also found high
(Phillips, 1991).
In this project, the adapted SILL’s reliability and validity were checked in the
pilot study.
As far as the researcher’s reading is concerned, this is the first time that the
SILL is adapted only to elicit learners’ listening strategy use in the local
context. It was, therefore, imperative to check reliability and validity of this
instrument in the pilot study. Using the test-retest method, the reliability of the
adapted SILL was checked. To minimize a carryover effect of the test (first
round adapted SILL administration), one to two weeks gap is often
recommended as an optimal time to conduct a retest of the same instrument
with the same respondents (Muijs, 2004). Thus, the adapted SILL was
administered again to the subjects two weeks after the first round SILL
administration was made. After the retest was made, the reliability coefficient
(coefficient of equivalence) of the adapted SILL was calculated and found high-
i.e. 0.93 coefficient alpha. In addition, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was
computed to determine the internal consistency reliability of the adapted SILL
(44 items) responses to the whole participants in the pilot study, and found
0.91.
In the main study, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was computed to determine the
internal consistency reliability of the adapted SILL (44 closed-items) responses
to the whole participants, and found 0.89.
Concerning the content validity of the inventory, Oxford and Burry-Stock
(1995) state that the content validity of the instrument was determined by
professional judgment, and it was found to be very high. “Two strategy experts
matched the SILL items with agreement at 0.99 against entries in a
83
comprehensive language learning strategy taxonomy, which itself was built
from a detailed blueprint of a range of over 200 possible strategy types” (p. 7).
Before conducting the pilot study, the content and face validity of the
questionnaire items were reviewed and assessed by an expert in the field and
two PhD TEFL students. The expert (behavioral science instructor) was mainly
used to comment on the content validity of the questionnaire. A questionnaire
validation form, adapted from Chen (2002), was prepared and given to the
expert and those two PhD TEFL students to comment on the items (See
Appendix I). Comments were received about the clarity and relevance of the
items. Based on the feedback, the unclear items were reworded, and items that
were not relevant for the study were canceled.
4.4.1.2 Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire (PLSPQ) Learners’ perceptual learning style preference was assessed using Reid’s (1987)
Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire (PLSPQ). It is one of the
most commonly used questionnaires to assess learners’ perceptual learning
style preference (Reid, 1995).
Reid’s (1987) questionnaire consists of 30 self–report questions randomly
arranged, five statements for each of the six perceptual learning style
preference subscales. Subjects are expected to indicate how much they agree
with each item on a Likert scale from 5 (strongly agree) to 1 (strongly disagree)
when they learn English. Hence, while answering the statements in the
questionnaire the subjects were asked to decide whether they strongly agree,
agree, undecided, disagree, and strongly disagree and mark the item that best
applies to their study of English.
84
The 30 items in the PLSPQ are categorized into six styles based on how students
learn best using their perceptions: visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile
preferences and two social aspects of learning: group and individual (Reid 1987).
As Reid (1990:325) herself points out “The last two are not actually perceptual
learning styles, but aspects of learning that I was also interested in
measuring.” In this study, the researcher assessed both aspects of learning
styles (i.e. perceptual and social aspects of learning). Auditory learning style
comprises items 1, 7,9,17 and 20 of the questionnaire. Items 6,10,12,24 and
29 are grouped under visual learning style. Items included under tactile
learning style are 11,14,16,22 and 25. Whereas, items 2, 8, 15, 19 and 26 are
categorized into kinesthetic learning style. Group learning style preference
includes items 3, 4, 5, 21 and 23. Individual learning style preference, on the
other hand, encompasses items 13, 18, 27, 28 and 30 (See Appendix C).
There are several reasons behind choosing this instrument. When I taught ELT
Methods at BDU (to regular and summer program students), I used this
questionnaire more than twice to assess students’ perceptual learning style
preference and found it interesting and invaluable. In addition, it is easy to
administer and interpret, and it is self-scoring - not scored by an external
agent. Moreover, it is relatively quick to complete and has easily reportable
scales. What is more, Reid (1987:92) indicates that the survey “was
constructed and validated for nonnative speakers.” Furthermore, it has high
reliability supported by research (Peacock, 2001).
4.4.1.3 Validity and Reliability of PLSPQ In order to check the validity (of the questionnaire) and the clarity of the
questions, the adopted questionnaire was evaluated by two PhD TEFL students
prior to the pilot study. A questionnaire validation form, adapted from Chen
(2002), was prepared and given to those two PhD TEFL students to comment
on the items (See Appendix J).
85
The internal consistency reliabilities of the questionnaire (30 items) responses
for the whole participant students were calculated in the pilot and main
studies, and they were found to be 0.83 and 0.84 Cronbach’s alpha,
respectively.
4.4.2 Listening Tests To assess learners’ overall listening proficiency or performance, a standardized
TOEFL listening test was employed in the main study. The standardized TOEFL
listening test was selected to provide listening questions of various discourse-
situated contexts. To minimize the possible impact of culture-related factors,
the researcher selected an appropriate standardized TOEFL listening test,
which was not relatively culture bounded. The test consisted of 50 multiple
choice items divided into three sections. Part A consists of a set of sentences.
After each sentence, subjects had to read the four possible answers and choose
the closest sentence in meaning to the statement they heard. Part B consists of
a set of short conversations between two native speakers of English. After each
conversation, a third voice asked a question about what was said. After hearing
a question, subjects had to read the four possible answers and choose the best
response. On the other hand, Part C consists of a set of short talks and
conversations. After each talk or conversation, a question about the talk or
conversation was heard. After hearing a question, subjects had to read the four
possible answers and choose the best response (See Appendix F and Appendix
G).
Based on the insight gained from the pilot study, the first two sections and the
third section of TOEFL listening tests were administered separately on two
different days.
In the pilot study, the teacher-made test was also used to assess students
listening proficiency (See Appendix D and Appendix E). However, since it was
86
found somewhat a repetition of standardized TOEFL listening test, it was
excluded from the main study.
One test or a onetime test is not adequate to check each learner’s overall
listening proficiency or performance (Weir, 1993). Thus, the two TOEFL
listening tests were used to complement each other. For this study, the two
listening tests accounted for 35% and 15%, respectively. The two listening test
scores were gathered and used for all students from whom data was collected.
At the end, learners’ test results were recorded against their codes (See
Appendix K). The two listening tests were applied to the whole classroom
students.
4.4.3 Interviews
Interviewing allows access to a wide variety of information in-depth and quickly
with the possibility of follow-up and clarification (Seliger and Shohamy, 1989).
Semi-structured interviews, particularly, allow the interviewee to ‘‘elaborate on
the issues raised in an exploratory manner’’ (Dornyei, 2007:123). Based on the
insight gained from the pilot study, in the main study one-to-one interviews
were conducted with the course instructors and purposely selected students
regarding their practices, challenges they faced and strategies they employed in
teaching and learning listening skills in English.
4.4.3.1 Teacher Interview
Face to face interviews were conducted with the two course instructors in
connection with their practices and perceptions of teaching listening skills in
English. Both of them were males. The two respondents were attending their
PhD programs, one of whom was attending his PhD at the University of South
Africa (UNISA) in distance program. And the other was attending his TEFL PhD
program at Bahir Dar University, on regular basis. Each interview took about
30 minutes per course instructor (See Appendix N and P).
87
4.4.3.2 Student Interview
To get detailed information on students’ practices and perceptions of learning
English listening skills, the researcher conducted interview with six
participants individually, recruiting one participant from each proficiency level
(based on their TOEFL listening section result) from each university. In other
words, six students, that is, two students each from the higher, average and
lower scorers, as representative samples from the three listening proficiency
groups, were selected as interviewees on the basis of their TOEFL listening test
results. The one-to-one interview was conducted individually with each subject
to elicit some detailed information on her/his practices and perceptions in
relation to learning listening skills in English. Each interview was audio
recorded and transcribed later (See Appendix O).
Amharic and/or English were used for interview with students. To get the
required information comfortably, for the subjects whose preference was
Amharic and speak the language more fluently than English, the interview was
conducted in Amharic; for others English was used. The interviews were
conducted after all other data were collected. Each interview took about 20
minutes per participant.
4.5 Data Collection Procedures The main study data was collected in two semesters from the two universities.
The data from Debre Markos University was collected in the second semester-
from February to April 2011 G.C or 2003 E.C. On the other hand, the data
from Bahir Dar University was collected in the first semester from the second
week of November to January 2011/2012 G.C or 2004 E.C. The researcher
explained to each course instructor the purpose of the study. After obtaining
instructor’s consent to include his students in the study, the researcher
scheduled for questionnaires and test administration accordingly. The same
procedure was used for the second case too.
88
All these arrangements were made, and students were made to attend listening
skills classes for a month and half each. Then collecting data has been started
for the main study.
When each course instructor went into their classes (in the third week of April
2010/2011 G.C. or 2003 E.C. and the last week of December 2011/2012 G.C
or 2004 E.C in Debre Markos University and Bahir Dar University respectively),
before starting each instructors lecture, 40 minutes was spared for the
inventory. First, the researcher was introduced by the instructor to the
students.
Then the adapted SILL was administered to the students by the researcher.
During administration of the adapted SILL, subjects were told that the
questionnaire distributed contained questions about their English listening
strategy use. The participants were also told that they should ask for any
clarification they might need when they filled-in the questionnaire. After 35
minutes, all questionnaire papers were collected from each university at the
same period they were distributed.
A week after the adapted SILL was collected, the PLSPQ was distributed. The
PLSPQs were handed out and collected by the course instructors at the same
period they were distributed. On average, it took 15 minutes to complete. All
questionnaire papers were returned from both universities.
Both the adapted SILL and PLSPQ were accompanied by background
questionnaires which elicited demographic information of students’ age and
sex.
As one goal of this research was to investigate the relationship between
learners’ listening proficiency and their listening strategy use, the standardized
TOEFL listening tests were administered in two different days, in two weeks
89
gap. The first TOEFL listening test was administered a week after the PLSPQ
was collected.
The standardized TOEFL listening tests were given by the course instructors
but corrected by the researcher himself. The standardized TOEFL listening
tests were administered by the course instructors to make each test natural.
The students had listened to the listening texts (TOEFL listening sections) two
times each. After the questionnaires data and students’ TOEFL listening
section results were analyzed, interviews were conducted.
4.6 Methods of Data Analyses In this study, both quantitative and qualitative data analyses were utilized.
4.6.1 Methods of Quantitative Data Analyses The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) for Windows, Version
17.0 was used for the quantitative data analysis. The data collected using
adapted SILL questionnaire were calculated as follows. Firstly, the students’
responses to all closed-ended items were calculated. Second, students’
responses to each of the six categories (i.e. memory, cognitive, compensation,
metacognitive, affective and social strategies) were computed. Means and
standard deviations were computed to determine the students’ overall listening
strategy use. In other words, primarily, based on the means obtained,
participants were determined whether they were low, medium or high strategy
users.
Regarding the analysis of the results from the PLSPQ, descriptive statistics was
used to group students according to their perceptual learning style preference
categories (visual, auditory, kinesthetic, tactile, group and individual).
90
The score of the two listening tests was computed for each subject. In addition,
by using the split methods, as in other similar studies (Philips, 1991), students
were categorized into three listening proficiency groups (higher, average, and
lower) based on their TOEFL listening tests results. Thus, in this study, the
first 17 high scorers (i.e. top 24.28%, 60-88) were regarded as higher listening
proficiency learners, the second 37 (i.e. middle 52.86%, 41-58 ) as average
listening proficiency learners, and the last 16 poor scorers (i.e. bottom 22.86%,
6-40 ) were regarded as lower listening proficiency learners.
After that, the quantitative data (the data gathered through the questionnaires
and tests) were analyzed using different inferential statistical methods. Pearson correlation coefficients, t-tests, stepwise regressions and multiple
regressions were used to determine the extent and direction of association
between learners listening strategy use and the independent variables (gender,
perceptual learning style preference and listening proficiency).
Descriptive statistics, including means, standard deviations, and frequencies
were calculated to summarize the learners’ overall listening strategy use. The
SPSS 17 version was used to analyze variances with gender, perceptual
learning style preferences, and students’ listening proficiency as independent
variables and the adapted SILL category scores as the dependent variables to
see whether there was an effect of gender, perceptual learning style
preferences, and students’ listening proficiency on the use of specific listening
strategies respectively.
Pearson’s r correlations were computed to determine the correlations between
each strategy item with independent variables i.e. learners’ gender, listening
proficiency and perceptual learning style preferences separately. The t-tests
were used in order to determine any variations in listening strategy use related
to gender, listening proficiency levels and perceptual learning style preferences.
Multiple regressions were used since there were six listening strategy
91
categories. Therefore, in this study, six factor scores of the adapted SILL were
used as the dependent variables and gender, perceptual learning style
preference, and learners’ listening proficiency were used as the independent
variables in step wise and multiple regressions.
Multiple regressions were computed to determine the contribution of the
independent variables on the variability of the listening strategy categories
(dependent variables). On the other hand, stepwise regressions were carried
out to see the interrelationships among all variables available.
Thus, significant variations in strategy means across the adapted SILL as well
as variation in means in the 6 categories (dependent variables) were
determined by multiple regressions for gender, perceptual learning style
preference, and students’ listening proficiency (independent variables) at p <
.05, or p < .01 level. This means that a result was considered statistically
significant if it is occurred by chance less than five times out of 100, or less
than one time in 100.
In order to determine the internal consistency reliability of the adapted SILL
and the PLSPQ, Cronbach alpha tests were conducted.
4.6.2 Methods of Qualitative Data Analyses
Coding technique was used to analyze the qualitative data i.e., the responses to
open-ended question of the adapted SILL. In analyzing this data, responses to
the open-ended question in the adapted SILL were grouped by themes,
following the guidelines presented by Seliger and Shohamy (1989). In the initial
coding, the first step of the coding process, the responses to the open-ended
items on the questionnaire were compiled and read in order to determine any
dominant themes or patterns in the responses. These responses were used as
initial codes for the data. The second phase of the coding process involved
92
arranging the responses into categories that emerged from additional reviews of
the data after grouping them for the first time (i.e., categorized according to
their affinities into general thematic categories). This yielded a final list of codes
for the data. Finally, the coded data were grouped by the emerging themes on
the basis of which the thematic content analysis was made. In order to assure
trustworthiness of the coding process, a second coder, a PhD TEFL student
took part. The inter-rater reliability was found to be 0.80 in the main study. On
the other hand, in the pilot study, the inter-rater reliability found was 0.90.
Course instructors and students interviews results, on the other hand, were
analyzed as follows. First, all the audio-recorded interviews for groups were
transcribed verbatim. Next, transcripts of the course instructors’ interviews
and students’ interviews were coded and categorized separately. Then, analyses
were made thematically.
For interpretation of data, thus, both quantitative and qualitative methods
(mixed method, according to Dornyei, 2007) were used.
4.7 The Pilot Study A pilot study involves a small-scale testing of the data collection instruments,
data analysis techniques and procedures that the researcher plans to use in
the main study. On the basis of the pilot run results necessary revisions are
expected to be made on the methods and procedures before they are launched,
or become operational for the main study (Wiersma, 2000; Grey, 2004; Blaxter
et al., 2006). Therefore, in the attempt to meet the purpose of the study a pilot
study was conducted.
In this section, purposes of the pilot study, setting of the pilot study, data
collection procedures of the pilot study and the insights gained from the overall
steps of the pilot study are reported.
93
4.7.1 Purposes of Conducting the Pilot Study
The main purposes of conducting the pilot study were to check the clarity of
the questions (including wording) and to determine administering procedures
including the anticipated length of time for completion, data collection
instruments, procedures and data analysis techniques that would be used in
the main study. Moreover, it was carried out to try out the suitability of the two
listening tests in assessing students’ listening proficiency.
4.7.2 Setting of the Pilot Study The pilot study was conducted at Bahir Dar University. The subjects were 3rd
year English majoring continuing education students who were taking
Listening Skills (EnLa 107) during the first semester of 2010/2011 G.C. or
2003 E.C - from November to January. English majors were selected because
the main concern of this study was to see effects of gender, listening
proficiency, and perceptual learning style preference on EFL students listening
strategy use. They were the only group of English major students who took the
course (Listening skills) during the first semester of the academic year stated in
the university.
The total number of 3rd year English majoring continuing education students
was 40 (30 males and 10 females). At the beginning, 30 (75%) students were
chosen to participate in the pilot study. This much participants were selected
for the pilot study for it is advisable to take at least 30 subjects for a
correlational (Ex post facto) study like this (Dorneyi, 2007). As the number of
female students was relatively few, using purposive sampling, all of them were
included in the pilot study. On the other hand, since the number of male
students was much greater than female students, 20 were selected randomly-
using lottery system-to participate in the pilot study.
94
However, four of the male students who were absent during the PLSPQ
administration and TOEFL listening test were excluded from the pilot study.
Thus, the data was analyzed only for those twenty six students who filled in the
questionnaires and took the listening tests. Their age ranged from twenty to
twenty nine with a mean age of 22.42 (See Appendix H).
4.7.3 Data Collection Procedures of the Pilot Study The pilot study data was collected in the first semester from November to
January 2010/2011 G.C (2003 E.C). The researcher explained to the course
instructor the purpose of the study. After obtaining the instructor’s consent to
include his students in the study, the researcher scheduled for questionnaires
and test administration.
All these arrangements were made and students were made to attend listening
skills classes for a month and half, and then the pilot study has started.
When the course instructor went into his class (in the second week of
November 2010/2011 G.C. or 2003 E.C.), before starting his lecture, he spared
40 minutes for the inventory. First the researcher was introduced by the
instructor to the students.
Then the adapted SILL was given to the students. It was administered by the
researcher. During administration of the adapted SILL, subjects were told that
the questionnaire distributed contained questions about their English listening
strategy use. The participants were also told that they should ask for any
clarification they might need as they filled-in the questionnaire. After 35
minutes, all questionnaire papers were collected at the same period they were
distributed.
95
The same procedure was used to pilot PLSPQ a week after the adapted SILL
was piloted. The PLSPQs were handed out and collected by the course
instructor at the same period they were distributed. On average it took 15
minutes to complete. All questionnaire papers were returned.
Both the adapted SILL and PLSPQ were accompanied by background
questionnaires which elicited demographic information of students’ age and
sex.
As one goal of this research is to investigate the relationship between learners’
listening proficiency and their listening strategy use, the Listening Skills (EnLa-
107) instructor was asked to administer one teacher-made test before the
standardized TOEFL listening test.
A week after the PLSPQ was collected, a teacher-made test was given to all
classroom students. The teacher-made test was prepared, administered and
corrected by the course instructor. Two weeks after, (i.e. the first round
adapted SILL distribution is made) the adapted SILL was given to the subjects
again by the researcher himself. The SILL was administered again to check its
reliability. Then, in the first week of Tir (January) 2011 G.C. or 2003 E.C.,
TOEFL listening test was given to the students. The standardized TOEFL
listening test was given by the course instructor but corrected by the
researcher himself. The standardized TOEFL listening test was administered by
the course instructor to make it natural. The students had listened the
listening texts (teacher-made and TOEFL listening section) two times each.
4.7.4 Lessons Gained from the Pilot Study Some important insights were gained from the pilot study. The lessons were
related to data gathering instruments, research sites and number of
participant students and data related to course instructors’ and students’
96
practices and perceptions regarding teaching and learning listening skills in
English. At this point, it is worthwhile to state some important insights which
were gained from the pilot study and used them to improve the methodology in
the main study.
Regarding the adapted SILL, the researcher noticed one problem during the
pilot study. Even though oral explanation on the differences among “Never or
almost never true of me”, “ Generally not true of me”, “Somewhat true of me”,
“Generally true of me”, and “Always or almost always true of me” was given to
students before they filled the questionnaire, a few minutes later, questions
were raised again on their (scale) differences. Thus, to alleviate this problem in
the main study, the distinct differences among those scales were described on
the cover page of the questionnaire (See Appendix A).
In the case of listening tests, the teacher-made test was found somewhat a
repetition of standardized TOEFL listening test. Thus, the teacher-made test
was excluded in the main study. On the other hand, the standardized TOEFL
listening test itself was found to be long. During the pilot study, students took
more than an hour to finish the test. Hence, in the main study, the first two
sections and the third section were administered separately on two different
days.
Concerning research sites and number of participants, some changes were
made in the main study. Though the study employs a mixed-methods
approach, it ultimately came out to be more of survey or quantitative research.
This required a large number of participants. To increase the number of
participant students, one university (i.e. DMU) other than BDU was chosen to
be included. Hence, English majoring students who were taking listening skills
course took part from Debre Markos University in the main study.
97
Furthermore, from the overall insight gained in the pilot study, it was advisable
to take some data from the course instructors and some students in
connection with their practices and perceptions of teaching and learning
listening skills in English. To address this issue, therefore, one basic research
question is included in the main study. In order to answer this basic research
question, interviews were conducted with the course instructors and some
selected students.
98
CHAPTER FIVE: DATA ANALYSES, FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
5.1 Introduction In this chapter, the data collected through different instruments from the
participants of the study are analyzed and discussed. The data obtained from
questionnaires, TOEFL listening tests, and teachers’ and students’ interviews
are analyzed under quantitative and qualitative analyses. The quantitative data
are analyzed followed by qualitative data analysis. Then, discussions are made
at the end.
Results, findings and discussions are presented in the following sections within
the framework of the basic research questions stated in the first chapter.
5.2. Quantitative Data Analyses and Findings The first research question of the current study sought an answer to whether male
and female students use significantly different listening strategies.
To answer this question, independent sample t-tests were applied to the data
set containing the separate categories of listening strategies and overall
listening strategy use of male and female students (See Table 5.1 and Table
5.2).
99
Table 5.1: Independent Sample T-tests for Male and Female Participants’ on Individual Listening Strategy Categories Strategies
Group Mean SD t- value p- value
Memory Males 2.7710 0.58313 -.767
.446
Females 2.8775 0.57507 Cognitive Males 3.0608 0.54905
-2.665
.010** Females 3.4640 0.71577 Compensation Males 2.9297 0.83521
.270
.788 Females 2.8750 0.85823 Metacognitive Males 3.3393 0.67117
-2.638
.010** Females 3.8056 0.80816 Affective Males 3.0834 0.52250
-1.424
.159 Females 3.3229 0.86751
Social Males 3.2237 0.63349 -.614
.541 Females 3.3281 0.78913
Total Males 3.0680 0.63242 Females 3.2788 0.76898
Mean of the participants 3.1734 Notes: ** p < .01 (significant at .01 level)
As can be seen in Table 5.1 above, female students used five listening strategy
categories i.e. memory, cognitive, metacognitive, affective and social more than
male students. On the other hand, male participants used compensatory
listening strategies slightly more than female participants. Male students were
medium users of all the six listening strategy categories. Female students were
medium users of the five listening strategy categories i.e. memory, cognitive,
compensation, affective and social. As opposed to this, they were high
metacognitive users with the mean of 3.8056.
According to Oxford (1990), a mean of all participants in the range of 3.5-5.0
on a SILL item is defined as high use of that strategy, 2.5-3.4 as a medium
use.
100
What is more, as depicted in the table, female students mean values in all
listening strategy categories were higher than the sample mean (i.e. 3.1734). In
other words, in overall listening strategies, female students were found more
strategy users than male students. The mean values of females (M=3.2788) was
higher than the mean scores of males (M=3.0680). The results implied that
female students surpassed male students in overall listening strategy use.
As shown in the table, both male and female participants used metacognitive
strategies relatively with high frequency as compared to other listening strategy
categories. On the other hand, male students used memory whereas female
students used compensatory listening strategies, relatively with least frequency
compared to other listening strategy categories. On average, both male and
female students used metacognitive strategies relatively with high frequency
and memory strategies with least frequency compared to other listening
strategy categories.
Though mean values of females was higher than mean values of males in over
all listening strategy use, significant mean differences between the sexes were
found only for cognitive and metacognitive listening strategy categories at .01
level. However, only this did not indicate the existence of a statistically
significant difference between male and female students’ overall listening
strategy use.
Hence, Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances is needed to be executed to reveal
whether the variances are significantly different. As Muijs (2004) and Field
(2005) claim, Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances is similar to t-test in that it
tests the assumptions or hypotheses that the variances in the two groups are
equal. Therefore, if Levene’s Test is significant at p < .05, then it can be concluded
that the variance between boys and girls are significantly different. If, however,
Levene’s test is non-significant (i.e. p > .05 in the t-test row), then the variance
between male and female students won’t be significantly different. Thus, to
101
examine the difference between male and female students in terms of overall
listening strategy use and see the significance level, an independent sample t-test
(Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances), results of which is presented below in
Table 5.2 was conducted.
Table 5.2: Independent Sample T-test Results for Male and Female Participants’ Overall Listening Strategy Use
The analysis of the independent t-test was done in two steps. Primarily, the
homogeneity of the variance between the male and female participants was
determined using Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances. According to Levene’s
Test for Equality of Variances, the Sig. value was .164, which was greater than
.05. Therefore, it can be assumed that variances were equal. As a result, it was
possible to test the significance level between female and male participants’
overall listening strategy use differences using the t-test row of results “Equal
Variances Assumed” in Table 5.2. It provided the t value (t=-2.053) and the
degrees of freedom (df=68). From the table above, it was also observed that the
significance was .044, which is lower than .05. Consequently, it can be
concluded that the difference in overall listening strategy use of females and
males was significant, which indicated the findings showing that females were
more strategy users (M=3.2788) than males (M=3.0680) was statistically
significant. These differences were all significant below the 0.05 probability
level (i.e. P<0.05).
Leven’s Test for Equality of Variances
t-test for Equality of Means
F Sig. t df Sig.(2-tailled)
Mean Difference
Standard Error Difference
95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper
Mean-all Equal variances assumed
1.984 .164 -2.053 68 .044 -.21122 .10290 -.41655 -.00589
Equal Variances not assumed
-2.011 58.419 .049 -.21122 .10503 -.42143 -.00101
102
Furthermore, to see to what extent students’ gender and their overall listening
strategies were related, Pearson’s product-moment correlation coefficient was
computed (See Table 5.3 below).
Table 5.3: The Relationship between Gender and Listening Strategy Use
As can be seen from Table 5.3, there was a positive and significant correlation
(at .05 alpha level) between students’ gender and their overall listening strategy
use. The strength of relationship or effect size was found to be moderate
(r=.342). This implied that, female students were more strategy users than
male students in overall listening strategy.
Even if there was a positive and significant correlation between students’
gender and their overall listening strategy use, it was important to see the
relationship between gender with direct and indirect listening strategy
categories. On the basis of this, independent sample t-tests and Pearson’s
product-moment correlation coefficients were computed (See Table 5.4).
As Table 5.4 shows, the average of boys using direct listening strategies was
2.9204, while the average of girls using direct listening strategies was 3.0725.
correlation
Gender ListnSs
Gender Pearson Correlation 1 .342*
Sig. (2-tailed) .044
N 70 70
ListnSs Pearson Correlation .342* 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .044 N 70 70
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
103
Table 5.4 : Male and Female Students Direct and Indirect Listening Strategy Use Strategy Use Group Statistics
Gender N Mean
Std.
Deviation Std. Error Mean
DListnSs Male
Female
38 2.9204 .48819 .07920
32 3.0725 .50067 .08851
IDListnSs Male
Female
38 3.2154 .43703 .07090
32 3.4857 .57190 .10110
As can be seen from Table 5.4 above, the mean of male students using indirect
listening strategies was 3.2154, whereas the mean of female students using
indirect listening strategies was 3.4857, which indicated the females’
superiority in this category. As it was the case in direct listening strategies,
girls surpassed boys in using indirect listening strategies.
To examine the relationship of gender with direct and indirect listening strategies,
Pearson’s product-moment correlation coefficients were applied to the data set.
The results indicated the existence of a positive and significant correlation
(r=.262, P=.028) between gender and indirect listening strategies. However, a
significant correlation was not found between gender and direct listening
strategy categories (r=.154, P=.204).
To sum up this section, analyses of both the direct and indirect strategy
categories showed a significant female superiority in the use of listening
strategies. Even though females were superior, the difference in the use of
direct listening strategy categories of males and females was not significant. It
is to mean that, it is only the indirect listening strategy category analyses
which provided statistically significant differences between males and females.
This indicated that the use of direct listening strategy categories was not a
significant indicator of the difference in listening strategy use between male
and female students.
104
The second research question of the current study sought an answer to
whether there are significant differences in listening strategy use between
higher and lower listening proficiency students.
In order to determine students’ listening proficiency levels, TOEFL listening
tests were used. Then, participant students were categorized into three groups
(i.e. higher, average and lower listening proficiency - based on their listening
tests results). After determining the participant students into three groups
based on their listening tests results, to examine the difference among the
three listening proficiency groups in relation to their individual listening
strategy category use, descriptive statistics were computed and summarized
(See Table 5.5).
Table 5.5: Descriptive Statistics of the Three Groups and Individual
Listening Strategy Category Use
Group statistics Listening proficiency Memory Cognitive Compensation Metacognitive Affective Social
Aggregate mean
Higher proficiency
Mean 2.8812 3.7783 2.8039 4.0654 3.3824 3.1912 3.3504
Std. Deviation .52247 .78911 .80845 .74230 .91432 .61574
Average proficiency
Mean 2.8432 3.1828 2.8828 3.5887 3.1983 3.3176 3.1689
Std. Deviation .59300 .46157 .85419 .55608 .54842 .76750
Lower proficiency
Mean 2.7000 2.8228 3.0625 2.9236 2.9792 3.2500 2.9564
Std. Deviation .61590 .54154 .87109 .81217 .76950 .67700
Total Mean 2.8081 3.2613 2.9164 3.5259 3.1866 3.2529 3.1586
Std. Deviation .57713 .05974 .84458 .70352 .74408 .68675
The results of Table 5.5 above shows that the average strategy use of the whole
set for the three listening proficiency levels was 3.1586 out of 5; which means
the average strategy use of the participant students was almost equal to “3-
Sometimes True of Me”. In other words, all means fell between 2.5 and 3.4 on a
105
scale of 1 to 5 out of a possible 5, a range which Oxford (1990) defined as
medium use. Thus, the three groups in this study used strategies at a medium
level. The use of strategies, however, consistently increased from the third to
the first group. The average strategy use in the third group (lower proficiency)
was 2.9564; in the second group (average proficiency) it was 3.1689; and in the
first (higher proficiency) it was 3.3504.
Regardless of their listening proficiency levels, as shown in Table 5.5,
participant students used memory strategies relatively with least frequency
compared to other listening strategy categories. Higher listening proficiency
students used cognitive and metacognitive listening strategies relatively with
high frequency as compared to other listening strategy categories. On the other
hand, average listening proficiency students used metacognitive listening
strategies with high frequency.
In order to see whether there are significant differences in listening strategy
use between higher listening proficiency and lower listening proficiency
students, independent t-tests were carried out (See Table 5.6).
106
Table 5.6: Independent Sample T- tests on Listening Proficiency Levels
Notes: ** p < .01 (significant at .01 level) As can be seen in Table 5.6, except compensation and social listening
strategies, the frequencies of using memory, cognitive, metacognitive, and
affective strategies for higher listening proficiency students were higher than
they were for lower listening proficiency students. However, the mean result
differences between higher proficiency and lower proficiency students were
significant (at .01 alpha level) only for cognitive and metacognitive strategies.
As depicted in the table, the mean values of higher listening proficiency
students (M=3.3504) was higher than the mean of lower listening proficiency
Listening Strategy
Group Mean SD t- value p- value
Memory Higher proficiency
2.8812 .52247 .913
.368
Lower proficiency
2.7000 .78911
Cognitive Higher proficiency
3.7783 .27270 4.03
.0001**
Lower proficiency
2.8228 .54154
Compensation Higher proficiency
2.8039 .80845 -.884
.383
Lower proficiency
3.0625 .87109
Metacognitive Higher proficiency
4.0654 .74230 4.219
.0001**
Lower proficiency
2.9236 .81217
Affective Higher proficiency
3.3824 .91432 1.366
.182
Lower proficiency
2.9792 .76950
Social Higher proficiency
3.1912 .61574 -.261
.796
Lower proficiency
3.2500 .67700
Total Higher proficiency
3.3504 .645997
Lower proficiency
2.9564 .743402
107
students (M=2.9564). Even though the mean values of higher listening
proficiency students was higher than the mean values of lower listening
proficiency students in over all listening strategy use, only cognitive and
metacognitive listening strategy categories were found to be significant with
proficiency levels at p<.01 level. Only this didn’t designate existence of a
statistical significant difference between higher proficiency and lower
proficiency students’ listening strategy use. Thus, Levene’s Test for Equality of
Variances was computed to reveal whether the variances were statistically
different (See Table 5.7).
Table 5.7: Results of the Independent Samples T-test for Higher Proficiency and Lower Proficiency Participants’ Overall Listening Strategy Use
Leven’s Test for
Equality of Variances
t-test for Equality of Means
F Sig. t df Sig.(2-tailled)
Mean Difference
Standard Error Difference
95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper
Mean-all Equal variances assumed
.935 .341 2.489 31 .018 .39373 .15818 .07111 .71634
Equal variances not assumed
2.457 25.249 .021 .39373 .16028 .06380 .72366
As can be seen from Table 5.7, the significant value was .341, which was
greater than .05. Therefore, variances were assumed to be equal. As a result, it
was possible to test the significance level between higher listening proficiency
and lower listening proficiency participants’ overall listening strategy use
differences using the t-test row of results “Equal Variances Assumed”. It
provided the t value (t=2.489) and the degrees of freedom (df=31). From the
table above, the significance observed was .018, which was lower than .05.
Consequently, it can be concluded that the difference in overall listening
strategy use of higher listening proficiency and lower listening proficiency
participants’ was significant, which indicated the findings showing that higher
listening proficiency students were more strategy users (M=3.3504) than lower
108
listening proficiency participants (M=2.9564) was statistically significant. This
in turn implied that listening proficiency was a significant indicator of the
difference in listening strategy use between higher and lower listening
proficiency students.
Moreover, to examine the difference between students’ listening proficiency and
their direct and indirect listening strategy category use, independent sample t-
tests were computed between higher and lower listening proficiency groups
(See Table 5.8 below).
Table 5.8: Higher and Lower Listening Proficiency Students’ Direct and Indirect Listening Strategy Category Use
N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean DListnSs Higher proficiency Lower proficiency
17 3.1547 .43332 .10509
16 2.8623 .58837 .14709
IDListnSs Higher proficiency Lower proficiency
17 3.5461 .37515 .09099
16 3.0510 .61188 .15297
The results of Table 5.8 reveal that the mean of higher listening proficiency
students using direct and indirect listening categories were 3.1547 and 3.5461,
respectively, while the mean of lower listening proficiency students using direct
and indirect listening categories were 2.8623 and 3.0510, respectively. As the
mean results indicate ,in both cases, higher listening proficiency group
surpassed lower listening proficiency students in using direct and indirect
listening strategy categories. This only didn’t show a statistical significance
difference between the two groups on direct and indirect listening strategy use.
Thus, to examine the difference between higher and lower listening proficiency
students in terms of direct and indirect listening strategy use and to see the
109
significance level, independent sample t-tests were conducted. The results are
summarized and presented in Table 5.9.
Table 5.9: Independent Sample T-tests for Higher and Lower Proficiency Participants’ Direct and Indirect Listening Strategy Use Leven’s Test for
Equality of Variances
t-test for Equality of Means
F Sig. t df Sig.(2-tailled)
Mean Difference
Standard Error Difference
95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper
Mean-all Equal DListnSs variances assumed
.621
.437
1.633
31
.113
.29241
.17911
-.07288
.65771
Equal variances not assumed
1.618
27.504
.117
.29241
.18078
-.07820
.66302
Mean-all Equal IDListnSs variances assumed
1.167
.288
2.821
31
.008
.49504
.17548
.13715
.85292
Equal variances not assumed
2.781
24.604
.010
.49504
.17798
.12817
.86190
As depicted in the above table, the sig. value for higher and lower listening
proficiency students in using direct listening strategy was .437. Since the sig.
value was higher than .05, therefore, it can be assumed that the variances
were equal. As a result, it was possible to test the hypothesis using the Equal
Variances Assumed row of the t-test in Table 5.9. This provided the t-value
(t=1.633), the degrees of freedom (df=31), and sig. (2-tailed) =.113, which was
higher than .05. Therefore, there was no significant difference between the two
groups regarding direct listening strategy use.
As Table 5.9 reveals the sig. value of indirect listening strategy use of higher
and lower listening proficiency students was .288, which was higher than .05.
Therefore, it was possible to say that the variances were equal. The Equal
Variances Assumed row of the t-test in the table indicated that sig. (2-
tailed)=.008, which was lower than .05. Hence, there was a significant
difference between the two groups regarding indirect listening strategy use,
110
which indicates the fact that higher listening proficiency students (M =3.5461)
on average employed more indirect listening strategies than lower listening
proficient students (M=3.0510 ) was statistically significant.
As a result, it is possible to say that, though higher listening proficiency
students were superior in both direct and indirect listening strategy categories,
the difference in the use of direct listening strategy category of higher and lower
listening proficiency students was not significant. This indicated that listening
proficiency was not a significant indicator of the difference in direct listening
strategy use between higher and lower listening proficiency students.
In order to examine the contribution of listening proficiency on all listening
strategy categories, stepwise regressions were computed for the whole
participant students. Only significant results are presented below in Table
5.10.
Table 5.10: Effect of Listening Proficiency on Listening Strategy Use
**P<.01
As can be seen in Table 5.10, the adjusted R squares of listening proficiency for
cognitive and metacognitive listening strategy categories were .243 and .252
respectively. The results of the adjusted R squares showed the modest
predictor level of listening proficiency. In other words, it tells us that listening
proficiency was not a very good predictor at predicting both cognitive and
metacognitive listening strategies. This implies that there were other predictors
which predict cognitive and metacognitive listening categories. As a whole, the
Criterion R R2 Adjusted R2
F(equation) Significant predictor
Cognitive .504 .254 .243 23.164** Listening proficiency
Metacognitive .513 .263 .252 24.240** Listening proficiency
111
results of the above table revealed that listening proficiency was a modest
predictor to cognitive and metacognitive listening strategy categories.
On the other hand, to see the extent to which students’ listening proficiency (of
the three groups) and their overall listening strategy use are related, Pearson’s
correlation coefficient was computed (See Table 5.11 below).
Table 5.11: The Relation between Students’ Listening Proficiency and
Overall Listening Strategy Use
Correlations
Listening Proficiency ListnSs
Listening Proficiency Pearson Correlation 1 -.310**
Sig. (2-tailed) .009
N 70 70 ListnSs Pearson Correlation -.310** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .009 N 70 70
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
As the results in Table 5.11 indicate, the relationship between students’
listening proficiency and their overall listening strategy use was moderate,
negative and significant (r = -.310). The negative correlation (-.310) indicates
that higher listening proficiency students showed lower scores on strategy use,
especially in compensation and social listening strategy categories .
Moreover, to see the relationship of students’ overall listening proficiency with
direct and indirect listening strategy categories, Pearson’s product-moment
correlation coefficients were computed. The results revealed a significant
correlation between listening proficiency and indirect listening strategy
category (r=-.329; p=.005). On the contrary, insignificant correlation was found
112
between students’ listening proficiency and their direct listening strategy
category use (r=-.205; p=.089).
The third research question was “Do students with different perceptual
learning style preferences use significantly different listening strategies?”
To answer this question, we have to see students’ perceptual learning style
preferences, and the relationships between learners’ perceptual learning style
preferences and their listening strategy use.
In order to examine participants’ perceptual learning style preferences,
descriptive statistics analysis was computed (See Table 5.12).
Table 5.12: Descriptive Statistics Concerning Perceptual Learning Style Preferences
As can be seen in Table 5.12 above, with slight mean differences kinesthetic,
group and auditory were the first three most preferred perceptual learning
styles of participant students. On the contrary, individual learning style was
the least preferred one. As for the PLSPQ, the participant students reported a
major preference (i.e. a mean of 3.5 or above) for the five learning styles-
One-Sample Statistics
Learning Style
Preferences N Mean Std.
Deviation Std. Error
Mean
Auditory 70 3.9929 .51543 .06161
Visual 70 3.9486 .59533 .07116
Tactile 70 3.6943 .62575 .07479
Kinesthetic 70 4.0800 .56814 .06791
Group 70 4.0571 .74144 .08862
Individual 70 3.2971 .76575 .09152
113
auditory, visual, tactile, kinesthetic and group. Meanwhile, participants
reported a minor preference (mean values 2.5-3.4) for individual mode.
As the mean results of Table 5.12 reveal, students preferred most to learn by
involving themselves in physical responses such as doing something or
participating in activities (such as role-play). In addition, they preferred to learn
best through working with other students or other people; and learning
through hearing the information and, perhaps, listening to lectures (either the
course instructors’ or taped lecture) are the second and third major perceptual
leaning style preferences of participant students respectively. Whereas,
individual learning style (working and studying alone) was the last and minor
learning style preference of participant students.
So as to determine whether there was a statistically meaningful relationship
between the perceptual learning style preferences and the listening strategy
use of participant students, Pearson’s correlation was computed. The
correlation was interpreted by the Coefficient of Determination (r2), meaning the
amount of variance in listening strategy can be explained by the perceptual
learning style (See Table 5.13).
114
Table 5.13: Pearson Correlation Matrix
Strategies Memory Cognitive Compen.
Metacog.
Affective
Social
Auditory Learning Styles
Pearson Correlation r
.168
-.010
.099
-.044
.137
.059
p .164 .934 .416 .716 .258 .626 r2 3 0 0 0 2 0
Visual Learning Styles
Pearson Correlation r
-.130
-.140
-.016
-.031
.148
.148
p .282 .246 .897 .797 .221 .223 r2 2 2 0 0 2 2
Tactile Learning Styles
Pearson Correlation r
.147
.205
.172
.159
.186
.167
p .226 .089 .154 .188 .123 .166 r2 2 4 3 3 4 3
Kinesthetic Learning Styles
Pearson Correlation r
.219
-.047
.194
-.068
.317**
-.056
p .069 .702 .108 .578 .008 .648 r2 5 0 4 0 11 0
Group Learning Styles
Pearson Correlation r
.246*
.191
.248*
.240*
.168
.063
p .040 .113 .048 .046 .165 .606 r2 6 4 7 6 3 0
Individual Learning Styles
Pearson Correlation r
-.063
-.251*
.016
-.272*
.048
-.043
p .607 .036 .895 .023 .725 .535 r2 0 6 0 7 0 0
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
The above output results disclose that, Kinesthetic learning style has
significantly correlated with affective strategies at p < .01 significant value, and
their correlation coefficient being .317, r2 = 11 which accounts for 11 % of
variance. This implied that students whose learning style preferences tend to
be kinesthetic were capable of controlling their emotions and attitudes about
learning listening English well. In other words, they can manage their level of
anxiety, cope with ambiguity, and motivate themselves. Group learning style
has significantly correlated with memory, compensation and metacognitive
strategies at p < .05, their correlation coefficient being .246, r2 = 6; .248, r2=7
115
and .240, r2=6, respectively. The correlation coefficients of students’ group
learning styles with memory, compensation and metacognitive accounted for
6%, 7% and 6% of variances respectively. Compensation strategies equip
students with the necessary techniques to comprehend and produce the
language in spite of their limitations in their knowledge of the language. This
means that, learners who prefer group learning style most are able to guess
intelligently by making use of either linguistic or non-linguistic clues to
overcome knowledge limitations when they do not hear something clearly or
cannot catch or do not know the meanings of vocabulary items in a listening
text. They can effectively make use of listening strategies such as word order,
word formation, word stress, the speaker tone of voice and using a synonym to
facilitate their listening comprehension (Oxford, 1990).
Individual learning style has negative and significant correlation with cognitive
and meatcognitive listening strategies at p < .05 significance value, with a
correlation coefficient -.251,-.271 and r2 = 6 and 7 respectively. This implies
that learners who had high preference to individual learning style (working and
studying alone) showed lower scores on cognitive and meatcognitive listening
strategy categories.
On the contrary, auditory, visual and tactile learning styles didn’t have any
significant correlations with any of listening strategy category. The results also
indicate that none of the learning styles had a statistical significant
relationship with social listening strategies.
In general, the results reveal that some perceptual learning style preferences
were significantly correlated with participant students’ specific listening
strategy use. In addition, the findings implied that students who preferred
group learning style used a wide variety of listening strategy categories.
116
The fourth research question was “To what extent do students’ gender,
listening proficiency, perceptual learning style preferences and their listening
strategy use relate to each other?”
In order to examine the interrelationships among all variables (independent
and dependant) stepwise regressions were computed. The results are shown in
Appendix L.
As depicted in the table, there were some significant correlations amongst
dependent variables themselves. There were also significant correlations among
independent variables. In addition, some significant correlations were found
between dependent and independent variables as well. As shown in the table,
memory strategies were positively correlated with cognitive, compensation,
affective, social listening strategy categories and group learning style. Cognitive
strategy category had positive correlation with metacognitive listening strategy
category, gender and listening proficiency. In contrast, it had a negative
correlation with individual learning style preference. Compensatory listening
strategy category had a positive and significant correlation with affective
listening strategy category and group learning style. On its part, metacognitive
listening strategy category had positive correlation with cognitive listening
strategy, group learning style and students’ gender. Quite the opposite, it had
negative correlation with learners’ individual learning style preference and
listening proficiency. Affective listening strategy category positively correlated
with memory, compensatory, social listening strategy categories and
kinesthetic learning style preference. Social listening strategy category was
significantly correlated with memory and affective listening strategy categories.
117
As can be seen in the table, other significant relations were: auditory learning
style with kinesthetic and tactile learning styles; group learning style with
students’ listening proficiency; visual learning style with individual learning
style; kinesthetic learning style preference with affective listening strategy
category, auditory, tactile and group learning styles; tactile learning style with
auditory, kinesthetic learning style preferences and listening proficiency;
group learning style with memory, compensatory, metacognitive listening
strategy categories, and kinesthetic and individual learning style preferences;
individual learning style with cognitive, metacognitive listening strategy
categories, visual and group learning style preferences; gender with cognitive
and metacognitive listening strategy categories, and listening proficiency with
cognitive and metacognitive listening strategy categories and with tactile and
individual learning style preferences as well.
Of all dependent and independent variables, memory listening strategy
category, listening proficiency, cognitive listening strategy category,
metacognitive listening strategy category, kinesthetic, individual and group
learning styles were significantly correlated with many variables.
To investigate the interrelationships among dependent variables, independent
correlation coefficients were computed with each listening strategy category
(See Table 5.14 below).
Table 5.14: Correlations among Listening Strategy Categories
*P<.05, **p<.01
Category Memory Cognitive Compensation Metacognitive Affective Social Memory 1 Cognitive .408* 1 Compensation .244* .176 1 Metacognitive .233 .691** .112 1 Affective .309** .157 .261* .201 1 Social .289* .196 .107 .199 .394* 1
118
As can be seen in Table 5.14, the six listening strategy categories were related
to each other from moderate to strong levels. As the table shows, the strongest
significant relationship was between metacognitive and cognitive listening
strategy categories (r=.691). The weakest significant correlation was found
between compensation and memory listening strategy categories (r=.244). As
the results reveal, affective listening strategies were more strongly related to
memory strategies (r=.309) than compensation strategies (r=.261). This result
could imply that the more students used affective listening strategies, they
used more memory listening strategies significantly as well. In contrast, the
more affective listening strategies they used, the less compensation strategies
they reportedly used compared to memory listening strategy use. Memory
strategies were found to have many significant correlations with cognitive,
compensation, affective and social listening strategies. It is to mean that
students who used memory listening strategies were often inclined to use other
strategies. Both affective and social strategies had significant correlation with
memory. On the other hand, affective listening strategy category was
significantly correlated with both compensation and social listening categories.
This implied that next to memory listening strategies, students who used
affective or social listening strategies were tend to use other listening strategy
categories.
In order to determine the contributions of the independent variables on the
variability of the dependent variables, multiple regression analysis was
employed. Prior to the analyses, major assumptions and intercorrelations were
examined and upheld. The predictor set include gender, listening proficiency
and the six subscale scores of PLSP. Each of the six subscale scores from the
adapted SILL served as one criterion variable per multiple regression analysis.
Results are summarized in Table 5.15.
119
Table 5.15: Multiple Regressions of SILL Subscales on Independent
Variables
Criterion R R2 F (equation) Significant predictor(s)
Memory .246 .061 4.392 Group*
Cognitive
.504 .254 23.164 List. Proficiency**
.308 .095 7.105 Gender**
.251 .063 4.573 Individual*
Compensation .306 .094 7.015 Group*
Metacognitive
.513 .263 24.240 List. Proficiency**
.305 .093 6.957 Gender*
.272 .074 5.415 Individual*
.240 .057 4.139 Group*
Affective .317 .100 7.584 Kinesthetic**
Social .343 .118 1.016 None
*P<.05, **p<.01
As results in Table 5.15 depict, the multiple analyses yielded ten equations
that were statistically significant, of which four of them were significant at .01
alpha level. As shown in the table above, about 6 % of the total variance in
memory, 25%, 9% and 6% in cognitive, 9% in compensation, 26%, 9%, 7% and
5% in metacognitive and 10% in affective strategy category were accounted by
the five predictor variables. The regression coefficients also revealed that group
learning style was the major variable in predicting memory strategies; listening
proficiency, gender and individual learning style were the major variables in
predicting cognitive strategies; group learning style was the major variable in
predicting compensation strategies; listening proficiency, gender, individual
learning style and group learning style were the major variables in predicting
metacognitive strategies. On the other hand, kinesthetic was the major variable
in predicting affective strategies. However, no significant variable was found in
120
predicting social listening strategy category. Of the five predictor variables,
group learning style was a significant predictor for the majority of listening
strategy categories.
5.3 Qualitative Data Analyses and Findings This section is devoted to the presentation of data that were collected through
open-ended question of the adapted SILL questionnaire as well as interviews
with teachers and students.
5.3.1 Analyses and Findings of Open-ended Question of the Adapted SILL Through the coding technique (See Chapter four, Section 4.6), the responses of
the participant students to the adapted SILL open-ended question were
grouped into subcategories. Though some participants mentioned using listening
learning strategies that were similar to items listed in the adapted SILL, other
students reported their own listening strategies. Some respondents mentioned
using many cognitive and very few social, metacognitive and affective listening
strategies which were not stated in the adapted SILL. Cognitive listening strategies
were the major ones reported by the majority of the respondents. Specific
strategies that were not already on the adapted SILL are presented in the following
section.
The most frequently reported specific cognitive listening strategies include,
listening to English radio programs, watching English TV programs and
English movies, and listening to English music and songs. Some students
included some social, metacognitive and affective listening strategies. A complete
account of the participants’ responses to the open-ended question of the
adapted SILL appears in Appendix M.
121
5.3.2 Interview Data Analyses and Findings The fifth research question sought answers on what practices and perceptions
of course instructors and students are in connection with teaching and
learning listening skills in English.
In order to get in-depth information regarding instructors and students
practices, challenges they faced and strategies they employed in teaching and
learning listening skills in English, interviews were conducted with the course
instructors and selected students.
5.3.2.1 Teacher Interview Data analyses and Findings In this section, the analyses and findings of the data collected from two
teachers are presented. For the ease of analysis, the participant teachers are
coded T1 and T2. Thus, for the analysis and discussion regarding the
respondent teachers, these codes are used all the way through.
A. Teachers’ Interest of Offering the Course When asked whether they like teaching English Listening Skills course, the two
instructors expressed that they like teaching the course for its relevance to
subject area improvement and based on students’ proficiency level they have in
the classroom. T1’s response illustrates this point:
I enjoy teaching listening skills course because as you know that teaching is learning. When I teach listening course, as I am not a native speaker or speaker of the language- English, I can have access or chance to learn accents and pronunciations of the native speakers. This indicates that T1 was interested to teach the course due to his interest to
improve his subject area knowledge and skills. He believed that the exposure
and experience he got from teaching the course helped him to improve his own
knowledge and skills of English listening skills. Hence, the students’ listening
122
proficiency level difference and/or their listening experience to English were
not barriers for his interest (of teaching the course).
On the other hand, the other teacher’s interest to teach the course was found
to depend on the level of students’ listening proficiency. In this regard, he (T2)
responded: “It [interest to teach the course] depends on the type of students I
have. If students have some skills in listening, or have more or less good
listening skills, in that case, I enjoy teaching listening skills course.”
This indicates that when T2 got students who have had good exposure to
listening English or good English listening skills in general, he enjoyed
teaching the course. On the contrary, when he got students, of which most of
them have poor English listening proficiency, he disliked teaching the course.
So, it is possible to say that his interest of teaching the course was conditional.
B. Teachers’ Perception on Students’ Interest The two instructors were also asked to forward their views regarding their
students’ interest in learning listening skills course. For T1, some students
were happy and others were not. Regarding this, he (T1) responded: “…of
course some of them are happy to learn the course but some others are not
happy.” He further stated the reasons for their interest differences as follows:
Those who are happy in learning the listening course may be they are happy to learn the course to use it for their future career. Due to this most of them are happy to learn the course. But some of them are not happy because they feel frustration, they believe that they don’t correctly listen and understand what the native speakers are saying.
This signifies that students might be interested or otherwise based on their
intention to use the course for their academic success and/or the difficulty of
the course due to students’ lack of exposure to listen to native speakers talk.
123
This means that students who wanted to use the knowledge and skills they got
from listening skills course to do better in other subjects were interested to
learn the course. This in turn indicates that students who wanted to transfer
the knowledge and skills they got from listening skills, to learn other subjects,
might be students who had good exposure and proficiency in listening English.
Whereas, those students who had much difficulty in listening English, might
have less interest to learn listening skills course.
Similarly, when T2 was asked whether his students enjoyed learning the
course or not, he reported: “Most of the time, no. They find it very difficult to
listen to native speakers, understand what they say and do activities based on
that. That is very difficult for most students.”
According to T2, students’ interest to learn the course was directly related to
their listening proficiency level. Substantiating this idea, he (T2) previously
responded: “… this year, I have students who are good at listening so both of
us [students and the teacher himself] are enjoying the course.”
Even though the two teachers explained it in different ways, one thing seemed
clear. That is, they perceived that their students’ interest to learn the course
was directly related to their listening proficiency or exposure to listen to
English. That is, students who were good at their listening skills enjoyed
learning the course. In contrast, those students who were poor at their
listening proficiency were not interested to learn the course.
C. Types of Classroom Tasks and Activities The two teachers were asked about the type of activities or tasks they gave in
listening skills classes. Both teachers responded that they provided different
activities to their students. Concerning this, T2 noted:
124
I usually give students a lot of activities. It can be dictation; it can be listen and fill-in blank spaces ; it can be listening to a conversation between native speakers and answer multiple choice questions or giving short answers. So, I give them all sort of activities. Similarly, T1 reported: Well, the tasks are basically different for listening course. . . . when we go to the activities given to them, of course, they will be given in lecture form and some piece of paper-they can read and answer questions - this is one part. And the other part is really a practical part. In the practical part students may perform starting from sounds of English up to utterances. The two instructors were asked the reason why they provided such types of
listening tasks and activities for their students. In this connection, T2
expressed his view in such a way:
What I feel is that, they can be board if I give them similar type of activities. And I feel that those different activities have different difficulty levels so students may treat them differently.… So I vary for the sake of interest , if I vary the type of activities they can be interested and during these activities they may not be board.
Likewise, from T1’s response it is possible to understand that he provided
different activities to his students for the sake of creating interest and
familiarizing his students with English sounds.
Hence, the above responses indicate that the course instructors used different
tasks and activities mainly to raise their students’ interest. However, they
didn’t deliberately design or provide activities for their students so that
students could make use of different listening strategies or techniques.
D. Preferred Teaching Style or Approach Teachers were also asked about their preferred style or approach of teaching
listening skills course. Evidences from interviews indicated that they gave
much attention on creating opportunities for their students to listen to English
125
texts (using different tasks and activities), checking their comprehension, and
making students work in pairs and small groups. In light of this, T1 responded
the following: “… I am trying to create opportunity, you know, to teach and
develop their listening skills through activities and through group discussions.”
T2, on the other hand, gave much attention to check his students’ listening
comprehension and the clues they used to understand the listening texts as
the main part of his teaching approach. Regarding this, he stated that “…my
focus is on their listening comprehension and what elements or cues or clues
help them to understand the listening text.”
The responses indicate that the teachers used different teaching approaches to
help their students comprehend listening texts. However, from their responses
we could understand that they didn’t give much focus on teaching listening
strategies, related to the tasks given in particular and listening skills course in
general. In this regard, T2 forwarded his views and practices as follows: “I think
it [teaching listening strategies] may be helpful but I don’t usually teach about
strategies. I focus on practice; I help them to practice listening a lot.” He
further substantiates the practice he made in the classroom by saying “…even
if the course has some topics which will be lectured, I usually avoid them. And
I usually give students a lot of activities.”
From teachers’ responses, it is possible to realize that they didn’t give attention
to teach about listening strategies to their students.
E. Challenges of Teaching the Course The two teachers were asked about the challenges they encountered in
teaching listening skills course. Both of them stated that their students’
problem of understanding (most listening texts and tasks) was the major
challenge they faced. In connection to this, T2 mentioned the following:
126
Since listening involves comprehension, the most difficult thing for me is making them listen to something and looking at their blank faces which are indicative of misunderstanding of what they’ve heard. So the activities depend on listening and understanding , they usually do not understand these lectures, or conversations or whatever , and it is very difficult for them to do activities or tasks. I think this is the most challenging thing.
According to the course instructors’ opinions, the problems they faced in the
classroom resulted from the differences on students’ listening abilities. This in
turn had many causes. T1 believed that “…this challenge or problem is caused
by the huge background differences students have in listening and
understanding.” This indicates that students’ lack of exposure to English
listening in earlier grades was one of the impediments to understand listening
texts when they come to learn the course at universities. Thus, from the
responses given, it is possible to realize that the English listening background
difference among students, who took the course, is believed to be one of the
factors for a major challenge that the course teachers faced.
The course instructors were also asked about the strategies or techniques they
use to minimize or solve the problems they encounter in teaching listening
skills course. It was learnt that the two respondents use different approaches.
T1 noted: “I am trying to give opportunity for the students to discuss the
activities in pairs or in groups so that they can help each other and they can
fill-in gaps.” On the other hand, T2 disclosed the techniques he employs as:
… to help them minimize the problem, most of the time, I make them listen to a text twice or three times, that can help them to listen something they have missed in the first round listening or whatever. And I try to provide some background information about the topic they are going to listen.
This indicates that the two teachers employ different techniques to minimize or
solve their students’ listening ability or skills problems.
127
F. Views on Successful Students, Gender and Learning style Preference
In this subsection, the two teachers’ views about the kind of students they
believe would be successful or manage the course, their beliefs on effect of
gender and perceptual learning style preference differences in learning listening
skills are treated one after the other.
Both teachers seem to have similar views that students who have had some
exposure to listening to some broadcasts, watching movies etc. have better
chance for success in listening classes. In this connection, T1 noted:
…from my own experience , I think students who have had opportunities to manage listening skills course are those who are watching English films and who are trying to listen to English broadcasts, you know, news and the like. These kinds of students have had great opportunities to manage their listening skills course. On his part, T2 forwarded his views to the same question as follows: “I think
students who come from big cities are better at listening but students who
usually come from very rural areas find it difficult.” When asked the possible
reason, he (T2) replied: “I think the reason is clear, because students who come
from big cities have opportunities to watch English movies, opportunities to
use on radio or television. So they are better at listening.”
In short, both teachers have the belief that students who had access to listen
to English, in one way or another, in their earlier grade levels (before they
come to campus) have great opportunities to be successful or manage listening
skills course in a campus.
The two teachers were also asked whether they believe that gender difference
brings about differences on students’ listening abilities or proficiency.
128
Evidences from interviews indicated that both of them have the belief that
gender difference doesn’t have an impact on students’ listening ability or
proficiency.
Moreover, the two teachers were asked to forward their views on which
perceptual learning style preferred students were most beneficiaries of the
course. In this regard, they mentioned the following:
May be, in my own experience, those who are interested to learn through listening [hearing] might have great opportunity to manage the course because most of the activities given in the course are related to listening. Thus, those students who are auditory may be successful and manage the course. (T1);
I think students who benefit most from this course are auditory learners or students because most of the time the activities are based on listening or hearing. Most of my activities are based on audio cassettes not video cassettes. So students who are auditory benefit more from this course. (T2)
From the responses given by the two course instructors, it was learnt that both
of them believe that auditory learners benefit from this course more than other
perceptual learning style preferred students.
They were also asked about whether the teaching material or the course
module they use in teaching the course was designed to reach different type of
students who have different perceptual learning style preferences. Both
teachers responded that this was not taken into account during the course
module preparation. In light of this, T1 replied as follows: “…the course module
is designed not considering students’ background [perceptual learning style
preference].”
129
5.3.2.2 Student Interview Data analyses and Findings In this section, the analyses and findings of the data collected from six
students are presented. For the ease of analysis, the participant students are
coded from S1- S6. Thus, these codes are used all the way through. Interviews
with the two students (i.e. S3 and S5) were conducted in Amharic.
A. Students’ Interest of Learning the Course In this subsection, students’ interest to learn the course (Listening Skills) and
the reasons why they were interested or otherwise to learn this course are
analyzed.
In their responses to the question regarding interest, all interviewees invariably
expressed that they enjoy learning listening skills course. However, they had
different reasons for this. In relation to the relevance of English language for
global communication, in general, and the importance of listening skills for her
future communication success in English in particular, S1 forwarded her
reason as: “As you know, English is an international language so we have to
have good knowledge of it. Since listening skills is one of the parts of this
international language, I enjoy learning the course [English Listening Skills].”
On the other hand, others responded that they enjoy learning the course for
they like the way (the method) the teacher uses in teaching the course and the
type of tasks and activities he provides to them. Sharing a similar view, S2
expressed that “Because the teacher uses student centered approach…. [And]
since the class is participatory, I enjoy the course.” Likewise, S4 and S6
forwarded almost similar reasons as follows:
…the teacher gives us good and different lessons and activities. And I got a lot of knowledge from this course. In addition, I like the way the teacher organize things in the classroom. (S4);
130
…the teacher gives us good and different lessons and activities. And I got a lot of knowledge from this course. In addition, I like the way the teacher presents things in the classroom. Due to these reasons I enjoy leaning the course. (S6)
On the other hand, other two respondents, S3 and S5, expressed that they
enjoy learning listening skills course because of the adequacy of time given to
carry out the activities, realize concepts and the opportunity they are given to
discuss issues and activities in pairs and groups. Regarding this, the two
students stated their reasons as:
I have had freedom to practice listening skills activities. In addition, the teacher gives us enough time to realize what we heard. Moreover , he makes us to discuss different issues and activities in groups. (S3);
I have got freedom to practice listening skills activities. Besides, the teacher gives us enough time to comprehend and respond each question and activity. What is more, he makes us to discuss different issues and activities in pairs and groups. (S5)
Regardless of listening proficiency level and gender differences, the interviewed
students replied invariably that they enjoyed learning English Listening Skills.
However, their reasons as to why they enjoyed learning the course were
different.
B. Views about the Relevance of the Course for Academic Success
The six participants in the interview were also asked about the role of listening
skills course for their academic success. All participants agreed on the
relevance of English Listening Skills for their academic success in other
courses. Nevertheless, they viewed the relevance of the course for their
academic success from different perspectives.
131
For instance, S1, S4 and S6 expressed their belief that the knowledge and
skills they got from listening skills course helped them to understand other
course instructors’ lectures. In connection to this S1 stated: “As we are
university students and every subject is given in English, to understand other
teachers’ lectures we have to have good listening skills; and we should be active
and effective in our listening abilities. So, the practice of listening skills course
increases my academic performance.”
Similarly, S4 pointed out the relevance of the course in terms of understanding
other instructors’ lectures in particular and assisting his academic success in
general as follows: “…unless we use our English listening skills, it is very
difficult even to understand the main ideas of the given courses. So, in one way
or another, listening skills course helps us to score good grades in other
subjects.” Likewise, S6 stated his view as follows:
… unless we use our English listening skills , it is very difficult even to understand the main ideas of any course given in the department. It is because they demand us our listening skills much. So, in one way or another, listening skills course helps us to understand instructors’ lecture of other subjects. This in turn helps us for our academic success. From the responses given, it was found that the knowledge and skills students
got from listening skills course helped them to comprehend lectures in other
courses.
Others, S3 and S5, observed the relevance of listening skills course in
connection with the exposure it created to English language, in general and the
opportunity it created to integrate with other language skills, in particular. In
light of this, S3 and S5 forwarded their views respectively as:
132
First of all, it helps us to gain a lot and different types of knowledge regarding the target language. Secondly, it provides us good opportunity to listen and speak in English. Thirdly, it helps us to know how to understand listening texts. Due to this, these skills can be transferred to other courses. This in turn will help us a lot for our academic success. (S3);
First, it helps us to gain different knowledge and exposure regarding the target language-English. Secondly, it provides us good opportunity to listen and speak in English. Thirdly, it helps us to know how to understand listening texts. Due to this, these skills can be transferred to other courses. This in turn will help us a lot for our academic success. (S5)
In relation to the practical relevance of the course to understand and
communicate with native speakers, S2 mentioned that “…when we get
opportunity to talk to with native speakers, we can listen to their talk and
understand their ideas better, on the basis of knowledge and skills we get from
this course.”
From the students’ responses, it was learnt that the role of listening skills
course is vital for their academic success.
C. Challenges of Learning the Course Students were asked about the challenges or problems they faced in learning
listening skills in English. All of them pointed out almost similar problems. The
problems were related to pronunciation and speed to cope with the native
speakers. For instance, S6 stated the challenges he faced as:
Some of the problems I encountered in learning listening skills are related to pronunciation. The native speakers pronounce alphabets and words in a different way from the way we are accustomed to. Because of this sometimes I couldn’t understand what they say. The other serious problem is the speed of the native speakers. Because of their speed sometimes I couldn’t understand the main idea of the talk. These are the major and serious problems I faced in learning Listening Skills.
133
Similarly, S5 stated the challenges she faced in learning English listening skills
saying, “When the native speakers speak there are many words I missed. This
is due to the way the native speakers pronounce words and their speed.”
From responses of the six students, one thing seems clear. That is, the major
problems or challenges they encountered appeared to be similar, even if the
level of difficulty varied from one student to another.
In relation to problems they faced in learning listening skills, students were
also asked why and to what extent native speakers (taped lecture) in listening
tasks were different from the course instructor’s lecture. In other words, they
were asked what makes the course instructor’s lecture relatively easy to follow.
In answering this question, all students gave almost similar responses. For
example, S3 forwarded her reasons by saying: “…the teacher’s pronunciation is
familiar and clear to me. …since our teacher knows our listening knowledge
and abilities, he provides us lectures at the appropriate speed.”
Similarly, S2 responded in such a way: “I can understand my teacher’s lecture
very well because the way he pronounces words is not as such difficult for me.
In addition, his accent is familiar to me. Moreover, I can cope up with his
speed.”
Thus, from the students’ responses to the two questions, it was evident that
the serious problems or challenges they faced in learning listening skills,
particularly native speakers speech (taped lectures and listening texts), were
related to pronunciation, accent and speed of the native speakers.
134
D. Strategies Employed to Learn or Improve English Listening Skills
In this subsection the strategies or techniques students use to learn and/or/
improve their English listening skills are analyzed.
In their responses, four students, S1, S2, S5 and S6 expressed that they use
almost similar strategies or techniques. According to their responses they
usually listen to English music and English radio programs; watch English
movies and TV programs to learn and/or/ improve their English listening
skills. Other than these common strategies, S5 reported that she uses a
different strategy in helping herself improve her listening skills. In connection
to this, she stated: “In addition, I try to listen to recorded listening texts again
and again. Moreover, I try to speak in English with my colleagues to minimize
anxiety related problems in learning listening skills.”
S3 and S4, on their part, reported that they use other types of strategies or
techniques. S3 stated that “…after class, I usually review classroom activities
and my lecture notes.” S4, on his part stated his strategy as:
Sometimes I use English dictionary to see how to pronounce some difficult words. And sometimes I learn from other people (by asking questions) who have better English knowledge and skills. In addition, I pay attention to the teacher’s lecture. Outside the classroom, I try to speak in English with my friends.
From the responses given, it was found that most respondents used almost
similar strategies. However, very few respondents were found to use some
strategies that majority of the respondents didn’t employ.
In addition, the participants were asked about the types of support they get
from the course instructor to improve their listening skills. The responses
gained from the interviewees indicated that the two course instructors provided
135
different activities to their students to improve their English listening skills.
Other than this, S4 replied that his listening skills course instructor uses
quizzes and continuous assessment or tests to improve students listening
skills.
E. Views on Successful Students, Gender and Learning style
Preference The six students were asked to forward their views on what type of students
had opportunities to be successful or manage the course. Three interviewees
(S2, S3, and S5) expressed their belief that students who carried out listening
activities carefully and attentively in the classroom and practiced listening to
English (such as watching English movies and TV programs, and listened to
English radio programs) outside the classroom had opportunities to be
successful in the course.
On their part, S1 and S6 were found to have the belief that students who had
good English background knowledge in general and listening skills in
particular at lower grade levels had opportunities to be successful in the
course. Substantiating this idea S6 stated:
I think students who have good background knowledge of listening English at their elementary or secondary school levels [have opportunities to be successful in the course ]. As I see in the classroom, those students who learned listening English better at elementary or secondary school grades have the opportunity to be successful in this course at the campus.
For S4, however, those who paid attention to listening activities, practiced
harder listening texts and did not afraid of asking the course instructor (when
they encounter unclear ideas) might have opportunities to be successful in the
course.
136
The interviewees were also asked whether or not they believe gender difference
brings about difference in listening proficiency. Except the two students (S3
and S4), the rest four students expressed their belief that gender doesn’t have
listening proficiency difference. As opposed to this, S3 and S4 expressed their
belief that female students perform better in listening skills course. In stating
the reason for this, S4 noted: “Females are very wise, careful and responsible
by nature. So for me females perform better in listening skills. Even in our
classroom female students are very clever as compared to male students.”
Those six students were asked to forward their views on which perceptual
learning style preferred students benefit more and have better chance of
success in the course. Evidences from interviews indicated that all of the
respondent students invariably hold the belief that students who preferred
group learning style are beneficiaries and had better opportunities to be
successful in this course. In addition to group learning style preferred
students, two respondents (S2 and S5) expressed their belief that kinesthetic
learners also benefit and have better opportunities for success in this course.
5.4 Discussions The main purpose of this study was to investigate effects of gender, learners’
listening proficiency, and perceptual learning style preference on their listening
strategy use. Besides, it was intended to assess the course instructors’ and
students’ practices and perceptions regarding teaching and learning listening
skills in English.
The first research question of the current study sought to answer whether male
and female students use significantly different listening strategies.
As results show, except compensatory strategy, female students used the rest
five listening strategy categories (i.e. memory, cognitive, metacognitive, affective
137
and social) more than male students. Though females surpassed males in
using the majority of listening strategy categories, the results reveal that the
two groups were medium users of the five listening strategy categories. On the
other hand, both male and female participants used metacognitive strategies
relatively with high frequency as compared to other listening strategy
categories. However, only females were found to be high metacognitive users.
This finding coincides with findings of previous studies (Bacon, 1992;
Vandergrift, 1996). The result of this study implies that female students tended
to plan for their listening, monitor their listening comprehension, and evaluate
their listening strategy use more than male students.
On average, both boys and girls used metacognitive strategies relatively with
high frequency and memory strategies with least frequency compared to other
listening strategy categories. The findings of high frequency use of
metacognitive strategies and least frequency use of memory strategies are
consistent with the studies conducted on English majors in China by Han and
Lin (2000), and Nisbet (2002), cited in Wu (2008). It was also reported by Abu
Shmais (2003), Aziz (2005) and Riazi (2007) whose subjects were Arabs.
Generally, as the findings reveal, female students employed listening strategies
with average mean of 3.28. Whereas, male students used listening strategies
with 3.07 averages mean. Follow up tests indicate that the difference between
males and females in the amount of strategies they used was significant. On
average, as the findings indicate, females were more listening strategy users
than males at .05 alpha level. In addition, the findings show a positive and
significant correlation between students’ gender and their overall listening
strategy use at .05 alpha level. This finding is consistent with Bacon (1992),
Green and Oxford (1995), Dreyer and Oxford (1996), Kaylani (1996), Peacock
and Ho (2003) (cited in Cohen and Macaro, 2007) studies, in which the
difference in frequency of allover strategy use was significant across genders,
indicating female students’ superiority.
138
What is more, as the findings of the study indicate, females scored better
results (in the two listening tests) than male participants. On average, female
participants scored 53%, which was above the group mean (i.e. 50.74%).
Whereas, male participants scored 48.84%, which was below the group mean
(i.e. 50.74%) (See Appendix K). The findings of this study show a significant
parallel with other precedent studies. For instance, Boyle (1987) and Oxford
(1993) came up with findings in their studies that females outscored males.
The findings (of this study) imply that more listening strategy users
comprehend listening texts better than less listening strategy users. This in
turn may imply that more listening strategy users used each strategy properly -
using an appropriate strategy for an appropriate situation. As Lavine & Oxford
(1994) stated, effective L2 learners are aware of the strategies they use and
know the reason for using them. In other words, female students might be
aware of when and how to use listening strategies better than male students.
Oxford and Nyikos (1989) found that women were more deliberate in their use
of learning strategies than men.
Further analysis was made to see how often and to what extent do female and
male students used direct and indirect listening strategy categories. The results
indicate that female students surpassed male students in using both direct
and indirect listening strategy categories. However, a significant correlation
was found solely between gender and indirect listening strategy category. This
indicates that the use of indirect listening strategy category was a significant
indicator for the difference in listening strategy use between male and female
students.
The second research question of the current study sought to answer whether
higher listening proficiency and lower listening proficiency students use
significantly different listening strategies.
139
According to the findings, the study indicates a medium frequency level of
listening strategy use by all participant students, regardless of their listening
proficiency level. The findings show that there was a steady increase in the use
of listening strategies across the three proficiency groups - from lower to higher
listening proficiency levels.
A statistically significant mean value difference was found between higher
listening proficiency and lower listening proficiency students’ listening strategy
use at .05 level. This implies that listening proficiency was a significant
indicator of the difference in listening strategy use between higher and lower
listening proficiency students. Overall, as the findings reveal, the higher
listening proficiency students reported more use of listening strategies than the
lower listening proficiency group. It indicates that those with higher listening
test scores used more strategies. The findings are consistent with the results of
some prior studies (Oxford and Nyikos, 1989; Kim, 1992, cited in Cohen and
Macaro, 2007; Green and Oxford, 1995; Ehrman and Oxford, 1995; Park,
1997; Halbach, 2000; Griffiths, 2003; and Liu, 2004) which found out that
high proficiency groups used significantly greater strategies than low
proficiency groups.
On the other hand, the frequencies of using cognitive and metacognitive
listening strategies for higher proficiency students were found significantly
higher (at p<.01 level) than they were for lower listening proficiency students.
This finding is accord with Park’s (1997) study. Park (1997) found that the
highest proficiency group used cognitive and metacognitive strategies more
than the other lower proficiency groups. According to O‘Malley and Chamot
(1990), metacognitive and cognitive strategies were often used together,
supporting each other. The assumption was that using a combination of
strategies often had more impact than single strategies (Oxford, 1990).
140
As the findings of this study reveal, listening proficiency was a strong predictor
to cognitive and metacognitive listening strategies at .01 significant level for
higher and lower listening proficiency level students. This indicates that, as the
listening proficiency level increases, the frequency of using both cognitive and
metacognitive listening strategies increases. In other words, the results depict a
linear relationship between cognitive listening strategy use and listening
proficiency, as well as metacognitive listening strategy use and listening
proficiency, indicating that those with higher TOEFL listening section scores
used more cognitive and metacognitive listening strategies.
In addition, further analysis was made to examine the difference between
higher and lower listening proficiency students’ in using direct and indirect
listening strategy categories.
As the results show, the means of higher listening proficiency students were
found superior in using both direct and indirect listening strategy categories.
However, significant mean difference was found only between the two listening
proficiency levels and indirect listening strategy categories. This means, the
higher listening proficiency level students used indirect listening strategy
categories more frequently and significantly than direct listening strategy
categories. This implies that listening proficiency was a significant indicator of
indirect listening strategy use between higher and lower listening proficiency
groups.
As the findings of the stepwise regression analysis for the whole participant
students (i.e. the three listening proficiency levels) reveal, the adjusted R
squares show the modest predictor level of listening proficiency for cognitive
and metacognitive listening strategy categories. This implies that there were
other predictors which forecast cognitive and metacognitive listening strategy
categories.
141
Moreover, a moderate and negative significant correlation coefficient was found
among the three listening proficiency levels (i.e. higher, average and lower) and
students overall listening strategy use. This indicates that higher listening
proficiency students showed lower scores on listening strategy use, especially
in compensatory and social.
Furthermore, to see the relationship between students’ overall listening
proficiency and their direct and indirect listening strategy categories use
Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients were computed. The results
reveal a moderate and positive significant correlation solely between listening
proficiency and indirect listening strategy category.
The third research question asked whether students with different perceptual
learning style preferences use significantly different listening strategies. To
answer this question the findings of Pearson correlation and coefficient of
determination (r2) are used.
The results reveal that Kinesthetic learning style was significantly correlated
with affective listening strategies. This means, students whose learning style
was Kinesthetic used affective listening strategies more. This implies that
students whose learning style preferences tend to be kinesthetic were capable
of controlling their emotions and attitudes about learning English listening
skills. In other words, they can manage their level of anxiety, cope with
ambiguity, and motivate themselves. Group learning style, in its part, had
significantly correlated with memory, compensation and metacognitive listening
strategy categories. This implies that learners who preferred group learning
style used varieties of listening strategies. Individual learning style had
significant and negative correlations with cognitive and meatcognitive listening
strategies. It indicates that learners who had high inclination to individual
learning style used cognitive and meatcognitive listening strategy categories
less frequently. This in turn implies that such students had problems or
142
weaknesses to analyze, transform or synthesize learning material. It also
implies that they had problems or weaknesses to plan for their listening,
monitor their listening comprehension, and evaluate their listening strategy
use.
Meanwhile, as the findings show, auditory, visual and tactile learning styles
didn’t have any significant correlation with any of the listening strategy
category. This indicates that each of the above perceptual learning styles were
not significantly interrelated with any of the listening strategy categories. This
result contradicts with Rossi-Le and Braxton’s studies. The results of Rossi-Le
study, cited in Oxford and Burry-Stock (1995), indicate that auditory learners
used memory strategies more frequently than did the other learners. On his
part, Braxton (1999), cited in Graham et al. (2007), found out that visual and
auditory learning style preferences significantly influenced the listening
strategies of ESL university students. These differences might happen due to
cultural differences between participants of this study and earlier stated
studies. The learning style preferences of learners from different cultural
backgrounds sometimes differ significantly from each other (Reid, 1987; 1995).
The results of this study also indicate that none of the learning styles had a
statistically significant relationship with social listening strategies. This might
imply that students participated in this study (i.e. who had different perceptual
learning styles) had difficulty or awareness problem in using social listening
strategies. In general, the whole correlation and coefficient of determination
results imply that some perceptual learning style preferences were significantly
correlated with some listening strategy categories.
To examine participant students’ perceptual learning style preference
differences, a descriptive statistics analysis was conducted before Pearson
correlation and coefficient of determination (r2) analyses were made. The
descriptive statistics results show that participant students preferred
143
kinesthetic, group and auditory perceptual learning styles most. On the
contrary, individual learning style was found to be the least preferred one. The
current results have some similarities and differences with those reported in
earlier studies using PLSPQ. For example, Reid (1987), and Rossi-Le (1995)
(cited in Cohen and Macaro, 2007), found out that their participants strongly
preferred kinesthetic and tactile leaning styles. In the present study, the major
preferred modes were kinesthetic, group and auditory. Secondly, unlike the
participants in Rossi-Le (1995), cited in Cohen and Macaro (2007) study, the
participants of this study did not indicate a negative preference for group
learning. As stated earlier, these differences might happen due to cultural
differences between participant students of this study and earlier stated
studies (Reid, 1987; 1995).
The fourth research question sought answer(s) to the extent to which students’
gender, listening proficiency, perceptual learning style preferences and their
listening strategy use relate to each other. To answer this question, the
findings of stepwise and multiple regressions analyses are used.
Taking all variables (independent and dependent) into account, the correlation
matrix indicate that some correlation coefficients were statistically significant
at P<.05. Among the addressed variables, memory listening strategy category,
listening proficiency, cognitive listening strategy category, metacognitive
listening strategy category, kinesthetic, individual and group learning styles
had relatively many significant correlations with other variables.
The results of the interrelationships among the six dependent variables or
listening strategy categories show the strongest relationship between
metacognitive and cognitive listening strategies. This finding agrees with the
findings of O‘Malley and Chamot (1990) study reporting that metacognitive and
cognitive strategies were often used together, supporting each other. On the
contrary, the weakest significant correlation was found between compensation
144
and memory listening strategies. On the other hand, the results show that
memory strategies had many significant correlations with cognitive,
compensation, affective and social listening strategies. It means that students
who frequently use memory listening strategies were often inclined to use other
strategies. This implies that students who frequently employed memory
listening strategies were interrelated with their own use of cognitive,
compensation, affective and social listening strategies. In other words,
cognitive, compensation, affective and social listening strategies either
separately or collectively had great contribution for effective use of memory
listening strategies.
The multiple regression results indicate that ten equations were found to be
statistically significant at .05 alpha level. Five independent variables (i.e.
gender, kinesthetic learning style, group learning style, individual learning
style and listening proficiency) were found to be significant predictors for
different listening strategy categories. Among the five independent variables,
group learning style was the major significant predictor for multiple subscales
of listening strategy categories. For example, as the result reveals, it was a
predictor to memory, compensation, and metacognitive listening strategies. The
regression coefficients also reveal that gender, listening proficiency, and
individual learning style were found to be predictors for two listening strategy
categories each. Kinesthetic was found to be the major variable in predicting
affective listening strategies. Nevertheless, no significant predictor was found in
predicting social listening strategy category.
Qualitative analyses were made on students’ responses to the open-ended
question of the adapted SILL. The findings of the analysis indicate that some
respondents mentioned using various cognitive and very few social,
metacognitive and affective listening strategies which were not stated in the
adapted SILL. Cognitive listening strategies were the major ones reported by
majority of the respondents.
145
The fifth research question sought answers on teachers’ and students’
practices and perceptions of teaching and learning listening skills in English.
To answer this research question, the findings of the interview analyses are
used. The results and discussions are presented as follows.
First, as the findings of interview analyses reveal, there was a mismatch
between the course instructors’ perception and students’ practice or experience
regarding students’ interest to learn English listening skills course. The
instructors had the belief that students’ interest to learn the course was
directly related to their listening proficiency. That is, they believed that
students who had good listening proficiency enjoyed learning the course; where
as those who had poor listening proficiency disliked to learn the course.
However, when we see the findings of students’ interview analyses regarding
their interest to learn the course, the three listening proficiency levels (higher,
average and lower) students enjoyed learning English listening skills course,
regardless of their listening proficiency differences. This mismatch could
happen due to the instructors’ over emphasis on their students’ earlier
listening proficiency. Students’ motivation to learn the course, on the other
hand, might arise from the relevance of the course for their academic success
in other subjects. Moreover, the variety of activities and tasks that the course
instructors provide to their students might have another positive effect on
increasing students’ motivation and interest to learn the course.
The other question was related to the type of activities teachers gave to their
students in listening skills classes. From the findings of course instructors’ and
students’ interview analyses, it is realized that different activities were given to
the students in listening skills classes. The course instructors’ interview
analyses also indicate that they employed different tasks and activities to
arouse their students’ learning interest. On the contrary, as the analyses show,
they didn’t deliberately design activities to their students to make use of
different listening strategies or techniques. This might indicate that the course
146
instructors either gave less attention to teach listening strategies to their
students, or they might have awareness problem about the relevance of
language learning strategies in general and listening strategies in particular in
the teaching-learning process.
According to the course instructors’ interview findings, the major challenges
they encountered were related to students’ listening comprehension problems
(unable to understand most listening texts). This in turn is attributed to huge
English listening background differences among students. On the other hand,
as the findings of students’ interview analysis indicate, most of their challenges
were related to pronunciation and speed (of native speakers). That is, unable to
understand native speakers pronunciation, and unable to cope with their
speed. This finding agrees with findings of other studies, for instance, Rost
(1990), which reported that native speakers’ pronunciation and their rapid
speed are the major causes of L2 listening difficulties, for most L2 listeners.
The other question was about strategies or techniques students utilize to learn
and/or/ improve their English listening skills. As the findings of interview
analyses reveal, they usually use similar strategies: listening to English music
and English radio programs, and watching English movies and TV programs.
All these fall under Oxford’s cognitive listening strategies. Hence, most
respondents were used cognitive strategies to learn and/or/ improve their
English listening skills.
Finally, the interviewees were asked about the type of students they believe
would have opportunities to be successful or manage the course; their views on
effect of gender and perceptual learning style preference difference in learning
listening skills.
As the findings of the interview analyses reveal, both teachers and some
students believed that students who had access to listen to English, in one way
147
or another, in their earlier grade levels may have great opportunities to be
successful or manage the course. In addition to students’ exposure to listening
English in earlier grade levels, most of the interviewee students had the belief
that students who currently perform listening activities carefully and
attentively in the classroom and practiced listening to English outside the
classroom may have opportunity to be successful in the course. The findings
indicate perception differences between teachers and most respondent
students. While the teachers’ perception on students success (in the course)
depends merely on students’ previous experiences and exposure to listening to
English in earlier grade levels, most students belief on success in the course
was depend on both their previous experiences and exposure to listening to
English in earlier grade levels and current practices being done both in the
classroom and outside the classroom as well.
As the results of the interviews analyses indicate, the course instructors and
majority of respondent students believe that no listening ability or proficiency
difference resulted between the sexes. Regarding learning style, as the findings
indicate, both course instructors believe that auditory learners benefit a lot
from this course. On the contrary, based on the type of activities they carried
out in the classroom, all respondent students believe that students who prefer
group learning style are beneficiaries of the course. This indicates that the
course instructors’ and students’ perceptions were far apart. It may be due to
the two parties’ views on listening texts and activities given in the classrooms.
As the findings of the course instructors’ interview analysis indicate, they
usually use audio-cassettes in listening classes. As a result, they believe that
auditory learners are the most beneficiaries of the course. As to students, as
the findings reveal, even though most activities are based on audio-cassette
listening texts, most of the activities given are pair or group works. Thus, they
believe that learners who preferred group learning style are the most
beneficiaries of the course.
148
Another question was raised to the course instructors regarding the strengths
and weaknesses of the course materials or modules they used. As the findings
of teachers’ interview analysis reveal, the course modules (each of them used)
to teach the course were not designed by considering different students who
have different perceptual learning style preferences. This indicates that
attention has not been given to individual differences in general and perceptual
learning style preferences in particular during module preparation.
149
CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 Introduction In this chapter, summary of the study and the findings of the data analyses
that had been made under quantitative and qualitative analyses are
summarized. Based on the findings, conclusions are drawn, addressing the
intended objectives. In the end, implications, recommendations and areas for
future studies are forwarded.
6.2 Summary The main purpose of this study was to investigate effects of gender, listening
proficiency, and learners’ perceptual learning style preference on their language
learning strategy use, with emphasis on academic listening in English as a
foreign language context. In addition, it was intended to assess the course
instructors’ and students’ practices and perceptions regarding teaching and
learning English listening skills. To accomplish these purposes, basic research
questions were formulated to be answered by the study (See Chapter One,
Section 1.3).
The main study was conducted on first year English major students at Debre
Markos and Bahir Dar universities. Using comprehensive sampling, all
students who were taking listening skills course were chosen to participate in
the study. The total number of participant students was 70. The ratio of
gender was 38 (54.29%) male participants, and 32 (45.71%) female
participants. Actually the number of participants at the beginning of the study
was 72, but since two of the students were absent during the administration of
the PLSP questionnaire, they were excluded from the study. As a result, the
150
responses of 70 students were taken into account when conducting the
statistical analyses.
On the other hand, the pilot study was conducted at Bahir Dar University with
26 third year English major continuing education students.
To gather the required data for the main study, questionnaires, TOEFL
listening test and interviews were utilized. The questionnaires (the adapted
SILL and PLSPQ) were used to investigate learners’ listening strategy use and
their perceptual learning style preferences, respectively. TOEFL listening test
was used to assess learners’ overall listening proficiency. In addition,
interviews with the two course instructors and six students were conducted to
assess their practices and perceptions of teaching and learning listening skills
in English.
The participant students responded to the adapted SILL and PLSP
questionnaires, respectively. Then, the TOEFL listening sections were
administered to the students by the course instructors on two different days in
two weeks gap. After all these, interviews were conducted with the course
instructor and three participant students from each university.
To analyze and interpret both quantitative and qualitative data different
methods were used.
In order to summarize the findings of the quantitative and qualitative data
analyses, basic research questions are addressed. Hence, the findings of the
data analyses are condensed under each research question as follows.
151
1. Does gender difference bring about significant difference in listening strategy
use of EFL learners?
The objective of this research question was to investigate the impact of gender
difference on listening strategy use of participant students.
As results reveal, except compensatory strategy, female students used the rest
five listening strategy categories (i.e. memory, cognitive, metacognitive, affective
and social) more than male students. Though females surpassed males in
using the majority of listening strategy categories, the two groups were found
medium users of the five listening strategy categories. On the other hand,
females were found to be high metacognitive listening strategy users.
In all categories of listening strategies, the mean values of female and male
students were found to be 3.2788 and 3.0680, respectively. The Leven’s t-test
confirmed that the difference in overall listening strategy use of females and
males was significant. The result shows that female students were more
listening strategy users than male students is statistically significant at p=.05
level. Moreover, the value of the Pearson’s correlation coefficient between
students’ gender and their overall listening strategy category use was found to
be moderate, positive and significant. This in turn indicates that girls were
more listening strategy users than boys.
Though the mean values in using both direct and indirect listening strategy
categories show females’ superiority, a significant correlation was found only
between gender and indirect listening strategy categories. This indicates that
the use of direct listening strategy categories was not a significant indicator of
the difference in listening strategy use between female and male students.
152
2. Are there significant differences in listening strategy use between higher and
lower listening proficiency students?
The objective of this research question was to investigate the impact of
students’ listening proficiency differences on their listening strategy use.
The comparison of higher and lower listening proficiency students on
individual listening strategy category use showed that except compensatory
and social listening strategies, the frequencies of using memory, cognitive,
metacognitive and affective strategies for higher listening proficiency students
were found higher than they were for lower listening proficiency students. The
results also indicate that both groups were medium listening strategy users. In
all categories of listening strategies, the mean values of higher listening
proficiency group and lower listening proficiency group were found 3.3504 and
2.9564 respectively. The Leven’s t-test substantiated that the mean value
difference in overall listening strategy use of higher listening proficiency
students and lower listening proficiency students was significant. This result
shows that higher listening proficiency students were more listening strategy
users than lower listening proficiency students is statistically significant at
p=.05 level.
The mean results computed for direct and indirect listening strategy use
indicate that higher listening proficiency students surpassed lower listening
proficiency students in using both direct and indirect listening strategy
categories. However, the difference in the use of direct listening strategy
category of higher and lower listening proficiency students was not found
significant. This indicates that listening proficiency was not a significant
indicator of the difference in direct listening strategy use between higher and
lower listening proficiency students.
153
From the stepwise regressions computed, the adjusted R squares of listening
proficiency for cognitive and metacognitive listening strategy categories were
found .243 and .252, respectively. The results of the adjusted R squares show
the modest predictor level of listening proficiency among higher, average and
lower listening proficiency groups regarding cognitive and metacognitive
listening strategy categories use.
A moderate, negative and significant correlation (-.310) was found between the
three listening proficiency groups (higher, average and lower) and their overall
listening strategy use. The negative correlation indicates that higher listening
proficiency students showed lower scores on strategy use, especially in
compensation and social listening strategy categories. Moreover, the value of
the Pearson’s correlation coefficient between students’ listening proficiency and
their indirect listening strategy category use was found to be moderate,
negative and significant(r=-.329; p=.005). In contrast, insignificant correlation
was found between students’ listening proficiency and their direct listening
strategy category use (r=-.205; p=.089).
3. Do students with different perceptual learning style preferences use
significantly different listening strategies?
The objective of this research question was to explore the impact of perceptual
learning style preference differences on listening strategy use of participant
students.
The descriptive statistics computed on students’ perceptual learning style
preference reveal that kinesthetic, group and auditory were the first three most
preferred perceptual learning styles of participant students. On the contrary,
individual learning style was found to be the least preferred one.
154
Positive and significant Pearson’s correlation coefficients were found between
kinesthetic learning style and affective listening strategy category; and group
learning style preference with memory, compensation and metacognitive
listening strategies. The second result indicates that students who preferred
group learning style used relatively many listening strategy types. In the mean
time, a significant and negative correlation was found between individual
learning style preference with both cognitive and metacognitive listening
strategy categories. This indicates that learners who had high preference to
individual learning style employed cognitive and meatcognitive listening
strategy categories less frequently. As the findings indicate, auditory, visual
and tactile learning styles didn’t have any significant correlation with any of
listening strategy category. The results also reveal that none of the learning
styles had a statistically significant correlation with social listening strategy
category.
4. To what extent do students’ gender, listening proficiency and perceptual
learning style preferences and their listening strategy use relate to each
other?
The objective of this research question was to investigate the interrelationship
among gender, listening proficiency and perceptual learning style preferences
with learners’ listening strategy use.
Taking all variables (independent and dependent) into account, the correlation
matrix indicates that some correlation coefficients were statistically significant
at P<.05. Among the addressed variables, memory listening strategy category,
listening proficiency, cognitive listening strategy category, metacognitive
listening strategy category, kinesthetic, individual and group learning styles
had relatively many significant correlations with other variables.
155
The data set was further analyzed to see interrelationships among the six
dependent variables or listening strategy categories. The results show the
strongest relationship between metacognitive and cognitive listening strategies.
On the contrary, the weakest significant correlation was found between
compensation and memory listening strategies. On the other hand, the results
show that memory strategies had many significant correlations with cognitive,
compensation, affective and social listening strategies. It means that students
who frequently used memory listening strategies were often inclined to use
other listening strategies. This implies that students who frequently employed
memory listening strategies were interrelated with their own cognitive,
compensation, affective and social listening strategies. In other words,
cognitive, compensation, affective and social listening strategies either
separately or collectively had great contribution for effective use of memory
listening strategies.
In order to determine the contribution of the independent variables on the
variability of the dependent variables, multiple regression analysis was
computed.
From the multiple regressions computed, ten equations were found statistically
significant at .05 alpha level. Five independent variables (i.e. gender,
kinesthetic learning style, group learning style, individual learning style and
listening proficiency) were found to be significant predictors to different
listening strategy categories. Among the five independent variables, group
learning style was found to be the major significant predictor for multiple
subscales of listening strategy categories. For example, as the result reveals, it
was a predictor to memory, compensation, and metacognitive listening
strategies. The regression coefficients also reveal that gender, listening
proficiency, and individual learning style were found to be predictors for two
listening strategy categories each. Kinesthetic was found to be the major
156
variable in predicting affective listening strategies. Nevertheless, no significant
predictor was found in predicting social listening strategy category.
5. What do the course instructors and students say of their practice of teaching
and learning listening skills in English?
The objective of this research question was to assess the course instructors’
and students’ practices and perceptions of teaching and learning listening
skills in English. In order to achieve this objective, the course instructors and
students were asked different questions during face-to-face interviews.
From the findings of interview analyses, a mismatch was found between the
course instructors’ perceptions and participant students’ experience
concerning students’ interest to learn English listening skills course. The
instructors believed that students’ interest to learn the course was directly
related to their listening proficiency. However, as the findings reveal, the three
listening proficiency level (higher, average and lower) students enjoyed learning
English listening skills course, regardless of their listening proficiency
differences.
In relation to activities, from students’ interview analyses it was found that
different activities were given to them in listening skills classes. The course
instructors’ interview analyses also indicate that they employed different tasks
and activities to increase their students’ learning interest. On the contrary,
what was found is that the course instructors didn’t deliberately design
activities to their students to make use of different listening strategies or
techniques.
Concerning challenges teachers and students faced in the teaching-learning
process of listening skills in English, students’ listening comprehension
problems (unable to understand most listening texts) and huge English
listening background differences among students were found the major
157
challenges that the course instructors encountered. On the other hand, unable
to understand native speakers pronunciation, and unable to cope with their
speed were found major challenges from students side.
In connection with strategies or techniques students utilize to learn and/or/
improve their English listening skills, listening to English music and English
radio programs, watching English movies and TV programs were found
common strategies employed by interviewees. All these fall under Oxford’s
cognitive listening strategies. This result coincides with students’ response to
open-ended question of the adapted SILL.
Finally, perception differences were found between teachers and most
respondent students’ about the type of students that would have opportunities
to be successful or manage the course, effect of gender and perceptual learning
style preference differences in learning listening skills.
As the findings of interview analyses indicate, the teachers’ perception on
students’ success in the course was relied on students’ experiences and
exposure to listening to English in earlier grade levels, whereas, most students’
belief on success in the course were related not only to their earlier experiences
and exposure to listening to English in earlier grade levels, but also to current
practices being done both in the classroom and outside the classroom.
On the issue of which learning style preference students had opportunities to
be beneficiaries in the course, the two course instructors and respondent
students’ beliefs were found different. As the findings indicate, the course
instructors believed that auditory learners benefite a lot from this course.
Whereas, all respondent students believed that students who prefer group
learning style are beneficiaries of the course. On the other hand, both course
instructors and majority of respondent students were found to believe that no
listening ability or proficiency difference resulted between the sexes.
158
Concerning the course materials or modules, from the findings of course
instructors’ interview analysis, it was found that they were not deliberately
designed so as to teach or reach different students who had different
perceptual learning style preferences.
6.3 Conclusions
Based on the findings of the study, conclusions are drawn as follows.
1. The findings of this study supported the assumption that there is a
relationship between sex difference and the use of strategies. Though males
and females were found to be medium users in the majority of listening
strategy categories, females surpassed males in overall listening strategy
use. The results showed that female students were more listening strategy
users than male students. A statistically significant difference was found
between boys and girls in the use of listening strategies in this study,
favoring females. Thus, gender difference brings about significant difference
in listening strategy use of participant students.
2. Regarding listening strategy use between higher and lower listening
proficiency students, the results reveal that higher listening proficiency
students were more listening strategy users than lower listening proficiency
students. In addition, a statistical significant difference was found between
higher and lower listening proficiency groups in overall listening strategy
use. Hence, students’ listening proficiency difference had an impact on their
listening strategy use.
3. The results computed on students’ perceptual learning style preference
reveal that kinesthetic, group and auditory styles were found the first three
most preferred ones. Significant positive correlations were found between
some perceptual learning style preferences and listening strategy categories.
On the contrary, significant and negative correlations were found between
159
one perceptual learning style preference and two listening strategy
categories. On the other hand, three learning styles (auditory, visual and
tactile) didn’t have any significant correlation with any of listening
strategies. In short, it is possible to conclude that some perceptual learning
styles were significantly correlated with participant students’ listening
strategy categories.
4. With regard to the interrelationships among gender, listening proficiency
and perceptual learning style preferences with learners listening strategy
use, many significant correlations were found. From the dependent and
independent variables addressed in the study, memory listening strategy
category, listening proficiency, cognitive listening strategy category,
metacognitive listening strategy category, kinesthetic, individual and group
learning styles were found significantly correlated with many other
variables.
Concerning the intercorrelations results computed among dependent
variables i.e. listening strategy categories, significant correlation coefficients
were found from moderate to strong levels.
From multiple regressions computed, group learning style, listening
proficiency, gender, individual learning style and kinesthetic learning style
were major significant predictors for the majority of listening strategy
categories.
In general, from what has been discussed so far, it would be possible to
conclude that significant interrelationships exist among gender, listening
proficiency and perceptual learning style preferences with learners’
listening strategy use.
160
5. From the interview results, it is possible to draw the following
conclusions.
First, there was a mismatch between the course instructors’ perception and
participant students’ experience regarding students’ interest to learn
English listening skills course. Second, different activities were given to the
students in listening skills classes. However, the course instructors didn’t
deliberately design activities to their students to make use of different
listening strategies or techniques. Third, students’ listening comprehension
problems (unable to understand most listening texts) and huge English
listening background differences among students were found the major
challenges that the course instructors encountered in the classroom. On the
other hand, unable to understand native speakers pronunciation, and
unable to cope with their speed were found major challenges in learning
listening skills in English from students side. Fourth, respondent students
utilized almost similar cognitive strategies to learn and/or/ improve their
English listening skills. Fifth, perception differences were found between
teachers and most respondent students in most cases, in relation to type of
students and among those who have different perceptual learning style
preferences, which would have opportunities to be successful or manage the
course, in learning listening skills. The course instructors and most
students, meanwhile, believed that listening ability or proficiency difference
didn’t exist between the sexes. Sixth, the materials or modules prepared for
the course were not deliberately designed so as to teach or reach different
students who have different perceptual learning style preferences.
6.4 Implications and Recommendations
The findings of this study reveal that relationships exist among gender,
listening proficiency and perceptual learning style preferences with learners’
listening strategy use. Various pedagogical implications arise from the findings
and conclusions of the present study drawn. First of all, in addition to teaching
161
teachers should take over the responsibility of a researcher as well in order to
identify not only their students’ individual differences, but they should also
know how to cater the needs of their students. It does not mean that the
course teachers should administer some listening tests and questionnaires
haphazardly, but being aware of each step taken and having a rationale for
taking it. Teachers should choose the right tools to identify their student’
listening proficiency level, learning styles and listening strategies and then the
findings should be used properly. In other words, teachers should make use of
such findings in order to orient teaching methods more appropriately. In
addition to using classroom tests and questionnaires or other appropriate
instruments, teachers should constantly observe students very closely so that
s/he can diagnose any changes in learning listening skills in English profiles of
the students.
Gender differences in the use of listening strategy in the classroom have
important implications for the conduct of listening lessons. Since the listening
strategy of female and male students were different, provision of opportunities
to use listening strategies in ways which suit each gender may be difficult in
mixed-gender classes. However, teachers still need to provide appropriate and
meaningful learning opportunities for both girls and boys, just as the attempt
to provide such opportunities for mixed-ability groups.
Moreover, as the study indicated, males and females showed different amounts
of listening strategy use and this reflected a correlation with listening
proficiency. Students should be informed about that and they should examine
their results to better understand their own strategy use. Those students who
used more listening strategies and became successful would be positively
reinforced and they would keep using more and appropriate listening strategies
accordingly. And those who used a relatively low number of listening strategies
would be persuaded to employ more listening strategies in the future and
increase the variety of their strategies.
162
As students’ responses to open-ended question of the adapted SILL and
students’ interview analyses show, students used some type of listening
strategies in their listening process, but it was far from sufficient. So the
course instructors are expected to teach strategies in their listening English
classes. For example, metacognitive, affective and social listening strategies
should be the focus of the afterwards strategy instruction. Therefore, English
teachers are expected to teach various types of listening strategies as the
beneficial effects of strategy instruction have been shown in many studies.
In order to do this, teachers should be equipped with a lot of listening
strategies that they will be able to propose to students so that they can deal
with difficult listening tasks. If, for instance, one strategy does not work, they
should be able to suggest another alternative. To instruct language learning
strategies in general, and listening strategies in particular, teachers need to be
trained. Thus, teacher training institutes, colleges and universities in Ethiopia
should offer training on language learning strategies so that teachers can be
efficient and effective in teaching language learning strategies.
What is more, teachers should design listening activities that would require
their students to make use of a variety of strategies. After the completion of the
task they should hold a discussion session with them talking about the
strategies they make use of and whether these strategies proved to be useful or
not. Furthermore, the course instructors should create opportunities to their
students so as to make them self-evaluate their strategy use and decide which
is better for them, or learn an alternative way of doing a particular listening
task.
Regarding the implication related to material producers, the materials or
modules they prepare should be congruent with students’ learning styles and
they should be appealing to students’ needs and interests. That is, the different
tasks and activities should be well designed to reach students who have
163
different learning styles and listening proficiencies. The tasks and activities
designed should call upon students to make use of different listening strategies
or techniques. For this reason, listening skills course material producers
should collect feedback from teachers and students in order to identify the
strengths and weaknesses of their products. This will enable them not only to
produce better materials but also to develop their professional career.
Interpretations of the findings of this study also lead to several
recommendations for further research. First, it is recommended that a
replication of this study be done wherein
(a) the subjects are many university level EFL students,
(b) the adapted SILL is compared or accompanied with other types of data
collection tools, (e.g., diaries, interviews),
(c) proficiency in other language skills, (e.g., speaking, reading and writing)
be related to the use of language learning strategy.
Second, a longitudinal study needs to be done to more completely address the
issues presented in this study by using the same participants over an extended
period of time in order to examine when participants listening comprehension
levels increase and what listening strategies they employ and compare the
results within and between individual groups (gender, different perceptual
learning style students and learners of different listening proficiency levels).
Third, a more detailed look at variables influencing learning listening skills in
English is needed. Affective factors such as anxiety, motivation and self-efficacy
might be related to the use of different listening strategies. To consider as many
variables as possible will enable language teachers and researchers to draw a
more accurate, and global picture of what is happening to an individual when
s/he learns listening skills in English as a foreign language.
175
APPENDICES
Appendix A Adapted Strategy Inventory Questionnaire
Directions: Please read carefully each statement and choose one answer that
tells how well the statement describes you in learning Listening Skills. Do not
answer how you think you should be, or what other people do. There are no
right or wrong answers to these statements.
Mark () after one of the options (Never or almost never true of me ,Generally not true of
me , Somewhat true of me ,Generally true of me, or Always or almost always true of me )
of each statement describing the extent to which you agree or disagree with.
NEVER OR ALMOST NEVER TRUE OF ME means that the statement is very rarely true of you. GENERALLY NOT TRUE OF ME means that the statement is rarely true of you. SOMEWHAT TRUE OF ME means that the statement is true of you about half the time. GENERALLY TRUE OF ME means that the statement is true more than half the time. ALWAYS OR ALMOST ALWAYS TRUE OF ME means that the statement is true of you almost always. Your cooperation in completing this questionnaire will be a great
contribution to the success of the study. Your responses will be kept
confidential. Do not write your name.
Thank you in advance!
Id. No -------------- Sex -------------------- Age --------------
176
Item Never or almost never true of me
Generally not true of me
Somewhat true of me
Generally true of me
Always or almost always true of me
1. I think of the relationship between what I already know and new things
I hear in listening English.
2. I use new English words (I got from a listening text) in writing a sentence so I can remember them.
3. In listening English texts, I connect the sound of a new English word from a listening text and an image or picture of the word to help me remember the word.
4. In listening English, I remember a new English word by making a mental picture of a situation in which the word might be used.
5. I use rhymes to remember new English words used in listening texts (e.g., know-no, nail-snail, cat- bat).
6. I use flashcards to remember new English words I got from a listening text.
7. I physically act out new English words I got in a listening text.
8. When I personally listen to a text or
a tape, I often review it.
177
Item
Never or almost never true of me
Generally not true of me
Somewhat true of me
Generally true of me
Always or almost always true of me
9. I try to remember new English words or phrases by remembering their location in the listening text.
10. I say or write new English words (used in listening text) several times.
11. I try to pronounce words/sentences just like native English speakers.
12. I practice pronouncing the sounds of English.
13. In listening English texts, I use the English words I know in different
ways.
14. I start conversations in English after a listening text.
15. I watch English language television shows and movies .
16. I write notes, messages, letters or reports in English on the basis of a listening text.
17. I first try to take out the central idea from the listening text quickly and I listen more carefully in the next round
18. Listening to English, I look for words in my own language (L1) that are similar to new words in English.
19. Listening to English, I try to find patterns (grammatical structures e.g. the verb tenses, passive voice etc.) in English.
178
Item Never or almost never true of me
Generally not true of me
Somewhat true of me
Generally true of me
Always or almost always true of me
20. I find the meaning of an English word used in a listening text by dividing it into parts that I understand.
21. In listening English, I try not to translate word-for-word.
22. I make summaries of information that I hear in English.
23. In listening English texts, I make guesses to understand unfamiliar words .
24. I listen to what is said without paying much attention to every
new word.
25. In listening English, I try to guess what the speaker/s/ will say next.
26. I try to find as many ways as I can to listen in English.
27. I notice my problems in listening English speech; broadcasts etc and use that information to help me do better.
28. I pay attention when someone is speaking English.
29. I try to find out how to be a better listener of English.
179
Item Never or almost never true of me
Generally not true of me
Somewhat true of me
Generally true of me
Always or almost always true of me
30. I plan my schedule so I will have enough time to practice listening
in English.
31. I look for people I can discuss with what I have listened to in English
32. I look for opportunities to listen as much as possible in English.
33. I have clear goals for improving my listening skills.
34. I purposely think about my progress of English listening skills.
35. I try to relax whenever I feel afraid of listening in English .
36. I encourage myself to do more listening even if the listening lesson gets quite hard and
requires a lot thought and/or practice.
37. I give myself a reward when I do well in listening.
180
45. If you use other strategies in learning Listening Skills, please specify them. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Item
Never or almost never true of me
Generally not true of me
Somewhat true of me
Generally true of me
Always or almost always true of me
38. I notice if I am tense or nervous when I am engaged in English listening activities and tasks .
39. I write down my feelings (about learning listening) in a language learning diary.
40. I talk to someone else how I feel about developing my listening
skills.
41. If I do not understand something that is spoken in English, I ask the
speaker to slow down or say it again.
42. I practice listening with other students.
43. I ask for help from others when I face difficulty in listening.
44. Listening to English, I try to learn about the culture of English speakers.
181
Appendix B
Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) (Oxford, 1990) original 1. Never or almost never true of me 2. Generally not true of me 3. Somewhat true of me 4. Generally true of me 5. Always or almost always true of me 1. I think of the relationship between what I already know and new things I
learn in English.
1 2 3 4 5
2. I use new English words in a sentence so I can remember them.
1 2 3 4 5
3. I connect the sound of a new English word and an image or picture of the
word to help me remember the word.
1 2 3 4 5
4. I remember a new English word by making a mental picture of a situation
in which the word might be used.
1 2 3 4 5
5. I use rhymes to remember new English words (e.g., know-no, nail-snail, cat- bat).
1 2 3 4 5
6. I use flashcards to remember new English words.
1 2 3 4 5
7. I physically act out new English words.
1 2 3 4 5
8. I review English lessons often.
1 2 3 4 5
9. I remember new English words or phrases by remembering their location on
the page, on the board, or on a street sign.
1 2 3 4 5
10. I say or write new English words several times.
1 2 3 4 5
182
11. I try to talk like native English speakers.
1 2 3 4 5
12. I practice the sounds of English.
1 2 3 4 5
13. I use the English words I know in different ways.
1 2 3 4 5
14. I start conversations in English.
1 2 3 4 5
15. I watch English language television shows spoken in English or go to movies spoken in English. 1 2 3 4 5
16. I read magazines, books, newspapers, and textbooks written in English.
1 2 3 4 5
17. I write notes, messages, letters or reports in English.
1 2 3 4 5
18. I first skim an English passage (read over the passage quickly) then go back and read carefully. 1 2 3 4 5
19. I look for words in my own language (Korean or Chinese) that are similar
to new words In English.
1 2 3 4 5
20. I try to find patterns (grammar) in English.
1 2 3 4 5
21. I find the meaning of an English word by dividing it into parts that I understand. 1 2 3 4 5
22. I try not to translate word-for-word.
1 2 3 4 5
23. I make summaries of information that I hear or read in English.
1 2 3 4 5
24. To understand unfamiliar English words, I make guesses.
1 2 3 4 5
183
25. When I can't think of a word during a conversation in English, I use gestures. 1 2 3 4 5
26. I make up new words if I do not know the right ones in English.
1 2 3 4 5
27. I read English without looking up every new word.
1 2 3 4 5
28. I try to guess what the other person will say next in English.
1 2 3 4 5
29. If I can't think of an English word, I use a word or phrase that means the same thing. 1 2 3 4 5
30. I try to find as many ways as I can to use my English.
1 2 3 4 5
31. I notice my English mistakes and use that information to help me do better. 1 2 3 4 5
32. I pay attention when someone is speaking English.
1 2 3 4 5
33. I try to find out how to be a better learner of English.
1 2 3 4 5
34. I plan my schedule so I will have enough time to study English.
1 2 3 4 5
35. I look for people I can talk to in English.
1 2 3 4 5
36. I look for opportunities to read as much as possible in English.
1 2 3 4 5
37. I have clear goals for improving my English skills.
1 2 3 4 5
38. I think about my progress in learning English.
1 2 3 4 5
39. I try to relax whenever I feel afraid of using English.
1 2 3 4 5
184
40. I encourage myself to speak English even when I feel afraid of making a mistake. 1 2 3 4 5
41. I give myself a reward or treat when I do well in English.
1 2 3 4 5
42. I notice if I am tense or nervous when I am studying or using English.
1 2 3 4 5
43. I write down my feelings in a language learning diary.
1 2 3 4 5
44. I talk to someone else about how I feel about learning English.
1 2 3 4 5
45. If I do not understand something in English, I ask the other person to slow down or say it again. 1 2 3 4 5
46. I ask English speakers to correct me when I talk.
1 2 3 4 5
47. I practice English with other students or native English speakers.
1 2 3 4 5
48. I ask for help from English speakers.
1 2 3 4 5
49. I ask questions in English to other students or native English speakers.
1 2 3 4 5
50. I try to learn about the culture of English speakers.
1 2 3 4 5
185
Appendix C
PERCEPTUAL LEARNING STYLE PREFERENCE QUESTIONNAIRE
Directions
This questionnaire has been designed to help you identify the way(s) you learn best--the way(s) you prefer to learn.
Read each statement on the following pages. Please respond to the statements AS THEY APPLY TO YOUR STUDY OF ENGLISH.
Decide whether you agree or disagree with each statement and make a tick () mark in front of your choice.
Please respond to each statement quickly. Try not to change your responses
after you choose them. Please answer all the questions. Please use a pen to
mark your choices. Mark () after one of the options (SA, A, U, D, SD) of each
statement describing the extent to which you agree or disagree with.
Your cooperation in completing this questionnaire will be a great
contribution to the success of the study. Your responses will be kept
confidential. Do not write your name.
Thank you in advance!
Id. No -------------- Sex --------------- Age --------------
SA= Strongly Agree A= Agree U= Undecided D= Disagree SD= Strongly Disagree
186
Item SA A U D SD
1. When the teacher tells me the instructions I understand better.
2. I prefer to learn by doing something in class.
3. I get more work done when I work with others.
4. I learn more when I study with a group.
5. In class, I learn best when I work with others.
6. I learn better by reading what the teacher writes on the chalkboard.
7. When someone tells me how to do something in class, I learn it better.
8. When I do things in class, I learn better.
9. I remember things I have heard in class better than things I have read.
10. When I read instructions, I remember them better.
11. I learn more when I can make a model of something.
12. I understand better when I read instructions.
13. When I study alone, I remember things better.
14. I learn more when I make something for a class project.
15. I enjoy learning in class by doing experiments.
187
Item SA A U D SD
16. I learn better when I make drawings as I Study.
17. I learn better in class when the teacher gives a lecture.
18. When I work alone, I learn better.
19. I understand things better in class when I participate in role-playing.
20. I learn better in class when I listen to someone.
21. I enjoy working on an assignment with two or three classmates.
22. When I build something, I remember what I have learned better.
23. I prefer to study with others.
24. I learn better by reading than by listening to someone.
25. I enjoy making something for a class project.
26. I learn best in class when I can participate in related activities.
27. In class, I work better when I work alone.
28. I prefer working on projects by myself.
29. I learn more by reading textbooks than by listening to lectures.
30. I prefer to work by myself.
188
Appendix D
Teacher-made Listening Test (pilot study)
Part I: True/False questions Directions: You will hear seven sentences on tape. Decide whether the
sentences are true or false according to the information you have heard in the
conversation with Tony (1 mark each).
1._________ 5.__________
2._________ 6.__________
3._________ 7.__________
4._________
Part II: Check what you hear Directions: Listen again the conversation between the radio host and Tony.
Following are sentences from the tape in the order that you will hear them.
There are also some sentences that are not on the tape. Listen carefully, and
when you hear one of the sentences, put a tick () beside it (0.5 marks each).
1.______ Are you game?
2._____ I listen to the radio every Sunday morning.
3._____ Tell us about yourself .
4._____ Well, over the long haul.
5._____ Oh, was born in Iran.
6._____ I came to find the ideal woman.
7._____ The ideal woman is very beautiful.
8._____ It’s one of the fastest-growing parts of Virginia.
9._____ I guess people just don’t have the trust anymore.
10._____ I guess it’s not a big staff.
189
11._____ I have a lot of free time.
12._____ I mean, you put in a lot of hours.
13._____ I’m just kind of tired of the, like, bar scene.
14._____ And did anything stick out for you about that ad?
15._____ I didn’t realize how much people are willing to sort of really put
themselves out on the line.
16._____ I didn’t know if I’m self-confident enough to do that. Gee, am I?
17._____ It’s hard.
Part III: Short answer question Directions: Write five things you’ve learned about Tony (1.5 marks each).
1. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
190
Appendix E
Listening Text (Script)(pilot study)
Are You Game? R: I’m going to be reading some personal ads, playing others through the
course of the program. If you’re game, if the person in the ad sounds like
the person you’ve been looking four ,give us a call. We’ll try to hook you
up before the hour is out. The women seeking men category: Attractive,
fit, with long dark hair, Single white female, thirty-one ,writer, affectionate
and honest ,daring and pragmatic. Enjoys electric conversations, hiking,
bodies of water, film, and blues music. Seeks stable, intelligent,
affectionate man twenty-nine to thirty-eight with vital spirit who enjoys
work and play ,independence and partnership. If you’d like to talk to or
meet either one of these people, give us a call. The number is 800-989-
8255 . The people who submitted those personals are listening this hour.
He’s in Tyson’s Corner, Virginia – the ultimate edge city. Hi ,Tony.
T: Hello, Ray. How are you?
R: I’m OK.
T: Nice talking to you.
R: Well , are you on the lookout for our young woman who submitted the
personal ad earlier in the program ?
T: Yes, I am.
R: OK. Tell us about yourself.
T: Um- thirty-eight, white, single, five-nine, about a hundred fifty-five
pounds , good education ,and have my own consulting firm.
R: And Tony, where are you from?
T: Uh, currently?
R: Well, over the long haul.
T: Oh, was born in Iran.
R: Uh huh.
T: Been here for like eighteen or nineteen years.
191
R: Oh, so you came to get your education.
T: Absolutely.
R: Uh huh.
T: But I came to find the ideal woman.
R: And you’re still looking all this time later? OK.
T: Yes, getting tougher and tougher every day.
R: Well , there’s a hundred and twenty-five million women in the United
States , Tony. I guess it does take a long time to look for just the right
one.
T: Where are they- the hundred and twenty-five million ?
R: Well, there’s a lot of them in Tyson’s Corner . It’s one of the fastest –
growing parts of Virginia.
T: That’s true. But you know, like you said, it’s getting a little harder to
meet people out there. I guess people just don’t have the trust anymore.
R: Do you find yourself, Tony, when you’re operating your own consulting
business – I guess it’s not a big staff – you’re doing a lot by yourself ,
you’re working so many hours that it is tougher for you to meet people ?
T: Uh, that’s true, I mean, that’s the thing. I mean , you put in a lot of hours
in your ,you know, company and all that . You barely have time to go out
and find someone. And you know, I’m just kind of tired of the, like, bar
scene and all that . Go through the same routine, you know. Just want
to just pinpoint – find the one you always were looking for.
R: And did anything stick out for you about that ad that made you think,
“Hmm, here’s a person I’d like to know ?
T: Well, I don’t remember the entire description, but I think she was
thirty-one, attractive, and I remember some other good qualities.
R: OK.
T: You read the instruction of the male a few times, but the lady just one
time, I guess.
R: Well, Tony, thanks a lot for taking a chance, and I guess we’ll let you
know.
192
T: Thank you.
R: Bye, bye.
T: Appreciate it. Bye, bye. AYYYIYI. I didn’t realize how much people are
willing to sort of really put themselves out on the line .It takes a certain
amount of confidence to call a national radio program and tell about
yourself in a way that’s meant to make somebody interested in you.
Do you know what I mean ? I don’t know if I’m self-confident enough
to do that. Geez, I mean , am I? Or maybe it’s just ‘cause I haven’t had
to think about it in a long enough time that it just doesn’t – I’m
thinking , this must be hard.
R: It’s hard.
T: It is hard. I mean, I’m getting a feeling that I’m right about this one.
It is hard.
True or False Questions
1. The single white female is looking for an independent man.
2. She enjoys taking long walks.
3. He came to the United States when he was five years old.
4. He has lived in the United States for about thirty years.
5. Tony came to the United States to get a good education.
6. Tony works for his brother.
7. Tony still likes to look for women in bars.
193
Appendix F
TOEFL Listening Test
In this test you will have an opportunity to demonstrate your ability to understand spoken English. There are three parts in this test, with special directions for each part.
Part A Directions: For each question in part A, you will hear a short statement. The statements will be spoken just one time. They will not be written out for you, and you must listen carefully to understand what the speaker says. After you hear a statement, read the four sentences in your test book, marked A, B, C, and D, and decide which one is closest in meaning to the statements you heard. Then on your answer sheet, find the number of the question and write the letter of the answer you have chosen in the space provided. Example I
You will hear:
You will read: A. John does better in his studies than James.
B. James is bigger than his brother John.
C. John has only one brother.
D. The teacher likes James better than John.
Sentence A “John does better in his studies than James.” means most nearly the same as the statement “John is a better student than his brother James.” Therefore, you should choose answer A. Example II
You will hear:
You will read: A. The traffic isn’t bad today.
B. The trucks weigh a lot.
C. There are a lot of trucks on the highway.
D. The highway has been closed to heavy trucks.
Sentence C “There are a lot of trucks on the high way.” is closest in meaning to the sentence “The truck traffic on this highway is so heavy I can barely see where I’m going.” Therefore, you should choose answer C.
194
1. A. The patient told the doctor that he didn’t like milk.
B. The doctor paid for his milk.
C. The doctor doesn’t drink much milk.
D. The doctor told the patient that he shouldn’t drink milk.
2. A. I don’t mind if you help me.
B. Could you help me carry these books?
C. Please remind me to read this book.
D. Do you have a heavy course load this term?
3. A. Rose left teaching to work for a drug company.
B. Rose misses her friend since she got a new job.
C. Rose doesn’t know who will teach Chemistry.
D. Rose’s company doesn’t have a chemist to test new drugs.
4. A. The man wants two pieces of meat.
B. The group will meet at two o’clock.
C. There will be two swim meets.
D. Someone else will meet it, too.
5. A. Do you think you’ll get hungry?
B. You should chew your sandwich well.
C. I have some food in case you become hungry.
D. I’m hungry even though I ate a lot.
6. A. Are the apartments far away?
B. Why not rent an apartment from us?
C. Rents are expensive around here.
D. Housing costs are variable in this area.
7. A. My friends often argue over politics.
B. People tend to argue more in hot weather.
C. My friends are looking for a good discussion topic.
D. We all know which politician to pick.
8. A. Charlie hasn’t finished sewing the clothes.
B. You and Charlie didn’t get good grades.
C. It’s too bad Charlie couldn’t go fishing.
D. Charlie wasn’t quite able to complete school.
195
9. A. After buying the shirt, Edward tried it on.
B. Edward was too tired to shop for a shirt.
C. Edward got something on his new shirt.
D. When he put the shirt on, Edward liked it.
10. A. My pictures are also of California.
B. Doris would like to see your pictures as well as mine.
C. We’d both like to see your pictures.
D. We’re looking forward to our trip to California.
11. A. Henry will want them tomorrow.
B. I can’t imagine how Henry will do it.
C. Henry probably won’t want my notes.
D. I don’t think Henry has a good imagination.
12. A. One person was absent.
B. Everyone was present to take the test.
C. He missed one test when he was absent.
D. The test lasted more than a single day.
13. A. May be you could find a new boat on sale.
B. A sailboat took first place in the race.
C. You will have to pay the full price for a new boat.
D. Whoever wins the race gets a new boat.
14. A. The president spoke for more than four hours.
B. The president’s previous speeches were shorter.
C. The president was still talking before the group.
D. The president spoke louder than any previous president.
15. A. Some people still can’t stand to travel by air.
B. The old airport building is still standing.
C. Planes weren’t able to fly in the storm.
D. The supplies were brought in by plane.
16. A. Can you hear what he says?
B. What are the census results?
C. Do you know the sequence?
D. Are you aware of what could happen?
196
17. A. It cannot be repaired.
B. It doesn’t need repairing.
C. It is going to be repaired.
D. It has already been repaired.
18. A. The performance was well received.
B. The students got some newspapers.
C. The students were interviewed.
D. The concert drew a good crowd.
19. A. He must accept the truth.
B. His case has been affected.
C. He has all the information.
D. His facts are false.
20. A. Lester used to study very hard.
B. Lester doesn’t find it difficult to study.
C. Lester is accustomed to studying less.
D. Lester isn’t studying as much as he used to.
Part B Directions: In part B you will hear short conversations between two speakers. At the end of each conversation, a third voice will ask a question about what was said. The question will be spoken just one time. After you hear a conversation and the question about it, read the four possible answers in your test book and decide which one is the best answer to the question you heard. Then on your answer sheet, find the number of the question and write the letter of the answer you have chosen in the space provided. Example
You will hear:
You will read: A. Read a book.
B. Write a composition.
C. Talk about a problem.
D. Listen to the radio.
From the conversation you know that the assignment is to listen to a radio program and be ready to talk about it .The best answer, then, is D, “Listen to the radio.” Therefore, you should choose answer D.
197
21. A. He isn’t feeling well. 22. A. At an art museum
B. His apartment isn’t warm enough. B. In a cafeteria.
C. His travel plans were changed by the weather. C. On a college campus.
D. He wants to know who called him. D. At a zoo.
23. A. Call a friend. 24. A. Bill has a lot of cats.
B. Work on his car. B. Bill was brave.
C. Take a taxi. C. Bill enjoys climbing.
D. Walk to work. D. Bill took the right equipment.
25. A. Go across the bridge. 26 .A. Joan will give out the assignments.
B. Repeat the experiment. B. Joan will speak in the seminar.
C. Come to the bridge game. C. Joan won’t be present at the seminar.
D. Wait and see what happens. D. Joan won’t sign the petitions.
27. A. Feel asleep early. 28. A. He wouldn’t like to see the new stamps.
B. Watched television. B. He agrees that the price is too high.
C. Discussed inflation. C. He wants to know what the price will be.
D. Attended a special program. D. He needs to mail some letters now.
29. A . Borrow ten cents. 30. A. He tasted the last cake she made.
B. Use the man’s phone. B. He took the very last piece of cake.
C. Look for a phone nearby. C. He didn’t have any cake.
D. Pay the man’s phone bill. D. He didn’t like the cake.
31. A. It is too late for the man to go 32. A. He has arranged to take the exam
to the concert. next year.
B. The man must wait for two B. He is pleased, since the woman
hours to buy a ticket. offered to help him.
C. People have already been C. He has reason to be happy,
standing in line for two hours. despite the exam.
D. The man can buy a standing- D. He actually did very well on the
room ticket tomorrow. exam.
33. A. It was given away. 34. A. It is the only novel on the reading list.
B. It was made smaller. B. The course requires a lot of reading.
C. It was put on display. C. This novel is longer than the others.
D. It was taken to the cleaner’s. D. She’s just read one novel so far.
198
35. A. She’d like to come along.
B. She knows her way around the harbor.
C. The warm weather is quite pleasant.
D. The ride will take all day.
Part C
Directions: In this part of the test, you will hear several short talks and conversations. After each talk or conversation, you will be asked some questions. The talks and questions will be spoken just one time. They will not be written out for you, so you will have to listen carefully to understand what the speaker says. After you hear a question, read the four possible answers in your test book and decide which one is the best answer to the question you heard. Then on your answer sheet, find the number of the question and write the letter of the answer you have chosen in the space provided. Listen to this sample talk
You will hear:
Now look at the following example.
You will hear:
You will read: A. By plane.
B. By ship.
C. By train.
D. By bus.
The best answer to the question “How did people generally arrive at Ellis Island?” is B “By ship.”Therefore, you should choose answer B. Now look at the next example.
You will hear:
You will read: A. New immigrants.
B. International traders.
C. Fishermen.
D. Tourists.
The best answer to the question “Who visits Ellis Island today?” is D “Tourists.”Therefore, you should choose answer D.
199
36. A. Jane. 37. A. At Jane’s house.
B. Jane’s aunt. B. At Jane’s aunt house.
C. Jane’s sister. C. At Jane’s sister house.
D. Jane’s brother. D. At Jane’s brother house.
38. A. She typed a paper. 39. A. She was worried about the birthday party.
B. She visited her aunt. B. She finds this history course very challenging.
C. She went to bed. C. She thought her term paper might be late.
D. She tried to study history. D. She has a very hard time sleeping.
40. A. Play a birthday party. 41. A. They were relatively independent of
B. Sleep during the day. other people.
C. Type his own term papers. B. They were very unfriendly people.
D. Work well under pressure. C. They had very little to eat.
D. They were too old to take care of
themselves.
42. A. In the early 1930’s. 43. A. Seen a train
B. During his childhood. B. Been in a log cabin.
C. Three years ago. C. Had a friend visit her.
D. When he was twenty-two. D. Seen a sheep.
44. A. He learned how to build 45. A. Glass manufacture.
log cabins. B. Eyeglasses.
B. He learned to depend C. Crystals.
on other people. D. Molecular order.
C. He learned the techniques
of farming.
D. He learned the value of
self-sufficiency.
46. A. At an industrial site. 47. A. Pharmacist.
B. At a department store. B. Salesperson.
C. In a classroom. C. Guide.
D. In a skyscraper. D. Engineer.
200
48. A. How long the show will last. 49. A. It’s used in making skyscrapers.
B. How to avoid lead poisoning. B. It’s hard to make.
C. How the skyscraper was built. C. Its atoms are arranged in a
D. How glass and crystal differ. specific way.
D. Its molecules combine easily
with lead.
50. A. It’s poisonous.
B. It makes fine glassware.
C. It makes glass less expensive.
D. It forms crystals.
201
Appendix G Script for TOEFL Listening Test
In this test you will have an opportunity to demonstrate your ability to understand spoken English. There are three parts in this test, with special directions for each part.
Part A
Directions: For each question in part A, you will hear a short statement. The statements will be spoken just one time. They will not be written out for you, and you must listen carefully to understand what the speaker says. After you hear a statement, read the four sentences in your test book, marked A, B, C, and D, and decide which one is closest in meaning to the statements you heard. Then on your answer sheet, find the number of the question and write the letter of the answer you have chosen in the space provided. Look at Example I
You will hear :( woman) John is a better student than his brother James.
You will read: A. John does better in his studies than James.
B. James is bigger than his brother John.
C. John has only one brother.
D. The teacher likes James better than John.
Sentence A “John does better in his studies than James.” means most nearly the same as the statement “John is a better student than his brother James.” Therefore, you should choose answer A. Look at Example II
You will hear: (Second Man) The truck traffic on this high way is so heavy I can
barely see where I’m going.
You will read: A. The traffic isn’t bad today.
B. The trucks weigh a lot.
C. There are a lot of trucks on the highway.
D. The highway has been closed to heavy trucks.
Sentence C “There are a lot of trucks on the high way.” is closest in meaning to the sentence “The truck traffic on this highway is so heavy I can barely see where I’m going.” Therefore, you should choose answer C.
202
Now let us begin Part A with question number one
1. (Second Man) The doctor told the patient he ought to avoid milk.
2. (Second Man) Would you mind helping me with this load of books?
3. (First man) My friend Rosie, who’s been teaching Chemistry, got a job with a
drug company.
4. (Second Man) The seminar will meet at two.
5. (First Man) Should you get hungry, I have an extra sandwich.
6. (Woman) Area the rents here just incredible!
7. (First Man ) Political topics are the source of many heated discussions among
my friends.
8. (First Man) Poor Charlie! To be so close to finishing and then not graduate.
9. (Woman) Edward bought the shirt and then tried it on.
10. (Second Man) Doris would like to see your pictures of California and so would I.
11. (Woman) I don’t imagine Henry will want to borrow my notes, will he?
12. (First Man) Not a single person was absent on the day of the test.
13 .(Woman) A new sailboat is the prize for winning the race.
14. (Second Man) The president spoke far longer than he ever did before.
15. (First Man) The storm brought air travel to a standstill.
16. (Woman ) You understand the possible consequences.
17. (First Man) This radio is beyond repair.
18. (Second Man) The students sang well at the concert and got a good review in
the newspaper.
19. (Second Man) He has to face the facts.
20. (Woman) Lester isn’t used to studying so hard.
This is the end of Part A. Now look at the directions for Part B as they are
read to you.
203
Part B
Directions: In part B you will hear short conversations between two speakers. At the end of each conversation, a third voice will ask a question about what was said. The question will be spoken just one time. After you hear a conversation and the question about it, read the four possible answers in your test book and decide which one is the best answer to the question you heard. Then on your answer sheet, find the number of the question and write the letter of the answer you have chosen in the space provided. Look at Example I
You will hear: (Second Man) Is there any assignment for next Tuesday ?
(Woman) Nothing to read or write. But we’re supposed to
listen to a radio program and be ready to talk about
it in class.
(First Man) What have the students been asked to do before
Tuesday?
You will read: A. Read a book.
B. Write a composition.
C. Talk about a problem.
D. Listen to the radio.
From the conversation you know that the assignment is to listen to a radio program and be ready to talk about it .The best answer, then, is D, “Listen to the radio.” Therefore, you should choose answer D. Now let us begin Part B with question twenty-one. 21. (Woman) What’s the matter with you today?
(Second Man) I’m not sure. I think I’m coming own with a cold.
(First Man) What is the man’s problem?
22. (Second Man) What would you like to see first: the reptiles or the monkey
house ?
(First Man) I’d really like to see the seals. It is almost their feeding time.
(Woman ) Where are the men ?
23. (Second Man) How can I get to work without a car?
(Woman) Why don’t you call for a cab?
(First Man) What does the woman suggest that he do?
204
24. (Woman) Bill climbed up on that steep roof to rescue the cat.
(Second Man) That took a lot of nerve. (First Man) What does the man mean?
25. (Woman) Do you really think Professor Green will make you redo the entire experiment ? (Second Man) Don’t know. I’ll cross that bridge when I come to it. (First Man) What is the man planning to do? 26. (Second Man) Was I supposed to give the seminar presentation this week? (Woman) No. I assigned it to Joan. (First Man ) What will happen this week? 27. (Woman) Did you see last night’s television program on inflation? (Second Man) Well, I intended to watch it, but I slept through it. (First Man) What did the man do last night? 28. (Woman ) The price of stamps is bound to go up again soon. ( First Man ) You’re right. What I’d like to know is how much it will cost to send a letter next month. (Second Man ) What does the man mean? 29. ( First Man ) Can you tell me where the closest pay phone is? (Second Man) You’re welcome to use mine , Tom. It will save you ten cents. (Woman) What will Tom probably do? 30. (Woman) Did you eat a piece of Jane’s cake? (Second Man) I didn’t want to take the last one on the plate. (First Man) What does the man mean?
205
31. (First Man) Do you have a seat for the concert tomorrow? (Woman) No seats at all, but we sell standing-room tickets two hours before the performance. (Second Man) What does the woman mean? 32. (Woman) You’re looking pleased. Did your exam go well? (First Man) No, actually. But I just had a job offer for next year. (Second Man) What does the man mean? 33. (First Man) Your gray jacket looks better now. (Second Man) Thanks. I had the tailor take it in. (Woman) What was done to the jacket? 34. (Second Man) That sure is a long novel you’re reading for your
American literature course!
(Woman) And it’s just one of the novels on our read
(First Man) What does the woman mean?
35. (Second Man) Would you like to join us for a ride around the harbor? (Woman) What a pleasant way to spend a hot day? (First Man) What does the woman imply? This is the end of part B .Go on the next page. Now look at the directions for Part C as they are read to you.
206
Part C
Directions: In this part of the test, you will hear several short talks and conversations. After each talk or conversation, you will be asked some questions. The talks and questions will be spoken just one time. They will not be written out for you, so you will have to listen carefully to understand what the speaker says. After you hear a question, read the four possible answers in your test book and decide which one is the best answer to the question you heard. Then on your answer sheet, find the number of the question and write the letter of the answer you have chosen in the space provided. Listen to this sample talk
You will hear: (Woman) Ellis Island is closed now – to all but the tourists that is .
This island , in New York harbor, was once one of the
busiest places in America. It was the first stop for all
immigrants arriving by ship from Europe ,Africa and
western Asia. Normally, immigrants came to Ellis Island at
the rate of 5,000 a day, but at times twice that many would
land in a single day. A total of 15 million people came to
America by way of Ellis Island. With the advent of air
travel, the island fell into disuse. Today it serves only as
a reminder to tourists of the heritage of modern America.
Now look at the following example.
You will hear: (Second Man) How did people generally arrive at Ellis Island?
You will read: A. By plane.
B. By ship.
C. By train.
D. By bus.
The best answer to the question “How did people generally arrive at Ellis Island?” is B “By ship.”Therefore, you should choose answer B. Now look at the next example.
You will hear:
You will read: A. New immigrants.
B. International traders.
C. Fishermen.
D. Tourists.
207
The best answer to the question “Who visits Ellis Island today?” is D
“Tourists.”Therefore, you should choose answer D.
Now let us begin Part C with question number thirty-six.
(First Man) Questions 36-40 refer to the following conversation.
(First Man) Are you feeling OK, Jane? You look pretty tired.
(Woman) My sister and I had a birthday party for my brother last night. I didn’t
get much sleep.
(First Man) Where did you have the party?
(Woman) It was at my aunt’s home. Then, right after the party, I had to start
in typing a history paper that was due first thing this morning . I
was kind of nervous because the professor said he wouldn’t accept
any late papers.
(First Man) I don’t know how you do it. I can’t handle a pressure situation like
that.
(Woman) Well, I just turned the paper in, and now I’m going home to bed. See
you later.
36. (Second Man) Who had a birth day?
37. (Second Man) Where was the party?
38. (Second Man) What did Jane do after the party?
39. (Second Man) Why was Jane nervous?
40. (Second Man) What does the man say he is unable to do ?
(First Man) Question 41-44 are based on the following personal account.
(Second Man) Thirty years ago, when I was a small child, my father arranged for
me to spend two summer vacations at a ranch in South Dakota.
He thought it would be good for me, and he was right. It taught
me a great deal about the importance of independence. The people
who lived there were practically self-sufficient. They raised sheep
for wool, wove it into fabric, and built their cabins from logs. The
place was so isolated that the owners’ daughter , who must have
been in her early twenties ,said that she had never been away from
home or seen a locomotive.
208
41. (First Man) What does the speaker say about the ranch owners?
42. (First Man) When did the speaker stay on the ranch?
43. (First Man) What did the ranch owners’ daughter never done?
44. (First Man0 According to the speaker, why was it good for him to go on this
trip?
(First Man) Questions 45-50 are based on the following conversation.
(Woman) Before we begin the tour of the factory, do you have any more
questions?
(First Man) Yes, I have one. I’d like to know the exact difference between
crystal and glass.
(Woman) Well, real crystal is generally a hard substance in which the
atoms are arranged in a highly ordered structure , much like the
framework of a skyscraper.
(First Man) Does that mean that in ordinary glass the molecules are not
ordered?
(Woman) That’s right. But most of the glassware made here is actually lead
crystal , or glass with a high lead content.
(First Man) Lead? Isn’t lead poisonous?
(Woman) Not when it’s mixed with glass. What it does is to make a very
good quality glass. I’ll be showing you samples of several kinds of
glass on our tour. If everyone is ready , we’ll begin now. Please
follow me.
45. (Second Man) What is the main topic of conversation?
46. (Second Man) Where does this conversation take place?
47. (Second Man) What’s the woman’s job?
48. (Second Man) What does the man want to know?
49. (Second Man) What does the woman say about real crystal?
50. (Second Man) What does the woman say about lead in glass?
209
Appendix H
Learners’ Listening Results on Teacher-made and TOEFL Listening Tests (Pilot study)
code Age Sex A B C 1 24 M 15 13 28 2 20 M 10.5 18 29 3 23 M 13.5 20 34 4 22 F 10.5 15 26 5 26 M 12 17 29 6 22 F 15 25 40 7 20 F 19.5 45 65 8 22 F 13 24 37 9 22 M 3 15 18 10 23 F 15.5 21 37 11 20 M 19 45 64 12 22 M 12.5 16 29 13 20 M 13.5 14 28 14 20 M 14.5 20 35 15 29 M 14.5 26 41 16 20 F 11.5 16 28 17 23 F 10.5 15 26 18 21 F 14.5 25 40 19 21 M 15 37 52 20 23 M 12.5 19 32 21 23 F 15.5 37 53 22 23 F 13.5 25 39 23 24 M 16 35 51 24 22 M 15 18 33 25 25 M 13.5 28 42 26 23 M 14 36 50
Mean 22.42
Mean 38.42
A=Learners’ Teacher-made Listening Test Result [23 %]. B= Learners’ TOEFL Result [50%]
C= A+ B
210
Appendix I
Adapted SILL Validation Form Dear -----------------------------------,
I am currently in the process of checking the face and content validity of an adapted
survey instrument I am going to use for collecting data for my Ph.D. thesis entitled “Effects of Gender, Listening Proficiency and Perceptual Learning Style Preference on
Listening Strategy EFL Students: The Case of Bahir Dar University”. The main purpose of this study is to investigate effects of gender, perceptual learning
style preference, and learners’ listening proficiency on their listening strategy use.
To assess learners’ listening strategy use, therefore, adapted Strategy Inventory for
Language Learning (SILL) will be used. The questionnaires will be administered to
English major students who are taking the course-Listening Skills. This inventory
requires students to answer 46-item questions on their language learning strategy use
on a five-point Likert scale ranging from "Never or almost never true of me" to "Always
or almost always true of me". In addition, one open-ended question is added by the
researcher in order to elicit any additional strategy used by the participant students.
I have attached a special form for your use in commenting on the survey items. As you
review the proposed items, please feel free to comment based upon the following
criteria:
Face validity: Does the instrument "look like" it is measuring what it is supposed to
measure?
Content validity: Are the items representative of concepts related to the dissertation
topic?
Clarity: Is each item in the instruments clear? Is the language/wording appropriate?
Other: Please make any additional suggestions you feel appropriate.
Please delete those items you feel inappropriate.
Sincerely,
Thank you in advance for your great helps
Seyoum Teshome, Doctoral Student
211
1. I think of the relationship between what I already know and new things I
hear in listening English.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. I use new English words (I got from a listening text) in writing a sentence so
I can remember them.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. In listening English, I connect the sound of a new English word from a
listening text and an image or picture of the word to help me remember
the word.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. In listening English, I remember a new English word by making a mental
picture of a situation in which the word might be used.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment (if any) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. I use rhymes to remember new English words used in listening texts (e.g.,
know-no, nail-snail, cat- bat).
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6. I use flashcards to remember new English words I got from a listening text.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7. I physically act out new English words I got in a listening text.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8. When I personally listen to a text or a tape, I often review it.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
212
9. I remember new English words or phrases by remembering their location in
the listening text.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10. I say or write new English words (used in listening text) several times.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
11. I try to pronounce words/ sentences/ just like native English speakers.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
12. I practice pronouncing the sounds of English.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
13. In listening English, I use the English words I know in different ways.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
14. I start conversations in English after a listening text.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
15. I watch English language television shows and movies.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
16. I read magazines, books, newspapers, and textbooks written in English.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
17. I write notes, messages, letters or reports in English from a listening text.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
213
18. I first try to take out the central idea from the listening text quickly
and I listen more carefully in the next round.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
19. In listening English, I look for words in my own language (L1) that are
similar to new words in English.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
20. In listening English texts, I try to find patterns (grammatical structures e.g.
the verb tenses, passive voice etc.) .
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
21. I find the meaning of an English word used in a listening text by dividing it
into parts that I understand.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
22. In listening English, I try not to translate word-for-word.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
23. I make summaries of information that I hear in English.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
24. In listening English texts, I make guesses to understand unfamiliar words.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
25. I listen to what is said without paying much attention for every new word.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
214
26. In listening English texts, I try to guess what the speaker/s/ will say next.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
27. I try to find as many ways as I can to listen in English.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
28. I notice my problems in listening English speech; broadcasts etc and
use that information to help me do better.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
29. I pay attention when someone is speaking English.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
30. I try to find out how to be a better listener of English.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
31. I plan my schedule so I will have enough time to practice English listening.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
32. I look for people I can discuss with what I have listened to in English.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
33. I look for opportunities to listen as much as possible in English.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
34. I have clear goals for improving my listening skills.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
35. I think about my progress of English listening skills.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
215
36. I try to relax whenever I feel afraid of listening in English.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
37. I encourage myself to do more listening even when I feel afraid of failure in
listening.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
38. I give myself a reward when I do well in Listening Skills lessons.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
39. I notice if I am tense or nervous when I am engaged in English listening
activities and tasks .
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)----------------------------------------------------------------------
40. I write down my feelings (about learning listening) in a language learning
diary.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
41. I talk to someone else about how I feel about developing my listening
skills.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
42. If I do not understand something that is spoken in English, I ask the
speaker to slow down or say it again.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
43. I ask English speakers to correct me when I speak.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
216
44. I practice listening English with other students.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
45. I ask for help from English speakers or other students when I face
difficulty in listening.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
46. In listening English, I try to learn about the culture of English speakers.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
47. If you use other strategies in learning Listening Skills, please specify
them.
APPROPRIATE? Yes/ No CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
217
Appendix J
PLSPQ Validation Form
Dear -----------------------------------,
I am currently in the process of checking the face validity and clarity of questions of
an adapted survey instrument I am going to use for collecting data for my Ph.D.
thesis . The main purpose of this study is to investigate effects of gender, perceptual
learning style preference, and learners’ listening proficiency on their listening
strategy use.
To assess learners’ perceptual learning style preferences, therefore, adopted
Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire (PLSPQ) will be used. The
questionnaires will be administered to English major students who are taking the
course-Listening Skills. This inventory requires students to answer 30 item
questions on their perceptual learning style preferences on a five-point Likert scale
ranging from “Strongly agree” to” Strongly disagree ".
I have attached a special form for your use in commenting on the survey items. As
you review the proposed items, please feel free to comment based upon the
following criterion:
Clarity: Is each item in the instruments clear? Is the language/wording
appropriate?
Please make any additional suggestions you feel appropriate.
Sincerely,
Thank you in advance for your great helps
Seyoum Teshome, Doctoral Student
218
1. When the teacher tells me the instructions I understand better.
CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. I prefer to learn by doing something in class. CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. I get more work done when I work with others. CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. I learn more when I study with a group. CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. In class, I learn best when I work with others. CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6. I learn better by reading what the teacher writes on the chalkboard.
CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7. When someone tells me how to do something in class, I learn it better.
CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8. When I do things in class, I learn better. CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9. I remember things I have heard in class better than things I have read. CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10. When I read instructions, I remember them better. CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
11. I learn more when I can make a model of something.
CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
219
12. I understand better when I read instructions.
CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
13. When I study alone, I remember things better.
CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
14. I learn more when I make something for a class project.
CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
15. I enjoy learning in class by doing experiments.
CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
16. I learn better when I make drawings as I study. CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
17. I learn better in class when the teacher gives a lecture.
CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
18. When I work alone, I learn better. CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
19. I understand things better in class when I participate in role-playing.
CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
20. I learn better in class when I listen to someone.
CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
21. I enjoy working on an assignment with two or three classmates.
CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
220
22. When I build something, I remember what I have learned better.
CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
23. I prefer to study with others. CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
24. I learn better by reading than by listening to someone.
CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
25. I enjoy making something for a class project. CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
26. I learn best in class when I can participate in related activities.
CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
27. In class, I work better when I work alone. CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
28. I prefer working on projects by myself. CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
29. I learn more by reading textbooks than by listening to lectures.
CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment ( if any)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
30. I prefer to work by myself.
CLEAR? Yes/No
Comment (if any) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
221
Appendix K
Learners’ Result on TOEFL Listening Tests (Main study)
Code Age Sex A B C D 1 22 M 16 8 24 48 2 23 M 14 8 22 44 3 22 F 12 7 19 38 4 21 M 11 9 20 40 5 22 M 22 7 29 58 6 20 F 18 8 26 52 7 20 M 18 9 27 54 8 22 M 18 9 27 54 9 21 F 14 8 22 44 10 20 M 16 7 23 46 11 20 M 14 7 21 42 12 20 F 15 8 23 46 13 20 M 16 10 26 52 14 19 F 14 6 20 40 15 23 M 18 10 28 56 16 21 M 19 7 26 52 17 20 M 12 7 19 38 18 18 F 11 7 18 36 19 20 M 15 7 22 46 20 22 M 18 5 23 46 21 23 M 16 8 24 48 22 21 M 17 11 28 56 23 21 F 12 10 22 44 24 22 M 17 5 22 44 25 20 F 16 8 24 48 26 19 F 18 10 28 56 27 20 F 15 4 19 38 28 22 M 17 4 21 42 29 20 F 25 7 32 64 30 21 M 18 7 25 50 31 22 F 16 6 22 44 32 21 M 17 7 24 48 33 21 M 16 5 21 42 34 18 F 15 4 19 38 35 22 M 12 8 20 40 36 22 M 24 7 31 62
222
A=Learners’ TOEFL Listening Test Result [35 %]. B= Learners’ TOEFL Listening Test Result [15%] C= A+ B D= Learners’ TOEFL Listening Test Result [100%]
Code Age Sex A B C D 37 32 M 21 10 31 62 38 19 M 14 6 20 40 39 23 F 10 8 18 36 40 20 M 7 3 10 20 41 19 F 15 3 18 36 42 18 F 13 11 24 48 43 19 F 20 10 30 60 44 31 M 0 3 3 6 45 20 M 22 9 31 62 46 19 F 17 7 24 48 47 20 M 18 6 24 48 48 19 M 18 9 27 54 49 20 F 11 3 14 28 50 20 M 17 8 25 50 51 19 F 30 10 40 80 52 18 F 23 12 35 70 53 19 F 18 14 32 64 54 19 F 21 14 35 70 55 18 F 31 13 44 88 56 18 F 23 9 32 64 57 21 M 28 14 42 84 58 22 M 13 13 26 52 59 19 M 18 11 29 58 60 19 F 23 11 34 68 61 19 F 21 14 35 70 62 18 F 27 13 40 80 63 22 M 10 9 19 38 64 19 M 14 11 25 50 65 27 F 16 14 30 60 66 19 F 14 7 21 42 67 19 F 26 11 37 74 68 21 M 15 10 25 50 69 18 M 25 12 37 74 70 18 F 9 2 11 22 Mean=20.61 Mean=50.74
223
Appendix L
224
Appendix M
Students’ Response to Open-ended Question of the Adapted SILL (Main Study)
No. Response Frequency Category
1. I listen radio programs broadcasted in English 9 Cognitive
2. I watch English language TV programs 14 Cognitive
3. I listen English music and songs as often as possible
14 Cognitive
4. I watch English movies 14 Cognitive
5. I practice to pronounce difficult English words 1 Cognitive
6. I listen attentively when other students speak in English
1 Cognitive
7. I use my English grammar knowledge to comprehend listening texts
1 Cognitive
8. I speak with native speakers 1 Social
9. I listen to English texts again and again 1 Cognitive
10. I usually speak in English with my colleagues outside the classroom
3 Social
11. I listen attentively how the teacher pronounce some difficult words
1 Cognitive
12. To develop my vocabulary capacity I read English novels
1 Cognitive
13. To develop my vocabulary capacity I read English newspapers
1 Cognitive
14. I browse internet to develop my listening skills
1 Cognitive
15. When I face difficult words, I use translation 1 Cognitive
16. I make a self-dialogue as if I am talking to another person
1 Metacognitive
17. When I feel frustrated in learning listening Skills , I encourage my self
1 Affective
225
Appendix N
Teacher Interview Questions
1. Do you enjoy teaching Listening Skills course? Why or why not?
2. Do you think that your students enjoyed the course? Why or why not?
3. What kind of tasks or activities do students perform in listening skills
classes?
4. What is your preferred style or approach of teaching Listening Skills which
makes it unique?
5. What challenges do you face in teaching listening skills course? How do you
solve them?
6. What do you do to improve your students’ listening skills?
7. What kind of students does have opportunities to be successful or manage
listening skills course?
226
Appendix O
Student Interview Questions
1. Do you enjoy learning Listening Skills? Why or why not?
2. What is the role of listening skills course for your academic success?
3. What challenges do you face in learning listening skills course?
4. Which seems to be easier for you to understand when you are listening- a
tape lecture or your teacher lecture? Why?
5. What strategies or techniques do you use to learn and/or improve your
English listening skills?
6. What did your teacher do to improve your listening skills?
7. What kind of students does have opportunities to be successful in listening
skills course?
227
Appendix P
Transcription of Teachers Interview
Interview 1
Int: Do you enjoy teaching listening skills course? T1: Yes of course, I enjoyed teaching listening skills course. I enjoy teaching
listening skills course because as you know that teaching is learning. When I teach listening course as I am not a native speaker or speaker of the language-English, I can have access or chance to learn accents and pronunciations of the native speakers. And I can help my students how to pronounce and utter words correctly. So I’m happy to teach listening skills course.
Int: Do you think that your students enjoyed the course? T1: Ahh…of course some of them are happy to learn the course but some others
are not happy. Those who are happy in learning the listening course may be they are happy to learn the course to use it for their future career. Due to this most of them are happy to learn the course. But some of them are not happy because they feel frustration, they believe that they don’t correctly listen and understand what the native speakers are saying. Due to this some of the students are not happy to learn the course.
Int: So do you think that higher listening proficiency students like the course and lower listening proficiency students dislike the course?
T1: Yes, finally when I look at their score, those whose score was low were not really motivated to learn the course, they were not happy in learning the course. As a result their final result was low compared with those who were motivated in learning the course.
Int: So one factor was their listening proficiency level? T1: Ya, their proficiency level is one factor. Their exposure or background might
be another factor for not interesting to learn the listening skills course. Int: What kind of tasks or activities do students perform in listening skills
classes? T1: Well, the tasks are basically different for listening course. First they learn
the theory part, may be the factors which demotivate students in learning listening skills might be informed to them and the basic factors which help them to learn the listening skills come in a better way might be taught to the students in the theory part of the course. And when we go to the activities given to them, of course, they will be given in lecture form and some piece paper –they can read and answer questions- this is one part. And the other part is really a practical part. In the practical part students may perform starting from sounds of English up to utterances. Due to this fact the activities which are given to the students might be related to sounds, they may be related to words and they may be related to also utterance part. In such a way activities are designed to students and they are trying to perform
228
those activities. Int: Do you think that the module or the teaching material for the course is
designed to reach different type of students who have different perceptual learning style preferences?
T1: Well, I don’t think. Because students have different background and their background is not checked before they start the course so that the teaching-learning process is not given on the basis of students’ background. It is given in a general form. Those who are demotivated and those who are motivated are given the same content so that their performance in the course is different because they have got different background. So what I like to say is the course module is designed not considering students’ background. The course is designed may be on the background of high achievers. Due to this fact those who are high achievers are beneficiaries of the course. But those who are demotivated may not do well in the given activities.
Int: Do you think that the activities you gave to the students satisfy those who have different learning styles?
T1: I don’t think so because this may not be considered. In my experience the course given to the students are interlinked with listening and providing answers so that those who are good at listening are beneficiaries of the course, but those learning style is not related hearing (auditory) might not be beneficiaries of the course.
Int: What is your preferred style or approach of teaching Listening Skills which makes it unique?
T1: Well, in my teaching style I am trying to help students to help each other. For example, they may be given a listening activity then when they are finishing, you know, the listening activity individually , then they will be given chance to compare their answers in pairs or small groups. After that students may be asked to provide their own answer or the group answer may be through secretary of a group. In such a way I am trying to help my students, first from my own explanation, secondly I may try to help students to learn from their partners. In such a way I am trying to create opportunity, you know, to learn and develop their listening skills through activities and through group discussions and may be from the feedback I gave to them. In such a way I am trying to help my students. I think the unique thing might be giving opportunity to learn from each other. Because when I learn especially of my first degree this kind of chance was not given to me from my lecturers. I think it might be unique that might be used by me. This opportunity was not given to me while I was learning the course, but now since I know the problem I am trying to help students to learn from their partners.
Int: Do you think that this strategy is unique-only used in listening skills class? T1: No, no, it should not be. It is a strategy that must be used to teach all
language skills. What I am trying to say is when I was learning speaking and listening skills what chance given to me and my friends was just the teacher was providing us a listening activity. Then we perform the activities individually, and then we will be asked to provide answers individually. No
229
chance was given to learn in pairs or in groups. When I say unique it is to mean this. But this is not a unique strategy only used to teach listening skills.
Int: But do you use any teaching strategy or technique that is unique only for listening skills?
T1: No. Int: What challenges do you face in teaching listening skills course? T1: Well, when I teach listening skills course the challenge I face is that
students do not learn equally, you know, when they learn this course. There is no clear way through which I can teach the students in the same way, through which I can’t help all students at the same time to perform activities in the same level. This was a great challenge. As I told you earlier, this challenge or problem is caused by the background differences students have in listening and understanding. This is the major challenge I face when I teach listening skills.
Int: How do you minimize or solve this problem? T1: Well, to minimize this problem, as I told you earlier, I am trying to give
opportunity for the students to discuss the activities in pairs or in groups so that they can help each other and they can fill-in gaps. And through this method I minimize the challenges I faced in teaching this course.
Int: Have you seen any change on students after you used this method? T1: Yes. Those who were demotivated may create a sort of motivation when they
get some sort of information from their friends, and even when I ask the students to provide their own answers and try to ask those whom I assume demotivated they try to give me good answers because they get information from their partners.
Int: What do you do to improve your students’ listening skills? T1: Well, in order to help my students develop their listening skills I am trying
to ask them to have their own strategy for learning the courses. And then I will give them chance to discuss their strategies with their group members. Then I will ask them to forward the strategies they design to improve their listening skills. Then I will just collect their ideas and I write them on the blackboard so that students can see the different strategies through which they can improve their listening skills. Through this I am trying to help my students to develop their listening skills.
Int: From your experience what kind of students does have opportunities to be successful or manage listening skills course?
T1: Well, from my own experience I think students who have had opportunities to manage listening skills course are those who are watching English films and who are trying to listen to English broadcasts, you know, news and the like. These kinds of students have had great opportunities to manage their listening skills course. I said this because when I see some students who have had good listening skills I ask them how they have this kind of ability. And they informed me that they always watch English television programs and they always try to look at films and they also try to listen to English broadcast programs. Through this finding, I understand and realize that students who
230
have had get opportunities to manage listening skills course, and students who have the exposure to listen to English broadcasts, watch English films and English television programs and the like. These students have had the opportunity to manage the course, I think.
Int: Do you think that females and males have different listening abilities or proficiencies in the classroom?
T1: I don’t think so. For one thing I do not do this kind of research. Int: From your experience? T1: Secondly, from my experience, those who are demotiveted are both boys and
girls, and those who are motivated are both boys and girls. So I didn’t see any difference in performance or result differences in listening skills course. Because if they get equal opportunities I don’t think that they have different performance.
Int: What about perceptual learning style preference? T1: May be, in my own experience, those who are interested to learn through
listening [hearing] might have great opportunity to manage the course because most of the activities given in the course are related to listening. Thus, those students who are auditory may be successful and manage the course.
Interview 2
Int: Do you enjoy teaching listening skills course? T2: Ok. It depends on the type of students I have. If students have some skills
in listening, or have more or less good listening skills, in that case, I enjoy teaching listening skills course. But most of the time I have students whose listening skills is very, very poor. In that case, I don’t enjoy teaching Listening Skills. But this year I have students who are good at listening so both of us are enjoying the course. Most of them understand the listening activities so this year it is OK.
Int: Do you think that your students enjoyed the course? T2: Most of the time, no. They find it very difficult to listen to native speakers,
understand what they say and do activities based on that. That is very difficult for most students. So since I know they don’t enjoy, most of the time I don’t enjoy teaching Listening Skills. If students don’t enjoy leaning the course, I don’t enjoy teaching Listening Skills.
Int: Do you mean that students of higher listening proficiency enjoyed the course and students of lower listening proficiency dislike the course?
T2: That seems the case. Students, who are good at listening skills before they come here, scored good grades in the course. But students with lower proficiency or have poor listening skills and abilities, they find difficult to change.
Int: What kind of tasks or activities do students perform in listening skills classes?
T2: Okay hmm…even if the course has some topics which will be lectured, I usually avoid them. And I usually give students a lot of activities. It can be dictation; it can be listen and fill-in blank spaces; it can be listening to a
231
conversation between native speakers and answer multiple choice questions or giving short answers. So I give them all sort of activities. As much as possible I try to vary activities I gave to them.
Int: Why do you give them different activities? T2: What I feel is that, they can be board if I give them similar type of activities.
And I feel that those different activities have different difficulty levels so students may treat them differently. Some of the activities can be done by the majority of the students because they are simple. Some of the activities could be more challenging, difficult for some of them. So I vary for the sake of interest, if I vary the type of activities they can be interested and during these activities they may not be board. And they may help students develop their listening skills in different ways.
Int: What is your preferred style or approach of teaching Listening Skills which makes it unique?
T2: It is a difficult question. What I usually do is I give them or I make them to listen something and I ask them to tell me what they have understood. And I ask them what clues helped them to understand, I find that very useful or helpful. So my focus is on their listening comprehension and what elements or cues or clues help them to understand the listening text. I think that can be unique and I find that very useful or helpful for students.
Int: What challenges do you face in teaching listening skills course? T2: Hmm…Since listening involves comprehension, the most difficult thing for
me is making them listening to something and looking at their blank faces which are indicative of misunderstanding of what they’ve heard. So the activities depend on listening and understanding, they usually do not understand these lectures, or conversations or whatever, and it is very difficult for them to do activities or tasks. I think this is the most challenging thing.
Int: So how do you minimize or solve the problem(s)? T2: Ok, to help them minimize the problem(s), most of the time, I make them
listen to a text twice or three times, that can help them to listen something they have missed in the first round listening or whatever. And I try to provide some background information about the topic they are going to listen. Some times before they listen something if I feel the topic is new to them, I try to give them some background information or I ask them if they know anything about the topic. And after they have listen or heard it I will try to help them understand it by using different piece of information or context clues in the listening text.
Int: Do you see any change on students listening skills after you used those techniques?
T2: I think some of them find it useful. If you give them some background information, if you help them to use some piece of information in the text, or if you help them to use their experiences or knowledge about the topic that may help them to understand the text more. I am not sure. But I think it helps.
Int: You may use the course module, if so how do you see the strengths and
232
weakness of the module from the activities point of view? T2: Okay, I am one of the people who prepared the module. I don’t think the
module is a good module. It was prepared in a hurry, so in terms of variety of activities it was very limited. So I don’t really rely on the module. The module is prepared perhaps five, six or seven years ago so I don’t rely on the module. There are different materials prepared not for our students but for other students. Somehow I found these materials; they are good and I used them in class.
Int: What do you do to improve your students’ listening skills? T2: Hmmm…the thing I can control is whatever happens in the classroom. So
as much as possible most of the class time is spent on listening, the students listen to different listening texts. We use 70 or 80% of the time of our class for listening. So they listen a lot. And I advice them to listen to English out of class-it can be watching English movies; it can be listening BBC or Aljazeera or whatever. They have some access in the campus so I advice them to listen to English as much as possible.
Int: Don’t you give them any lecture on strategies that are useful to understand listening texts and help them answer listening activities or tasks?
T2: Hmmm…I think it may be helpful but I don’t usually teach about strategies. I focus on practice; I help them to practice listening a lot. So if there are any strategies they should know, I usually relate it to the activities they do. For example, if they find something difficult to understand I can show them some ways of understanding that specific listening text, what specific strategies they can use to understand specific listening text. If they find any problem I help them to use some specific kind of listening strategy to understand specific problem.
Int: What kind of students does have opportunities to be successful or manage listening skills course?
T2: I think students who come from big cities are better at listening but students who usually come from very rural areas find it difficult.
Int: Why? T2: I think the reason is clear because students who come from big cities have
opportunities to watch English movies, opportunities to use on radio or television. So they are better at listening.
Int: Therefore their background knowledge matters to be successful in the course?
T2: Ya, two things. One is practice. Students who came from rural areas don’t have that practice of listening to native speakers. That is one big disadvantage. And the other difference is students who come from big cities; they have good knowledge about the world. So this knowledge can help them to understand some listening texts. So their exposure to current issues, their understanding of political or economical issues, I think that can also help them.
Int: Do you think that females and males have differences in their listening proficiency?
T2: Hm…again it depends. If these students come from urban areas I don’t see
233
differences between the sexes. But if the students are from rural areas, it is difficult for female students than male students like in any other courses. But I remember female students who have scored A’s in this course. Most of those students came from urban areas.
Int: So from your experience gender doesn’t affect listening ability? T2: No, no. The main factor that can affect listening is the place where students
come from. Int: Do you think that the activities you give to your students reach different
students who have different perceptual learning style preferences? T2: Hm…as I told you earlier there are some tasks that I used them based on
visual-video. So I have a video which have a lot of episodes-8 episodes. So students who are visual may be beneficiaries from the video they watch. I think students who benefit most from this course are auditory learners or students because most of the time the activities are on based on listening or hearing. Most of my activities are based on audio cassettes not video cassettes. So students who are auditory benefit more from this course.
Int: So do you think that the tasks you provide to your students are appropriate?
T2: Hm-as you know this is a listening skills course so most of the activities are going to be listened. To help some visual learners I have some activities based on videos. But students who are kinesthetic may not enjoy this course, because of the nature of this course. You have to listen and you have to do activities. In fact, I may design some activities which can also benefit students who are kinesthetic but I usually focus on listening activities which are based on audio cassettes and some activities which are based on video cassettes.
Int: So if you are given opportunity to prepare another module do you consider students’ perceptual learning style preferences in the activities?
T2: Hm…I think so. I may not include a lot of activities but I can include some activities which can benefit kinesthetic students more. As you know because of the nature of the course most of the time students have to spend their time by listening or by watching. So whether we like it or not students who are kinesthetic will be at a disadvantage at this course.
Int: What about students who prefer group or individual learning style? T2: Most of the time I give pair work and that is usually when they have to
compare their answers. I give an activity they listen something and they do the activity individually. And before we discuss the answers together I usually make students to sit in pairs so that they can compare or they can discuss their answers. Otherwise, I don’t have a lot of pair work or group work.
Int: So most of the activities are individual learning style focused? T2: Yes. Int: What kind of strategies or techniques do students usually use to
comprehended listening texts? T2: Usually they use their general knowledge about the world. Int: Do you think that students’ perceptual learning style preference affect their
listening proficiency?
234
T2: I am not happy about this classification (auditory, visual, tactile, kinesthetic, individual and group learning style) they are very theoretical. They may have some influence but I think what matters is interest. If someone has some kind of motivation for learning or improving their listening skills in English I think she/he can achieve better in this course. For me learning style may not have a lot of impact. So if someone is interested or motivated to learn that course I think she/he may be successful.
Int: Do you mean perceptual leaning style preferences have no relationship with listening proficiency?
T2: It is very difficult to say no, but I think for me interest and motivation are the major factors which could affect one’s listening skills success.
235
Appendix Q
Transcription of Students Interview
Interview 1
Int: Do you enjoy learning Listening Skills? S1: Yes of course I enjoy leaning Listening Skills. Int: What makes you to enjoy the course? S1: As you know, English is an international language so we have to have good
knowledge of it. Since listening skills is one of the parts of this international language, I enjoy learning the course.
Int: Do you think that the activities you do in the classroom make you to enjoy the course?
S1: Yes of course. We listen to many kinds of fluent speakers to develop our listening skills and our vocabulary as well. So these activities increase my interest to learn the course with joy.
Int: What is the role of listening skills course for your academic success? S1: As we are university students and every subject is given in English, to
understand other teachers’ lectures we have to have good listening skills and we should be active and effective in our listening abilities. So, the practice of listening skills increases my academic performance.
Int: What makes unique Listening Skills from other English courses for your academic success?
S1: Because in language skills development, it is the first stage to communicate and to understand people and even to understand the given subjects so it is the main course.
Int: What challenges do you face in learning listening skills course? S1: As it is our second [foreign] language it is difficult to capture the words
because the speakers are native; so it was difficult to just capture at the first round of listening. But when we listen the text again and again we capture those words we missed in the first round listening, we practice even now after we take listening skills course. I think my listening skill is developed because of the exercises we do in listening classes. The practice or activities we do in the classroom helped me to minimize those challenges.
Int: Which seems to be easier for you to understand when you are listening-a tape lecture or your teacher lecture?
S1: For me the teacher. Because he teaches as we speak so we can communicate like in our language-Amharic. But when native speakers speak I didn’t catch the main idea, maybe I catch four or five words.
Int: What strategies or techniques do you use to learn and/or improve your English listening skills?
S1: Most of the time I listen to English music, and watch English movies and TV programs .That improve my listening skills because as we do exercises daily our capacity will develop.
236
Int: What did your teacher do to improve your listening skills? S1: He gives us different and interesting types of activities, for example English
movies. Int: What kind of students does have opportunities to be successful in listening
skills course? S1: I think students who have good background knowledge of English at their
elementary school grade levels. For example in here many of the students come from different places like country side and urban. The students who learn English better at elementary school grades have the opportunity to be successful in listening skills.
Int: Do you think that female and male students have different listening proficiency levels?
S1: No. Int: Among visual, auditory, kinesthetic, tactile, individual or group preferred students which one will be beneficiary of listening skills? S1: Students who preferred group learning can be successful in this course
because as there are different types of students those who prefer group learning style I think might get much knowledge from each other.
Interview 2
Int: Do you enjoy learning Listening Skills? S2: Yes because it is a good course to improve my listening skills, so I enjoy it. Int: Why do you enjoy learning listening skills? S2: Because the teacher used student centered approach. The teacher’s role in
the classroom is limited; he provides us some questions and operated the tape. Then we use the rest time to talk each other concerning the listening skills activities-based on the listening text. Other than this when we face difficult words in the listening text he helps us by giving more clear clues. So since the class is participatory I enjoyed the course.
Int: What is the role of listening skills course for your academic success? S2: In this semester we haven’t any native speaker instructor. We take all
courses by local teachers. So, when we get opportunity to talk to with native speakers, we can listen to their talk and understand their ideas better on the basis of knowledge and skills we get from this course.
Int: What challenges do you face in learning listening skills course? S2: The most serious problem I face is related to misunderstanding of native
speakers’ pronunciation. As you know our listening skills teacher is an Ethiopian so when he gives us lecture we easily understand his idea. But when I listen to native speakers talk either in a recorded tape cassette or video cassette they pronounce in a different way. Because of this I may not understand the main idea of the talk. So pronunciation is the major problem I faced. The other problem is related to lack of recourses.
Int: Which seems to be easier for you to understand when you are listening- a tape lecture or your teacher lecture?
S2: The teacher’s talk [lecture].
237
Int: Why? S2: I can understand my teacher’s lecture very well because the way he
pronounce words is not as such difficult for me .In addition his accent is familiar to me. Moreover, I can cope up with his speed. Because of these reasons the teacher’s lecture is easy to follow than the native speakers’ lecture.
Int: What strategies or techniques do you use to learn and/or improve your English listening skills?
S2: I try to listen to English TV and radio programs. And I usually listen to English music. In addition, I try to listen to recorded listening texts again and again. In short I use these strategies to learn and improve my listening skills.
Int: What did your teacher do to improve your listening skills? S2: He provides us different class activities which help us develop and improve
our listening skills. He also teaches us using tape and video cassettes. Int: What kind of students does have opportunities to be successful in listening
skills course? S2: I think students who always attend listening skills class and those who
carry out the activities seriously have opportunities to be successful in the course. In addition, students who practice listening (like English TV and radio programs) outside the classroom may also manage the course well.
Int: Do you think that female and male students have different listening abilities?
S2: I don’t think so. Int: Among visual, auditory, kinesthetic, tactile, individual or group preferred
students which one will be beneficiary of listening skills? S2: Students who prefer group learning style may benefit a lot from this course.
In addition, kinesthetic learners (those who prefer moving from one place to another place) may also benefit from this course.
Interview 3
Int: Do you enjoy learning Listening Skills? S3: Yes. Int: What makes you enjoy the course? S3: Because I have had freedom to practice listening skills activities. In
addition, the teacher gives us enough time to realize what we heard. Moreover, he makes us to discuss different issues and activities in groups.
Int: What is the role of listening skills course for your academic success? S3: First of all, it helps us to gain a lot and different types of knowledge
regarding the target language. Secondly, it provides us good opportunity to listen and speak in English. Thirdly, it helps us to know how to understand listening texts. Due to this, these skills can be transferred to other courses. This in turn will help us a lot for our academic success.
Int: What challenges do you face in learning listening skills course? S3: The most challenging problem I face in this course is related to native
238
speakers’ pronunciation. The native speakers pronounce words in a different way I am accustomed to.
Int: Which seems to be easier for you to understand when you are listening- a tape lecture or your teacher lecture?
S3: The teacher’s lecture. Int: Why? S3: Because when the native speakers speak there are many words I couldn’t
catch. This is due to the way the native speakers pronounce words and their speed. Because of this I found listening a taped lecture challenging. However, I listen and understand the teacher’s lecture easily.
Int: What makes the teacher’s lecture relatively easy to follow? S3: As I told you earlier the teacher’s pronunciation is familiar and clear to me.
On the other hand, I couldn’t cope up with the native speakers’ speed because of this I missed many words. But since our teacher knows our listening knowledge and abilities, he provides us lectures at the appropriate speed; so I don’t face serious challenges.
Int: What do you do to minimize pronunciation and speed related problems? S3: To minimize these problems I used different techniques: I usually watch
English movies; I create contact with those students who speak English better. And I try to speak in English with my colleagues to minimize pronunciation problem in particular and my listening skills problem in general.
Int: What strategies or techniques do you use to learn and/or improve your English listening skills?
S3: First I come to class with great interest and motivation. Second, I give my all attention to the teacher’s lecture, and recorded texts and activities. On the other hand, after class, I usually review classroom activities and my lecture notes.
Int: What did your teacher do to improve your listening skills? S3: The teacher makes us listen to tape and video cassettes again and again. In
addition, the teacher gives us enough time to realize what we heard. Moreover, he makes us to discuss different issues and activities in groups.
Int: What kind of students does have opportunities to be successful in listening skills course?
S3: I think students who try to practice English listening texts both in and outside the classroom may be successful in this course. And others who have courage and confidence to speak and listen in English may be successful. But I am shy.
Int: Do you think that female and male students have different listening proficiency?
S3: Yes. As I see so far in the classroom, females perform better in listening activities. In addition, as I see in the classroom male students are shy than female students. Because of the above reasons, I think, female students have better opportunities to be successful in listening skills course.
Int: Among visual, auditory, kinesthetic, tactile, individual or group preferred students which one will be beneficiary of listening skills?
239
S3: Students who prefer group learning style may benefit a lot from this course. When we work together in group we learn many things from one another. So I think students who prefer group learning style will benefit a lot in and from this course.
Interview 4
Int: Do you enjoy learning Listening Skills? S4: Of course I enjoy learning listening skills. Int: Why do you enjoy the course? S4: Because the teacher gives us good and different lessons and activities. And I
got a lot of knowledge from this course. In addition, I like the way the teacher organize things in the classroom. Due to the aforementioned reasons I enjoy leaning the course.
Int: What is the role of listening skills course for your academic success? S4: When I come to this university I had extremely very poor listening ability in
English, but now after I take lessons on listening skills when I watch English TV programs I can understand half of the ideas presented by native speakers. In addition, as you know unless we use our English listening skills, it is very difficult even to understand the main ideas of the given courses. So in one way or another listening skills course help us to score good grades in other subjects.
Int: What challenges do you face in learning listening skills course? S4: Some of the problems I encountered in learning listening skills are related
with pronunciation. The native speakers pronounce letters and words in a different way from the way we are accustomed to. Because of this sometimes I don’t understand what they say. The other problem is the speed that the native speakers speak; I sometimes couldn’t cope up with their speed. These are the major challenges I faced in learning Listening Skills.
Int: What do you do to minimize these problems? S4: I try to listen carefully, but there are some problems that I couldn’t solve so
far. Int: Which seems to be easier for you to understand when you are listening- a
tape lecture or your teacher lecture? S4: The teacher’s lecture is easy for me. Because, first of all the teacher’s
lecture is face to face so it is relatively easy to follow. Even if I couldn’t understand some of his ideas I can fill-in the gaps and guess the meaning of some words from his movements and facial expression.
Int: What strategies or techniques do you use to learn and/or improve your English listening skills?
S4: I used different strategies based on the nature of a lecture or listening activity. Sometimes I use English dictionary to see how to pronounce some difficult words. And sometimes I learn from other people (by asking questions) who have better English knowledge and skills. In addition, I pay attention to the teacher’s lecture.
240
Outside the classroom, I try to speak in English with my friends. Moreover, I listen to English radio and TV programs. Furthermore, I watch English movies to improve my listening skills.
Int: What did your teacher do to improve your listening skills? S4: To improve our listening skills the course instructor provides us different
pair and group activities. What is more, he gives us quizzes and tests. Int: What kind of students does have opportunities to be successful in listening
skills course? S4: Students, who come to class regularly, work harder or practice listening
related activities and those who don’t hesitate to ask their teacher when they encounter unclear ideas might have opportunities to be successful in this course.
Int: Do you think that female and male students have different listening proficiency levels?
S4: Yes. Females are very wise, careful and responsible by nature. So for me females perform better in listening skills. Even in our classroom female students are very clever as compared to male students.
Int: Among visual, auditory, kinesthetic, tactile, individual or group preferred students which one will be beneficiary of listening skills?
S4: Students who preferred group learning can be successful in this course because if you don’t understand something from a listening text one may help you to understand when you discuss in groups. So since group work helps us to learn from one another, students who prefer group learning style may benefit a lot from this course.
Interview 5
Int: Do you enjoy learning Listening Skills? S5: Yes. Int: What makes you enjoy the course? S5: Because I have got freedom to practice listening skills activities. Besides, the
teacher gives us enough time to comprehend and respond each question and activity. What is more, he makes us to discuss different issues and activities in pairs and groups.
Int: What is the role of listening skills course for your academic success? S5: First, it helps us to gain varieties of knowledge and exposure regarding the
target language-English. Secondly, it provides us good opportunity to listen and speak in English. Thirdly, it helps us to know how to understand listening texts. Due to this, these skills can be transferred to other courses. This in turn will help us a lot for our academic success.
Int: What challenges do you face in learning listening skills course? S5: The most serious problem I face in this course is related to native speakers’
pronunciation. The native speakers pronounce words in a different way from the way I am familiar with.
Int: Which seems to be easier to you to understand when you are listening- a tape lecture or your teacher lecture?
241
S5: The teacher’s lecture. Int: Why? S5: When the native speakers speak there are many words I missed. This is due
to the way the native speakers pronounce words and their speed. Because of this I found listening a taped lecture challenging. On the other hand, I listen and understand the teacher’s lecture easily.
Int: What makes the teacher’s lecture relatively easy to follow? S5: As I told you earlier the teacher’s pronunciation is familiar and clear to me.
But when we come to the taped lecture, I couldn’t cope up with the native speakers’ speed because of this I missed many words. But since our teacher knows our listening knowledge and abilities he provides us lectures at the appropriate speed; so I don’t face serious challenges.
Int: What do you do to minimize your pronunciation and speed related problems?
S5: To minimize these problems I used different techniques: I usually watch English movies; I also try to listen to English radio and TV programs. And I try to speak in English with my colleagues to minimize pronunciation problem in particular and my listening skills problem in general.
Int: What strategies or techniques do you use to learn and/or improve your English listening skills?
S5: I try to listen to English TV and radio programs. And I usually listen to English music. In addition, I try to listen to recorded listening texts again and again. Moreover, I try to speak in English with my colleagues to minimize anxiety related problems in learning listening skills. In short, I use these strategies to learn and improve my listening skills.
Int: What did your teacher do to improve your listening skills? S5: He provides us different class activities which help us develop and improve
our listening skills. He also teaches us using tape and video cassettes. Int: What kind of students does have opportunities to be successful in listening
skills course? S5: I think students who always attend listening skills class and those who
carry out the activities seriously have opportunities to be successful in the course. In addition, students who practice listening to English programs (such as watching English TV programs and listen to English radio programs) outside the classroom may be also successful in this course.
Int: Do you think that female and male students have different listening abilities?
S5: I don’t think so. Int: Among visual, auditory, kinesthetic, tactile, individual or group preferred
students which one will be beneficiary of listening skills? S5: Students who prefer group learning style may benefit a lot from this course.
In addition, kinesthetic learners may also benefit a lot from this course.
242
Interview 6
Int: Do you enjoy learning Listening Skills? S6: Of course I enjoy learning listening skills. Int: Why do you enjoy the course? S6: Because the teacher gives us good and different lessons and activities. And I
got a lot of knowledge from this course. In addition I like the way the teacher presents things in the classroom. Due to these reasons I enjoy leaning the course.
Int: What is the role of listening skills course for your academic success? S6: As you know unless we use our English listening skills, it is very difficult
even to understand the main ideas of any course given in the department. It is because they demand us our listening skills much. So in one way or another listening skills course helps us to understand instructors’ lecture of other subjects. This in turn helps us for our academic success.
Int: What challenges or problems do you face in learning listening skills course? S6: Some of the problems I encountered in learning listening skills are related to
pronunciation. The native speakers pronounce alphabets and words in a different way from the way we are accustomed to. Because of this sometimes I couldn’t understand what they say. The other serious problem is the speed of the native speakers. Because of their speed sometimes I couldn’t understand the main idea of the talk. These are the major and serious problems I faced in learning Listening Skills.
Int: What do you do to minimize these problems? S6: Outside the classroom, I try to listen to English TV programs to familiarize
myself with native speakers’ accent, but there are some problems that I couldn’t solve till now.
Int: Which seems to be easier for you to understand when you are listening- a tape lecture or your teacher lecture? S6: The teacher’s lecture is easy for me to follow. Because the teacher’s lecture
is face to face so it is relatively easy to follow. Even if I couldn’t understand some of his ideas I can ask him freely.
Int: What strategies or techniques do you use to learn and/or improve your English listening skills?
S6: Most of the time I listen to English music, and watch English movies and TV programs. Sometimes I listen to English radio programs. All these help me to improve my listening skills because as we listen to native speakers daily our listening skills will improve.
Int: What did your teacher do to improve your listening skills? S6: He gives us different and interesting activities; for example, he shows us
English movies and based on it he gives us activities. In addition, he advises us to listen to English radio broadcasts like BBC and so on.
Int: What kind of students does have opportunities to be successful in listening skills course? S6: I think students who have good background knowledge of listening English
at their elementary or secondary school levels. As I see in the classroom,
243
those students who learned listening English better at elementary or secondary school grades have the opportunity to be successful in this course at the campus.
Int: Do you think that female and male students have different listening proficiency levels?
S6: No. Int: Among visual, auditory, kinesthetic, tactile, individual or group preferred
students which one will be beneficiary of listening skills? S6: Students who preferred group learning can be successful in this course
because most of the activities given in the classroom are pair and group works. Thus those who prefer group learning style, I think, might get much knowledge from each other and benefit a lot from this course.
Appendix L
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Pearson Correlation 1
Sig. (2-tailed)
N 70
Pearson Correlation .408** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) 0
N 70 70
Pearson Correlation .244* 0.176 1
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.042 0.145
N 70 70 70
Pearson Correlation 0.233 .691** 0.112 1
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.052 0 0.356
N 70 70 70 70
Pearson Correlation .309** 0.157 .261* 0.201 1
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.009 0.195 0.029 0.095
N 70 70 70 70 70
Pearson Correlation .289* 0.196 0.107 0.199 .394** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.015 0.104 0.376 0.098 0.001
N 70 70 70 70 70 70
Pearson Correlation 0.168 -0.01 0.099 -0.044 0.137 0.059 1
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.164 0.934 0.416 0.716 0.258 0.626
N 70 70 70 70 70 70 70
Pearson Correlation -0.13 -0.14 -0.016 -0.031 0.148 0.148 -0.008 1
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.282 0.246 0.897 0.797 0.221 0.223 0.949
N 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70
Pearson Correlation 0.219 -0.047 0.194 -0.068 .317** -0.056 .330** 0.18 1
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.069 0.702 0.108 0.578 0.008 0.648 0.005 0.137
N 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70
Pearson Correlation 0.147 0.205 0.172 0.159 0.186 0.167 .360** -0.046 .427** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.226 0.089 0.154 0.188 0.123 0.166 0.002 0.706 0
N 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70
Pearson Correlation .246* 0.191 .248* .240* 0.168 0.063 0.182 -0.105 .341** 0.231 1
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.04 0.113 0.048 0.046 0.165 0.606 0.132 0.388 0.004 0.054
N 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70
Pearson Correlation -0.063 -.251* 0.016 -.272* 0.048 -0.043 -0.075 .379** 0.185 0.049 -.294* 1
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.607 0.036 0.895 0.023 0.693 0.725 0.535 0.001 0.125 0.69 0.014
N 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70
Pearson Correlation 0.093 .308** -0.033 .305* 0.17 0.074 0.215 -0.046 0.082 0.144 0.163 0.019 1
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.446 0.01 0.788 0.01 0.159 0.541 0.074 0.703 0.498 0.233 0.179 0.879
N 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70
14.Listening Pearson Correlation -0.107 -.504** 0.106 -.513** -0.197 0.03 0.006 0.195 0.084 -.255* -0.111 .342** -0.106 1
proficiency Sig. (2-tailed) 0.376 0 0.384 0 0.102 0.803 0.962 0.105 0.492 0.033 0.358 0.004 0.381
N 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70
223
5.Affctive
Interrelationships among Variables (Main study)
1.Memory
2.Cognitive
3.Compensation
4.Metacognitive
12. Individual
13.Gender
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
6.Social
7.Auditory
8.Visual
9. Kinesthetic
10.Tactile
11.Group
164
REFERENCES
Abdi Hussene (2005). ‘An Investigation of Learning Strategies Employed by High School Teachers and Students to Develop Effective Listening Skills’. Unpublished M.A. Thesis. Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University.
Abu Shmais, W. (2003). ‘Language Learning Strategy Use in Palestine’. TESL-EJ.
7/2, 1-17. Adinew Tadesse (2000). ‘The Relevance and Adequacy of the Listening
Comprehension Text Presented in the New Textbooks for Grade 10’. Unpublished M.A. Thesis. Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University.
Afflerbach, P. (2000). ‘Verbal Reports and Protocol Analysis’ in Kamil , M.L.,B.
Mosenthal,D.Pearson , and R.Barr (eds.):Handbook of Reading Research (Vol.III).New Jersey : Erlbaum.
Anderson, J. (1985). Cognitive Psychology and Its Implication. New York:
W.H.Freeman and Company. Anderson, J. and Lynch, T. (1988). Listening. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Anderson, J. and Vandergrift, L. (1996). ‘Increasing Metacognitive Awareness in
the L2 Classroom by Using Think-aloud Protocols and Other Verbal Report Formats’ in Oxford, R.(ed.): Language Learning Strategies Around the World : Cross-Cultural Perspectives. Manoa : University of Hawai’i Press.
Aziz Khalil (2005). ‘Assessment of Language Learning Strategies Used by
Palestinian EFL Learners’. Foreign Language Annals. 38/1,108-117. Bacon, D. (1992). ‘The Relationship between Gender, Comprehension and,
Proceeding Strategies Cognitive and Affective Response in Second-Language Listening’. The Modern Language Journal. 76/2, 160-178.
Bedell, D. and Oxford, R.(1996). ‘Cross-cultural Comparisons of Language
Learning Strategies in the People's Republic of China and Other Countries’. In: R. Oxford, ed. Language learning strategies around the world: cross cultural perspectives. Honolulu: University of Hawai': Second language teaching and curriculum center, 35-60.
Berhanu Bogale (1993). ‘Listener Strategies in Collaborative Discourse of Addis
Ababa University Fourth Year Students’. Unpublished M.A. Thesis. Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University.
Blaxter, L et al. (2006). How to Research. (3rd Edition). London: Open University
Press.
165
Boyle, J. (1987). ‘Sex Differences in Learning Vocabulary’. Language Learning. 37/2,273-284
Brown, D. (1995).Dimensions of Difficulty in Listening Comprehension. In
Medelsohn D.,and Rubin (Eds). A Guide for the Teaching of Second Language Teaching. Singapore: Domonic Press.
________. (2002).Strategies for Success: A Practical Guide to Learning English. New
York : Longman. Bruninig, R., Schraw, G.& Ronning, R. (1999).Cognitive Psychology and Instruction.
(3rd Edition). New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Buck, G. (2001). Assessing Listening. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). ‘Theoretical Bases of Communicative
Approaches to Second Language Teaching and Testing’. Applied Linguistics. 1/1, 1-47.
Chamot, A. (2004). ‘Issues in Language Learning Strategy Research and Teaching’.
Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching.1/1,14-26. __________. (2005). ‘Language Learning Strategy Instruction: Current Issues and
Research’. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics. 25,112-130. Chamot, A. and Keatley, W., Barnhardt, S., El-Dinary, B.,Nagano,K, and
Newman,C. (1996). Learning Strategies in Elementary Language Immersion Programs. Final Reports Submitted to Center for International Education ,US Department of Education. ERIC.
Chamot, A. and Keatley, W. (2003). ‘Learning Strategies of Adolescent Low-literacy
HispanicESL Students’. Paper Presented at the 2003 Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA.
Chamot, A. and O’Malley, J. (1994). The CALLA Handbook: Implementing the
Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach. New York: Longman. Chastain, K. (1975). ‘Affective and Ability Factors in Second Language Acquisition’.
Language Learning. 25/1,153-161. Chen, L. (2002). ‘Taiwanese Junior High School English Teachers’ Perception of
the Washback Effect of the Basic Competence Test in English’. Unpublished PhD Dissertation. Ohio: Ohio State University.
Clark, H. and Clark, E. (1977). Psychology and Language: An Introduction to
Psycholinguistics. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
166
Cohen, A. (1987). ‘The Use of Verbal and Imagery Mnemonics in Second-Language Vocabulary Learning’. Studies in Second Language Acquisition. 9/1, 43-62.
________. (1996).’Verbal Reports as a Source of Insights into Second Language Learner Strategies’.
Applied Language Learning, 7 (1&2), 5-24. Retrieved from the following World Web Site: http:\\www\\WWWE\Inetpub\wwwroot\members\reading\DLI_Pubs\ALL\all7_1\verbal.htm.
________. (1998). Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language. London:
Longman. Cohen, A. and Macaro, E. (Eds.) (2007). Language Learner Strategies. Oxford :OUP. Cohen, A. and Scott, K. (1996). ‘A Synthesis Approaches to Assessing Language
Learning Strategies’ in Oxford, R.(ed.): Language Learning Strategies Around the World : Cross-Cultural Perspectives. Manoa : University of Hawai’i Press.
Cook, V. (2001). Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. (3rd Edition).
New York: Oxford University Press. Coyle, D., Griffiths, C. and Takeuchi, O. (2007). ‘Applying Strategies to Contexts:
The Role of Individual, Situational, and group Differences’ in Cohen and Macaro (eds.) Language Learner Strategies. Pp 69-92.
Dreyer, C. and Oxford, R. (1996). ‘Learning Strategies and other Predictors of ESL
Proficiency among Afrikaans Speakers in South Africa and Typology.’ In: Oxford, R, (Ed.). Language Learning Strategies Arroud the World:Cross- cultural Perspectives. Honolulu:University of Hawai Press.Pp 61-74.
Dornyei, Z. (2005). The Psychology of Language Learner: Individual Differences in
Second Language Acquisition .New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaun Associates Inc. ________. (2007). Research Methods in Applied Linguistics: Quantitative, Qualitative
and Mixed Methodologies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Dunkel, A. (1986). ‘Developing Listening Fluency in L2: Theoretical Principles and
Pedagogical Considerations’. The Modern Language Journal. 7/2, 99-106. Ehrman, M. and Oxford, R. (1989). ‘Effects of Sex Differences, Career Choice, and Psychological Type on Adult Language Learning Strategies’. The Modern
Language Journal. 73/1, 1-13. Ehrman, M. and Oxford, R. (1990). ‘Adult Learning Styles and Strategies in an
Intensive Training Setting’ . The Modern Language Journal. 74, 311-326. _____________________ (1995). ‘Cognition Plus: Correlates of Language Learning
Success’. The Modern Language Journal. 79, 67-89.
167
Ehrman, M. et al. (2003). ‘A Brief Overview of Individual Differences in Second Language Learning’. System. 31/3,313-330.
Ellis, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. Feyten, M. (1991). ‘The Power of Listening Ability: An Overlooked Dimension in
Language Acquisition’. The Modern Language Journal. 75/2, 173-180. Field, A.P. (2005). Discovering Statistics Using SPSS. London: Sage. Flowerdew ,J . and Miller ,L. (1995). ‘On the Notion of Culture in L2 Lectures’. TESOL Quarterly. 29/2,345-373. Graham, S., Macaro, E. and Vanderplank, R. (2007). ‘A Review of Listening
Strategies: Focus on Sources of Knowledge and on Success’ in Cohen and Macaro (Eds.). Language Learner Strategies. Pp165-185.
Gray, D. (2004). Doing Research in the Real World. London: Sage Publications
Ltd. Green, M. and Oxford, R. (1995). ‘A Closer Look at Learning Strategies, L2 Proficiency and Gender’. TESOL Quarterly. 29/2, 261-297. Grenfell, M., & Harris, V. (1999). Modern Languages and Learning Strategies: In Theory and Practice. London: Routledge. Grenfell, M. and Macaro, E. (2007). ’Claims and Critiques.’ Language Learner Strategies. Pp.9-28. Griffiths, C. (2003). ‘Patterns of Language Learning Strategy Use’. System. 31/3,
367-383. _________. (2004). ‘Language Learning Strategies: Theory and Research’.
Occasional Paper. Griffiths, C. and Parr, J.M. (2001). ‘Language Learning Strategies: Theory and
Perception’. ELT Journal. 55/3, 247-254. Halbach, A. (2000). ‘Finding out about Students’ Learning Strategies by Looking at
their Diaries: A case Study’. System . 28/1, 85-96. Haliday, K. (1987). ‘Spoken and Written Modes of Meaning’. In Horwitz, R and
Samuels, J (Eds.). Comprehending Oral and Written Language. New York: Academic Press.
168
Han, M and Lin, L. (2000). ‘A Case study: A Successful Student of English with Impaired Hearing’. Teaching English in China. 23/3, 11-16.
Haregewoin Fentahun (2003). ‘An Investigation of Classroom Listening
Comprehension Teaching Practices in Relation to the New English Course Books: Grade 11 in Focus’. Unpublished M.A. Thesis. Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University.
Hatch, E.(1983). Psycholinguistics: A Second Language Perspective. Massachusetts:
Newbery. Hiwot Tefera (2006). ‘A Comparison of the Listening Abilities of Grade 9 Students
with the Listening Level Required of them in Understanding Their Plasma’. Unpublished M.A. Thesis. Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University.
Horwitz, E. (1987).’Surveying Student Beliefs about Language Learning in Wenden,
A. & Rubin, J.(Eds.). Learner Strategies in Language Learning, (pp.119-129). Englewood Cliffs,NJ: Prentice Hall International.
______.1988). ‘The Belief about Language Learning of Beginning University Foreign
Language Students’. The Modern Language Journal. 72, 283-294. Horwitz, E.K. et al. (1986). ‘Primary Evidence for the Reliability and Validity of a
Foreign Language Anxiety Scale’. TESOL Quarterly. 20(3): 559-561.
Hsiao, Y. and Oxford, R. (2002). ‘Comparing Theories of Language Learning Strategies : A Confirmatory Factor Analysis’. Modern Language Journal. 86/3,368-383.
Huang, H. and Naerseen, M. (1987). ‘Learning Strategies for Oral Communication’.
Applied Linguistics. 8,287-307. Hymes, D. (1972). ‘On communicative Competence’. In Pride, J. B. and Holmes, J.
(Eds.): Sociolinguistics. Harmondsworth: Penguine. Katalin, E. (2002). ‘Please keep Talking! : The Think Aloud Method in Second Language Reading Research’. Novelty. 7/3. Retrieved from http://www.novelty.hu/htm2/vol73/elekes.htm. Kaylani, C. (1996). ‘The influence of gender and motivation on EFL learning strategy
use in Jordan’. In R. Oxford (Ed.). Language learning strategies around the world: Cross-cultural perspectives. (pp.75-88). Honolulu: Hawai‘i, University Press.
Kristmason, P. (2002). ‘Affect in Second Language Classroom: How to Create an
Emotional Climate’. http:// www.colst org/research/affect.htm.
169
Kroonenberg, N. (1995). ‘Meeting Language Learners’ Sensory-Learning-Style Preferences’. In J. M. Reid (Ed.) Learning Styles in the ESL/EFL Classroom (pp. 74-86). New York: Heinle and Heinle Publishers.
Lavine, R.Z. and Oxford, R.L. (1994). Needs Assessment for the Spanish Intelligent
Tutor. Boulder, CO: Microanalysis and Design. Laviosa, F. (1991). ‘An Investigation of the Listening Strategies of Advanced
Learners of Italian as a Second Language’. Paper Presented at Bridging Theory and Practice in the Foreign Language Classroom Symposium, Loyola College, MD.
Lawrence, G. (1984). A Synthesis of Learning Style Research Involving the MBTI.
"Journal of Psychological Type". 8, 2-15. Littlewood, W. (1981). Communicative Language Teaching: An Introduction.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ____________.(1991). Foreign and Second Language Learning. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Liu, D. (2004). ‘EFL Proficiency, Gender and Language Learning Strategy Use among a Group of Chinese Technology Institute English Majors’. ARECLS E-Journal. 1, 1-15
Long, D.R. and Macian, J.L. (1994). ‘Listening Skills: Acquisition and Assessment’. Northeast Conference Reports. 111-138.
Macaro, E. (2001). Learning Strategies in Foreign and Second Language
Classrooms. London: Continuum. _______.(2006). ‘Strategies for Language Learning and for Language Use: Revising
the Theoretical Framework’. Modern Language Journal. 90/3,320-337. McDonough, J. and Shaw, C. (2003). Materials and Methods in ELT: A Teacher’s
Guide. Oxford: Blackwell. MacIntyre, R et al. (1997). ‘Biases in Self-ratings of Second Language Proficiency:
The Role of Language Anxiety’. Language Learning. 47, 265-287. Mayer, R. (1988). ‘Learning Strategies: An Overview’. In Weinstein, C., E. Goetz, &
P. Alexander (Eds,). Learning and Study Strategies: Issues in Assessment, Instruction, and Evaluation (pp.11-22). New York: Academic Press.
Muijs, D. (2004). Doing Quantitative Research in Education. London: Sage
Publications Ltd.
170
Mulugeta Teka (1997). ‘Motivation in Listening Classes of College English at Addis Ababa University’. Unpublished M.A. Thesis. Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University.
Nunan, D. (1995). Learner Strategy Training in the Classroom. Unpublished Paper. _______. (2002). ‘Listening in Language Learning’. Methodology in Language Teaching: An Anthology of Current Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. 238-241. Oh, I. (1996). ‘The Effects of Attitude and Sex on Use of EFL Learner Strategies’.
English Teaching Forum. 51/2, 35-53. O'Malley, J. et al. (1985). ‘Learning Strategies Used by Beginner and Intermediate
ESL Students’. Language Learning. 35/1, 21-46. O'Malley, J. Chamot, A. and Kupper,L. (1989). ‘Listening Comprehension in
Second Language Acquisition’. Applied Linguistics. 10/4, 418-437. O'Malley, J. and Chamot, A. (1990). Learning Strategies in Second Language
Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Oxford, R. (1986). Second Language Learning Strategies: Current Research and
Implications for Practice. Los Angeles: University of California. ________. (1990). Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know.
New York: Newbury House/Harper & Row. Now Boston: Heinle & Heinle. ________. (1993). ‘Research Update on Teaching L2 Listening’. System. 21/2, 205-
211. ________ . (Ed.). (1996). Language Learning Strategies around the World: Cross-
cultural Perspectives. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ________. (2002). ‘Language Learning Strategies in a Nutshell: Update and ESL Suggestions’. Methodology in Language Teaching: An Anthology of Current
Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 124-132. Oxford, R. and Burry-Stock. J. (1995). ‘Assessing the Use of Language Learning Strategies Worldwide with the ESL/EFL Version of the Strategy Inventory for
Language Learning ’. System. 23/1, 1-23. Oxford, R., Cho, S. and Kim, H-J. (2004). ‘Effects of the Presence and Difficulty of
Task on Strategy Use’. International Review of Applied Linguistics. 42/1, 1-47.
171
Oxford, R. & Ehrman, M. (1988). ‘Psychological Type and Adult Language Learning Strategies: A Pilot Study’. Journal of Psychological Type. 16, 22-32.
Oxford, R., Lavine, R., & Crookall, D. (1989). ‘Language Learning Strategies, the
Communicative Approach, and Their Classroom Implications’. Foreign Language Annals. 22/1, 29-39.
Oxford, R., and Nyikos, M. (1989). ‘Variables Affecting Choice of Language
Learning Strategies by University Students’. The Modern Language Journal. 73, 291-300.
Park, G. (1997). ‘Language Learning Strategies and English Proficiency in Korean
University Students’. Foreign Language Annals. 30/2, 211-21. Peacock, M. (2001). ‘Match or mismatch? Learning styles and teaching styles in
EFL’. International Journal of Applied Linguistics. 11/1, 38-58. Peacock, M. and Ho, B. (2003). ‘Student Language Learning Strategies Across
Eight Disciplines’. International Journal of Applied Linguistics. 13/2,179-200. Phillips, V. (1991,Nov). ’A Look at Learner Strategy Use and ESL Proficiency’.
CATESOL Journal. Pp. 57-67. Purdie, N. and Oliver, R. (1999). ‘Language Learning Strategies Used by Bilingual
School-aged Children’. System. 27, 375-388. Reid, J. (1987). ‘The Learning Preferences of ESL Students’. TESOL Quarterly.
21/1, 87-111. ______ (Ed.) (1995). Learning Styles in ESL/EFL Classroom. New York: Heinle and
Heinle. ______ (Ed.) (1998). ‘Preface’ in Reid,J. (Ed.). Understanding Learning Styles in the
Second Language Classroom. Pp. ix- xiv. New York: Prentice Hall Regents ______ (Ed.) (1998). ‘Perceptual Learning Style Preference Survey’. In Reid,J (Ed.).
Understanding Learning Styles in second Language Classroom.Pp162-167. New York: Prentice Hall.
Reiss, M. (1983). ‘Helping the Unsuccessful Language Learner’. English Teaching
Forum. 21/2, 1-8.
Riazi, A. (2007). ‘Language Learning Strategy: Perceptions of Female Arab English Majors’. Foreign Language Annals. 40/3, 433-440.
Richards, J. (2003). ‘Current Trends in Teaching Listening’. The Language
Teacher. 27/7.
172
Richards, J. and Rodgers, T. (1986). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rivers, W. (1983). Speaking in Many Tongues. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. Rixon, S. (1986). Developing Listening Skills. Basingstoke: Macmillan. Rost, M. (1990). Listening in Language Learning. London : Longman. _______ (1994). Introducing Listening. London: Penguin Books Ltd. _______ (2002). Teaching and Researching Listening. Malaysia: Pearson Education. Rubin, J. (1975). ‘What Can Good Language Learners Tell Us?’ TESOL Quarterly. 9,
41-50. _______. (1987). ’Learner Strategies: Theoretical Assumptions, Research History
and Typology’. In: A. L.Wenden and J. Rubin, ed. Learner Strategies in Language Learning. London: Prentice Hall ELT. 15-30.
_______. (1990). ‘The Role of Consciousness in Second Language Learning’. Applied Linguistics. 11/2, 129-159. _______.(2003). ‘Diary Writing as a Process: Simple, Useful, Powerful’. Guidelines.
25/2, 10-14. Scarcella, C. and Oxford,R.(1992).The Tapestry of Language Learning : The Individual in the Communicative Classroom. Boston: Heinle and Heinle.
Schmidt, R. (1990). ‘The Role of Consciousness in Second Language Learning.’
Applied Linguistics . 11/2, 129-159. Seime Kebede (1989). ‘An Investigation of the Listening Abilities of Bahir Dar
Teachers College Students’. Unpublished M.A. Thesis. Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University.
Seliger, H. and Shahomy, E. (1989). Second Language Research Methods. Oxford:
Oxford University Press. Shipman, S. & Shipman, V. (1985). Cognitive Styles: Some Conceptual,
Methodological, and Applied Issues. In E. Gordon (Ed.), "Review of research in education," v12, 229-91. Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.
Smith, R.M. (1982). Learning How to Learn: Applied Learning Theory for Adults.
Chicago: Follett.
173
Stern, H.H. (1975). ‘What Can We Learn from the Good Language Learner?’ The Canadian Modern Language Review. 31/4, 304-318.
_______(1992). Issues and Options in Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University
Press. Tarone, E. & Yule, G. (1989). Focus on the Language Learner: Approaches to
Identifying and Meeting the Needs of Second Language Learners. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Teshome Yizengaw. (2003). ‘Transformations in Higher Education: Experiences
with Reform and Expansion in Ethiopian Higher Education System’. Keynote Paper Prepared for Regional Training Conference on Improving Tertiary Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: Things that Work! Accra.
Tewolde Gebre Yohannes (1988). ‘A Comparison of the Listening Abilities of
Junior Secondary School Students with the Listening Level Required of Them in Their Subject Areas’. Unpublished M.A. Thesis. Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University.
Thompson, I. (1987). ‘Memory in Language Learning’. In Wenden, A. & Rubin,
J.(Eds.). Learner Strategies in Language Learning. Pp.43-56. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Tomlinson, B. (1984). ‘Talking about the Composing Process: The Limitations of
Retrospective Accounts’. Written Communication. 1, 429-445. Tudor, I. (1996). Learner -centeredness as Language Education. Cambridge: CUP Underwood, M. (1989). Teaching Listening. New York: Longman. Vandergrift, L. (1996). ‘Listening Strategies of Core French High school Students’.
Canadian Modern Language Review. 52/2,200-223. ____________ (1997). ‘The Comprehension Strategies of Second Language (French)
Listeners’. Foreign Language Annals.30 /3, 387-409. ____________. (2003). ‘Orchestrating Strategy Use: Toward a Model of the Skilled
Second Language Listener’. Language Learning. 53 /4, 463-496. Weinstein, C. and Mayer, R. (1986). The Teaching of Learning Strategies. In M.C.
Wittrock (Ed.). Hand-book of Research on Teaching.(3rd Edition). (pp, 315-327). New York: Macmillan.
Weir, J. (1993). Understanding and Developing Language Tests. London: Prentice
Hall.
174
Wenden, A. and Rubin, J. (Eds.). (1987). Learner Strategies in Language Learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Wharton, G. (2000). ‘Language Learning Strategy Use of Bilingual Foreign
Language Learners in Singapore’. Language Learning. 50/2, 203-244. Widdowson, H.G. (1990). Teaching Language as Communication. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. Wiersma, W. (2000). Research Methods in Education: An Introduction. (7th Edition).
Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Wilkins, D. (1976). Notional Syllabuses. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Williams, M. and Burden, R. (1997). Psychology for Language Teachers: A Social
Constructivist Approach. Cambridge: CUP. Willing, K. (1988). Learning Styles in Adult Immigrant Education. Research Series
(Ed. Nunan, D.). Australia, National Curriculum Research Center; Adult Migrant Education Programme.
Wu, Ya-Ling (2007). ‘Language Learning Strategies Used by Students at Different
Proficiency Levels’. Asian EFL Journal.10/4, 75-95. Yang, M. (2007). ‘Language Learning Strategies for Junior College Students in
Taiwan: Investigating Ethnicity and Proficiency’. Asian EFL Journal. 9/2, 1-20.
