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Effects and Effects and AudiencesAudiences

The Imagined ReaderThe Imagined Reader

Breakfast cerealBreakfast cerealCarCar

Holiday destinationHoliday destinationFast food Fast food FurnitureFurnitureTV show TV show

Music Music PetPet

Audience ResearchAudience Research

►Producing data from research Producing data from research ►Providing empirical evidence of Providing empirical evidence of

audience behaviour or discursive audience behaviour or discursive evidence of audience responses.evidence of audience responses.

►Done commercially by media Done commercially by media producers and distributors – ratings, producers and distributors – ratings, market research market research

►Done critically by media academics Done critically by media academics

Audience TheoriesAudience Theories

► Creating new ideas / new ways of thinking Creating new ideas / new ways of thinking about media audiences. about media audiences.

► Audience research used to test out audience Audience research used to test out audience theories. theories.

► Effects.Effects.► Uses and gratifications.Uses and gratifications.► Reception theory.Reception theory.► Ethnography.Ethnography.► Postmodern theory.Postmodern theory.► Media 2.0 Media 2.0

Spectrum of behaviourism

Direct Effects theory

Theories of Active Audiences

Media stimulus is followed by straightforward audience response

Audiences use media to satisfy particular needs and to enable the flow of communications from person to person

“Effects debate” very much alive –

mass media and social panics

See Lasswell and the effectiveness of propaganda

Media Effects ?Media Effects ?(Behaviourism theories)(Behaviourism theories)

►Benevolent? (education, Publicity, Benevolent? (education, Publicity, entertainment…)entertainment…)

►Malign? (eg propaganda, hegemony)Malign? (eg propaganda, hegemony)

►Criticism: no study has conclusively Criticism: no study has conclusively identified or rejected the possibility of identified or rejected the possibility of media effectsmedia effects

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Early Models and Early Models and ResearchResearch

►The Hypodermic Syringe ModelThe Hypodermic Syringe Model►The Two-step Flow HypothesisThe Two-step Flow Hypothesis►ExperimentsExperiments►ClaimsClaims

Hypodermic ModelHypodermic Model

► ‘‘Effects’ theory is / was often limited to the Effects’ theory is / was often limited to the idea that the media ‘inject’ messages into idea that the media ‘inject’ messages into audiences who are seen as passive.audiences who are seen as passive.

► The constant attempt to ‘prove’ that media The constant attempt to ‘prove’ that media violence creates violent citizens (eg horror violence creates violent citizens (eg horror films, video nasties in the 1980s, films, video nasties in the 1980s, videogames now) is based on this false videogames now) is based on this false premise. premise.

► Effects and ‘moral panics’. Effects and ‘moral panics’.

► Violence and sex in media 'damaging Violence and sex in media 'damaging children'children'

http://www.youtube.com/watch?http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B5QVaX32OdI&feature=fvwv=B5QVaX32OdI&feature=fvw

► 'Video Games Promote Racism, Sexism 'Video Games Promote Racism, Sexism and Hatred' - The Alan Titchmarsh Showand Hatred' - The Alan Titchmarsh Show

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5_9nj-Xngpchttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5_9nj-Xngpc► Beyond Good & Evil: Children, Media & Beyond Good & Evil: Children, Media &

Violent TimesViolent Timeshttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CggjBd7o-http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CggjBd7o-

PM&feature=relatedPM&feature=related

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QuestionsQuestions

► How far do we agree that the media How far do we agree that the media affect us?affect us?

►What kind of forms do these effects What kind of forms do these effects take?take?

► Is it possible to measure these effects? Is it possible to measure these effects? How would you do it?How would you do it?

►What kind of variables or approaches What kind of variables or approaches need to be taken into consideration to need to be taken into consideration to explore audience research fully?explore audience research fully?

Fredic Wertham’s Fredic Wertham’s Seduction of the InnocentSeduction of the Innocent

(1955)(1955)►Two targets of his vitriolic attacks:Two targets of his vitriolic attacks:

Crime comicsCrime comics TelevisionTelevision

►5 psychological problems identified:5 psychological problems identified: PassivityPassivity MisconceptionMisconception ImitationImitation IdentificationIdentification DesensitizationDesensitization

Fredic Wertham’s Fredic Wertham’s Seduction of the InnocentSeduction of the Innocent (1955)(1955)

►Tests with children but unreliability of Tests with children but unreliability of these artificial tests eg. The Duess Test – these artificial tests eg. The Duess Test – encourage research subjects to provide encourage research subjects to provide responses that researcher is expectingresponses that researcher is expecting

► [Also see the Bobo doll experiment][Also see the Bobo doll experiment]

►These views :These views : overstate media effectsoverstate media effects Understate capacity of children to Understate capacity of children to

distinguish fantasy from realitydistinguish fantasy from reality Have captured the public mood ever since!Have captured the public mood ever since! Have spurned many similar studiesHave spurned many similar studies

Wertham’s spirit lives on…Wertham’s spirit lives on…

► Popular support and publicity, particularly Popular support and publicity, particularly during heightened incidents of violent crime during heightened incidents of violent crime in the real world.in the real world.

► Research: Explore other criticism of Research: Explore other criticism of Wertham’s theories, for eg his focus on Wertham’s theories, for eg his focus on cases of juvenile delinquency and his lack of cases of juvenile delinquency and his lack of focus on socio-economic conditions to focus on socio-economic conditions to explain these unwanted behaviours explain these unwanted behaviours

► Media as scapegoat for the ills of society?Media as scapegoat for the ills of society?

http://http://www.mediawatchuk.org.ukwww.mediawatchuk.org.uk//

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Effects researchEffects research

►Starts from a premise based in moralsStarts from a premise based in morals►Central question:Central question:

““how much harm is done to vulnerable how much harm is done to vulnerable viewers by improper media materials?viewers by improper media materials?””

►(see Gauntlett’s “10 things wrong with (see Gauntlett’s “10 things wrong with the effects model” for critique)the effects model” for critique)

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ProblemsProblems

► Assumes media affects behaviour, but Assumes media affects behaviour, but this needs to be argued and evidenced.this needs to be argued and evidenced. Distinctive message - can we assume there Distinctive message - can we assume there

is ‘a (singular) reading’? Conceives is ‘a (singular) reading’? Conceives audience as passiveaudience as passive

► Proof of media effects lies in Proof of media effects lies in advertising…advertising… Why would people pay for advertising if it Why would people pay for advertising if it

had no EFFECT? had no EFFECT?

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What is Violence?What is Violence?

► What is “media violence”?  Rank the following What is “media violence”?  Rank the following in terms of the most to the least violent:in terms of the most to the least violent: Itchy and ScratchyItchy and Scratchy Saving Private RyanSaving Private Ryan The SopranosThe Sopranos Sin CitySin City RamboRambo News (fighting in Iraq)News (fighting in Iraq) BoxingBoxing WWE wrestlingWWE wrestling Modern Warfare 2Modern Warfare 2

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DefineDefine

► The point is are we even talking about The point is are we even talking about comparable features, let alone are they the comparable features, let alone are they the same?  same? 

► Because “media violence” exists only in the Because “media violence” exists only in the context of narrative, characters, genres, etc. context of narrative, characters, genres, etc. It is simply a term that is impossible to It is simply a term that is impossible to define.define.

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• The common sense argument is based The common sense argument is based on the need to protect children.on the need to protect children.

• Difficult to question as within our Difficult to question as within our society children are regarded as society children are regarded as vulnerable, ignorant and irrational vulnerable, ignorant and irrational

• BUT Buckingham (1996) observes that BUT Buckingham (1996) observes that children become extremely children become extremely sophisticated in reading media texts sophisticated in reading media texts from an early age.  Many children are from an early age.  Many children are frightened by horror but this is also true frightened by horror but this is also true of the news.  The ability to develop of the news.  The ability to develop coping strategies for fiction but not for coping strategies for fiction but not for factual programmes shows the factual programmes shows the sophistication of children in reading sophistication of children in reading texts. texts.

• See also Hodge and Tripp (1986)See also Hodge and Tripp (1986)

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Moral Panics and Media Moral Panics and Media EffectsEffects

► ““It is now perhaps more interesting not to ask what It is now perhaps more interesting not to ask what the effects of television are, but rather why there is the effects of television are, but rather why there is so much concern about the question” (Gauntlett)so much concern about the question” (Gauntlett)

► Moral PanicMoral Panic – “a condition, episode, person or – “a condition, episode, person or group of persons emerges as a threat to societal group of persons emerges as a threat to societal values and interests: its nature is presented in a values and interests: its nature is presented in a stylised and stereotypical fashion by the mass stylised and stereotypical fashion by the mass media: the moral barricades are manned by media: the moral barricades are manned by editors, bishops, politicians and other right thinking editors, bishops, politicians and other right thinking people; socially accredited experts pronounce their people; socially accredited experts pronounce their diagnoses and solutions; ways of coping are diagnoses and solutions; ways of coping are evolved or (more often) resorted to.” (Cohen evolved or (more often) resorted to.” (Cohen 1972, 1972, p.9)p.9)

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Historical PerspectiveHistorical Perspective

► Music halls in Victorian Britain – lawlessness Music halls in Victorian Britain – lawlessness and immoralityand immorality

► Football, 100 years ago – hooliganism Football, 100 years ago – hooliganism ► Bicycles, 1890s – cause of chaos and terrorBicycles, 1890s – cause of chaos and terror► Rock and roll, 1950s – “the Negro’s Rock and roll, 1950s – “the Negro’s

revenge”revenge”► Video Nasties, 1980s – “ban this sick filth”Video Nasties, 1980s – “ban this sick filth”► Video Games, 1990s-nowVideo Games, 1990s-now► Internet (IM, SNS), 2000s - nowInternet (IM, SNS), 2000s - now

Cultivation theoryCultivation theoryGeorge Gerber et al. 1986)George Gerber et al. 1986)

►Seeks to measure the long term effects Seeks to measure the long term effects of tv’s contributions to our conceptions of tv’s contributions to our conceptions of social realityof social reality

►Tv (and other media) is too omnipresent Tv (and other media) is too omnipresent for viewers to escape its “gradual for viewers to escape its “gradual encroachment” into our everyday lives.encroachment” into our everyday lives.

►Continued exposure to tv messages is Continued exposure to tv messages is likely to “reiterate, confirm and nourish” likely to “reiterate, confirm and nourish” their values and perspectivestheir values and perspectives

Cultivation theoryCultivation theory(George Gerber et al. 1986)(George Gerber et al. 1986)

► Heavy tv viewers think differently to light viewers Heavy tv viewers think differently to light viewers about the world around themabout the world around them

► ““Mean World Syndrome”Mean World Syndrome”► Eg. “Crime in prime time is at least 10 times as Eg. “Crime in prime time is at least 10 times as

rampant as in the real world” rampant as in the real world”

► Concept of mainstreaming – appeal to broad Concept of mainstreaming – appeal to broad audience interest audience interest homogenization of divergent homogenization of divergent viewsviews Gerber fears that tv broadcasting excludes diverse Gerber fears that tv broadcasting excludes diverse

opinions (too much consensus – limited choice of opinions (too much consensus – limited choice of ‘reasonable options’ represented)‘reasonable options’ represented)

Cultivation theoryCultivation theory(George Gerber et al. 1986)(George Gerber et al. 1986)

Involves 3 Types of analysis;Involves 3 Types of analysis;► Institutional process analysisInstitutional process analysis;;

Eg. the production and distribution of a televised Eg. the production and distribution of a televised sporting event can be analysed in respect of sporting event can be analysed in respect of how decisions are made and power exercised.how decisions are made and power exercised.

► Message system analysisMessage system analysis, ie extensive content , ie extensive content analysis of media productions, such as children’ analysis of media productions, such as children’ tvtv

► Cultivation analysisCultivation analysis = surveys of people’s = surveys of people’s opinions on certain subjects after tv viewing. opinions on certain subjects after tv viewing. Measures the differential in conceptions of “the Measures the differential in conceptions of “the outside world” between light and heavy viewers. outside world” between light and heavy viewers.

Cultivation theoryCultivation theory(George Gerber et al. 1986)(George Gerber et al. 1986)

► “ “TV provides a guide and offers ‘tv TV provides a guide and offers ‘tv answers’ to the question of how to act answers’ to the question of how to act and behave in the outside world.”and behave in the outside world.”

(including promotion of capitalist views in the (including promotion of capitalist views in the western world)western world)

Agenda setting and social functions of Agenda setting and social functions of mediamedia

(see McCombs and Shaw, 1972)(see McCombs and Shaw, 1972)similar to cultivation theorysimilar to cultivation theory

►Concerned with how public opinion is Concerned with how public opinion is shaped by mediashaped by media

►Again, looking at long term effectsAgain, looking at long term effects

►Media agendaMedia agenda (patterns of news (patterns of news coverage) coverage) Public agenda Public agenda (concerns (concerns of the public)of the public)

Implication – mass media create passive and drowsy audience

McCombs and Gilbert, 1986McCombs and Gilbert, 1986

► Extensive content analysis to show that Extensive content analysis to show that “Through their routine structuring of social “Through their routine structuring of social and political reality, the news media and political reality, the news media influence the agenda of public issues around influence the agenda of public issues around which political campaigns and voter which political campaigns and voter decisions are organized”decisions are organized”

► Salience given to certain news item by Salience given to certain news item by journalistsjournalists

► Stories selected in accordance with certain Stories selected in accordance with certain news valuesnews values

► See Hasina’s PresentationSee Hasina’s Presentation

Giving salience to certain news items:Giving salience to certain news items:

►Frequency of repetition Frequency of repetition (rolling news story)(rolling news story)

►Prominence with which items are Prominence with which items are displayed displayed (headline, salience of media images over (headline, salience of media images over issues for readers/viewers etc.)issues for readers/viewers etc.)

►Degree of conflict Degree of conflict (political scandals > newsworthy (political scandals > newsworthy

than consensus)than consensus)

►Framing of news item Framing of news item (in what context / when it (in what context / when it appears eg. summer holiday weekend = news about appears eg. summer holiday weekend = news about excessive teenage drinking)excessive teenage drinking)

John Pilger’s John Pilger’s The War You don’t The War You don’t SeeSee

►http://g325crit.blogspot.com/http://g325crit.blogspot.com/

Ownership and Media Ownership and Media PowerPower

►A Marxist view of media will focus on the relationship between the providers of media, broader power structures and the messages in media products circulated by these power-holding institutions. This is media hegemony / ideology theory.

►Outfoxed is a key example. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2IwIRNM5noY

Outfoxed Outfoxed

What does What does Outfoxed Outfoxed reveal?reveal?

Is this a shock? Is this a shock?

Power and influencePower and influence

Democracy and representationDemocracy and representation

Who owns your media?Who owns your media?

How are you influenced?How are you influenced?

Two Step Flow ModelTwo Step Flow Model

Katz and Lazarsfeld,

1955

McQuail and Windahl,

1986

The stars are ‘The stars are ‘opinion leadersopinion leaders’’

The circles are everyone elseThe circles are everyone else

Two step flowTwo step flow

►Hasina’s presentationHasina’s presentation

►Study of how people influence the flow Study of how people influence the flow of mass media messagesof mass media messages

►FIRST MAJOR REBUTTAL TO THEORIES FIRST MAJOR REBUTTAL TO THEORIES OF MEDIA EFFECTSOF MEDIA EFFECTS

►Katz and Lazarsfeld compare the role of opinion leaders to the role of media in influencing individuals’ decision-making processes.

►Opinion leaders from all occupational groups, all socio-economic backgrounds

►Ideas can flow from the media sourceTo opinion leaders

And from them to the less active sections of the populationVery relevant today

with new and social media!

Joseph Kappler’s Joseph Kappler’s Phenomenistic approachPhenomenistic approach

(same line as 2 step flow)(same line as 2 step flow)

►Focuses on how audiences respond to Focuses on how audiences respond to media messages in a wider contextmedia messages in a wider context

►Looks at how media generates a Looks at how media generates a stimulus to which audiences might stimulus to which audiences might respond BUT asserts that mass media respond BUT asserts that mass media cannot be seen in isolation from all cannot be seen in isolation from all other influences that cause human other influences that cause human behaviour to change, or their attitudes behaviour to change, or their attitudes or actionsor actions

Kappler’s conclusionsKappler’s conclusions

►Media in most cases do not cause Media in most cases do not cause effects on their audienceseffects on their audiences

► Instead they function as one Instead they function as one component along a spectrum of component along a spectrum of factors which are “more likely to factors which are “more likely to reinforce than to change” people’s reinforce than to change” people’s behaviour and attitudes.behaviour and attitudes.

Kappler’s conclusionsKappler’s conclusions

5 main mediating factors:5 main mediating factors:

1.1. An individual’s predisposed opinions and how these An individual’s predisposed opinions and how these tend to mean they use media in selective waystend to mean they use media in selective ways

2.2. The group to which the individual belongs and how The group to which the individual belongs and how the predispositions of the group impact on the the predispositions of the group impact on the individual’s opinionsindividual’s opinions

3.3. Interpersonal dissemination of media content (ie like-Interpersonal dissemination of media content (ie like-minded people)minded people)

4.4. Opinion leadership (similar to 2 step flow): OL use Opinion leadership (similar to 2 step flow): OL use media messages to reinforce their predisposed media messages to reinforce their predisposed opinions rather than simply relay what these opinions rather than simply relay what these messages have to saymessages have to say

5.5. Role of mass media in a free enterprise society Role of mass media in a free enterprise society (prerequisite to please both advertisers and (prerequisite to please both advertisers and audiences audiences institutions tend to produce content institutions tend to produce content based on successful formulas rather than try out more based on successful formulas rather than try out more innovative content and run risk of displeasing innovative content and run risk of displeasing stakeholders)stakeholders)

Uses and GratificationsUses and Gratifications

Blumer and Katz, 1974Blumer and Katz, 1974

We USE media (active, not passive) for:We USE media (active, not passive) for:

►DiversionDiversion►Personal RelationshipsPersonal Relationships►Personal IdentityPersonal Identity►SurveillanceSurveillance

Blumer and Katz, 1974Blumer and Katz, 1974

► Find out what they argue in their studyFind out what they argue in their study

(eg, need precedes the effect)(eg, need precedes the effect)

► Find out in what ways this line of thinking has Find out in what ways this line of thinking has been created, particularly in today’s media-been created, particularly in today’s media-saturated society.saturated society.

► Eg some say that this theory smacks of a Eg some say that this theory smacks of a mere defence of media institutions’ oldest mere defence of media institutions’ oldest argument, ie. “we only give the people what argument, ie. “we only give the people what they want”they want”

ConclusionConclusion

► Vested interests in appropriating blame at Vested interests in appropriating blame at the doorstep of the mediathe doorstep of the media

► Most frequent concern is new media/cultural Most frequent concern is new media/cultural behaviour and practices behaviour and practices

► All media content is not the same or even All media content is not the same or even for everyonefor everyone

► Simplistic cause and effect claims are Simplistic cause and effect claims are problematicproblematic

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Spectrum of behaviourism

Direct Effects theory

Theories of Active Audiences

Media stimulus is followed by straightforward audience response

Audiences use media to satisfy particular needs and to enable the flow of communications from person to personSee Lasswell

and the effectiveness of propaganda

Can you fit in all the theories we have seen along that spectrum?

4 Research Groups4 Research Groups► Conduct your research using the relevant slides and Conduct your research using the relevant slides and

finding more sources (which you will list), including finding more sources (which you will list), including at least 1 or 2 videos from YouTube or Vimeo or… at least 1 or 2 videos from YouTube or Vimeo or… Find at least one Find at least one realreal example from the media to example from the media to apply your theory to.apply your theory to.

► Prepare to PRESENT and TEACH your findings to the Prepare to PRESENT and TEACH your findings to the rest of the group (PPT or Prezi) – aim for 5 to 10 rest of the group (PPT or Prezi) – aim for 5 to 10 minutes.minutes.

► Topics to choose from – 1 per ‘group’:Topics to choose from – 1 per ‘group’: Cultivation TheoryCultivation Theory Joseph Kappler’s Phenomenistic approachJoseph Kappler’s Phenomenistic approach Uses and gratifications - Uses and gratifications - Blumer and Katz, 1974Blumer and Katz, 1974 Uses and gratifications – criticism of the theoryUses and gratifications – criticism of the theory

http://www.peersunited.com/http://www.peersunited.com/media-influencing-teenagers/media-influencing-teenagers/