ii

EFFECTIVENESS OF HYBRID SOLIWAVE TECHNIQUE

IN MITIGATION OF MICROBIOLOGICALLY INFLUENCED CORROSION

MUHAMMAD KHAIROOL FAHMY BIN MOHD ALI

A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of

Master of Engineering (Structure and Material)

Faculty of Civil Engineering

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

MAC 2016

iii

This thesis is especially dedicated to,

My beloved family members: Hamidah Bte Abu Samah, Syed Hamzah Bin Syed Abd.

Rahman and, Syed Hamizan, Sharifah Shazwani and Anis Farzana Azmiluddin.

My beloved Supervisors: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Norhazilan Md Noor and

Prof. Dr. Nordin Yahaya

RESA members and those who involved directly or indirectly

towards accomplished of this thesis.

Thank you for your guidance, support and encouragement all these years.

Thank you for being patient and give me a lot of knowledge

And lastly to all my dear friends

Thank You for supporting me.

“THANK YOU”

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

All praise is to Allah the all Mighty and peace is upon the holy Prophet

Muhammad S.A.W.

Alhamdulillah, all praise to Allah SWT for the strength and His blessing in

completing this thesis. Special appreciation goes to my supervisor Associate

Professor Dr. Norhazilan Md. Noor, who has given me guidance, invaluable advice

and encouragement throughout the period of my research work. Furthermore, I

would like to express my gratitude to my co-supervisor, Prof. Dr. Nordin Yahaya

for his encouragement, knowledge and opinions regarding the topic. I am very

grateful that they had generously shared their knowledge, experience, comments

and suggestions which have contributed to the success of this research.

My sincere thanks to all my friends especially members of Reliability

Engineering and Safety Assessment Research Group (RESA) for their kindness and

support in completing my research. My acknowledgement also goes to all lecturer

and staff of UTM’s for their co-operations. Last but not least, my deepest

appreciation to my beloved parents; Hamidah Bte Abu Samah, Syed Hamzah Syed

Abd Rahman, Syed Hamizan, Sharifah Shazwani, Anis Farzana Azmiluddin and my

family members for their support throughout my journey.

v

ABSTRACT

The applications of Ultraviolet (UV) radiation as an alternative approach to

toxic chemical biocide for disinfecting bacteria such as Sulfate Reducing Bacteria

(SRB) to mitigate Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion (MIC) in steel pipeline

systems are already established. However, in the case of poor quality effluents, the

UV radiation becomes less effective. Recently, Ultrasound technique (US) was

observed to be attractive as pre-treatment for various types of physical disinfectant

such as UV radiation. Hence, this research aims to investigate the performance of

hybrid treatment known as Hybrid Soliwave Technique (HyST) to control MIC

activity. The investigation was performed by utilizing two SRB strains namely pure

strain ATCC 7757 and isolated SRB species from local site from BARAM,

Sarawak. The study focused on three types of disinfection experiments which were

individual UV radiation, individual US irradiation and HyST treatment, a

combination of US and UV. Turbidity measurement and SRB cells were recorded to

determine the most preferable pH and temperature for both SRB strain to proliferate

actively. Corrosion rate was determined using weight loss method by exposing the

steel coupons to SRB activity and abiotic sample. Both graphical and statistical

analyses were performed using a statistical software (SPSS 20), to investigate the

significance of SRB remaining cell number and SRB towards the corrosion rate of

untreated and treated steel coupons. This study revealed that the preferable pH and

temperature for ATCC 7757 and BARAM to grow actively in the Modified Baar’s

Media is at pH of 8.5 and temperature of 37˚C. While, the corrosion rate of steel

coupons in ATCC 7757 and BARAM strain was 0.5058 mm/year and 0.3209

mm/year respectively. These rates were at least 44% higher as compared to the

corrosion rate in abiotic sample (0.1791 mm/year). The treatment results show that

the HyST treatment succeeded to reduce the number of active bacteria, hence

reducing the corrosion rate by 55%. The results proved that the presence of SRB

increased the corrosion rate significantly compared to samples without SRB. The

present study also revealed that the HyST treatment is an effective and a feasible

approach in substituting toxic chemical biocides in controlling the MIC problems

especially for the pipelines. Overall, the HyST treatment shows better efficiency

against individual UV radiation treatment.

vi

ABSTRAK

Penggunaan sinaran ultralembayung (UV) sebagai kaedah alternatif kepada

bahan kimia bertoksik bagi membasmi bakteria seperti bakteria menurun sulfat

(SRB) untuk kawalan kakisan pengaruh mikrob (MIC) telah lama digunakan. Walau

bagaimanapun, kualiti efluen yang rendah mengurangkan keberkesanan sinaran UV.

Sinaran ultrabunyi (US) sesuai digunakan sebagai pra-rawatan untuk pelbagai jenis

pembasmi fizikal seperti rawatan sinaran UV. Oleh itu, kajian ini bertujuan

mengkaji prestasi rawatan hibrid yang dikenali sebagai Hybrid Soliwave Technique

(HyST) bagi mengawal aktiviti MIC. Kajian ini menggunakan dua baka SRB iaitu

baka tulen ATCC 7757 dan baka SRB tempatan dari BARAM, Sarawak. Kajian

bertumpu kepada tiga jenis ujikaji pembasmian SRB iaitu rawatan sinaran UV dan

sinaran US individu serta dan rawatan HyST yang merupakan gabungan radiasi US

dan sinaran UV. Ukuran kekeruhan dan bilangan sel SRB direkodkan bagi

menentukan pH dan suhu yang paling sesuai bagi kedua-dua baka SRB berkembang

dengan aktif. Kadar kakisan ditentukan melalui kaedah kehilangan berat dengan

mendedahkan kupon keluli di dalam sampel SRB dan sampel abiotik. Analisis

grafik dan statistik telah dijalankan menggunakan perisian statistik (SPSS 20) bagi

mengkaji kepentingan SRB dan baki sel SRB terhadap kadar kakisan kupon keluli

sebelum dan selepas rawatan. Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahawa pH dan suhu yang

paling sesuai bagi pertumbuhan aktif kedua-dua baka SRB di dalam media Modified

Baar’s ialah 8.5 dan 37˚C. Manakala, kadar kakisan kupon keluli bagi ATCC 7757

dan BARAM, masing-masing adalah 0.5058 mm/tahun dan 0.3209 mm/tahun.

Kadar ini adalah 44% lebih tinggi berbanding sampel abiotik (0.1791 mm/tahun).

Keputusan rawatan menunjukkan bahawa rawatan HyST berjaya mengurangkan

bilangan bakteria yang aktif dan dapat mengurangkan kadar kakisan sebanyak 55%.

Hasil kajian juga membuktikan bahawa kehadiran SRB boleh meningkatkan kadar

kakisan berbanding sampel tanpa kehadiran SRB. Kajian ini juga menunjukkan

rawatan HyST adalah sesuai dan berkesan sebagai pendekatan alternatif

menggantikan bahan kimia bagi membasmi SRB untuk kawalan MIC terutama bagi

saluran paip. Secara amnya, rawatan HyST mempunyai kelebihan berbanding

rawatan sinaran UV individu.

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

DECLARATION ii

DEDICATION iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv

ABSTRACT v

ABSTRAK vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

LIST OF TABLES xi

LIST OF FIGURES xiv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS xix

LIST OF APPENDICES xx

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Overview 1

1.2 Problem Background 2

1.3 Research Problem 3

1.4 Research Aims and Objectives 4

1.5 Research Scope 5

1.6 Significance of Research 6

viii

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 7

2.1 Introduction 7

2.2 Corrosion Mechanisms and Types 8

2.3 Electrochemical Mechanism of Corrosion 9

2.4 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion 11

2.5 Bacteria Related to Microbiologically Influenced

Corrosion 12

2.5.1 Acid Producing Bacteria 13

2.5.2 Iron Reducing Bacteria 13

2.5.3 Sulfate Reducing Bacteria 14

2.6 Mechanism of Microbiologically Influenced

Corrosion 18

2.6.1 Cathodic Depolarization by Hydrogenase 19

2.6.2 Iron Sulfides 21

2.6.3 Iron Binding Exopolymers 22

2.7 Biofilm Formation 23

2.8 Disinfection of Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion 26

2.8.1 Chemical Treatment 26

2.8.2 Non-Hazardous Treatment 28

2.8.2.1 Ultraviolet Radiation 29

2.8.2.2 Ultrasound Sonication 31

2.9 Past Research in Disinfection of Microorganisms using

Non-Hazardous Treatment 33

2.9.1 Ultraviolet Radiation 33

2.9.2 Ultrasound Irradiation 35

2.9.3 Combination of Non-Hazardous Techniques 37

2.10 Mechanism of Hybrid Soliwave Technique Treatment

Effect towards Microorganisms 38

ix

3 METHODOLOGY 42

3.1 Introduction 42

3.2 Overview of Research Methodology 42

3.3 Selection and Preparation of Steel Coupon 44

3.4 Bacteria Sample and Identification 47

3.5 Medium Preparation and Inoculation 49

3.6 Determination of Optimum Environment for SRB Growth 53

3.7 Corrosion Rate by Weight Loss Method 56

3.8 Mitigation Technique 57

3.8.1 Ultraviolet Radiation Treatment 58

3.8.2 Ultrasound Irradiation Treatment 61

3.8.3 Hybrid Soliwave Technique Treatment 62

3.9 Microscopy Examination 63

3.10 Preparation of Specimen for Surface Analysis 65

3.11 Limitations 66

3.12 Data Collection and Analysis 67

3.13 Summary 71

4 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS OF BACTERIA

GROWTH AND METAL LOSS 72

4.1 Introduction 72

4.2 Outliers Detection 73

4.3 Sampling and Identification of Sulfate Reducing Bacteria 73

4.4 Experimental Results 76

4.4.1 Optimum Environment for Sulfate Reducing

Bacteria Growth 76

4.4.2 Corrosion Rate Using Weight Loss Method 84

4.4.3 Individual and Hybrid Mitigation Technique 88

4.4.3.1 Individual Treatment for ATCC 7757 88

4.4.3.2 Individual Treatment for BARAM 94

x

4.4.3.3 Hybrid Soliwave Technique Treatment 99

4.4.4 Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy

Examination. 108

4.4.4.1 API 5L X70 Carbon Steel 109

4.4.4.2 API 5L X70 Exposed to ATCC 7757 with

Treatment 112

4.4.4.3 API 5L Exposed to ATCC 7757 with

Treatment 114

4.5 Summary 118

5 DISCUSSION 119

5.1 Introduction 119

5.2 Growth Pattern of Bacteria Cell 120

5.3 Corrosion Rate 121

5.4 Cell Growth and Corrosion Rate Response after

Individual Treatment 122

5.5 Cell Growth and Corrosion Rate Response after

Hybrid Soliwave Technique Treatment 125

5.6 Hybrid Soliwave Technique Treatment Effect 127

5.7 Bacteria Identification 130

5.8 Surface Morphology of Mitigated Samples 133

6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 135

6.1 Conclusion 135

6.2 Recommendation 138

REFERENCES 139

APPENDIX A-D 151-189

xi

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 Common properties in categorizing bacteria. 12

2.2 Important characteristic in the classification

of SRB. 16

2.3 Phases of corrosion model introduced by Melchers. 18

2.4 Composition of biofilm matrix. 24

2.5 List of important criteria in biocide selection. 27

2.6 Types of biocides used in oil and gas industry. 27

2.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of biocide. 28

2.8 List of advantages and disadvantages of ultraviolet

light treatment . 30

2.9 The effects of sonication towards microorganisms. 31

2.10 Advantages and disadvantages of individual US

irradiation treatment. 32

2.11 Properties of the disinfection techniques using single

UV irradiation and single US sonication applied to

disinfect bacteria suspended in circulating water

for 15 day. 32

3.1 Terms used in present study to differentiate

between samples. 43

3.2 Chemical composition of API 5L X70 carbon steel. 46

xii

3.3 Chemical ingredients of Modified Baar’s medium. 52

3.4 Types of exposure time for treatment process. 62

3.5 Basic operating principle of Scanning Electron

Microscopy. 65

4.1 Independent sample test for metal weight loss between

ATCC 7757 and Baar’s media sample. 87

4.2 Independent sample test for metal weight loss between

BARAM and Baar’s media sample. 87

4.3 Independent Sample Test for ATCC 7757 Cell Number

Between Untreated and UV radiation treated sample. 92

4.4 Independent Sample Test For ATCC 7757 Cell Number

Between Untreated and US irradiation treated sample. 92

4.5 Independent Sample Test For ATCC 7757 Metal Weight

Loss Between Untreated and UV radiation treated sample. 93

4.6 Independent Sample Test For ATCC 7757 Metal Weight

Loss Between Untreated and US irradiation treated sample. 93

4.7 Independent Sample Test For BARAM Cell Number

Between Untreated and UV radiation treated sample. 97

4.8 Independent Sample Test For BARAM Cell Number

Between Untreated and US irradiation treated sample. 97

4.9 Independent Sample Test For BARAM Metal Weight Loss

Between UV radiation and Untreated sample. 98

4.10 Independent Sample Test For BARAM Metal Loss

Between US irradiation and Untreated sample. 98

4.11 ANOVA-test for remaining SRB cell number after

exposure to treatments. 104

4.12 ANOVA-test for metal weight loss after exposure to

treatments. 105

4.13 Tukeys’ HSD result for remaining SRB cell number after

exposure to treatments. 106

xiii

4.14 Tukeys’ HSD result for metal weight loss after exposure

to treatments. 107

5.1 Comparison of preferable pH value for SRB growth at

certain temperature. 120

5.2 Comparison of coupon metal weight loss and corrosion

rate between abiotic and biotic sample. 121

5.3 Significant value (p-value) for remaining cell number

and metal weight loss between untreated and treated

sample in terms of SRB types. 123

5.4 Significant values for cell number between untreated and

treated sample respective to SRB types. 126

5.5 Significant values for metal weight loss between

untreated and treated sample respective to SRB types. 127

xiv

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 Schematics of common forms of corrosion. 9

2.2 Schematic diagram of steel corrosion process

(Source: Ebbing et.al, 1990) 10

2.3 Scanning electron micrograph of Shewanella

Putrefaciens cells. 14

2.4 A micrograph shows Desulfovibrio vulgaris, a species of SRB. 15

2.5 A schematic diagram of corrosion model showing changing phases

of corrosion process. 17

2.6 A deep corrosion pit in a sample from a pipe segment. 17

2.7 Schematic diagram of cathodic depolarization upon SRB activity. 20

2.8 King and Miller proposed mechanism of corrosion by

Sulfate Reducing Bacteria. 21

2.9 Schematic diagram of steps of biofilm development.

2.10 Illustration of the impact of UV radiation on deoxyribonucleic

Acid of microorganisms. 29

2.11 Electromagnetic spectrum. 30

2.12 Effects of particles on UV disinfection. 34

2.13 Comparison between fouling on the lamps between

a) UV reactor versus time and b) US–UV reactor versus time. 38

2.14 Schematic diagram of US irradiation effects on microorganisms

and particles. 40

25

xv

2.15 Schematic diagram of UV radiation effects on microorganisms. 40

3.1 Overview of research methodology 44

3.2 Cutting process of actual pipe segment using hot cut method. 45

3.3 Cold cut applied to remove heat affected zone. 45

3.4 Flowchart of coupon sample preparation. 46

3.5 Steel coupons; (a) with coatings and (b) without coatings. 47

3.6 Cleaned coupon with mirror surface properties. 47

3.7 Method in identifying Sulfate Reducing Bacteria in the sample. 48

3.8 SRB test kit without the presence of SRB. 48

3.9 Sterilization process in an autoclave at 121˚C for 15-30 minutes. 49

3.10 Sparging oxygen free nitrogen gas into medium. 50

3.11 Sparged oxygen free nitrogen gas into anaerobic vials and

clamping process. 50

3.12 Cultivation medium without presence of SRB. 51

3.13 Inoculation process of SRB seeds into medium. 51

3.14 Sample with presence of SRB at day 2 turns into black

color solution. 52

3.15 Flowchart of medium preparation and inoculation process. 52

3.16 DR 6000 spectrophotometer. 54

3.17 Hemocytometer (Neubauer Improved, Germany). 55

3.18 Nikon microscopic microscope,(Nikon Microphot FXL,Japan). 55

3.19 Dilution process of SRB sample. 55

3.20 Cleaning process of coupon sample using Clarke’s solution. 56

3.21 Overview of design experimental work for treatment process. 58

3.22 Third hydrolytic clear glass vials used in all treatment processes. 59

3.23 Individual UV radiation treatment setup in laminar flow cabinet. 60

3.24 Individual UV radiation treatment inside the laminar flow cabinet. 60

3.25 Individual US treatment setup in laminar flow cabinet. 61

3.26 Schematic diagram of FESEM operational system. 64

3.27 Flowchart for preparation of steel coupon with biofilm attachment

for FESEM observation. 66

xvi

3.28 Flowchart for preparation of steel coupon without biofilm

attachment for FESEM observation. 66

3.29 Overview of data collection and analysis. 68

3.30 Overall flow of data analysis procedure. 68

3.31 Boxplot method. 69

3.32 An example of IBM SPSS Statistic 20 result interface for

T-test analysis. 70

3.33 An example of IBM SPSS Statistic 20 result interface for

ANOVA analysis. 71

4.1 a) SRB test kit without presence of SRB. b) SRB test kit with

presence of SRB. 74

4.2 a) Modified Baar’s media without presence of SRB b) Modified

Baar’s media with presence of SRB after 2 days of incubation. 74

4.3 FESEM image of ATCC 7757 cell attached with biofilm at

magnification 2500 (ATCC 7757 cells are indicates by the arrows). 75

4.4 FESEM image of BARAM cell attached with biofilm at

magnification 5000 (BARAM cells are indicates by the arrows). 76

4.5 Turbidity against day at 20˚C for ATCC 7757. 77

4.6 Turbidity against day at 37˚C for ATCC 7757. 78

4.7 Turbidity against day at 60˚C for ATCC 7757. 78

4.8 Graph of turbidity against day at 20˚C for BARAM. 79

4.9 Turbidity against day at 37˚C for BARAM. 80

4.10 Turbidity against day at 60˚C for BARAM. 80

4.11 Cell number against day at 20˚C for ATCC 7757. 81

4.12 Cell number against day at 37˚C for ATCC 7757. 82

4.13 Cell number against day at 60˚C for ATCC 7757. 82

4.14 Cell number against day at 20˚C for BARAM. 83

4.15 Cell number against day at 37˚C for BARAM. 83

4.16 Cell number against day at 60˚C for BARAM. 84

4.17 Corrosion rate of steel coupon exposed to abiotic and biotic

Sample. 85

xvii

4.18 Cell number against time of exposure for ATCC 7757

with and without individual treatment. 89

4.19 Corrosion rate for untreated and treated

(UV radiation and US irradiation) ATCC 7757 sample. 90

4.20 Cell number against time of exposure for BARAM

with and without individual treatment. 94

4.21 Corrosion rate for untreated and treated

(UV radiation and US irradiation) BARAM sample. 95

4.22 Remaining ATCC 7757 cell number after individual and

HyST treatment.

100

4.23 Corrosion rate in ATCC 7757 sample after individual and

HyST treatment. 101

4.24 Remaining BARAM cell number after individual and

HyST treatment. 102

4.25 Corrosion rate in BARAM sample after individual and

HyST treatment. 103

4.26 FESEM image of API 5L X70 carbon steel surface at 1000

magnification. 109

4.27 EDS spectrum for API 5L X70 carbon steel surfaces. 109

4.28 FESEM image of biofilm formation for ATCC 7757 at

magnification 2500x. 110

4.29 EDS spectrum on the API 5L X70 carbon steel surfaces exposed

to ATCC 7757. 110

4.30 FESEM image of biofilm formation for BARAM at

magnification 2500x. 111

4.31 EDS spectrum on the API 5L X70 carbon steel surfaces exposed

to BARAM. 111

4.32 FESEM image for API 5L X70 after exposure to 30 minutes of

individual UV radiation treatment at magnification 2500x

(ATCC 7757). 113

4.33 EDS spectrum for API 5L X70 after exposure to 30 minutes of

individual UV radiation treatment (ATCC 7757). 113

xviii

4.34 FESEM image for API 5L X70 after exposure to 15US + 15UV

treatment at magnification 2500x (ATCC 7757). 114

4.35 EDS spectrum on the API 5L X70 after exposure to

15US + 15UV treatment (ATCC 7757). 114

4.36 FESEM image of API 5L X70 after exposure to 30 minutes of

individual UV radiation treatment at magnification 2500x

(BARAM). 115

4.37 EDS spectrum on the API 5L X70 exposued to 30 minutes of

individual UV radiation treatment (BARAM). 116

4.38 FESEM image of biofilm with BARAM dead cell attached

onto API 5L X70 after exposure to individual UV radiation

treatment at magnification 5000. 116

4.39 FESEM image of API 5L X70 after exposure to 15US + 15UV

treatment at magnification 2500x (BARAM). 117

4.40 EDS spectrum on the API 5L X70 exposed to 15US + 15UV

treatment (BARAM). 117

5.1 FESEM image of pitting corrosion formation after exposure

to SRB activity at magnification 1000x. 124

5.2 Schematic of HyST treatment effect towards the

Microorganisms. 129

5.3 FESEM image of biofilm structure onto steel coupon

exposed to ATCC 7757 at magnification 2500x. 131

5.4 FESEM image of biofilm structure onto steel coupon

exposed to BARAM at magnification 2500x. 131

5.5 FESEM image of ATCC 7757 cell attached with biofilm at

magnification 5000x (SRB cell indicated by the arrow). 132

5.6 FESEM image of BARAM cell attached with biofilm at

magnification 5000x (SRB cell indicated by the arrow). 132

5.7 FESEM image of dead BARAM cell after exposure to

30 minutes individual UV radiation treatment at

magnification 2500x. 134

xix

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

API American Petroleum Institute

APB Acid Producing Bacteria

ATCC American Type Culture Collection

Fe Iron

Fe(OH)2 Iron (II) Hydroxide

H2S Hydrogen sulfide

kHz Kilo Hertz

DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid

EDS Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy

EPS Extracellular Polymer Substance

FESEM Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy

IRB Iron Reducing Bacteria

MIC Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion

RNA Ribonucleic acid

SiC Silicon Carbide

SRB Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria

SPSS Statistical Package for Social Science

UV Ultraviolet

US Ultrasound

THPS Tetrakis-hydroxymethyl Phosphonium Sulfate

HyST Hybrid Soliwave Technique

ºC degree Celcius

A Area in cm2

D Density in g/cm3

xx

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

A Box plot of Metal Loss for Untreated Sample 148

B Box plot of Metal Loss for treated Sample 155

C Optimum Environment for SRB Growth

According to turbidity and Cell Number 177

D Metal Weight Loss and Corrosion Rate Data

For Untreated and Treated Sample. 181

1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview

Pipeline systems are commonly made from carbon steel and have an excellent

safety record for facilitating bulk shipments of crude oil and natural gas to consumers

all around the world. The properties of pipeline networks structures are susceptible to

failure. Both underground and aboveground pipelines are affected by corrosion

throughout their service life. Corrosion can lead to structural failure or loss of

containment, costly repairs, lost or contaminated products, environmental damage,

risk to personnel, and loss of public confidence. Corrosion is one of the leading

causes of failures in onshore and offshore transmission pipelines, threatening

pipeline integrity internally and externally.

Deterioration of onshore and offshore pipelines can lead to catastrophic

failure such as pipeline leakage and explosion if wrongly managed. Of all the

different origins of corrosion, microbial corrosion, also known as Microbiologically

Influenced Corrosion (MIC), has been identified as one of the major causes of

corrosion failures. MIC is used to designate corrosion due to the presence and

activities of microorganism (Javaherdashti, 2008). This type of corrosion might

2

occur in environments that promote the growth of microorganisms, including the

environments where corrosion would not be predicted and the rates of corrosion can

be extremely high. Therefore, researchers and engineers’ needs to know how to

recognize and deal with MIC as it can have serious detrimental effects on

maintenance costs and the integrity of pipeline structure.

1.2 Problem Background

Generally, onshore and offshore pipeline are susceptible to internal and

external corrosion. Most of the offshore pipeline failures are attributed to internal

corrosion which is more than 50% of the time compared to external corrosion

(Chalker et al., 2011). External corrosion is still an issue but is generally quite well

addressed using good cathodic protection and coatings. The issues are more

important and critical for deep water pipelines where designs are more complex, and

inspection, monitoring, and repair are very difficult and costly. Deterioration of steel

pipelines due to MIC is a major and serious problem, involving considerable cost and

inconvenience to industry and to the public. Therefore, microorganism activity which

influenced the corrosion process in pipeline should be controlled since corrosion is

one of the major factors that can affect transmission pipeline structural integrity and

reliability. In oil and gas industry, wide spectrum of bacteria has been studied but

Sulfate Reducing Bacteria (SRB) are the most common enabler related to MIC that

cause major problems in oil and gas industry (Jhobalia et al., 2005; Little and Lee,

2007; Al-Abbas et al., 2013).

Conventional technique in disinfecting microorganisms in oil and gas

industry is through application of chemical biocides such as glutaraldehyde.

Unfortunately, they have a negative impact on the environment and aquatic life as

the toxicity properties of biocides tend to disturb aquatic life and pollute the

environment. Additionally, after prolonged application, microbials may become

3

resistant towards the biocides or inhibitors thus creating a corrosive environment

(Jhobalia et al., 2005). From an economic view, application of biocides requires huge

cost to disinfect microorganisms and also affect the health of consumers and

professional users. Driven by these challenges, engineers and researchers have

discovered and proposed non-hazardous techniques such as application of Infrared

radiation, Ultraviolet (UV) radiation and Ultrasound (US) irradiation treatment as an

alternative to replace biocides in disinfecting microorganisms. Past studies showed

that UV radiation alone effectively disinfects microorganisms, however the efficacy

of UV radiation is highly affected by the concentrations of the sample (Darby et al.,

1993; Narkis et al., 1995).

In addition to UV radiation, Ultrasound irradiation treatments also have

detrimental effect to inactivate wide spectrum of microorganisms. Unfortunately the

US irradiation system alone requires high energy usage and the efficacy is affected

when volume of treated sample is high (Hulsmans et al., 2009). Both US irradiation

and UV radiation have their own benefits and limitations in disinfecting

microorganisms. The current trend indicates that researchers have put more effort

into investigating non-hazardous technique on disinfecting SRB, as they agreed that

MIC is a major and serious problem in oil and gas industry and the application of

hazardous chemical biocides should be reduced or replaced with alternative non-

hazardous techniques.

1.3 Research Problem

Reports around the world have confirmed that, some oil companies had their

pipeline ruptured due to MIC. Sulfate Reducing Bacteria (SRB) is the predominant

bacteria that promotes corrosion on steel structures under anaerobic environment.

Melchers (2006) stated that the second phase of corrosion is more concerning

whereby SRB is able to speed up the corrosion after anaerobic condition had been

4

established. Therefore, even if maintenance is done regularly, pipelines are still

facing corrosion attacks due to corrosive environments that surround the structure

(Peabody, 2001; Wang et al., 2011). Throughout the world, up to the present time,

the application of hazardous chemical biocides is the preferred techniques for

controlling MIC activity in oil and gas industry. Unfortunately, the usage of

hazardous chemical biocides gives various negative impacts. To date, considerable

study on non-hazardous technique in disinfecting microorganisms (e.g: Sulfate

Reducing Bacteria) as an alternative to hazardous chemical biocides had been

conducted by many researchers. Existing techniques, for example by using UV

radiation or US irradiation alone, has limitations that affect its efficacy in

disinfecting microorganisms. Many researchers have suggested that combination of

US irradiation treatment with other types of treatment (such as UV radiation) will

give a synergistic effect in disinfecting microorganisms. However, the non-hazardous

technique by combining the US irradiation with UV radiation in disinfecting SRB

has not yet received sufficient analysis and study. Therefore, research related to

investigating the performance and synergistic effect of combination treatment of US

irradiation with UV radiation based on variation of time of exposure in disinfecting

SRB from pure strain and local strain is significantly needed.

1.4 Research Aim and Objectives

The aim of the present research is to investigate the performance of hybrid

treatment, also known as Hybrid Soliwave Technique (HyST), which is a

combination of US irradiation with UV radiation for the inactivation of SRB to

control MIC activity. To achieve the mentioned research aim, this study embarks on

the following objectives:

5

1. To calculate the corrosion rate of API 5L X70 steel coupon due to SRB;

2. To determine the remaining SRB cell number due to synergistic effect of

Hybrid Soliwave Technique treatment as a function of time;

3. To identify the relationship between rate of bacteria extermination by Hybrid

Soliwave Technique Treatment and corrosion rate of API 5L X70 steel

coupon.

1.5 Research Scope

This research consists of experimental work in laboratory to investigate the

performance of HyST treatment to disinfect SRB in corroding pipeline at pilot scale.

In terms of bacteria inactivation, it includes two types of SRB strain which are

obtained from American Type Culture Collection with culture number ATCC 7757

(known as ATCC 7757) and SRB strain which were extracted from crude oil sample

originated from offshore Baram oil and gas field situated in East Malaysia (known as

BARAM). Experimental work for the determination of optimum environment for

both types of SRB to grow actively was performed based on various pH and

temperature in specific media. Corrosion study upon SRB activity was tested on

actual carbon steel API 5L X70. The HyST simulation reactor consists of US probe

system and UV lamp for disinfection purposes. HyST simulation reactor consists of

US probe with frequency of 24 kHz and power output at 200 watt, while UV lamp

with wavelength of 254 nm with power output at 10 watt was used in present study.

The HyST treatment was performed in order to determine the remaining SRB cell

number and corrosion rate reduction of carbon steel API 5L X70 due to synergistic

effect of HyST treatment. Parameters such as wavelength of UV lamp and frequency

of US probe were set to constant and the treatment experiment is based on various

time of exposures. Finally, both graphical and statistical analysis were utilized to

observe the difference in disinfecting performance between HyST and individual UV

treatment upon SRB (ATCC 7757 and BARAM) inactivation and corrosion rate

reduction.

6

1.6 Significance of Research

Recently, the use of certain hazardous chemical biocides to kill bacteria, for

example in oil and gas industry, must be carried out with permission from the

authorities concerned. This is because these chemicals are harmful to the

environment and human health. Stringent regulations in using hazardous chemical

biocides for disinfection purposes prompt researchers and engineers to invent and

promote a benign or non-hazardous technique such as Ultraviolet (UV) treatment in

mitigating microorganisms, specifically Sulfate Reducing Bacteria (SRB). However,

UV treatment alone has its limitation in mitigating microorganisms. Past researches

have proven that a combination of Ultrasound (US) irradiation treatment with other

types of physical treatment such as UV radiation has synergistic effect in killing

microorganisms when combined. The combination treatment of US irradiation with

UV radiation is rarely found in mitigating SRB due to limited researches. If the

combination treatment could mitigate SRB effectively, the outcomes of this research

will illustrate the synergistic effects of US irradiation as a pre-treatment measure in

terms of performance in killing SRB. Future works on the development of

combination treatment related to financial and corrosion mitigation scheme can be

properly designed, following the outcome of this research. In addition, the outcome

of this research could assist engineers and pipeline operators in reducing or

eliminating the usage of hazardous chemical biocides and improve the efficiency of

individual UV radiation treatment.

139

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