Effective Techniques In Cost Optimization Of Construction ... · Cost optimization of a project...

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International Journal of Informative & Futuristic Research ISSN: 2347-1697

Volume 3 Issue 5 January 2016 Research Paper

Abstract

In the construction projects, cost and time are the main aspects to be considered in the planning of every project. It is a difficult task used by project managers in practice, which include evaluation of plans, corrective actions and constantly measuring progress should be taken whenever required. Cost optimization is an important issue in construction project management. It is mostly used by contractors and needs to carry out throughout the life of a construction project. A brief Questionnaire with a contractor, consultant, developer, Project manager found out that the contractor lack the knowledge of cost optimization system. Hence, a research is carried out to study the cost optimization method in a construction project, to identify the cost optimization method frequently used by contractor during the construction stage and to identify the problem faced by the contractor in optimizing the costs on site. The availability of qualified expertise is the main problem faced by contractor in optimizing the costs on site. The duration of the project and ever changing environment are the least problem faced by contractor in optimizing the costs on site.

Effective Techniques In Cost

Optimization Of Construction Projects Paper ID IJIFR/ V3/ E5/ 031 Page No. 1646-1658 Subject Area Civil Engineering

Keywords Time, Optimization, Cost, Contractors, Problems

1st Anuja Rajguru

M.Tech. Student,

Department of Civil Engineering,

Prof Ram Meghe College of Engineering & Management,

Badnera- Amravati , Maharashtra(India)

2nd

Parag Mahatme

Assistant Professor,

Department of Civil Engineering,

Prof Ram Meghe College of Engineering & Management,

Badnera- Amravati , Maharashtra(India)

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ISSN: 2347-1697

International Journal of Informative & Futuristic Research (IJIFR)

Volume - 3, Issue -5, January 2016

Continuous 29th Edition, Page No.:1646-1658

Anuja Rajguru, Parag Mahatme :: Effective Techniques In Cost Optimization Of Construction Projects

1. Introduction

With the liberalization of the Indian Economy and Globalization, there is now a

competition from various concerns of the world (T.Subramani, P S Sruthi, M.Kavitha,

June 2014). As a result there is now a race to secure a place for survival. A many of

challenges has to face by the construction industries which include design and

constructability issues, land acquisition issues, adverse political changes, shortage of

talent, time and cost related issues, rising material and labour costs, structural changes.

Time and cost are two main factors in a construction and they are used for planning the

construction project due to which there is increase in importance of time and Cost

optimization in construction projects. It is important to estimate the time and cost of

each activity through which the total duration and total cost of the project are determined

for the planning task. Optimization is a systematic effort made to improve profit margins

and obtain the best results under given circumstances or situations. The cost

optimization is a process that should be carried out throughout the construction period to

ensure that the cost of the building is kept within the estimated cost limits. The cost

optimization can divide into two major areas; the optimization of cost during design

stages and the optimizing the cost by the contractors once the construction of project has

started. Cost optimization of a project involves the collecting and measuring the cost

record of a project and the work progress. It also includes the comparison of actual

progress of project cost with the estimated. The main objective of cost optimization of a

project is to gain the maximum profit within the design period and with satisfactory

quality of work.

2. Literature Review

A.S. Ali, S.N. Kamaruzzaman (2010), as per the author for management of

construction 4 parameters important are as follows: scope, cost, time, and

quality. the main aim of the author is to find out the problem or parameters

which contribute for the cost overrun. for this they carried out the quaternary

survey on the live projects. for the data analysis the method used is quantitative

based i.e. descriptive statistics and ranking analysis is used. from the

investigation they found that factors which contributes to cost overrun was

inaccurate and/ / or poor estimation of original cost and factor which don't affect

is mistake in design for this to control the construction cost method suggested by

the author is proper costing and financing. Also they concluded that cost overrun

is most serious problem which may affect the construction project effectively.

Seyed Ali Mousavi Dehmourdi (2014) the Objective of this paper are to apply

the principles of engineering economics, basic economic concepts , finance and

quantitative techniques to modeling and analysis of civil engineering projects.

Also a practical application of linear programming in a real life project problem

with two objectives as optimization of transporting cost of equipment and

finding the best solution for reducing the functional costs of the equipment.

Mainly structured linear programming model is used for optimizing the

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transporting cost of equipment. Applications of this approach helps in

determining the need for the replacement and the maintenance analysis are based

on the econometric approach to the realistic problems and the result shows that

optimization with advanced techniques really helps in minimization of cost of

project.

Pathak.U.J, Chavan.C.S, Rathode.L.V, Nachare.V.L, Suryawanshi.A.B, (Apr

2014) Low cost housing technologies aim to reduction in construction cost using

alternatives to conventional methods. Authors examined the cost effectiveness

using low cost housing technologies comparing with the traditional construction

methods. From Two case studies in India found that about 22 to 26 % of the

construction cost can be saved by using the low cost housing technologies

including labor and material cost comparing it with traditional construction

methods for walling and roofing respectively.

Tam W. Y, (2011) It is necessary to adopt cost effective, innovative and Eco-

friendly housing technologies for the construction of buildings. Methodology

used by author is to comparing the construction cost of the traditional and low

cost housing technologies. For which various Case studies in India are used for

the investigation. Construction methods, stability, Strength and durability of the

structure, safety of various members are compared during cost reduction. The

result found that about 26.11% and 22.68% of the construction cost can be saved

by using low cost housing technologies which should be compare with

traditional construction methods. This shows that use of low cost housing

technologies is a cost effective construction approach for the industry.

Nilanjan Sengupta (January 2008) as per the author the cost effective

construction technologies are useful and beneficial from both in terms of cost

and environment. Author discuss about the some effective technologies in India

with their features and advantages. Technologies used in India are

a. Rat trap bond wall: due to this bond cost and material is saved and strength is

more

b. Brick arch: it is given with its construction. It is beneficial from appearance point

of view

c. Filler slab: its slab construction is also discussed. It’s advantageous from economy, appearance, strength, material usage and reduction, less weight,

material saving point of view.

d. Compressed earth block: it is beneficial because it absorb less water in rainfall.

From the study author concluded that, if we pay attention towards the terms like

sanitization of people, manpower development, material devolvement, technical

guidance’s then the cost effective techniques will be extensively used in the light

of sustainable development and protection of environment.

R. Taur, V. Devi (Oct 2009) the main objective of this paper is to point out the

various aspect of prefabricated building methodology for low housing. For this

different prefabrication techniques with their advantage and importance are given

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by authors. There is need for improving the speed of construction and reducing

the construction cost. The methods of construction systems suggested by authors

are as follows prefabricated roofing components like mortar less block walls,

precast RC planks, and structural block walls.

3. Theoretical Background

3.1 Definitions

It is better to look in detail the definitions of the terms used in optimization procedures

since it is widely used and have a different meaning (Barbole A.N., Y. D. Nalwade, S.

D. Parakh June 2013). The Table-1 gives the definitions of terms related with cost

optimization procedures:

Table-1: Terms related with cost optimization

Terms Definitions

Budget A plan for future against actual results can be measured

Cost Value to pay for goods or a service for a purchaser.

Cost analysis Subdividing the cost under different elements of the contract or construction.

Costing Analysing expenses so it can be allocated to different processes, or services,

or contracts, with the aim of ascertaining cost

Optimization Optimization is a systematic effort made to improve profit margins and obtain

the best results under given circumstances or situations

Cost optimization The Process of optimizing the expenses of cost in a project, from the starting

of client's idea to the completion and final payment on site.

3.2 Factors influencing Cost Overrun

Construction delay is considered to be one of the major problems in the

construction and it has an adverse effect on project success in terms of time, cost and

quality. Contractor is also an important factor which influences the cost of project. Due

to wrong work, contractor's poor site management and supervision, inadequate

contractor experience, incorrect planning and scheduling by contractors, wrong

estimation/ estimation method are the major causes of cost overrun. Changes in scope

and objectives of project and frequent design changes are least affecting factors on

construction cost.

From literature review main problems faced by problems faced by the contractor

in optimization of the costs on site which include Shortage of material, labor or

mechanical plants, Ever-changing environment of construction work, Difficulty in

collection of standard data, Additional costs to carry out the system qualified expertise,

Duration of the project.

3.3 Cost and Time of project

3.3.1 Construction Time

The elements in which a construction project is subdivided for network

schedules are called “activities”. An activity is a single work step that has recognizable

dates to begin and end. The duration of an activity is the estimated time that will be

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required to complete it (Hinze, J.W. 2004 p26). Typically, in construction, the unit of

time is days and it is assumed that work is performed on a continuous and uniform basis

within the standard workday and workweek except the weekends and holidays. Time

might also be measured in months, week, shifts, or even hours. Activity durations

frequently are tied directly to the resources applied (e.g., crew size and equipment) and

the productivity of these resources.

Time estimation may be important for many reasons:

1. To calculate the project completion date, with which the contractor has to make sure

his or her schedule meets the date specified in the contract;

2. To calculate the start or end of a specific activity;

3. To improve work efficiency and to resolve delay claims, etc.

3.3.2 Construction Cost

The estimated cost for a contract to carry out the work is known as the

construction cost and is composed of the direct cost of carrying out the work and the

indirect cost (site overhead) (Pilcher, 1992, p244). The construction cost then forms the

basis for determining the net cost for the contract. Cost is considered to be a common

parameter of resources expenditure on a project. In other words, the application and use

of money, man, and machines, material and time for the performance of the various

activities are all related to these common measures of cost.

Net cost is the sum of two separate costs:

a) The Direct cost: Direct costs are those expenses which are directly chargeable and can

be identified specifically according with the activities of the project. They represent the

costs of the resources used by activities, such as the materials installed, labour, and

subcontractors

b) The Indirect cost: Indirect costs (site overhead or on costs) are those that are not

specifically identified but, they are being associated with a particular work item. They

include site management and supervision, offices, canteen, storage sheds, cars and other

transport temporary roads and services, and general labour not assigned to production.

3.4 Time cost optimization Concept

“The cost optimization is a process that should be carried out throughout the

construction period to ensure that the cost of the building is kept within the estimated

cost limits”. In the construction field, time saving can also be transformed into some

kind of opportunity such as bonus of early completion or saving in overhead. Therefore,

the lowest tender price may not be the only criterion for project success and thus

concurrent optimization in both time and cost is highly encouraged and desirable.

3.4.1 Time and Cost Relationship of an Activity

Chitkara (2005) said the relationship between cost and time is a very important

aspect in the control of costs on construction site. It is important to record all the works

involving materials, plant and labour on sites. This helps the contractor to know the

costs and expenses of the resources used on site and it compare with the initial cost

budget. Various report techniques can be used by the contractors which include; daily or

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weekly and monthly recording, site daily diary report and the project budget, schedule

control.

By examining further the relationship between time (e.g., project and activity

durations) and cost, it can be determined how decisions about one of these

considerations relate to the other. Time-cost relationship for a single activity is

illustrated in Fig-1.As shown in the figure, the least direct cost required for completing

an activity is called the normal cost, and the corresponding duration of an activity is

known the normal duration. The shortest possible duration required for completing the

activity is referred as the crash duration, and the corresponding cost is the crash cost.

Figure 1: Typical relationships between time and cost of an activity (Hegazy, 2002)

3.4.2 Time and Cost Relationship of a Project When the all the

activities is considered in the

project, the relationship

between project duration and

the total construction cost can

be shown in Fig-2. Direct cost

could be seen as the summation

of all the activities’ construction direct cost and

indirect cost is the project site

overhead. Hence, the total

project construction cost can be

calculated by adding direct cost

to indirect cost. Fig-2 shows

that when the duration for the

project is reduced, the total cost

of further reductions becomes

quite high. Figure 2: General relationship of project construction cost to duration

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Ultimately a point is reached at which the project cost cannot be realistically reduced

any further even with the infusion of additional resources. As the duration increases, the

total cost increase but at a rate that is lower than the daily rate.

3.5 Cost Optimization Techniques

It is necessary to decide which optimization is required and amount of detail that

will be in used into the construction stage. Many cost optimization methods have been

implemented in the past by different companies and have not survived. The cost itself is

a major difficulty in operating a detailed cost optimization system. It is an expensive

operation for a large contract to carry out a detailed cost optimization system. There are

three types of cost optimization system; they are by comparison with a cost standard, by

subdivision by detail and by integration with other functions.

In comparison with a cost standard method, the standard set up by estimator is

compared at the time of tender. There are also other standards efficiency can be judged

include set up by the work study department of a company, previous outputs achieved

within the company or within the knowledge of the company’s employees in the past, and standards that have been published in books primarily for use of estimator, giving

data on recommended outputs for labor and plant.

In the subdivision by detail method, it is usually practiced by small scale of

contractors compares the amount of money received with the amount of money he has

had to pay out to complete the contract at the end of the contract. It is not expensive but

a risky operation, involves little or no optimization of costs. It is also inaccurate since

estimator often omits some contentious items from a valuation, even though payment

will result from them.

In integration with other functions method, the cost optimization system will

combine with some other necessary operation in the administration of a contract and not

as a separate entity. For example, it may be combined with a labor utilization scheme, in

which the optimization is kept on the optimal utilization of the labor employed.

3.5.1 Frequently Used Methods

1) Work Programmes: Contractors prepare and use schedules to monitor progress and

financial performance of project.

2) Inspection of Works: Inspection of works is carried out and comparison is made

with the budget of project.

3) The project Budgets: Cost and expenditure attached with responsibility centers

along with work targets to be accomplished.

4) Site Meetings: Meetings held to check and review the progress of work and compare

it with the monetary allocations.

5) Record Keeping: Documentation work of activities carried out to enable early

detection of variation from the set standards.

6) Monitoring Work and Cost Performance: Clients, consultants and the contractors

used monitoring tools of schedules, budgets, inspection and feedbacks to keep a watch

on the cost performance of project.

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7) Evaluation of Works Carried Out: Quantification of works and comparing with the

costs in the bill of quantities. Inspection was also reportedly used to evaluate works.

8) Others: Sites that did not have particular method to use.

3.5.2 Time-Cost Optimization with Network Analysis

There is availability of various techniques for optimization and project control

software, still many construction projects do not achieve their cost and time objectives.

The basic scheduling techniques commonly used in practice include the Critical Path

Method (CPM) and Program Evaluation Review Technique (PERT)

3.5.2.1 Critical Path Method

Critical Path Method (CPM) was developed to optimize the organization of

complex procedures of an activity network and also to identify critical activities in a

network critical path. Because activities in the network can be carried out in parallel, the

critical path is the length of the longest path from the start of project to its finish. An

activity is said to be critical if there is no delay in determining its start and finish times.

Once the duration of all the activities is estimated, the project duration can be calculated

with CPM, the project duration is the sum of the durations of all activities on the critical

path.

3.5.2.2 Program Evaluation and Review Technique

Since uncertainties such as inclement weather, unforeseen site conditions, poor

labor performance, inadequate recourse allocation, low equipment performance and

inferior management style incurred during a construction process, it could be difficult to

estimate activity durations correctly. Program evaluation and review technique (PERT)

was originally designed to orient time elements of a project and adopted probabilistic

time estimate to determine the probability that a project could be completed by a given

date. This method uses weighted values of three time estimates: i.e. pessimistic, most-

likely and optimistic duration to estimate the mean and variance. The expected mean

values then are used to determine the mean critical path.

1. Optimistic time (O): the minimum possible time required to complete a task,

assuming condition that everything proceeds better than is normally expected

2. Pessimistic time (P): the maximum possible time required to complete a task,

assuming condition that everything goes wrong (but excluding major

catastrophes).

3. Most likely time (M): the best estimate of the time required to complete a task,

assuming condition that everything precedes as normal.

4. Expected time (TE): the best estimate of the time required to complete a task,

accounting for the fact that things don't always proceed as normal

TE = (O + 4M + P) ÷ 6

4. Methodology

4.1 Data Collection

Primary information and secondary information were collected to achieve the objectives

of the project report. The first beings were interviews with representatives of the

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Construction Company and professionals to collect the information. A questionnaire

survey was conducted to obtain feedback from the construction company. The entire

information gather are categorized as Primary Information.

Next Information was collected from the literature about research topic and challenges

faced by construction projects. It is obtained from the articles in journals and papers,

some other published research works and also Internet. From literature review, a clearer

framework of this research was established. Information gather from this ways are

known as Secondary Information.

4.2 Interviews

The findings were further strengthened by interviews with experienced personnel

from the construction company to collect the information and perspectives regarding the

aspects in the objectives of the research.

4.2.1 Questionnaire

A questionnaire survey was carried out to gather information from technical

professionals and contractors who were involved in the construction projects. The

survey was conducted in the Amravati city Maharashtra, India. It is to get the opinion

and understanding from the experienced respondents regarding the cost optimization.

The questionnaires are all categorized as below:

a) Respondents information

b) General information about the cost optimization

c) Purpose, principle, philosophy and objectives of the cost optimization

d) Weakness/Mistakes

4.3 Data Analysis

The data collected from the questionnaire survey was analysed by using Relative

Indices (RI) technique and Frequency analysis technique. This RI technique has been

used by (George Otim) in the same circumstances of application. RI was calculated

using the following formula:

�� =∑ � + � + � + � + �� + � + � + � + �

Where, nx = the number of respondent agreeing with the x choice

4.3.1. Examples of Calculating Relative Index (R.I.)

�� =∑ � + � + � + � + �� + � + � + � + �

Where nx = no. of respondents

1,2,3,4 and 5 are the ordinance scale of importance

Note:

Ordinance Scale,

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Extremely important

Very important

Important

Moderate important

Less important

Least important

Table 2: Ordinance Scale

Ordinance Scale 1 2 3 4 5 6

No. Of Respondents 1 3 5 7 9 2

Therefore,

R.I. = [1(1) + 2(3) + 3(5) + 4(7) + 5(9)+6(2)]/ 27(6)

=107/162

= 0.66 (Less important) Table 3: Relative Index

Relative

Index (RI) 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Degree of

Importance

Extremely

Important Important

Less

Important

Least

Important

4.3.2 Example of Calculating Frequency Analysis

Note: Ordinance Scale, same as RI technique

Table 5: Ordinance Scale(S)

Ordinance Scale(S) 1 2 3 4 5

No. Of Respondents (NR) 1 3 5 7 9

Total Respondents 1+3 5 7+9

Percentage of agreement 16 20 64

Level of agreement Very important Moderate important Least important

From the Frequency Analysis of this example, there are 16 % of respondents

consider very important, 20 % moderate important and 64 % least important. All the

data collected from questionnaire will be divided into each category using Relative

Index and Frequency Analysis.

4.4 Narrative Of The Data Acquired

Table-3 indicates the various groups responding. Out of a total of 40

questionnaires sent, 37 responded to the questionnaire. In this case, it represents the

participation of 92.5 percent. From this only contractor questionnaires were selected

because their number is more.

Table-3: Breakdown of various groups responding

Group Number of Respondents

Developer 7

Contractor 22

Consultant 6

Project manager 2

Total 37

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5. Conclusions

From the study following the conclusions are made:

I. The study is able to state that, “The problem of cost optimization is actually the

lack of knowledge and inadequate planning for the implementation coupled with

the poor management of construction resources”.

II. General methods that are used by contractor for cost optimization methods are as

follows:

a. Comparison with a cost standard

b. Subdivision by detail

c. Integration with other functions

III. Comparison with a cost standard method is complicated and expensive but it is

more accurate than other methods.

IV. Subdivision by detail is a method that is not expensive but risky operation,

involves little or no optimization of cost.

V. The integration with other functions method has to take account of other

functions and not as a separate entity and optimization is kept on the functions

combined.

VI. The cost optimization techniques used by contractors on their sites in were found

to include use of: Overall profit or loss (overall costs of project compared to the

money received) , Unit rates (compare the actual unit rate to the estimate unit

rate) ,Profit or loss based on progress payment ,schedules, the project budget,

inspection of works, cost reports, site meetings, monitoring of cost and work

performance and quantity evaluation using the bills of quantities, and others did

not have well defined techniques or did not even know there were traditional cost

optimization procedures.

VII. Problem faced by contractor in optimizing the costs on site Shortages of

material, labor or mechanical plant, Difficulty in collection of cost data , Ever-

changing environment of construction work (e.g. weather) ,Qualified expertise ,

Duration of the project , Additional costs to carry out the cost optimization

system (not beneficial)

VIII. The availability of qualified expertise is the main problem faced by contractor in

optimizing the costs on site. The duration of the project and ever changing

environment are the least problem faced by contractor in optimizing the costs on

site.

6. Recommendations

I. The problem of cost control was actually not the techniques being used, but

rather the poor management of the techniques and the lacking in supervision.

II. It is therefore strongly recommended that contractors should constantly attend

refresher courses in construction project management as the study identified lack

of knowledge of the cost control techniques and inadequate cost control

methodology as the biggest problem. In almost all sites, workers were not aware

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of the performance targets implying there were lack of knowledge and

communication lapses between supervisors and workers.

III. Cost is a product of the use of project resources and the only better way of

controlling the cost of construction is best handled right at the design stage.

IV. Materials are delivered as required to cut site storage time, materials delivered

are those specified, issuing just the right amount of material with only a

reasonable allowance for wastage to workmen, ensuring that workmen are not

producing excessive amount of off-cuts, allocating and preparing storage areas

so that when materials are stored, they do not deteriorate.

V. Employing a reliable store keeper who is able to maintain well kept booking

system, double signing of delivery notes, use of weigh bridges and spot checks

for materials deliveries are all desirable to minimize wastage.

VI. Contractors are encouraged to adopt the use of machine as it has the advantages

of speeding up work, saving labour, producing better quality works and are

economical in a number of cases

VII. Recording labourers work progress, daily work evaluation, recruitment of

labourers with the right skills for the job, substituting labourers with equipment,

and having schedules and proper control procedure and records in place.

7. References

[1] A.S. Ali, S.N. Kamaruzzaman (2010) "Cost Performance For Building Construction Projects In

Klang Valley " Journal Of Building Performance Issn: 2180-2106 Volume 1.

[2] Barbole A.N., Y. D. Nalwade, S. D. Parakh (June. 2013) “Impact Of Cost Control And Cost

Reduction Techniques On Manufacturing Sector” Indian Streams Research Journal Volume 3.

[3] Benviolent Chigara,Tirivavi Moyo, Fungai Mudzengerere (2013) "An Analysis Of Cost

Management Strategies Employed By Building Contractors On Project In Zimbabwe"

International Journal Of Sustainable Construction Engineering & Technology Vol 4, No 2.

[4] C.I. Anyanwu (December 2013) "Project Cost Control in The Nigerian Construction Industry"

International Journal Of Engineering Science Invention Volume 2 Issue 12.

[5] Chitkara K.K., (2005) "Construction Project Management : Planning Scheduling and

Controlling" Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company Ltd.

[6] Dr. B.C. Punmia, K.K. Khandelwal " project planning and control with PERT and CPM" Laxmi

Publications (P) LTD, Pg.No : 196-220

[7] George Otim, Fiona Nakacwa, Michael Kyakula "Cost Control Techniques Used On Building

Construction Sites in Uganda" www.google.com

[8] Hegazy, T. (2002), "Comuter-based construction project manangement", Upper Saddle River, NJ

: Prentice Hall www.google.com

[9] Khyomesh V. Patel, Prof. Chetna M. Vyas (13-14 May 2011) "Construction Materials

Management On Project Sites" National Conference On Recent Trends In Engineering &

Technology B.V.M. Engineering College, V.V.Nagar, Gujarat, India.

[10] Nilanjan Sengupta (January 2008) “Use Of Cost-Effective Construction Technologies In India To

Mitigate Climate Change” Current Science, Vol. 94

[11] P. Tiwari, K. Parikh, J. Parikh (September 1999) “Structural Design Considerations In House

Builders’ Model: Optimization Approach" Journal of Infrastructure Systems. [12] Pathak.U.J, Chavan.C.S, Rathode.L.V, Nachare.V.L, Suryawanshi.A.B, (Apr 2014) “Cost

Effective House By Using Various Construction Techniques And Materials” Indian Journal Of

Applied Research Volume: 4.

[13] Pilcher, R. (1992),"Principles of construction management", 3rd Edition. London:McGraw-Hill

Book Co, www.google.com.

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[14] R. Taur, V. Devi (Oct 2009) “Low Cost Housing” ACSGE, BITS Pilani, India

[15] S. Thomas Ng And Yanshuai Zhang (September 2008) "Optimizing Construction Time And Cost

Using Ant Colony Optimization Approach" Journal Of Construction Engineering And

Management © ASCE

[16] Salunkhe. A, Patil R., (Jan-2014) “Effect of Construction Delays on Project Time Overrun:

Indian Scenario” Ijret: International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology volume:

03

[17] Seyed Ali Mousavi Dehmourdi (2014) "Optimization Of Construction Cost Applying Advanced

Techniques" International Journal Of Structural & Civil Engineering Research.

[18] Shanmugapriya S., Dr. Subramanian K.,(October 2013) “Investigation of Significant Factors

Influencing Time And Cost” International Journal Of Emerging Technology And Advanced

Engineering Volume 3.

[19] T.Subramani , P S Sruthi, M.Kavitha, (June. 2014) “Causes Of Cost Overrun In Construction”

Iosr Journal Of Engineering, vol. 04

[20] Tam W. Y, (2011) “Cost Effectiveness Of Using Low Cost Housing Technologies In

Construction” Science Direct.

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