Digital Borders and Real Rights

Effective Remedies forThird-Country Nationais in theSchengen Information System

By

Evelien Brouwer

M A R T I N U S

NIJHOFFP U B L I S H E R S

LEIDEN • BOSTON2008

Contents

Acknowledgments xxiiiAbbreviations xxv

Chapterl Introduction 1

1. The Schengen Information System and Other EU Databases:Tools for Border and Immigration Control 1

2. Problem 23. A Right to Effective Remedies? 4

3.1. Questions 43.2. Criteria to Assess Availability of Effective Remedies 5

4. Outline 75. Definitions and Explanation of UsedTerms 76. Sources and Interviewees 8

Part I Border Control and Data Surveillance in die EU

Chapter 2 Towards Schengen: The Abolition ofInternat Border Controls in Europe 13

1. Introduction: Abolition of Internal Border Controls 132. The Internal Market and the Free Movement of Persons:

Setting Goals 152.1. Between 1957 and 1985: From the Treaty of Rome to the

Commission's White Paper 152.2. The Commission's White Paper on the Completion of the

Internal Market 173. From 1985 to the Completion of the

Single Market: Defining Powers 184. Intergovernmental Negotiations on the Abolition of

Internal Border Controls 204.1. Other Examples: The Benelux, the Nordic Union, Ireland

and the United Kingdom 204.2. Between 1985 and 1989: The Schengen Negotiations 214.3. The Immigration Ad Hoc Group, Trevi, and

the Group of Co-ordinators 23

Contents

5. Abolition of Border Controls and Compensatory Measures 255.1. The Function of Borders: Emphasis on Internal Security and

Immigration Control 255.2. Pre-Border Selection: Visa Policy 275.3. Draft of an External Frontiers Convention 285.4. An Area of Freedom, Security, and Justice 295.5. Common Mechanisms for External Border Controls 31

6. The Convention Implementing the Schengen Agreement 336.1. Negotiations 336.2. Content of the CISA 34

6.2.1. Title II: Abolition of Checks at Internal Borders andMovement of Persons 35

6.2.2. VisaRules 366.2.3. Free Circulation 376.2.4. Priority of the Community Rules 37

6.3. Entry into Force and Players 386.3.1. Entry into Force of the CISA 386.3.2. Position of the Nordic Countries 386.3.3. Position ofUK and Ireland 396.3.4. New EU Member States 40

7. Treaty of Amsterdam: The Incorporation of theSchengen Acquis in EU Law 417.1. Title IVTEC: Communitisation of Asylum

and Immigration Law 417.2. Incorporation of Schengen into EU Law: Marriage of

Convenience or Repairing the Democratic Deficit? 428. Schengen: Successful Laboratory for the EU? 44

Chapter 3 The Schengen Information System 47

1. The Establishment of the SIS 471.1. Setting an Example: The Benelux Lists 471.2. Discussing the Purpose and Functioning of the SIS 491.3. Structure 521.4. Final Purpose and Categories of Entries 531.5. Problems During the Construction Phase 55

2. Legal Basis 573. Participants 57

3.1. Nordic Countries 573.2. The UK and Ireland 583.3. Switzerland 593.4. Accession of New EU Member States 59

Contents vii

4. SIS and Third-Country Nationais: Exclusion of'inadmissible aliens' 594.1. DraftTexts 594.2. Article 96 CISA 604.3. Definition of'inadmissible': Discretionary Power of

National Governments 624.4. EU Citizens and Beneficiaries of EC Law 63

5. Practical Implementation of SIS: Statistical Data on theNumber of Records and SIS-Based Hits 655.1. Numbers of Persons Entered in SIS 665.2. Numbers of Hits Based on Searches Performed of the SIS 68

Chapter 4 New Functionalities for SIS andthe Development of SIS II 71

1. The Road to the Second Generation SIS or SIS II 712. Early Proposais to Extend the Use of SIS 73

2.1. Access to Europol and Eurojust 732.2. Effective Protection against Illegal Immigration 742.3. New Categories of Persons 75

3. SIS I and the Fight Against Terrorism 763-1. Extending the Functions of the SIS 1 763.2. Access for Internal Security and Intelligence Services 783.3. Inclusion of Persons Listed on the UN Terrorist Lists 79

4. Adopted Decisions Extending the Use of SIS 1 804.1. Regulation 871/2004 and Decision 2005/211 on

New Functionalities 804.1.1. Europol and Eurojust 814.1.2. Public prosecutors 824.1.3. Authorities Responsible for Issuing or Examining

Visa Applications or for Issuing Residence Permits 824.1.4. Duty to Report all Transmission of Data and a

Legal Basis for SIRENE 834.2. Framework Decision 2002/584 on the

European Arrest Warrant 834.3. Common Position 2005/69 on Exchange of SIS Data Between

Member States and Interpol 844.4. Regulation 1160/2005 on Access to the SIS by

Vehicle Registration Authorities 855. SIS II 85

5.1. Legal Basis for SIS II 855.2. Developing SIS II as a 'flexible tool' 87

viü Contents

5.3. The Position of the UK and Ireland withRegard to Access to SIS II 88

5.4. Involvement of the European Parliament 906. Final Texts of the Regulation and Decision on SIS II 93

6.1. Purpose 936.2. Criteria for Third-Country Nationais to be Stored in SIS II 94

6.2.1. Commission Proposal — Trying to HarmoniseNational Criteria 94

6.2.2. Final Criteria: The Individual Assessment andProportionality Clause 94

6.2.3. SIS II and Terrorist Lists 966.3. EU Citizens and Privileged Third-Country Nationais 976.4. Inclusion of Biometrics in SIS II as an Identification Tool 986.5. Authorities Allowed Access to SIS II 996.6. Interlinking of Alerts 1016.7. Change of Architecture 1026.8. Establishment of the Management Authority 1036.9. Evaluation and Publication of Statistics on SIS II 103

7. Comparing SIS I and SIS II 1047.1. Changing the Purpose of SIS 1047.2. Changes with Regard to the Storage and Use of Data on

Third-Country Nationais 106

Chapter 5 Other EU Databases Used in the Field ofImmigration Control: Eurodac andVIS 117

1. Introduction 1172. Eurodac 118

2.1. Development and Central Purpose of Eurodac 1182.2. Collection, Transmission and Comparison of Fingerprints 1212.3. Extension to Illegal Immigrants 1232.4. Functioning of Eurodac: Annual Reports of the Commission 125

3. Visa Information System or VIS 1273.1. Negotiations Towards a European Visa Information System 1273.2. The VIS Regulation: Purpose and Content of VIS 130

4. Interoperability of SIS II, Eurodac and VIS 1325. Use of Biometrie Data 135

5.1. Controlling the Body: Use of Biometrics at the EU Level 1355.2. Different Options with Regard to the Use of Biometrie Data 1375.3. Biometrics and the Rights of Individuais 1385.4. Reliability of Biometrics 1395.5 • Index on Criminal Records of Third-Country Nationais 140

Contents ix

6. Comparing SIS II, Eurodac and VIS 1416.1. Central Databases, Immigrants and Biometrics 1416.2. Differences Between SIS, Eurodac, and VIS 1426.3. Intelligence Tool or Administrative File? 143

Part II Effective Remedies under European Law

Chapter 6 Data Processing and the Right to Privacy:The Importance of Artide 8 ECHR 147

1. Introduction 1472. Taking Article 8 ECHR into Account in EU Policy 148

2.1. SIS and SIS II 1482.2. Eurodac 1492.3. VIS 150

3. Article 8 ECHR and Data Processing: When is there anInterference with the Right to Private Life? 1523.1. Secret Police and Security Files: Leander and

Segerstedt-Wiberg 1533.2. Child care Records, Health and Gender Information:

Gaskin, Zand Goodwin 1553.3. Systematic Collection and Storage of Personal

Information by Public Authorities: Amann and Rotaru 1573.4. Recording of Voices and Video Images Collected

in the Public Domain: RG. andJ.H. v. UK. 1593-5. Administrative Data: Mahne 1603.6. Use of Information Beyond What is Normally Foreseeable:

Perry, Peck znA Lupker 1603.7. Passports and Identification Measures: Smirnova and Iletmis 161

4. Is the Interference in Accordance with the Law? Quality of Law 1635. Necessary in a Democratic Society: Proportionality and

Procedural Guarantees 1656. Article 8 ECHR and the Need for Effective Remedies 167

6.1. Independent Control Mechanism: Judicial orNon-Judicial Remedies 167

6.2. Accessibility 1686.3. Scope of the Remedies 1696.4. Competences 169

6.4.1. Article 8 and Article 13 ECHR 1696.4.2. Article 8 ECHR and the Right to Financial

Compensation under Article 6 ECHR 1716.5. Non-discrimination 172

Contents

7- Conclusions: EU Databases, Article 8 ECHR andEffective Remedies 1727.1. Data Processing and the Right to Private Life 1727.2. Procedural Guarantees and Effective Remedies 174

Chapter 7 EfFective Remedies under Data Protection Law 177

1. Introduction 1772. Development of National Data Protection Law:

Different Phases of Law-Making 1783. Development of European Data Protection Law 181

3.1. 1981: Data Protection Convention of theCouncil of Europe 181

3.2. 1990: Inclusion of Data Protection Provisionsin the CISA 183

3.3. 1995: Directive 95/46 on the Protection ofPersonal Data 1863.3.1. Protecting Individuais and Free Movement of Data 1863.3.2. Scope and Applicability of Directive 95/46 188

3.4. Regulation 45/2001/EC: Data Protection Applicable toCommunity Institutions and Bodies 190

3.5- Data Protection in the Third Pillar: A New Instrument 1913.6. Article 8 of the EU Charter: Data Protection

as a Human Right 1934. Unveiling Reasons for Data Protection 194

4.1. Protecting the Individual: The Right to Privacy 1964.1.1. From the Right to be Let Alone to the Right of

Personal Liberty 1964.1.2. Informational Self-determination 198

4.2. Protecting the Rule of Law 2004.2.1. Balance of Powers 2004.2.2. Informational Division of Powers 201

4.3. Data Protection as an Obligation for 'good administration' 2025. Data Protection Principles 204

5.1. The Principle of Purpose Limitation 2055.1.1. Ban on "aimless data collection" 2065.1.2. Legitimacy of Purpose 2075.1.3. Use or Disclosure Limitation 2085.1.4. Time Limit on Storage of Data 209

5.2. Transparency — Purpose Specification 2115.3. Special Categories of Data: Extra Safeguards 212

Contents xi

5.4. Quality of Data 2135.5. Individual Participation: Rights of the Data Subject 215

5.5.1. Right to be Informed - Right of Access toPersonal Data 215

5.5.2. Right to Request Correction, Deletion orBlocking of Further Processing 217

5.6. Ban on Automated Decision-making 2185.7. Security 2195.8. Accountability 2205.9. Non-discriminatory Application of Data Protection Rules 221

6. Limitations of Data Protection Rights: General Interest andNational Security 222

7. Effective Remedies: Independent Data Protection Authorities 2237.1. National Data Protection Authorities 223

7.1.1. Data Protection Convention 2237.1.2. EC Directive 95/46 2247.1.3. SIS I and SIS II: CISA and Regulation 1987/2006 2257.1.4. Eurodac and VIS 226

7.2. Data Protection Authorities at the EU Level 2267.2.1. The European Data Protection Supervisor 2267.2.2. Working Party on the Protection of Individuais

with regard to the Processing of Data 2287.3. Schengen Joint Supervisory Authority 229

7.3.1. Tasks and Powers 2297.3.2. ActivitiesoftheJSA 230

8. Effective Remedies: A Right to Judicial Remedies? 2318.1. Data Protection Convention 2318.2. EC Directive 95/46 2328.3. Regulation 45/2001: EDPS 2338.4. SIS I: Article 111 CISA 2338.5. SIS II Regulation 1987/2006 2358.6. Eurodac 2378.7. VISProposal 2378.8. Third Pillar Instruments 238

9. Conclusions 2399.1. The Valueof Data Protection 2399.2. Effective Remedies 241

9.2.1. Access to Data Protection Authorities and Courts? 2419-2.2. Accessibility 2419.2.3. Scope 2429.2.4. Competences 242

Contents

Chapter 8 Effective Remedies inImmigration Procedures: ECHR 245

1. Introduction 2452. Article 6 (1) ECHR: The Right to a Fair Trial 246

2.1. Maaouia: (Non-)Applicability of Article 6 inImmigration Law Procedures? 246

2.2. Immigration Law Decisions and the Right toFinancial Compensation 248

2.3. (Non-)Registration and the Right toFinancial Compensation 249

3. Article 5 (1) (f) ECHR: Right to Liberty and Security 2514. Protocol No. 7 to the ECHR: Procedural Safeguards

Relating to Expulsion of Aliens 2525. Article 13 ECHR: The Right to Effective Remedies in

Immigration Law Procedures 2535.1. When Does Article BApply? 2535.2. Admission of Third-Country Nationais 2545.3. Expulsion and Expulsion Orders 256

6. Criteria for Effective Remedies 2586.1. Judicial or Non-judicial Remedies 2586.2. Accessibility of Effective Remedies 2596.3. Scope of Review 2626.4. Competences 266

7. The Principle of Non-discrimination: Article 14 ECHR 2678. Summary: Criteria for Effective Remedies 269

8.1. Non-judicial or Judicial Remedy 2698.2. Accessibility 2708.3. Scope 2708.4. Competences 2718.5. Non-application of Article 6 (1) ECHR to Immigration Law

Procedures: Failure or No Loss? 272

Chapter 9 Effective Remedies under EC Immigration Law 275

1. Introduction 2752. Directive 2004/38/EC on the Right of Citizens and

their Family Members to Move and Reside Freely within the EU 2762.1. Protecting the Free Movement of EU Citizens and

their Family Members 2762.2. Extending the Scope of Protection: Cetinkaya and

Dörr-Ünal 278

Contents xiii

2.3. The Relationship between the VIS and SIS and theFreedom of Movement of EU Citizens and Family Members 2792.3.1. Commission v.Austria 2792.3.2. Commission v. Spain 280

3. Legal Remedies in Immigration and Asylum Law Based onTitle IV TEC 2813.1. Directive 2001/40/EC on Mutual Recognition of

Expulsion Decisions 2823.2. Directive 2OO1/55/EC on Minimum Standards for

Temporary Protection 2833.3. Directive 2003/9/EC on Minimum Standards for the

Reception of Asylum Seekers 2843.4. Directive 2003/109/EC on Long-Term Resident

Third-Country Nationais 2853.5. Directive 2003/86/EC on the Right to Family Reunification 2863.6. Regulation 343/2003/EC (Dublin II) 2873.7. Directive 2005/85/EC on Minimum Standards for

Asylum Procedures 2883.8. Refusals at the Border 289

3.8.1. Regulation 562/2006/EC on the Rules Governingthe Movement of Persons at Borders(Schengen Borders Code) 289

3.8.2. The Inclusion of a Standard Refusal Form 2903.9. Proposal for a Directive on Returning Illegal Staying

Third-Country Nationais 2913.10.Visas 292

3.10.I.Schengen Common Consular Instructions 2923.10.2. Draft Community Code onVisas 292

4. Criteria for Effective Remedies in EC Immigration Law 2934.1. Judicial or Non-judicial Court? 293

4.1.1. Directive 2004/38 2934.1.2. EC Asylum and Immigration Law 294

4.2. Accessibility 2944.2.1. Directive 2004/38/EC 2944.2.2. EC Asylum and Immigration Law 295

4.3. Scope of Review 2964.3.1. Directive 2004/38/EC 2964.3.2. EC Asylum and Immigration Law 298

4.4. Competence of Court or Authority 2994.4.1. Directive 2004/38/EC 2994.4.2. EC Asylum and Immigration Law 299

5. Summary: Different Laws, Different Regimes? 300

Contents

Chapter 10 Effective Remedies in the EU: A Matter ofBasic Principles 303

1. Introduction 3032. The First Principle: Incorporation of Human Rights in EU Law 3033. The Second Principle: Effective Remedies to Secure Rights

Conferred by EU Law 3063.1. The Johnston Principle 3063.2. Applying the Johnston Principle to EC Immigration Law:

The Panayotova Case 3073.3. Article 47 of the EU Charter 3083.4. Relationship Between the General Principle and

Secondary EC Legislation 3104. The Third Principle: Effective Judicial Remedies to Ensure a

Uniform and Clear Interpretation of EC Law 3114.1. Preliminary Proceedings: The Responsibility of

National Judges and Legislators 3114.2. Criteria of National Courts Which Fall within the

Meaning of Article 234 TEC 3135. Towards Minimum Standards for Effective Remedies 314

5.1. Effective Remedies, Databases and Third-Country Nationais 3145.2. Criteria for Effective Remedies 315

5.2.1. Judicial or Non-judicial Authority? 3155.2.2. Accessibility 3165.2.3. Scope of Review 3175.2.4. Competences 317

Part III Implementation at the National Level

Chapter 11 France 329

1. Introduction 3292. Parliamentary Involvement with CISA 330

2.1. Schengen in General 3302.2. The NSIS 3332.3. SIS I: Comments NGOs, Lawyers and Organisations 3342.4. SIS II 335

3. Implementation of Article 96 CISA 3363.1. Applicable Law 3363.2. National Criteria for Entering Third-Country Nationais

into the NSIS 337

Contents xv

3.3. Authorities with Access to NSIS Data 3403.4. Operation of SIRENE 3403.5- Article 96 Hits: Duties and Responsibilities of

French Authorities 3413.5.1. Refusal of Entry or Residence Based on

Article 96 CISA 3413.5.2. Expulsion of Third-Country Nationais on the

Basis of Article 96 CISA 3423.5.3. Article 96 Hits and Visa Applications 343

3.6. The Practical Use of the NSIS in France 3434. Intermezzo: French Policy Governing

Third-Country Nationais 3444.1. Police File on Searched Persons 3444.2. General Database on Foreigners: AGDREF 3444.3. Database with Regard to the Issuing of Visas 3454.4. Fingerprinting Third-Country Nationais 3464.5. 'ELOI': File on Expelled Persons 348

5. Rights and Legal Remedies in Data Protection Law 3495.1. Background to French Data Protection Law 3495.2. Third-Country Nationais and the

Right of Data Protection 3515.3. NSIS and Applicable Rules 3525.4. Duty to Inform the Data Subject 3525.5. Right to Access, Correct or Delete Data 352

5.5.1. Direct and Indirect Access 3525.5.2. Application for a Right to Access and Time Limits 354

5.6. Composition, Tasks and Powers of the French DataProtection Authority (CNIL) 355

5.7. Practical Information on the Right to (Indirect) Access toNSIS Information 357

5.8 Right to Legal Remedies 3586. Rights and Remedies in Immigration Law 359

6.1. General Background to Immigration Law 3596.2. Amendments to French Immigration Law and the NSIS 3606.3. Duty to Motivate Decisions 3616.4. Legal Remedies 362

6.4.1. The Position of the Administrative Court inImmigration Law 362

6.4.2. Legal Remedies Against a Refusal of Entry 3646.4.3. Legal Remedies Against the Refusal of a Visa 3656.4.4. Legal Remedies Against Expulsion 366

Contents

7 • Case Law 3677.1. Introduction 3677.2. Duty to Inform the Data Subject 3687.3. Assessing the Validity of Foreign SIS Reports 3707.4. Duty of Authorities to Balance Interests 3737.5. Powers of the Court 3757.6. Assessing the Role of the CNIL 376

7.6.1. Right of Indirect or Direct Access:Divisibiliry of the Data Files 376

7.6.2. Duty to Play an Active Role whenAssessing the Validity of a Foreign Alert 376

7.6.3. Power of Foreign Data Protection Authorities 3778. Conclusions 378

8.1. Implementation of Article 96 CISA 3788.2. Data Protection and the NSIS 3798.3. NSIS and the Right to Effective Remedies 379

8.3.1. Judicial and Non-judicial Remedies 3798.3.2. Accessibility 3808.3.3. Scope of Review 3808.3.4. Competences 381

Chapter 12 Germany 383

1. Introduction 3832. Parliamentary Involvement with CISA 384

2.1. Schengen in General 3842.2. The NSIS and Data Protection 3862.3. SIS II 389

3. Implementation of Article 96 CISA 3903.1. Applicable Law 3903.2. National Criteria for Entering Third-Country

Nationais in NSIS 3913.2.1. General Rules 3913.2.2. Persons to be Expelled, Removed or Deported 3913.2.3. Unlawful Data Storage Regarding Rejected

Asylum Seekers 3933.2.4. Registration Based on Public Order and

Security Grounds 3943.3. In the Beginning: Storing Old Data in the NSIS 3953.4. Authorities with Access to NSIS Data 3963.5. Functioning of SIRENE 397

Contents xvii

3.6. Article 96 Hits: Duties and Responsibilities ofGerman Authorities 3973.6.1. Refusal of Entry 3973.6.2. Expulsion of Aliens on the Basis of an

Article 96 CISA Hit 3983.6.3. Article 96 Hits and Visa Applications 398

4. Intermezzo: German Policy Governing Third-Country Nationais 3994.1. The Central Aliens Administration or the AZR 399

4.1.1. The Need for a Legal Basis 3994.1.2. Content of the AZR 3994.1.3. Amendments on the Basis of the

Prevention of Terrorism Act 4014.2. Visa Information System 4034.3. Computer Profiling or Dragnet Searching (Rasterfahndung) 403

4.3.1. Before 11 September 2001: TrackingRAF Terrorists 403

4.3.2. After 11 September 2001: Tracking 'Islamic Terrorists' 4044.3.3. Assessment of Data Profiling by

Lower German Courts 4064.3.4. The Constitutional Court and

Data Profiling - Rasterfahndungsurteil 4084.4. Biometrics and Border Control 409

5. Rights and Legal Remedies: Generally Applicable Rules 4105.1. Article 19 (4) Constitution 4105.2. The Klass Case Before the German Constitutional Court 4125.3. Ruleof Law: The Principle of Proportionality 4135.4. Applicability of Administrative Procedural Law 414

5.4.1. Difference in Remedies 4145.4.2. Suspensive Effect of Legal Remedies 4155.4.3. Temporary Injunction 415

5.5. Applicability of 6 ECHR 4166. Legal Remedies and Data Protection Law 416

6.1. Background and General Principles of GermanData Protection Law 416

6.2. Constitutional Right to Informational Self-determination 4176.2.1. The Mikrozensus Urteil 4176.2.2. The Volkszählungsurteil 4176.2.3. The Duty of Immigration Offices to

Keep Complete Files 4196.2.4. A Constitutional Dilemma: Amtshilfe versus

Informationelle Gewaltenteilung 420

xviü Contents

6.3. The Applicability of Data Protection Principles andthe Right to Informational Self-determinationin Immigration Law 422

6.4. Principles of Data Protection and the NSIS 4226.4.1. Time Limits 4226.4.2. Duty to Inform the Data Subject 4236.4.3. Right of Access, Correction and Deletion 424

6.5. Supervision by Data Protection Authorities 4256.5.1. Introduction 4256.5.2. The Federal Commissioner for Data Protection and

Freedom of Information 4256.5.3. Data Protection Authorities of the Länder 4266.5.4. Inquiry of the Data Protection Commissioners on

Article 96 CISA 4276.6. Legal Remedies 428

6.6.1. Competence of the Administrative Court 4286.6.2. Right to Financial Compensation 429

7. Legal Remedies and Immigration Law 4297.1. General Background to German Immigration Law 4297.2. Duty to Motivate Decisions 4307.3. Legal Remedies 431

7.3.1. Legal Remedies Against Refusal of Entry 4317.3.2. Legal Remedies Against a Visa Refusal 4317.3.3. Legal Remedies Against Expulsion 431

8. Case Law 4328.1. Record in the NSIS in Conformity with Criteria of

Article 96 CISA? 4328.2. Direct Legal Effects of a SIS Alert 4348.3. Duty to Balance Interests 4358.4. Competence of National Courts to Assess Validity of

Foreign SIS Report 4368.5. Access to Remedies After Expulsion? 4368.6. Article 96 CISA and Freedom of Religion: The Moon Case 437

9. Conclusions 4409.1. Implementation of Article 96 CISA 4409.2. Germany: Strong Tradition of Collecting and

Protecting Data 4409.3. NSIS and the Right to Effective Remedies 441

9.3.1. Accessibility 4429.3.2. Scope of Review 4429.3.3. Competences 443

Contents xix

Chapter 13 The Netherlands 445

1. Introduction 4452. Parliamentary Involvement with CISA 446

2.1. 'Schengen' in General 4462.2. Parliamentary Discussions on SIS 4482.3. Parliamentary Discussions on the SIS and the

Availability of Legal Remedies 4492.4. Parliamentary Debate on SIS II 451

3. Implementation of the SIS and Registration ofThird-Country Nationais 4533.1. Sources of Immigration Law 4533.2. Criteria for Registration in the NSIS 455

3.2.1. Formal Residence Ban 4553.2.2. Third-Country Nationais Reported as Unwanted 457

3.3. Practical Implementation and Use of the NSIS 4603.3.1. NSIS: Responsibility and Coordination 4603.3.2. Procedure for Registration in the NSIS 4603.3.3. Article 96 Hits and Internal and Border Controls 4623.3.4. Article 96 Hits and Visa Applications 464

3.4. NSIS and Article 96: Facts and Figures 4643.5. Audit Report By the Court of Auditors 4653.6. Audit Report of the Dutch Data Protection Authority 467

4. Intermezzo: Dutch Policy with Regard to the Administration ofData on Third-Country Nationais 4684.1. General Administration of Immigrants 4684.2. The Use of Biometrie Data 470

4.2.1. Third-Country Nationais and their Biometrics 4704.2.2. Shared Use of Data on Criminals and Asylum Seekers 4714.2.3. Storing Biometrie Data for Expulsion Purposes 4734.2.4. Biometrics and Passports and Identity Cards 473

4.3. Immigration Files, Border Control and theFight against Terrorism 474

5. Rights and Legal Remedies for Individuais underData Protection Law 4755.1. Background to Dutch Data Protection Law 4755.2. NSIS and the Applicable Rules on Data Protection 4785.3. Duty to Inform the Data Subject 4795.4. Right to Access, Correction or Deletion of the NSIS Data 4815.5. Role of the Data Protection Authority 4825.6. Right to Legal Remedies 483

Contents

6. Rights of Third-Country Nationais under Immigration Law 4846.1. Application of Principles of Administrative Law 4846.2. Informed Decision-making at the Borders 4856.3. Information on the Formal Residence Ban 4866.4. Time Limits for Decisions in the Field of

Immigration Law 4866.5. Legal Remedies 487

6.5.1. Right to Review 4876.5.2. Right to Appeal 4886.5.3. Right to Higher Appeal 488

7. Case Law 4897.1. Introduction: Extent and Importance of Dutch Case Law 4897.2. Legal Status of Article 96 Reports: Possibility of

Legal Redress 4907.3. Conformity with Article 96 CISA 493

7.3.1. National Administrative Decisions 4937.3.2. Foreign Administrative Decisions 4937.3.3. A Foreign Alert: The Moon Case 496

7.4. Balance of Interests- Proportionality of a SIS Report 4997.5. Right to Financial Compensation 5017.6. Preliminary Request to the ECJ 5027.7. Decisions of the National Ombudsman 504

7 JA. Duty of Informed Decision-making 5047.7.2. Duty to Make Decisions in GoodTime 5057.7.3. Duty of Proportional Decision-making 505

8. Conclusions 5068.1. Implementation of Article 96 CISA 5068.2. Data Protection and Data Control 5078.3. NSIS and the Right to Effective Remedies 508

8.3.1. Judicial and Non-judicial Remedies 5088.3.2. Transparency - Accessibility of Remedies 5088.3.3. Scope of Review 5098.3.4. Competences 510

Chapter 14 Conclusions 511

1. Third-Country Nationais: Their Data and Their Rights 5112. Third-Country Nationais: Their Data 512

2.1. Questioning the EfEciency and Qualiry of theInformation Network 513

2.2. Identifying, Tracking or Stigmatising Immigrants? 514

Contents xxi

3. Third-Country Nationais and Their Rights 5153.1. Recovering the Right to Privacy 5153.2. Immigration Law and the Protection of Human Rights 5163.3. Rights and Freedoms Guaranteed by EU Law 5163.4. Data Protection Rights 517

4. The Right to Effective Remedies 5205. Comparing the Law and Practice in France, Germany and

the Netherlands 5225.1. National Criteria for Storing Third-Country

Nationais in SIS 1 5225.2. SIS and Data Protection Rights of Individuais 5235.3. Effective Remedies 525

5.3.1. Case Law 5255.3.2. Accessibility 5255.3.3. Scope 5265.3.4. Competences 526

6. The New SIS II Regulation 1987/2006: Learning from the Past? 5276.1. Criteria for Reporting Third-Country Nationais in SIS II 527

6.1.1. Lack of Harmonisation 5276.1.2. Protecting EU Citizens and Beneficiaries of EC Law 529

6.2. Data Protection Rights 5306.2.1. Right of Information 5306.2.2. Cooperation Between Data Protection Authorities 531

6.3. Right to Remedies 5326.4. Mutual Enforcement of National Decisions 533

7. Final Remarks 534

Bibliography 537

Jurisprudence 553

Index 563