Effect of intramuscular and blood buffering on exercise ... · Effect of intramuscular and blood...

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Effect of intramuscular and blood buffering

agents on exercise performance

Kagan John Ducker

Bachelor of Science (Honours)

This thesis is presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

at the University of Western Australia

School of Sport Science, Exercise and Health

2013

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Publications Arising from this Thesis

Ducker, K.J., Dawson, B., & Wallman, K.E. (2013). Effect of beta‐alanine supplementation on

2000 m rowing ergometer performance. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise

Metabolism. In Press. (CHAPTER 3)

Student’s Contribution: 90 %

Ducker, K.J., Dawson, B., & Wallman, K.E. (2013). Beta‐alanine supplementation and exercise

performance. Research in Sports Medicine. Under Review. (CHAPTER 2)



800 m running performance. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism.

In Press. (CHAPTER 4)


Ducker, K.J., Dawson, B., & Wallman, K.E. (2013). Effect of beta‐alanine and sodium

bicarbonate supplementation on repeated‐sprint performance. Journal of Strength and

Conditioning Research. In Press. (CHAPTER 5)


Coordinating Supervisor Signature……………………………………………………………………………………………

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Peer‐Reviewed Conference Proceedings


2000 m rowing ergometer performance. Poster session presented at the European College of

Sport Science Congress. Brugge, Belgium.

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Overview

Beta‐alanine (beta‐amino acid) supplementation may improve the hydrogen ion buffering

capacity of the body. When beta‐alanine is ingested, it combines with histidine within the

myocytes and carnosine is formed. Carnosine is a significant H+ buffer within the muscles (pKa

= 6.83), with high intramuscular concentrations being linked with improved high‐intensity

exercise performance. Serially loading with a dose of 3 – 6 g∙day‐1 of beta‐alanine for at least 4

weeks may have little to no side effects, yet may improve performance during high‐intensity

sustained‐sprint exercise (2 – 4 min) and weight training (i.e. increased volume).

Literature related to beta‐alanine supplementation is currently limited regarding ergogenic

effects (if any) in exercise performances that closely mimic the physiological requirements of

sporting match play and races. Further, little is known about whether the combination of

sodium bicarbonate (extracellular blood buffer) and beta‐alanine (intracellular muscle buffer

via carnosine) supplementation can lead to enhanced exercise performance beyond what is

possible with either supplement alone.

The purpose of this thesis was to investigate the effects of 28 days of beta‐alanine

supplementation (28 days, 80 mg∙kg‐1BM∙day‐1) on sport specific exercise performance.

Specifically, study one investigated the effects of beta‐alanine supplementation on 2000 m

rowing ergometer performance in well‐trained male rowers. Study two examined 800 m

running performance in male recreational runners following beta‐alanine supplementation.

Finally, study three evaluated whether supplementation of beta‐alanine (only) and when

combined with a pre‐exercise dose of sodium bicarbonate (0.3 g∙kg‐1BM), could improve

prolonged repeated‐sprint performance in male team‐sport athletes.

The results indicated that supplementing with beta‐alanine for a period of 28 days could

improve 800 m running performance (lasting ~ 2 – 3 min), but was not ergogenic for 2000 m

rowing ergometer (~ 6 – 7 min) or repeated‐sprint exercise (3 sets; 6 x 20 m departing every 25

s, 4 min active recovery between sets). Further, combining serial supplementation of beta‐

alanine with an acute pre‐exercise dose of sodium bicarbonate only improved repeated‐sprint

performance slightly, but not to the same degree as sodium bicarbonate supplementation

taken in isolation.

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Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the following people for their invaluable contributions to this research.

Winthrop Professor Brian Dawson, for providing the great depths of your knowledge to this

project. Without your insights and experience this research would not have been possible. The

opportunities that you have given me, both professionally and in our research, are priceless

and for that I thank you.

Associate Professor Karen Wallman, for being a superb teacher and being the original source

of my love for exercise physiology. Your input and positivity during this project have been

invaluable and for that I am very grateful.

Professor Louise Burke, for your assistance in sourcing the beta‐alanine used in these studies

and providing a broad national perspective regarding the use of beta‐alanine.

Dr. Peter Peeling, for teaching me the vast majority of practical skills that I have used to

complete this PhD and giving me the chance to learn from and work with you.

Research participants, because without you all, this research wouldn’t have been possible. You

all put up with taking more capsules than any person should ever have to and completed some

very taxing exercise tests. I thank you all for taking an interest and helping out.

Sport Science, Exercise and Health postgraduate students, for all of the help, conversations

and fun we’ve had over the last few years. I can only hope that I’ve helped to repay some of

the millions of questions I’ve asked of you all along the way.

My family and friends, for supporting me to achieve my dreams despite the cost to all of us. I

apologise for being mentally absent for the last few years, but your support helped me to push

through when the going got tough. I love you all.

Laura, without your love and support none of this would have been possible. As crazy as this

process has seemed at times you have stuck behind me and encouraged me to push through. I

can never thank you enough for your encouragement and I will be forever thankful.

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Table of Contents

Overview………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….4

Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….5

Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…..6

List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….7

List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………8

List of Abbreviations……..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………9

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………12

CHAPTER TWO

Literature Review ‐ Beta‐alanine supplementation and exercise performance……………………….18

CHAPTER THREE

Effect of beta‐alanine supplementation on 2000 m rowing ergometer performance……………..44

CHAPTER FOUR

Effect of beta‐alanine supplementation on 800 m running performance………………………………..60

CHAPTER FIVE

Effect of beta‐alanine and sodium bicarbonate supplementation on repeated‐sprint

performance…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..78

CHAPTER SIX

Thesis Summary, Practical Applications and Future Directions……………………………………………..102

APPENDICES………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………….111

Participant Information Sheets and Informed Consent…………………………………………………………112

Raw Data………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………123

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List of Tables

CHAPTER TWO

Table 1. Effect of beta‐alanine supplementation on intramuscular carnosine

concentrations………....................................................................................................................25

Table 2. Effect of beta‐alanine supplementation on exercise performance…………………………….31

CHAPTER THREE

Table 3. Mean (± SD) 2000 m rowing performance time (s) and power output (W) before and

after beta‐alanine (n = 7)/placebo (n = 9) supplementation……………………………………………………51

Table 4. Mean (± SD) blood lactate (HLa‐) and pH pre‐ and post‐ the 2000 m rowing ergometer

trials before and after beta‐alanine (n = 7)/placebo (n = 9) supplementation. Change values are

also included……………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………….54

CHAPTER FOUR

Table 5. Mean (± SD) total, first/second half split times pre‐ and post‐supplementation in the

beta‐alanine (n = 9) and placebo (n = 9) groups………………………………………………………………………68

Table 6. Mean (± SD) blood lactate (HLa‐; mmol∙L‐1) and pH results pre‐ and post‐

supplementation in the beta‐alanine (n = 9) and placebo (n = 9) groups………………………………..71

CHAPTER FIVE

Table 7. Participant characteristics (total n = 24, male). BA = beta‐alanine only, NaHCO3 =

sodium bicarbonate only, BA/NaHCO3 = beta‐alanine and sodium bicarbonate combined…….82

Table 8. Mean (± SD) total sprint time (TST) for all three sets combined and for sets 1, 2 and 3

pre‐ and post‐supplementation in the beta‐alanine (BA, n = 6), sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3, n

= 6), combined (BA/NaHCO3, n = 6) and placebo (n = 6) groups………………………………………………86

Table 9. Mean (± SD) first, best and percentage decrement scores for each set of the repeated‐

sprint test for the beta‐alanine (BA, n = 6), sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3, n = 6), combined

(BA/NaHCO3, n = 6) and placebo (n = 6) groups, pre‐ and post‐supplementation……………………90

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List of Figures

CHAPTER THREE

Figure 1. 2000 m rowing performance split times (s) pre‐ and post‐ beta‐alanine (A, n = 7) and

placebo (B, n = 9) supplementation………………………….…………………………………………………………….52

Figure 2. 2000 m rowing performance split average power outputs (W) pre‐ and post‐ beta‐

alanine (A, n = 7) and placebo (B, n = 9) supplementation………………………………………………………53

CHAPTER FOUR

Figure 3. Mean (± SD) total, 200 m split times pre‐ and post‐supplementation in the beta‐

alanine (A; n = 9) and placebo (B; n = 9) groups………………………………………………………………………69

CHAPTER FIVE

Figure 4. Schematic of the repeated‐sprint test……………………………………………………………………..83

Figure 5. Mean (± SD) sprint times (3 sets of 6 sprints, 18 total) for the beta‐alanine (A, n = 6),

sodium bicarbonate (B, n = 6), combined beta‐alanine and sodium bicarbonate (C, n = 6) and

placebo (D, n = 6) groups………………………………………………………………………………………………………..88

Figure 6. Mean (± SD) blood lactate (HLa‐) values measured before the repeated‐sprint test and

after set 1, 2 and 3 for the beta‐alanine (A, n = 6), sodium bicarbonate (B, n = 6), combined

beta‐alanine and sodium bicarbonate (C, n = 6) and placebo (D, n = 6) groups, pre‐ and post‐

supplementation…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….92

Figure 7. Mean (± SD) blood pH values measured before and after the repeated‐sprint test for

the beta‐alanine (A, n = 6), sodium bicarbonate (B, n = 6), combined beta‐alanine and sodium

bicarbonate (C, n = 6) and placebo (D, n = 6) groups, pre‐ and post‐supplementation…………...93

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List of Abbreviations

∆ ‐ change

µl ‐ microlitres

1 RM ‐ maximum weight that can be lifted for one repetition

BA ‐ beta‐alanine

cm ‐ centimetre (s)

CN1 ‐ serum carnosinase

CN2 ‐ non‐specific cytosolic carnosinase

d ‐ Cohen’s d (effect size)

DM ‐ dry muscle

ES ‐ (Cohen’s d) effect size

g ‐ gram (s)

g∙day‐1 ‐ grams per day

GXT ‐ graded exercise test

h ‐ hour (s)

H+ ‐ Hydrogen ions

HIIT ‐ high‐intensity interval training

HLa‐ ‐ blood lactate

HR ‐ heart rate

HRMAX ‐ maximum heart rate

kg ‐ kilogram (s)

L∙min‐1 ‐ litres per minute

LT ‐ lactate threshold

m ‐ metre (s)

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mg ‐ milligram (s)

mg∙kg‐1BM ‐ milligrams per kilogram of body‐mass

min ‐ minute (s)

mM ‐ millimole

mmol∙kg‐1 ‐ millimoles per kg

mmol∙L‐1 ‐ millimole per litre

m∙s‐1 ‐ metres per second

n ‐ number

NaCl ‐ sodium chloride

NaHCO3 ‐ sodium bicarbonate

NS ‐ not (statistically) significant

OBLA ‐ onset of blood lactate accumulation

P ‐ placebo

pKa ‐ acid dissociation constant

PWCFT ‐ physical working capacity at fatigue threshold

Reps ‐ repetitions

RPE ‐ rating of perceived exertion

RSA ‐ repeated‐sprint ability

RST ‐ repeated‐sprint test

s ‐ second (s)

SD ‐ standard deviation

SWC ‐ smallest worthwhile change

TST ‐ total sprint time

TT ‐ time trial

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TTE ‐ time to exhaustion

TWD ‐ total work done

VCO2 ‐ volume of carbon dioxide

VE ‐ ventilation in litres per minute

VO2 ‐ oxygen consumption

VO2peak ‐ peak oxygen consumption

VO2MAX ‐ maximum oxygen consumption

vs. ‐ versus

VT ‐ ventilatory threshold

W ‐ watt (s)

WMAX ‐ maximum power output in watts

WBS ‐ whole body strength

WW ‐ wet weight

y ‐ year (s)

yd. ‐ yard (s)

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CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

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Background

Beta‐alanine (a beta‐amino acid) has received recent interest due to its potential influence on

muscle pH and exercise performance when loaded with over several weeks. Beta‐alanine is the

rate limiting element for carnosine production, a significant H+ buffer found within muscle

fibres (pKa=6.83). Higher muscle carnosine concentrations may also benefit exercise

performance by increasing the calcium sensitivity of muscle fibres and calcium release

channels (Dutka & Lamb, 2004; Dutka et al., 2012), by enhancing vessel vasodilatory effects

(Ririe, Roberts, Shouse, & Zaloga, 2000) and by its antioxidant properties (Kohen, Yamamoto,

Cundy, & Ames, 1988).

Recent research utilising mostly exercise capacity tests have suggested that serially

supplementing with a dose of 3 – 6 g∙day‐1 of beta‐alanine for at least 4 weeks should increase

intramuscular carnosine concentrations by 30 – 80 % (Baguet, Bourgois, Vahnee, Achten, &

Derave, 2010; Baguet et al., 2009; Derave et al., 2007; Harris et al., 2006; Hill et al., 2007;

Kendrick et al., 2008; Kendrick et al., 2009), which can increase muscle buffer capacity and

result in likely improvements in exercise performance of efforts lasting 60 – 240 s. Further,

performance may possibly be enhanced during exercise efforts lasting 60 s and 240 s,

although mixed results have been reported (Baguet et al., 2010; Derave et al., 2007; Hoffman

et al., 2008; Van Thienen et al., 2009). Importantly, there has been limited research

investigating if these effects of beta‐alanine supplementation can result in performance

enhancement in race and game match‐play simulations that reflect the physiological

requirements of specific sporting events.

Ingesting an acute oral dose (0.3 g∙kg‐1BM) of sodium bicarbonate 60 – 90 min prior to exercise

increases the pre‐exercise blood pH to 7.45 or greater, which then delays the decline in pH

associated with high‐intensity exercise requiring significant anaerobic metabolism (Bishop &

Claudius, 2005; Bishop, Edge, Davis, & Goodman, 2004; McNaughton, Siegler, & Midgley,

2008). Of interest is whether the combination of sodium bicarbonate (extracellular blood

buffer) and beta‐alanine (intracellular muscle buffer via carnosine) supplementation can lead

to enhanced exercise performance beyond what is possible with either supplement alone.

Recent research has found that combining sodium bicarbonate and beta‐alanine

supplementation together resulted in slightly improved high‐intensity cycling performance (2 –

4 min), more so than when beta‐alanine supplementation was undertaken alone (Bellinger,

Howe, Shing, & Fell, 2012; Sale et al., 2011). Importantly, there has been no research that has

investigated whether combining these supplements can lead to improvements in team‐sports

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such as soccer, field hockey and Australian football that are characterised by multiple

repeated‐sprints, separated by short rest periods.

Statement of the problem

The overall aim of this thesis was to investigate the effect of beta‐alanine supplementation (28

days, 80 mg∙kg‐1BM∙day‐1) on sport specific race and game match‐play simulations. A further

aim was to determine whether combining sodium bicarbonate (acute dose of 0.3 g∙kg‐1BM)

with beta‐alanine provided additive effect on prolonged repeated‐sprint ability.

Specific aims of the studies

Chapter Three: Effect of beta‐alanine supplementation on 2000 m rowing ergometer

performance

This study aimed to determine the ergogenic effect (if any) of serial beta‐alanine

supplementation on 2000 m rowing ergometer performance. Participants completed duplicate

trials (2 x pre‐supplementation and 2 x post‐supplementation) of a 2000 m rowing ergometer

race, separated by 28 days of either beta‐alanine or placebo supplementation.

Chapter Four: Effect of beta‐alanine supplementation on 800 m running performance

The purpose of this investigation was to explore if improvements associated with serial beta‐

alanine supplementation, reported previously in exercise capacity assessments of 2 – 3 min,

would translate to improved exercise performance in male runners completing 800 m running

races lasting a similar duration. Participants completed duplicate trials (2 x pre‐

supplementation and 2 x post‐supplementation) of an 800 m running race, separated by 28

days of either beta‐alanine or placebo supplementation.

Chapter Five: Effect of beta‐alanine and sodium bicarbonate supplementation on repeated‐

sprint performance

This project aimed to identify whether supplementation of beta‐alanine for 28 days combined

with a pre‐exercise dose of sodium bicarbonate, could improve prolonged repeated‐sprint

performance in team‐sport athletes. Team‐sport athletes from Australian football, soccer and

field hockey were recruited to complete duplicate trials (2 x pre‐supplementation and 2 x post‐

supplementation) of a repeated‐sprint test chosen to mimic the physiological requirements of

a period of team‐sport match‐play (3 sets; 6 x 20 m departing every 25 s, 4 min active recovery

between sets). Participants were allocated into 4 groups; beta‐alanine only, acute sodium

bicarbonate only, combined beta‐alanine and acute sodium bicarbonate and placebo only.

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Contributions of this research

The findings of the research included in this thesis may improve the body of knowledge

available to sport scientists, coaches and athletes relating to the effects that different

intramuscular and blood buffering agents may have on exercise performance. Importantly, this

research will help bridge the gap between previously reported results from exercise capacity

tests and possible uses within elite and recreational competitive sporting events. This may

provide coaches and athletes with useful practical recommendations regarding the use of such

supplements and the expected outcomes when applied to improve competition performance.

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References

Baguet, A., Bourgois, J., Vahnee, L., Achten, E., & Derave, W. (2010). Important role of muscle

carnosine in rowing performance. Journal of Applied Physiology, 109, 1096‐1101.

Baguet, A., Reyngoudt, H., Pottier, A., Everaert, I., Callens, S., Achten, E., & Derave, W. (2009).

Carnosine loading and washout in human skeletal muscles. Journal of Applied

Physiology, 106(3), 837‐842.

Bellinger, P.M., Howe, S.T., Shing, C.M., & Fell, J.W. (2012). Effect of combined beta‐alanine

and NaHCO3 supplementation on cycling performance. Medicine and Science in Sports

and Exercise, 44(8), 1545‐1551.

Bishop, D., & Claudius, B. (2005). Effects of induced metabolic alkalosis on prolonged

intermittent‐sprint performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 37(5),

759‐767.

Bishop, D., Edge, J., Davis, C., & Goodman, C. (2004). Induced metabolic alkalosis affects

muscle metabolism and repeated‐sprint ability. Medicine and Science in Sports and

Exercise, 36(5), 807‐813.

Derave, W., Özdemir, M.S., Harris, R.C., Pottier, A., Reyngoudt, H., Koppo, K., Wise, J.A., &

Achten, E. (2007). β‐Alanine supplementation augments muscle carnosine content and

attenuates fatigue during repeated isokinetic contraction bouts in trained sprinters.

Journal of Applied Physiology, 103, 1736‐1743.

Harris, R.C., Tallon, M.J., Dunnett, M., Boobis, L., Coakley, J., Kim, H.J., Fallowfield, J.L., Hill,

C.A., Sale, C., & Wise, J.A. (2006). The absorption of orally supplied β‐alanine and its

effect on muscle carnosine synthesis in human vastus lateralis. Amino Acids, 30, 279‐

289.

Hill, C.A., Harris, R.C., Kim, H.J., Harris, B.D., Sale, C., Boobis, L., Kim, C.K., & Wise, J.A. (2007).

Influence of β‐alanine supplementation on skeletal muscle carnosine concentrations

and high intensity cycling capacity. Amino Acids, 32, 225‐233.

Hoffman, J.R., Ratamess, N.A., Faigenbaum, A.D., Ross, R., Kang, J., Stout, J.R., & Wise, J.A.

(2008). Short‐duration β‐alanine supplementation increases training volume and

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reduces subjective feelings of fatigue in college football players. Nutrition Research,

28, 31‐35.

Kendrick, I.P., Harris, R.C., Kim, H.J., Kim, C.K., Dang, V.H., & Lam, T.Q. (2008). The effects of 10

weeks of resistance training combined with β‐alanine supplementation on whole body

strength, force production, muscular endurance and body composition. Amino Acids,

34, 547‐554.

Kendrick, I.P., Kim, H.J., Harris, R.C., Kim, C.K., Dang, V.H., Lam, T.Q., Bui, T.T., & Wise, J.A.

(2009). The effect of 4 weeks beta‐alanine supplementation and isokinetic training on

carnosine concentrations in type I and II human skeletal muscle fibres. European


McNaughton, L.R., Siegler, J., & Midgley, A. (2008). Ergogenic effects of sodium bicarbonate.

Current Sports Medicine Reports, 7(4), 230‐236.

Sale, C., Saunders, B., Hudson, S., Wise, J.A., Harris, R.C., & Sunderland, C.D. (2011). Effect of

beta‐alanine plus sodium bicarbonate on high‐intensity cycling capacity. Medicine and

Science in Sports and Exercise, 43(10), 1972‐1978.

Van Thienen, R., Van Proeyen, K., Vanden Eynde, B., Puype, J., Lefere, T., & Hespel, P. (2009).

Beta‐alanine improves sprint performance in endurance cycling. Medicine and Science

in Sports and Exercise, 41(4), 898‐903.

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CHAPTER TWO

Literature Review

Beta‐alanine supplementation and exercise performance

An abridged version has been submitted for publication and is currently under review with

Research in Sports Medicine

Presented here is the full literature review in its initial format

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Abstract

Beta‐alanine (beta‐amino acid) supplementation may improve the hydrogen ion buffering

capacity of the body. When beta‐alanine is ingested, it combines with histidine within the

myocytes and carnosine is formed. Carnosine is a significant pH buffer within the muscles, with

high intramuscular concentrations being linked with improved high‐intensity exercise

performance. While supplementing with sodium bicarbonate to improve the blood buffering

capacity has been shown to result in gastro‐intestinal upset, it appears that serially loading

with 3 – 6 g∙day‐1 of beta‐alanine for at least 4 weeks may have little to no side effects, yet may

improve performance during high‐intensity sprint exercise and weight training. To date, many

facets of the effect of beta‐alanine on exercise performance have yet to be comprehensively

reported, including the optimal dose and dosing strategy, as well as the magnitude of any

ergogenic benefits for actual or simulated sporting performances.

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Introduction

With winning margins in many sports being measured in hundredths of a second, it is hardly

surprising that any substance that can improve performance by as little as 1 – 2% would be

considered worthwhile by athletes in their search for sporting success. High‐intensity

endurance exercise and prolonged or repeated‐sprint efforts require the production of

significant amounts of energy via the anaerobic glycolytic energy pathway. These efforts cause

large increases in the production of H+ and a sharp fall in blood and muscle pH (i.e. increased

acidity), which leads to a rapid decrease in the ability of the muscle fibres to maintain optimal

cross‐bridge function, resulting in impaired exercise performance (Fabiato & Fabiato, 1978;

Favero, Zable, Colter, & Abramson, 1997; Mainwood & Renaud, 1985; Metzger & Fitts, 1987;

Spangenburg, Ward, & Williams, 1998). Therefore, any increase in the level or functioning of

the buffering systems of the body i.e., amino acids, proteins, inorganic phosphate,

bicarbonate, creatine phosphate hydrolysis and lactate production (Robergs, Ghiasvand, &

Parker, 2004) could have significant effects in attenuating the decline in blood and muscle pH.

In turn, this could lead to an improvement in exercise performances that require significant

contributions from the anaerobic glycolytic energy pathway.

One important buffering system within the body is related to intramuscular carnosine

concentrations, which can be increased via chronic supplementation with beta‐alanine. Beta‐

alanine is a beta‐amino acid that is found in many foods that humans commonly consume (e.g.

meat). Beta‐alanine itself serves little purpose within the body, but once it diffuses throughout

the myocytes it combines with histidine to form carnosine, which is a significant component of

the proton buffering system of muscle. Carnosine is a significant contributor to the buffering of

H+ created during high‐intensity exercise by the process of anaerobic metabolism (Davey,

1960; Parkhouse & McKenzie, 1984). Importantly for athletes, beta‐alanine is not currently on

the World Anti‐Doping Authorities list of prohibited or monitored substances and therefore

remains legal for use in training and competition at all levels. This review will seek to highlight

the current state of literature in regard to the effects of beta‐alanine supplementation on

exercise performance within humans.

Beta‐alanine and Carnosine – Mechanism of Action

Following uptake into the myocytes, beta‐alanine combines with histidine to form carnosine,

which acts as a potent physicochemical buffer of protons due to its pKa of 6.83 and the

imidazole ring in its structure that allows it to bind protons (Bate‐Smith, 1938). Further

information regarding the biochemistry of carnosine in animals and humans can be found in

numerous publications (Abe, 2000; Artioli, Gualano, Smith, Stout, & Lancha Jr., 2010; Baguet,

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Everaert, Achten, Thomis, & Derave, 2012; Bate‐Smith, 1938; Begum, Cunliffe, & Leveritt,

2005; Derave, Everaert, Beeckman, & Baguet, 2010; Sale, Saunders, & Harris, 2010), with this

review focusing specifically on the effects of beta‐alanine on exercise performance in humans.

Importantly, carnosine can significantly aid overall buffering capacity, as intramuscular

concentrations of up to 30 – 40 mmol∙kg‐1 DM have been recorded post beta‐alanine

supplementation (Harris et al., 2006; Hill et al., 2007; Kendrick et al., 2008; Kendrick et al.,

2009). Notably, it has previously been shown that males have a significantly higher

intramuscular carnosine concentration than females, but whether females are able to improve

their carnosine stores equally as well by loading with beta‐alanine has yet to be quantified and

reported (Baguet et al., 2012; Mannion, Jakeman, Dunnett, Harris, & Willan, 1992). However, it

does seem that exercise performance in both genders may be similarly improved (Stout et al.,

2007; Walter, Smith, Kendall, Stout, & Cramer, 2010). Higher levels of carnosine have been

suggested to improve the buffering capacity of the muscle and therefore potentially improve

the performance of athletes during exercise that results in high levels of H+ accumulation (Abe,

2000; Derave et al., 2007; Suzuki, Ito, Takahashi, & Takamatsu, 2002, 2004). For example,

Baguet et al. (2010) recently reported that higher intramuscular carnosine concentrations

(without supplementation) were positively correlated with rowing ergometer speed over 100

m (r = 0.60), 500 m (r = 0.66), 2000 m (r = 0.68) and 6000 m(r = 0.71) in elite rowers.

Early studies reported that the concentration of intramuscular carnosine, anserine and related

compounds were higher in the muscles of animals who had a high capacity to complete

anaerobic work, or who regularly experienced periods of hypoxia, such as whales that were

submerged for long periods of time (Abe, 2000). This relationship has also been supported in

humans, where type II (fast‐twitch) muscle fibres have been shown to contain higher

concentrations of carnosine (Harris, Dunnett, & Greenhaff, 1998; Hill et al., 2007; Kendrick et

al., 2009). Further evidence that supports this relationship is the fact that athletes in

power/strength based sports have been found to have higher intramuscular carnosine

concentrations than endurance based athletes or untrained individuals (Parkhouse, McKenzie,

Hochachka, & Ovalle, 1985; Tallon, Harris, Boobis, Fallowfield, & Wise, 2005). However, since

current research would suggest that acute training has little effect on intramuscular carnosine

concentrations (Harris et al., 2012; Kendrick et al., 2008), it could be suggested that an

athlete’s decision to compete in a power or endurance sport may be possibly influenced by

their inherent buffering capacity that is genetically determined.

Importantly, several alternate functions of carnosine within the human body have the

potential to improve exercise performance, although to date these mechanisms have yet to be

explored in detail. One possible ergogenic mechanism that could improve exercise

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performance is via the increased sensitivity of the calcium release channels and contractile

apparatus to calcium, which may prevent a decline in the force production of the muscle

(Batrukova & Rubstov, 1997; Dutka & Lamb, 2004; Dutka, Lamboley, McKenna, Murphy, &

Lamb, 2012; Lamont & Miller, 1992; Rubstov, 2001; Zapata‐Sudo, Sudo, Lin, & Nelson, 1997).

Other mechanisms include possible vasodilatory and protective effects due to the role of

carnosine as a multifunctional antioxidant within the body (Boldyrev & Severin, 1990; Kohen,

Yamamoto, Cundy, & Ames, 1988; Ririe, Roberts, Shouse, & Zaloga, 2000). The exact impact

these particular mechanisms have on exercise performance remains to be elucidated, while

the buffering effects of carnosine appear to be the most probable (major) factor affecting

exercise performance.

Optimal Use

Duration of Supplementation

To date, most investigators have had participants ingest beta‐alanine daily for a period of four

weeks. However, there is no conclusive evidence that four weeks is the optimal period

required for muscle carnosine to reach peak ergogenic concentrations. Certainly, current

research suggests that four weeks is sufficient time to increase intramuscular carnosine to

levels that begin to show improvements in exercise performance (Derave et al., 2010; Hill et

al., 2007; Hoffman, Ratamess, Faigenbaum, et al., 2008; Hoffman, Ratamess, Ross, et al., 2008;

Zoeller, Stout, O'Kroy, Torok, & Mielke, 2007). It has been reported that intramuscular

carnosine concentrations and total beta‐alanine consumed are linearly related (Stellingwerff,

Decombaz, Harris, & Boesch, 2012). However, whether this relationship is the same where

exercise performance is concerned remains to be elucidated. Hill et al. (2007) reported a (non‐

significant) linear relationship between intramuscular carnosine concentrations and exercise

performance (cycle capacity test at 110% of previously achieved maximum power output; 2 – 3

min) from 0 – 10 weeks, but it must be noted that this relationship was only measured in 5

(out of 13) participants that had supplemented with beta‐alanine. When changes in

performance for the whole sample over the length of the study are considered, it becomes less

certain that this linear relationship exists because the improvements in exercise performance

were of a smaller magnitude from weeks 4 to 10. For example, total work done (TWD)

improved by 13% by the fourth week but only by a further 3% by the tenth week. The same

can be seen for time to exhaustion (TTE), where times improved by 12% by the fourth week

but only by a further 4% by the tenth week. Therefore, further research is required to examine

this relationship and its relative strength.

23

Dose

To date, the most common doses of beta‐alanine trialled by researchers have been 3 to 6

g∙day‐1 for approximately 4 weeks, with results demonstrating significant positive increases in

intramuscular carnosine concentrations of between 20 – 60% (Baguet, Bourgois, et al., 2010;

Baguet et al., 2009; Derave et al., 2007; Harris et al., 2006; Hill et al., 2007; Kendrick et al.,

2008; Kendrick et al., 2009). Further, a recent meta‐analysis by Hobson et al. (2012) reported

that a median dose of 5.12 g∙day‐1 (179 g total) resulted in a mean improvement in exercise

performance of 2.9%. Further, it has been reported that the total dose (amount by duration) of

beta‐alanine ingested was likely to be the deciding factor in the amount of intramuscular

carnosine synthesized. Therefore, the percentage increase in intramuscular carnosine

concentrations can be predicted by the equation y = 0.1461x + 16.5 (Stellingwerff, Anwander,

et al., 2012; Stellingwerff, Decombaz, et al., 2012). See table 1 for a summary of reported

intramuscular carnosine concentrations elicited by beta‐alanine supplementation.

While ingestion of large, acute doses of beta‐alanine (i.e. ˃ 40 mg∙kg‐1BM) has not been

reported to affect exercise performance, it can result in mild cases of paraesthesia, which has

been described as an irritation of the skin and as a prickly sensation, which begins within 20

min of ingestion and lasts for up to 1 h. This side effect typically first affects the ears, forehead

and scalp, followed by the upper trunk, the arms, the back of the hands and finally the base of

the spine and buttocks (Harris et al., 2006). These side effects can be avoided or minimized by

serially loading with smaller doses of beta‐alanine over a 24 h period. Recently, Derave et al.

(2010) recommended a maximum single dose of approximately 1 g every 2 h to avoid any side

effects. Furthermore, a number of researchers have utilised a slow release beta‐alanine

formulation such as Carnosyn™ (Natural Alternatives International Inc., U.S.A.) or

SportsControl®Bèta‐alanine Fast (Verdepharma, Belgium), as opposed to the pure powder,

which appears to be the best way to maximise the dosage that can be tolerated, whilst

avoiding any of the possible side effects (Derave et al., 2007; Hill et al., 2007; Hoffman,

Ratamess, Faigenbaum, et al., 2008; Hoffman, Ratamess, Ross, et al., 2008; Kendrick et al.,

2008; Kendrick et al., 2009; Stout et al., 2007; Zoeller et al., 2007). Recently, it was reported

that ingesting an acute 1.6 g dose of slow release tablets (Carnosyn™) resulted in negligible

(low or very low) side effects, a lower peak plasma concentration, delayed time to peak levels,

lower loss in urine and greater retention than an equivalent dose of pure beta‐alanine

(Décombaz, Beaumont, Vuichoud, Bouisset, & Stellingwerff, 2012). Also, reported side effects

seem to be related to the peak in plasma beta‐alanine. Our own research and discussion with

colleagues suggests that anything that slows the release of each dose, such as taking the dose

24

with a meal, would be recommended for athletes supplementing with beta‐alanine, to further

slow the release rate and therefore minimise side effects.

Interestingly, Baguet et al. (2010) recently reported that increases in intramuscular carnosine

concentrations post beta‐alanine supplementation were larger and positively correlated with

the pre‐supplementation carnosine concentrations of participants. This finding offers some

explanation as to why some people appear to be higher responders to beta‐alanine

supplementation (Baguet, Bourgois, et al., 2010; Baguet et al., 2009). However, further

investigation into whether genetics or other factors are the main determinants of the

carnosine concentrations found in these participants is required.

25

Table 1. Effect of beta‐alanine supplementation on intramuscular carnosine concentrations.

Study (Year) Sample Size

Dosage Duration of

Supplementation Δ Carnosine (vastus lateralis unless otherwise stated) Side Effects

Harris et al. (2006)

16 males (P n = 8, BA n = 8)

Dosage I : 800 mg 4/day =

3.2g∙day‐1 Dosage II : week 1=4g∙day‐1, week 2=4.8g∙day‐1, week 3= 5.6g∙day‐1, week 4=6.4g.day‐1

4 weeks Dosage I : +42.1% Pre: 19.58±1.66 Post: 27.38±1.33 mmol∙kg‐1

DM

Dosage II : +64.2% Pre: 24.23±2.36 Post: 35.27±2.76 mmol∙kg‐1 DM

Some mild, infrequent paraesthesia

Derave et al. (2007)

15 males (P n = 7, BA n = 8)

2.4 g∙day‐1 first 4 days, 3.6 g∙day‐1 next 4 days, 4.8 g∙day‐1 until completion

4 – 5 weeks + 47% soleus Pre: 7.76±1.36 Post: 11.39±1.38 mmol∙L‐1 + 37% gastrocnemius Pre: 10.16±1.91 Post: 13.92 mmol∙L‐1

None reported

Hill et al. (2007)

25 males (P n = 12, BA n = 13)

Week 1 = 4.0 g∙day‐1,Week

2 = 4.8 g∙day‐1,Week 3 = 5.6

g∙day‐1,Week 4 = 6.4 g∙day‐1,Week 5 ‐10 = 6.4 g∙day‐1

4 or 10 weeks Pre: 19.9±1.9 mmol.kg‐1DM

4 weeks : +58.8%; 30.1±2.3 mmol∙kg‐1DM

10 weeks : +80.1%; 34.7±3.7 mmol∙kg‐1DM

Some mild, infrequent paraesthesia

Kendrick et al. (2008)

26 males (P n = 13, BA n = 13)

6.4 g∙day‐1 split into 8 doses 4 weeks + 52.2% Isokinetically trained leg Pre: 21.6±7.8 mmol∙kg‐1DM

Post: 31.3±6.9 mmol∙kg‐1DM

+ 28.3% Leg with no training Pre: 25.2±3.9 mmol∙kg‐1DM Post:

31.8±5.7 mmol∙kg‐1DM

None reported

Kendrick et al. (2009)

14 males (P n = 7, BA n = 7)

6.4 g∙day‐1 split into 8 doses 4 weeks + 59% Pre: 23.96±5.94 Post: 36.77±8.26 mmol∙kg‐1DM None reported

Baguet et al. (2009)

15 males (P n = 7, BA n = 8)

2.4 g∙day‐1 first 2 days, 3.6 g∙day‐1 next 2 days, 4.8 g∙day‐1 until completion

5 – 6 weeks

+ 39% soleus Pre: 5.63±0.94 mmol∙L‐1 Post: 7.83±1.74 mmol∙L‐1

+ 23% gastrocnemius Pre: 7.66±1.37 mmol∙L‐1 Post: 9.45±1.78 mmol∙L‐1

+ 27% tibialis anterior Pre: 6.25±1.11 mmol∙L‐1 Post: 7.93±1.70

None reported

26

mmol∙L‐1 Baguet et al. (2010)

16 males, 1 female (P n = 9, BA n = 8)

5 g∙day‐1 7 weeks + 45.3% soleus Pre: 3.13 mmol∙L‐1 Post: 4.55 mmol∙L‐1 + 28.2% gastrocnemius Pre: 4.57 mmol∙L‐1 Post: 5.86 mmol∙L‐1

None reported

Stellingwerff et al. (2012)

31 males (P n = 10, BA low dose n = 11, BA high dose n = 10)

Low – 1.6 g.day‐1

High – 3.6 g.day‐1 for first 4 weeks then 1.6 g.day‐1 until 8 weeks

8 weeks Tibialis anterior Pre: 5.75±1.09 mmol∙L‐1 2 weeks: Low ‐ +11.8%, 6.43 mmol.L‐1; High ‐ +17.4%, 6.75 mmol.L‐1 4 weeks: Low ‐ +19.5%, 6.87 mmol.L‐1; High ‐ +35.5%, 7.79 mmol.L‐1 8 weeks: Low ‐ +35.5%, 7.79 mmol.L‐1; High ‐ +44.5%, 8.31 mmol.L‐1 Gastrocnemius Pre: 8.84±1.54 mmol.L‐1 2 weeks: Low ‐ +8.1%, 9.56 mmol.L‐1; High ‐ +9.7%, 9.70 mmol.L‐1 4 weeks: Low ‐ +9.0%, 9.64 mmol.L‐1; High ‐ +19.8%, 10.59 mmol.L‐1 8 weeks: Low ‐ +21.9%, 10.78 mmol.L‐1; High ‐ +30.3%, 11.52 mmol.L‐1

NS between groups

BA = beta‐alanine, P = placebo, DM = dry muscle

27

Washout

As beta‐alanine combines with histidine to form carnosine within the muscles, it is important

to consider the metabolism and washout time of carnosine in vivo as this has ramifications for

the duration of any ergogenic effect that may remain following the cessation of beta‐alanine

supplementation, with this being a major consideration for cross‐over research designs.

Research to date has shown that carnosine and its related dipeptides are predominately

hydrolysed by two dipeptidases, serum carnosinase (CN1) and non‐specific cytosolic

dipeptidase (CN2). These are widely expressed throughout the human body, especially in the

kidneys, liver and plasma, whilst concentrations in skeletal muscle are considerably lower

(Boldyrev & Severin, 1990; Janssen et al., 2005; Otani, Okumura, Hashida‐Okumura, & Nagai,

2005; Teufel et al., 2003). Once hydrolysed into its constituent components (beta‐alanine and

histidine), these elements are thought to be metabolised in the kidneys, then excreted in the

urine (Boldyrev & Severin, 1990), although more confirmatory research evidence is needed.

The relatively low concentrations of carnosinase in skeletal muscle may help explain why

Baguet et al. (2009) reported that intramuscular concentrations were still significantly

increased compared to baseline levels 3 weeks after cessation of supplementation with 4.8

g∙day‐1 of beta‐alanine. In fact, concentrations had only decreased by 0.57 mmol∙L‐1 after 3

weeks and took until the ninth week to return to levels that were not significantly greater than

baseline. Recently, Stellingwerff et al. (2012) reported that following beta‐alanine

supplementation (3.6 g∙day‐1 for the first 4 weeks, then 1.6 g∙day‐1 for 4 weeks or 1.6 g∙day‐1 for

8 weeks) intramuscular carnosine concentrations declined at a rate of 0.09 – 0.22 mmol∙kg‐1

WW per week (~ 2 – 3%) and 40% of the increase remained following an 8 week washout

period. Interestingly, Baguet et al. (2009) also separated the sample into high responders

(carnosine increased by > 30%) and low responders (carnosine increased by < 30%) and found

that (based upon the fairly linear decline in the muscle carnosine profile), it would take 14.6

and 6.5 weeks respectively, for intramuscular carnosine concentrations to return to pre‐

supplementation levels. This is an area that requires further research so that researchers have

more information available in order to effectively perform crossover research design

performance studies.

Sport Specific Ergogenic Potential

Short, Intense Exercise Performance

Sprint efforts lasting approximately 1 – 3 min, where H+ production is often greatest,

represents an area of recent interest in regards to the ergogenic potential of beta‐alanine

28

supplementation. For example, Hill et al. (2007) and Sale et al. (2011) reported similar

improvements (12 – 13%) in TWD and TTE in participants completing a 2 – 3 min cycle test at

110% of their peak power output, following ~ 6 g∙day‐1 of beta‐alanine ingestion for 4 weeks.

Further, Sale et al. (2011) reported further improvements of 5.7% (TWD) and 4.1% (TTE)

respectively, with the addition of an acute dose of sodium bicarbonate (0.2 g∙kg‐1BM 4 h and

0.1 g∙kg‐1BM 2 h prior to the post‐test). Although this result was non‐significant, it poses the

question of whether supplementing with sodium bicarbonate to improve the blood buffering

capacity of the body could provide additional ergogenic benefit to exercise performance when

combined with serial beta‐alanine supplementation. In contrast, Hoffman et al. (2008)

reported no significant difference in exercise performance (peak, mean and average power)

following beta‐alanine supplementation in American football players completing a Wingate

assessment (60 s cycling ergometer sprint). However, the researchers noted a trend for slower

fatigue rates in athletes who had ingested beta‐alanine.

Sustained high‐intensity efforts lasting approximately 3 – 6 min are required in sporting events

such as rowing, kayaking and middle distance running and place a large demand on both the

anaerobic and aerobic energy systems. Recently, Baguet et al. (2010) investigated whether

beta‐alanine supplementation could potentially delay acidosis and therefore change the

oxygen uptake kinetics of participants completing 6 min of cycling at 50% of the difference

between ventilatory threshold (VT) and VO2peak. They reported that although beta‐alanine did

not improve oxygen uptake kinetics in any practically significant way, participants had a 19%

smaller change in plasma pH throughout the exercise period compared to the placebo group.

This potentially could allow exercise to continue for longer or at a higher intensity before

acidosis became a limiting factor for performance. Interestingly, Bellinger et al. (2012)

reported no significant improvement in power output or total work (~ + 1.5%) during a 4 min

cycling time trial (TT) following 4 weeks of beta‐alanine supplementation, despite reporting

improvements of ~ 3% following an acute dose of sodium bicarbonate. Importantly, if a 1.5%

improvement had been reported over a similar distance to that covered in 4 min (e.g. ~ 1500

m run) then the improvement could approximate a faster race time of 3 – 4 s, which is similar

to results reported by Baguet et al. (2010) in rowers completing a 2000 m rowing ergometer

race (2.7 s faster).

Some studies have explored the effect of beta‐alanine supplementation on competition style,

sport specific tests. Derave et al. (2007) reported that ingesting beta‐alanine had no significant

effect on performance of a 400 m running race, but it may be suggested that any ergogenic

effects of beta‐alanine supplementation (e.g. improved buffering) may be less during supra‐

maximal, short exercise efforts where prolonged accumulation of H+ does not have time to

29

occur. Baguet et al. (2010) explored the effect of supplementing with 5 g∙day‐1 of beta‐alanine

for 7 weeks on 2000 m rowing performance in elite rowers. They reported that despite not

reaching statistical significance (p = 0.07), the improvement in rowing performance of 2.7 s

was practically significant and furthermore, changes in muscle carnosine concentrations and

performance improvements following supplementation were positively correlated (r = 0.50).

Recently, Hobson et al. (2012) published a meta‐analysis on beta‐alanine supplementation that

reported significant improvements in exercise performance efforts lasting 60 – 240 s. It should

be noted that the majority of studies that showed improvement were classified as exercise

capacity tests rather than exercise performance tests. However, it was noted that there were

relatively few specific exercise performance tests included in the analysis. More specific

research is needed to examine the benefits of beta‐alanine supplementation on actual

sporting events.

Aerobic Capacity and Endurance Exercise Performance

Early research by both Stout et al. (2007) and Zoeller et al. (2007) investigated the ergogenic

benefits of loading with a slightly higher average dose of beta‐alanine (6.4 g∙day‐1, ~ 80 mg∙kg‐

1BM) on cycle VO2max tests. They found that VT, power output at lactate threshold, TTE and the

physical working capacity at fatigue threshold improved significantly and hypothesized that

this was due to the improved intramuscular buffering capacity of the athletes. Further, Jordan

et al. (2010) reported delays in the onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA), as indicated by

increases in heart rate (HR) and %HRmax at OBLA, in runners completing a running graded

exercise test (GXT). From this research it could be hypothesized that improved buffering

capacity following beta‐alanine supplementation could lead to improved endurance exercise

performance if the intensity is sufficient to utilise some energy from anaerobic glycolytic

pathways. In the only study published that reported how these effects may translate to

changes in endurance exercise performance, Van Thienen et al. (2009) reported that eight

weeks of supplementation with an average dose of 3.5 g∙day‐1 was ineffective at improving the

cycling performance of trained cyclists completing a combined 110 min simulated road race

and a 10 min TT. In contrast, peak power and mean power were improved by 11.4% and 5.0%

respectively, in a 30 s all out sprint finish following the 110 min road race and 10 min TT. It may

be that the low average dose of 3.5 g∙day‐1 was not sufficient to provide any ergogenic effect in

the long endurance phase of the race simulation, although performance was improved in the

30 s sprint immediately following this. Although current research is limited, these studies

provide some evidence for future research to be directed towards investigating the ergogenic

potential of beta‐alanine with regards to long‐term endurance exercise performances where

30

high‐intensity exercise efforts are part of the overall bout, especially in sports such as cycling

where there may be frequent changes in speed.

Repeated Sprint Exercise Performance

To date, studies investigating the effects of beta‐alanine supplementation on repeated‐sprint

ability (RSA) have reported little ergogenic effect (Hoffman, Ratamess, Faigenbaum, et al.,

2008; Saunders, Sale, Harris, & Sunderland, 2012; Sweeney, Wright, Brice, & Doberstein,

2010). For example, Saunders et al. (2012) found no benefit of beta‐alanine supplementation

in both elite and non‐elite team‐sport players performing the Loughborough Intermittent

Shuttle Test. Sweeney et al. (2010) also reported no improvement in average power output

and TWD in healthy males completing sprints on a non‐motorised treadmill. However, the

sprint duration (5 s) and rest times (45 s between sprints) used in this protocol were not typical

of those seen in team‐sport match play (Spencer, Bishop, Dawson, & Goodman, 2005; Spencer

et al., 2004). Conversely, Hoffman et al. (2008) reported a trend for a lower fatigue rate in

American football players completing a repeated line drill following beta‐alanine

supplementation. Similar to the study by Sweeney et al. (2010), their protocol also did not

match the typical requirements of team‐sport match play. Whether results would be different

if exercise performance involved repeated, short duration sprints separated by brief recovery

times that typically characterise match play in team‐sports is unclear. More research is

required to investigate whether beta‐alanine can have ergogenic effects on RSA, particularly

on exercise tests of longer duration (˃ 60 min) that closely mimic the exercise requirements of

team‐sport match play. See Table 2 for a summary of the effects of beta‐alanine

supplementation on exercise performance.

31

Table 2. Effect of beta‐alanine supplementation on exercise performance.

Study (Year) Participants Beta‐Alanine Dosage Duration of

Supplementation Exercise Mode/ Duration/Parameters

Performance Change


16 males, 1 female

(P n = 9, BA n = 8)

5 g∙day‐1 7 weeks 2000 m rowing ergometer race NS ↓ 2.7 s


14 males (P n = 7, BA n = 7)

2.4 g first 2 days, 3.6 g next 2 days, 4.8 g∙day‐1 until completion

4 weeks

Cycle test: 6 min at 50% diff.

between VT and VO2peak I – Blood markers; HLa‐, Bicarbonate, pH, base excess II – Change pH: baseline ‐ 6 min

III – VO2 kinetics

IV – VO2, VCO2, VE

I – NS II – 19.0% lower in BA III ‐ ↑ me delay fast

component of VO2 IV – NS

Bellinger et al. (2012)

14 males (P n = 7, BA n = 7)

65 mg∙kg‐1BM 4 weeks 4 min cycle TT I – average power II – total work

I – NS 1.6% II – NS 1.5%

Derave et al. (2007)

15 male track and field

athletes (P n = 7, BA n = 8)

2.4 g first 4 days, 3.6 g next 4 days, 4.8 g∙day‐1 until completion

4 – 5 weeks 400 m running race NS

Hill et al. (2007) 25 males (P n = 12, BA n =

13)

Week 1: 4.0 g∙day‐1 Week 2: 4.8 g∙day‐1 Weeks 3: 5.6 g∙day‐1 Week 4: 6.4 g∙day‐1

Weeks 5 – 10: 6.4 g∙day‐1

4 or 10 weeks

Cycle capacity test at 110% Wmax (~ 2 – 3 min) I ‐ TWD (Ia, 4 week; Ib, 10 week) II ‐ TTE (IIa, 4 week; IIb, 10 week)

Ia ‐ ↑ 13.0% Ib ‐ ↑ 16.2% IIa ‐ ↑ 11.8% IIb ‐ ↑ 15.9%

Hoffman et al. (2008)

26 male American Footballers (P/BA n =

unreported)

4.5 g∙day‐1 4 weeks (3 weeks pre‐season and 9 day training camp)

I – Modified Wingate anaerobic power test (60 s cycle ergometer sprint) II – Repeated line drill (3 x 200 yd. total each; 2 min rest)

I – NS Trend for slower fatigue rate II – NS

32

Jordan et al. (2010)

17 males (P n = 8, BA n = 9)

6.0 g∙day‐1 4 weeks

Running GXT

I – VO2max

II – % VO2max@OBLA III – HR@OBLA IV – %HRmax@OBLA

I – 6.0% II – 8.6% III – 6.9% IV – 5.6%

Sale et al. (2011) 20 males (P n = 10, BA n =

10) 6.4 g∙day‐1 4 weeks

Cycle capacity test at 110% Wmax (~ 2 – 3 min) I ‐ TWD II ‐ TTE

I – TWD ↑ 12.7% II – TTE – ↑ 12.1%

Saunders et al. (2012)

36 males (elite P n = 8, BA n = 8; non‐elite P n = 10, BA n = 10)

3.2 g∙day‐1 4 weeks Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test

Elite – NS Non‐elite – NS

Stout et al. (2007)

22 females (P n = 11, BA n =

11)

Days 1 – 7: 3.2 g∙day‐1 Days 8 – 28: 6.4 g∙day‐1

28 days

Cycle ergometer GXT

I ‐ VO2max II ‐ Ventilatory threshold (VT) III ‐ Physical work capacity at fatigue threshold (PWCFT) IV – TTE

I ‐ VO2max NS II ‐ VT ↑ 13.9% III ‐ PWCFT ↑ 12.6% IV ‐ TTE ↑ 2.5%

Sweeney et al. (2010)

20 males (P n = 10, BA n =

10)

Week 1: 4 g∙day‐1 Weeks 2 – 5: 6 g∙day‐1

5 weeks

2 sets of 5 x 5 s running sprints 45 s rest between. 2 min between sets I – Horizontal power – Peak II – Horizontal power – Mean III – Performance decrement %

I – NS II – NS III – NS

Van Thienen et al. (2009)

17 males (P n = 8, BA n = 9)

Weeks 1 and 2: 2.0 g∙day‐1 Weeks 3 and 4: 3.0 g∙day‐1 Weeks 5 ‐ 8: 4.0 g∙day‐1

8 weeks 110 min simulated cycle race followed by 10 min TT followed by 30 s all out sprint

Cycle race – NS 10 min TT – NS 30 s sprint – Peak power ↑ 11.4%; mean power ↑ 5.0%

33

Zoeller et al. (2007)

27 males (P n = 13, BA n =

14) NOTE: Also had Creatine and BA+Creatine groups. Not

included here.

Days 1 – 6: 6.4 g.day‐1 Days 7 – 28: 3.2 g.day‐1

28 days

Cycle ergometer GXT

I – VO2peak

II – LT (VO2 L.min‐1)

III – LT (W)

IV – LT (%VO2peak)

V – VT (VO2 L.min‐1)

VI – VT (W)

VII – VT (%VO2peak) VIII – TTE

I – NS II – NS III – ↑ 8.8% IV – NS V – NS VI – NS ↑ 9.5% VII – NS ↑ 7.1% VIII – NS ↑ 3.8%

BA = beta‐alanine, P = placebo, NS = not significant, GXT = graded exercise test, TWD = total work done, TTE = time to exhaustion, LT = lactate

threshold, VT = ventilatory threshold.

34

Beta‐alanine and Training

Even if the ergogenic effect of beta‐alanine supplementation on exercise performance is small,

it is still possible that when these small differences are accumulated over an extended training

period, some additive benefit may occur and subsequent exercise performance may be

improved. Currently, research into the effect of beta‐alanine supplementation on training

performance, and then on subsequent competition performance, is limited. To date, mixed

results have been reported by researchers following serial supplementation with beta‐alanine

during weight and high‐intensity interval training (HIIT) (Derave et al., 2007; Hoffman,

Ratamess, Faigenbaum, et al., 2008; Hoffman, Ratamess, Ross, et al., 2008; Kendrick et al.,

2008; Smith et al., 2009; Walter et al., 2010). While several studies have reported possible

improvements in training exercise performance (Hoffman, Ratamess, Faigenbaum, et al., 2008;

Hoffman, Ratamess, Ross, et al., 2008), it remains to be determined whether these small

improvements translate to subsequent improvements in sporting performance.

Muscular Strength, Endurance and Resistance Training

Resistance exercise and high‐intensity training leads to significant increases in H+

concentrations in the working muscles, which in turn could be buffered by carnosine and

therefore improve exercise performance and aid recovery between sets. In training this could

lead to greater volumes of exercise being completed and a greater training load stimulus,

which could lead to greater adaptation and improved performance. To date, several

researchers have investigated possible ergogenic benefits that could result from

supplementation with beta‐alanine.

Derave et al. (2007) were the first researchers to publish results of the effect of beta‐alanine

supplementation on muscular endurance and strength. They reported that 4 – 5 weeks of

beta‐alanine supplementation (4.8 g∙day‐1) significantly improved average knee extensor

torque in all 5 bouts of 30 continuous maximal isokinetic knee extensions (1 min rest between

bouts), compared to pre‐supplementation levels. Notably, isometric knee extensor endurance

assessed at a knee angle of 45° at 45% maximal voluntary contraction was seemingly

unaffected by the beta‐alanine supplementation. This could be due to the fact that the muscle

acidosis would be expected to be higher following 5 bouts of 30 maximal contractions

separated by only 1 min of rest when compared with a single isometric endurance test lasting

approximately 3 – 3.5 min. This higher H+ level could potentially be buffered more effectively

with higher intramuscular carnosine concentrations.

35

More recently, Kendrick et al. (2008) investigated the combined effect of beta‐alanine and

strength training in order to identify whether beta‐alanine had any additive effects beyond

results achieved with strength training alone. The researchers tracked the whole body strength

(WBS: as assessed by 1 RM squat, dead lift and bench press), isokinetic leg extensor strength

and an upper arm curl test to fatigue in 26 males during 10 weeks of strength training (4 times

per week to concentric failure and with progressive overload built into the 10 week program).

Beta‐alanine (6.4 g∙day‐1) or a placebo dose was supplemented for 4 weeks during the 10 week

training block. Each of the variables improved following the 10 week training block in both

groups, although no significant differences existed between them. Interestingly, a consistent

(slight) increase in WBS and number of repetitions in the arm curl test were seen in the beta‐

alanine group compared to the placebo group (WBS; beta‐alanine + 50.6 ± 11.6 kg, placebo +

46.4 ± 19.3 kg and arm curl test; beta‐alanine + 7.6 ± 4.7 repetitions, placebo + 6.7 ± 5.4

repetitions, respectively). It is possible that if these small changes continued for longer than a

10 week training program, significant differences in performance may have eventually become

apparent.

Similarly, Hoffman et al. (2008) recruited eight experienced weight trainers to complete a

double‐blinded, crossover study comprising 3 x 4 week blocks whilst supplementing with

either beta‐alanine or a placebo in the first block, followed by a washout period in the middle

block and then the opposing supplement in the final block. Strength testing (1 RM squat,

power output during 6 sets x 12 reps x 70% 1 RM squat) was performed at the beginning and

end of each 4 week supplementation block. Participants were required to keep a training diary

summarising their resistance training load and intensity (4 sessions per week) over the 12

week period. Significantly, an improvement in the change in mean power output during the 6

sets x 12 reps x 70% 1 RM squats of 10.5% was reported. However, despite this being the sole

indicator of performance improvements during the strength testing, significant differences

were reported between groups in training volume (higher with beta‐alanine supplementation).

All of these findings taken together suggest that greater improvement in performance was

demonstrated during training, as opposed to just post‐supplementation testing. However, the

crossover design of this study had only a single month washout period, whereas recent

research suggests that this period may need to be closer to 12 weeks (Baguet et al., 2009).

Furthermore, the lack of difference in repetitions completed between groups prior to starting

the second testing period suggests that any difference in muscle carnosine levels following the

washout period may have been insufficient to improve exercise performance at that time

point.

36

Hoffman et al. (2008) monitored the progression in strength and training completed by 26

male American footballers over 3 weeks of a summer strength and conditioning program, and

assessed the effects of supplementing with a 4.5 g∙day‐1 dose of beta‐alanine during a

preseason training camp in the week following the program. Researchers reviewed athletes’

training diaries following three training sessions during the camp and calculated the intensity

(% 1 RM) and volume (number of repetitions x number of sets) of squats and bench press

exercises completed. No significant differences existed in training intensity between the

placebo and beta‐alanine groups. However, training volume showed more positive results,

with the volume of bench presses completed in the first of three sessions being significantly

increased with beta‐alanine supplementation, whilst overall volume of training (+ 9.2%)

completed in both the bench press and squat exercises tended to also be improved.

Supplementing with beta‐alanine may improve the training load stimulus of

resistance/strength training by increasing the volume of training that athletes can complete.

Further research is needed to assess whether these benefits can contribute to greater

development of strength, power and lean muscle mass if training is performed over a longer

period.

High‐Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) and Beta‐alanine Supplementation

Several studies have investigated the effects of beta‐alanine supplementation on endurance

exercise capacity following 6 week HIIT programs involving 5 x 2 min cycle ergometer sprints of

undulating intervals at ≥ 90% VO2peak, with 1 min rest between sets. Smith et al. (2009) utilised

neuromuscular markers, namely the electromyographic fatigue threshold and efficiency of

electrical activity to determine if beta‐alanine supplementation (6 g∙day‐1 for the first 3 weeks

and then 3 g∙day‐1 of beta‐alanine for the following 6 weeks) could delay neuromuscular

fatigue during a 4 x 2 min cycle GXT. On completion of testing, the researchers concluded that

HIIT was the primary stimulus for the improvement in exercise performance and that beta‐

alanine supplementation during the training offered no additional benefits to the exercise

performance due to the similar results achieved post‐testing for the beta‐alanine and placebo

groups.

In another study that used a similar training protocol and dosage of beta‐alanine, it was

reported that beta‐alanine supplementation provided no additional benefits to exercise

performance during a cycle ergometer GXT to exhaustion following training (Walter et al.,

2010). Both VO2peak and power output at the VT were not significantly different between the

placebo and beta‐alanine groups. Importantly, it has been shown that four weeks or longer of

supplementation with beta‐alanine is the usual duration needed to see improved carnosine

37

concentrations of the magnitude that are required to elicit any possible exercise performance

benefits. It is possible that performance improvements during training would only be seen in

the last few weeks of the six week training programs of these studies, and as such, there was

insufficient time for the beta‐alanine group to adapt to a greater level than the placebo group

and show a greater magnitude of improvement in exercise performance.

Future research should investigate exercise performance in participants who commence a

training program having pre‐loaded with beta‐alanine. Additionally, research should

investigate exercise performance over a longer training period/program that may allow more

time for any small, incremental improvements in performance to become evident.

Conclusions and Future Directions for Research

Whilst research investigating the effects of beta‐alanine on exercise performance is in its

infancy, there is a growing body of evidence that suggests that improving the intramuscular

concentrations of carnosine by ingesting 3 – 6 g∙day‐1 of beta‐alanine over a period of at least 4

weeks may result in an ergogenic effect in several exercise modalities.

Benefits of using beta‐alanine supplementation during strength/resistance training include

improvements in the volume of training completed and possibly improved performance post‐

training. There is also the possibility of performance benefits in endurance events where

improvements in TTE and lactate/ventilatory markers have been reported. These are areas

that require further research to determine whether any consistent benefits to exercise

performance exist following a period of supplementation. Often, single and repeated‐sprint

efforts show the least statistically significant differences in performance following

supplementation with ergogenic aids, with only very small differences often present in these

types of performance tests. Therefore, it is important to perform further research in this area

in regards to the effect of beta‐alanine supplementation. Overall, more race event specific

data is required so that practical recommendations can be made to coaching staff and athletes

regarding the use of this supplement.

38

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45

CHAPTER THREE

Study One

Effect of beta‐alanine supplementation on 2000 m rowing ergometer performance

Journal article published in the International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise

Metabolism

Presented here in the journal format

Running Title: Beta‐alanine and rowing performance

46

Abstract

Beta‐alanine supplementation has been shown to improve exercise performance in short‐term

high‐intensity efforts. However, whether supplementation with beta‐alanine is ergogenic to

actual sporting events remains unclear and should be investigated in field testing or race

simulations. Purpose: The aim of this study was to assess if beta‐alanine supplementation

could improve 2000 m rowing ergometer performance in well‐trained male rowers. Methods:

Participants (n = 16) completed duplicate trials (2 x pre‐supplementation and 2 x post‐

supplementation) of a 2000 m rowing ergometer race, separated by 28 days of either beta‐

alanine (n = 7; 80 mg∙kg‐1BM∙day‐1) or placebo (n = 9; glucose) supplementation. Results: Beta‐

alanine group (pooled) race times improved by 2.9 ± 4.1 s and placebo group slowed by 1.2 ±

2.9 s, but these results were inconclusive for performance enhancement (p = 0.055, ES = 0.20,

SWC = 49% beneficial). Race split times and average power outputs only significantly improved

with beta‐alanine at the 750 m (time ‐ 0.7 s, p = 0.01, power + 3.6%, p = 0.03) and 1000 m

(time ‐ 0.5 s, p = 0.01, power + 2.9%, p = 0.02) distances. Blood La‐ and pH values post‐race

were not different between groups before or after supplementation. Conclusions: Overall, 28

days of beta‐alanine supplementation with 80 mg∙kg‐1BM∙day‐1 (~ 7 g∙dayˉ¹) did not

conclusively improve 2000 m rowing ergometer performance in well‐trained rowers.

47

Introduction

Completing a 2000 m rowing race in ~ 6 – 8 min requires a significant energy supply from both

aerobic and anaerobic sources to maintain the necessary high power output over the full

distance. Utilising the anaerobic glycolytic energy system can result in rapid rises in H+ levels,

leading to a decline in the pH of body fluids, which has been linked with fatigue (Bangsbo &

Juel, 2006; Spangenburg, Ward, & Williams, 1998).

Beta‐alanine (a beta‐amino acid) has received recent interest due to its potential effects on

muscle pH and exercise performance when loaded with over several weeks. Beta‐alanine is the

rate limiting element for carnosine production, a significant H+ buffer found within muscle

fibres (pKa = 6.83). Higher muscle carnosine concentrations may also benefit exercise

performance by increasing the sensitivity to calcium of muscle fibres and calcium release

channels (Dutka & Lamb, 2004; Dutka et al., 2012), enhancing vessel vasodilatory effects (Ririe,

Roberts, Shouse, & Zaloga, 2000) and by its antioxidant properties (Kohen, Yamamoto, Cundy,

& Ames, 1988).

Supplementing with doses of beta‐alanine ranging from 3 – 6 g∙day‐1 (~ 40 – 80 mg∙kg‐1BM∙day‐

1) for at least 4 weeks has increased intramuscular carnosine concentrations by 30 – 80%

(Baguet et al., 2009; Derave et al., 2007; Harris et al., 2006). Higher carnosine levels can

increase muscle buffer capacity and potentially improve exercise performance in events

requiring significant energy contributions from anaerobic glycolysis (Abe, 2000; Derave et al.,

2007; Suzuki, Ito, Takahashi, & Takamatsu, 2002, 2004). Recently, Baguet et al. (2010a)

reported that higher (without supplementation) intramuscular carnosine concentrations were

positively correlated with rowing ergometer speed over 100 m (r = 0.60), 500 m (r = 0.66),

2000 m (r = 0.68) and 6000 m (r = 0.71) in elite rowers.

Mixed effects of beta‐alanine supplementation on exercise performance have been reported.

Hill et al. (2007) and Sale et al. (2011) reported similar improvements (12 – 13%) in total work

done and time to exhaustion in participants completing a 2 – 3 min cycle test at 110% of their

peak power output, following ~ 6 g∙day‐1 of beta‐alanine ingestion for 4 weeks. In contrast,

Hoffman et al. (2008) reported that beta‐alanine ingestion (4.5 g∙day‐1 for 4 weeks) resulted

only in a trend for slower fatigue rates in American football players completing a 60 s Wingate

sprint, with no significant improvement in power output. Similarly, Derave et al. (2007)

reported no significant improvement in 400 m running race time of competitive track and field

athletes following 4 weeks of beta‐alanine supplementation (4.8 g∙day‐1; ~ 60 mg∙kg‐1BM). A

recent meta‐analysis by Hobson et al. (2012) suggested that any ergogenic benefit of beta‐

alanine supplementation during short (~ 60 s), supra‐maximal exercise efforts may be limited,

48

but that slightly longer high‐intensity (i.e. 2 – 3 min) exercise efforts typically showed positive

results and may justify investigating any potential ergogenic benefit on longer duration (≥ 5

min) efforts.

Currently, limited research has investigated whether beta‐alanine supplementation can

improve sustained high‐intensity performance efforts lasting ~ 3 – 6 min, as would typically be

found in rowing, kayak races and middle distance running. Recently, Bellinger et al. (2012)

found that beta‐alanine supplementation alone (without additional sodium bicarbonate) was

not conclusively ergogenic to performance during a 4 min cycling time‐trial, reporting only that

a ‘possible’ benefit was recorded. Similarly, Baguet et al. (2010a) found that a 2.7 s

improvement in 2000 m rowing ergometer performance in elite rowers after supplementation

with beta‐alanine (5 g∙day‐1 for 7 weeks) was inconclusive (p = 0.07), although changes in

muscle carnosine concentrations and performance improvements following supplementation

were positively correlated (r = 0.50). This same group (Baguet, Koppo, Pottier, & Derave,

2010b) also reported that although beta‐alanine supplementation (4 weeks; 2.4 g on first 2

days, 3.6 g next 2 days, then 4.8 g∙day‐1 until completion) did not improve VO2 kinetics during ~

6 min of high‐intensity cycling, participants supplementing with beta‐alanine had a 19%

smaller change in blood pH throughout exercise than the placebo group. This could potentially

allow exercise to continue for longer or at a higher intensity before metabolic acidosis may

become limiting to performance. As some of the results of Baguet et al. (2010a; 2010b)

suggest potential benefits of beta‐alanine supplementation for high‐intensity exercise of ~ 6

min in duration, further research is required to confirm this possibility.

Therefore, the purpose of this study was to test if supplementation with beta‐alanine could

improve 2000 m rowing ergometer performance in trained rowers. We hypothesized that

supplementing for 28 days with beta‐alanine would lead to significant improvements in rowing

performance.

Materials and Methods

Participants

Eighteen competitive male rowers (Age World Championships n = 6, Australian National

Championships n = 10) were recruited, with 2 later withdrawing due to unrelated injury,

leaving 16 who completed the experimental protocol (mean ± SD; Beta‐alanine group: n = 7,

age 26 ± 9 y, body‐mass 84.0 ± 5.2 kg; height 186.3 ± 3.5 cm, lightweight n = 1, heavyweight n

= 6; placebo group: n = 9, age 26 ± 9 y, body‐mass 82.9 ± 10.4 kg; height 187.3 ± 5.7 cm,

lightweight n = 3, heavyweight n = 6). Participants had not supplemented with any nutritional

49

substances in the preceding three months, or with beta‐alanine for the previous six months. All

were informed of the study requirements, benefits and risks before giving informed consent.

Approval for the study was granted by the research ethics committee of the University of

Western Australia.

Experimental Overview

A randomised, placebo‐controlled study was performed, which consisted of duplicate (one

week apart) trials performed both before and after 28 days of either beta‐alanine or placebo

(glucose) supplementation. Duplicate trials were conducted to moderate any variation

between trials and were performed at the same time of day to control for diurnal variations in

performance.

Participants were tested in the morning or evening depending on their rowing club’s training

schedule, with each athlete matched to another member at their club and this training time

standardised within‐participants across the trials. They abstained from performing any

vigorous exercise and ingesting caffeine 24 h prior to each trial and followed the same dietary

intake on each testing day. Training diaries were completed two days prior to testing through

to the completion of the study, while food diaries were also completed for the two days prior

to each testing session to ensure exercise and dietary compliance prior to each trial.

Trials were performed indoors at the club rowing sheds, with rowing ergometer races

conducted using a Concept II rowing ergometer and slides (Model D, Vermont, U.S.A.) that

were assigned to each athlete and maintained throughout the testing period. Rowing Australia

national guidelines for drag settings were used and checked prior to each trial (lightweight

male = body‐mass < 72.5 kg, drag rating = 105; heavyweight male = body‐mass ˃ 72.5 kg, drag

rating = 115). The computer display on the ergometer was partially covered so that only stroke

rate and distance remaining were visible, to minimise the potential influence of individual

pacing strategies based upon split times displayed. Participants completed their normal warm‐

up prior to each trial, with warm‐up intensities and duration noted, then replicated during

each subsequent trial.

Prior to starting the 2000 m races and immediately upon completion, capillary blood samples

(125 µl) were taken from the earlobe using glass capillary tubes (D957G‐70‐125, Clinitubes,

Radiometer Copenhagen) to assess blood lactate concentration (HLa‐) and pH. Samples were

transported (on ice) back to the laboratory where they were analysed using a blood‐gas

analyser/radiometer (ABL625, Radiometer Copenhagen).

50

Following pre‐supplementation testing, participants were matched for rowing club (to match

training program) and 2000 m times before random assignment to either the beta‐alanine or

placebo group. Beta‐alanine (Carnosyn® slow‐release, Collegiate Sport Nutrition, San Marcos,

California, USA) was administered orally within opaque gelatin capsules for 28 days with a dose

of 80 mg∙kg‐1BM∙day‐1 (~ 6 – 7 g∙day‐1) taken as 4 split doses over each day, whilst the glucose

placebo (10 g∙day‐1 Glucodin, Valeant Pharmaceuticals Australasia, Rhodes, New South Wales,

Australia) was taken similarly to mimic the beta‐alanine supplementation. Prior to the study,

pilot testing for 2 weeks on n = 6 volunteers using this daily dose of beta alanine was well

tolerated, with no side effects being reported. A dose per kg of BM (i.e. 80 mg∙kg‐1BM∙day‐1),

which equated to the absolute amount of beta‐alanine supplemented with in previous studies

(Baguet et al. 2010a and b; Hill et al. 2007 and Sale et al. 2011), was preferred here because of

the mix of light and heavyweight rowers within the sample. Athletes were visited weekly to

distribute supplements, discuss dose compliance and to check on health during the study.

Following 28 days of supplementation, participants returned for post‐supplementation testing,

conducted in an identical manner.

Data Analysis

Total 2000 m time and race average power output were recorded post‐race. Split times,

average power output and stroke rate were recorded every 250 m. Performance results, HLa‐

and pH values for the duplicate pre‐supplementation and post‐supplementation trials were

combined and averaged for each group, so that one pre‐supplementation and one post‐

supplementation measure was obtained for each variable.

A one‐way repeated measures ANOVA determined if there was a learning effect between each

of the duplicate trials, with no significant effects being found (pre‐supplementation p = 0.52,

post‐supplementation p = 0.13).

Results for each dependent variable (2000 m or split time, mean power, blood pH and HLa‐)

were analysed using a split‐plot analysis of variance (SPANOVA), with significance accepted at

p ≤ 0.05. Post‐hoc t‐tests were utilised where significant interaction effects were found.

Pearson correlation coefficients were also calculated on change (∆) in HLa‐ and pH values and

2000 m performance. All analyses were carried out using SPSS 17 for Windows (SPSS, Inc.,

Chicago, IL, USA). Differences in performance were also interpreted using Cohen’s d effect

sizes and thresholds (< 0.49, small; 0.5 ‐ 0.79, moderate; ≥ 0.8, strong). Smallest worthwhile

change (clinically beneficial effect) in performance scores between the beta‐alanine and

placebo trials, using the method described by Hopkins (2004) was also undertaken. A Cohen’s

unit of 0.2 was used to determine the smallest worthwhile value of change during the two

51

experimental trials. Where the chances of benefit or harm were both calculated to be > 5%,

the true effect was deemed unclear. When clear interpretation could be made, a qualitative

descriptor was assigned to the following quantitative chances of benefit: 25 ‐ 75%, benefit

possible; 76 ‐ 95%, benefit likely; 96 ‐ 99%, benefit very likely; > 99%, benefit almost certain

(Batterham & Hopkins, 2005).

Results

Performance Data

Rowing ergometer race times and power outputs are presented in Table 3 and Figures 1 and 2.

Following supplementation, the beta‐alanine group improved their 2000 m race time by 2.9 ±

4.1 s, whereas the placebo group slowed by 1.2 ± 2.9 s. A significant interaction was found (p =

0.03), but post‐hoc analysis indicated that improvements in beta‐alanine race times compared

to placebo only approached significance (p = 0.055). Within groups, only a small ES (d = 0.20)

and a 49% ‘possible’ chance of benefit were recorded for the beta alanine group in 2000 m

race times before and after supplementation (Table 3). The beta‐alanine group did significantly

(p = 0.01) improve their race split times at 750 m and 1000 m, whilst the placebo group was

significantly slower (p = 0.01) at the same time points (Figure 1). This was supported by a

moderate effect size (d = 0.57, beta‐alanine after‐ vs. placebo after‐supplementation) along

with an 87% ‘likely’ improvement in performance in the beta‐alanine group at 750 m, and an

87% and 80% ‘likely’ detriment in performance in the placebo group at 750 m and 1000 m,

respectively.

Overall, average power over 2000 m was not significantly different in either group (p = 0.10),

with small ES and SWC values also recorded (Table 3). Power output at split times in the beta‐

alanine group significantly improved by 3.6% (p = 0.03) at 750 m and 2.9% (p = 0.02) at 1000 m

(Figure 2). At 750 m this was supported by a moderate effect size (d = 0.50, beta‐alanine after‐

vs. placebo after‐ supplementation) and an 80% ‘likely’ benefit to performance. In the placebo

group, power output was significantly improved (4.7%: p = 0.05) at 250 m, which was

supported by an 82% ‘likely’ benefit to performance. In contrast, power output was

significantly lower at 750 m (‐ 3.2%, p = 0.03) and 1000 m (‐ 2.8%, p = 0.02) after placebo

supplementation.

52

Table 3. Mean (± SD) 2000 m rowing performance time (s) and power output (W) before and after beta‐alanine (n = 7)/placebo (n = 9)

supplementation.

*If the percentage chance that the effect is beneficial and harmful are both ˃ 5%, the true effect was assessed as unclear (could be beneficial or

harmful). Otherwise, chances of benefit or harm were assessed as 25 ‐ 75%, benefit possible; 76 ‐ 95%, benefit likely; 96 ‐ 99%, benefit very likely; >

99%, benefit almost certain.

Beta‐alanine Placebo

Cohen's d effect size / Mean change (%) ± 90%

confidence limits / % chance beneficial

(trivial/harmful)*

Variable Before After Before After

Beta‐alanine

Before vs. After

Placebo

Before vs. After

Total time 393.9 ± 14.8 391.0 ± 14.2 392.2 ± 14.5 393.4 ± 14.1 0.20 / ‐ 0.7 ± 0.2 / 49 (50/1) 0.08 / 0.3 ± 0.1 / 0 (94/6)

Total average

power 369 ± 42 376 ± 40 374 ± 43 372 ± 41 0.17 / 2.0 ± 0.2 / 38 (61/1) 0.05 / ‐ 0.5 ± 0.1 / 0 (97/3)

53

Figure 1. 2000 m rowing performance split times (s) pre‐ and post‐ beta‐alanine (A, n = 7) and placebo (B, n = 9) supplementation.

1 Significantly different from pre‐test (p ≤ 0.05)

a Moderate effect size (d = 0.50 ‐ 0.79) for difference between beta‐alanine post‐ and placebo post‐

# ‘Likely’ (76 ‐ 95%) chance of benefit

* ‘Likely’ (76 ‐ 95%) chance of detriment

54

Figure 2. 2000 m rowing performance split average power outputs (W) pre‐ and post‐ beta‐alanine (A, n = 7) and placebo (B, n = 9) supplementation.

1 Significantly different from pre‐test (p ≤ 0.05)

a Moderate effect size ( 0.49) for difference between beta‐alanine post‐ and placebo‐ post

# ‘Likely’ (76 ‐ 95%) chance of benefit

55

Blood Lactate (HLa‐) and pH

No significant differences in HLa‐ within or between groups in the before‐ and after‐

supplementation trials were found (See Table 4; p > 0.05). Mean ∆ in HLa‐ during the races for

both before‐ and after‐supplementation trials were calculated, with no significant differences

found between groups, nor was mean ∆ in HLa‐ correlated to the change in race time in the

beta‐alanine group (r = 0.37, p = 0.41).

Table 4. Mean (± SD) blood lactate (HLa‐) and pH pre‐ and post‐ the 2000 m rowing ergometer

trials before and after beta‐alanine (n = 7)/placebo (n = 9) supplementation. Change values are

also included.

Beta‐alanine group Placebo group

Before supplementation

After supplementation

Before supplementation

After supplementation

HLa‐

Pre‐

1.6 ± 0.7 1.4 ± 0.6 0.9 ± 0.3 1.1 ± 0.5

Post‐

11.4 ± 2.6 12.5 ± 2.5 12.2 ± 2.1 12.4 ± 3.2

Mean change

9.8 ± 2.1 11.2 ± 2.3 11.2 ± 2.0 11.3 ± 2.9

pH

Pre‐

7.391 ± 0.020 7.409 ± 0.0171 7.406 ± 0.024 7.408 ± 0.019

Post‐

7.117 ± 0.044 7.099 ± 0.0472 7.090 ± 0.059 7.087 ± 0.072

Mean change

0.274 ± 0.055 0.310 ± 0.0621 0.315 ± 0.071 0.321 ± 0.081 1 Significantly different to before‐supplementation (p = 0.001)

2 Beta‐alanine after‐supplementation vs. before‐supplementation d = 2.37

Pre‐race blood pH values were slightly, but significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the beta‐alanine

group following supplementation (Table 4). No other significant differences in pH within or

between groups in the before‐ and after‐ supplementation trials were found, although a strong

ES (d = 2.37) was recorded between the post‐ race values in the beta alanine group, which

recorded a lower value after supplementation. Mean ∆ in pH during the races for the before‐

and after‐supplementation trials were also calculated, and were significantly (p = 0.001)

greater (~ 13%) in the beta‐alanine group post‐supplementation only. The mean ∆ in pH was

not correlated (r = 0.51, p = 0.24) to the change in race time in the beta‐alanine group after‐

supplementation.

56

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to examine whether 28 days of beta‐alanine supplementation

could improve 2000 m rowing ergometer performance in well‐trained rowers. While rowers (n

= 7) supplemented with beta‐alanine completed the race 2.9 s faster than before

supplementation, and rowers on placebo were 1.2 s slower, this result only approached

significance (p = 0.055) and was not supported by moderate‐large ES or ‘likely’ or ‘very likely’

SWC values. Therefore, no conclusive evidence of any performance enhancement was noted.

These results are consistent with those of Baguet et al. (2010a) who also reported an

inconclusive (ns; p = 0.07) improvement of 2.7 s in 2000 m rowing ergometer performance in

elite rowers (n = 8) supplemented with a slightly higher total dose of beta‐alanine (245 g vs.

188 g) over a longer 7 week period. For both studies, it should be acknowledged that a larger

sample size (than n = 7 and 8, respectively) may have produced more convincing results, as p

values were near significance. At present, there remains very limited evidence of beta‐alanine

supplementation improving competition performances of well‐trained athletes. Our rowing

study and that of Baguet et al. (2010a) have not found conclusive evidence of performance

enhancement after supplementation in 2000 m (6 ‐ 7 min) ergometer time trials. Further, in

cycling Bellinger et al. (2012) reported only a ‘possible’ beneficial effect in a 4 min time trial

and Hoffman et al. (2008) only a trend for slower fatigue rates in a 60 s Wingate test; while in

running, Derave et al. (2007) found no improvement in 400 m (~ 60 s) track times. Only Hill et

al. (2007) and Sale et al. (2011), using less specific performance tests (2 ‐ 3 min at 110% of

cycling peak power output) have reported conclusive benefits (in work done and time to

exhaustion) after beta‐alanine supplementation.

In considering the 2000 m split times recorded here, the rowers recorded the highest power

outputs/speeds in the first 250 m of the race, followed by the adoption of a slower race

rhythm, with a steady decline in speed and power up to 1500 m, before increasing power and

speed in the final 500 m. In the beta‐alanine group, performance was only improved at the 750

and 1000 m race splits (500 – 1000 m; 1.5 – 3 min): at these corresponding time points the

placebo group recorded slower times and lower power outputs. Recently, Baguet et al. (2010a)

reported that higher intramuscular carnosine concentrations were correlated with faster

rowing times over the second and third 500 m race distances (500 – 1500 m) and hypothesized

that this could be due to improved buffering over this intense period of the race. Baguet et al.

(2010b) have also reported that participants supplemented with beta‐alanine had a 19%

smaller change in pH throughout 6 min of high‐intensity cycling, when compared to a placebo

group. In our study, the same calculation found the change in pH was only 3.4% lower in the

57

beta‐alanine group. Within groups, it was also found that with beta alanine, the change in pre‐

to post‐ test pH was ~ 13% greater after supplementation, whereas previous studies (Baguet et

al., 2010a; Baguet et al., 2010b; Derave et al., 2007; Sale et al., 2011) have reported similar

mean changes in HLa‐ and smaller changes in pH following supplementation with beta‐alanine.

A moderate, but non‐significant (r = 0.51, p = 0.24) correlation was recorded here between the

improvement in race time and the mean change in pH following supplementation with beta‐

alanine. Given these mixed results, further investigation of the changes in muscle and/or blood

buffering during high‐intensity exercise efforts following beta‐alanine supplementation are

needed to identify if a consistent relationship exists between beta‐alanine supplementation

and changes in pre‐post exercise pH/HLa‐.

Supplementing with beta‐alanine can produce higher levels of muscle carnosine, which should

improve muscle buffer capacity (pKa = 6.83; intramuscular concentration post‐

supplementation = 30 – 40 mmol∙kg‐1DM) and therefore potentially improve high‐intensity,

short‐term exercise performance (Abe, 2000; Derave et al., 2007; Suzuki et al., 2002, 2004).

Although it was not possible to measure muscle carnosine levels in this study, we calculated

that our dosing strategy would have increased intramuscular carnosine concentrations by ~

44%, based on the linear relationship between total dose and intramuscular carnosine

presented by Stellingwerff et al. (2012). This is slightly lower than in studies using similar

dosing protocols (i.e. 6.4 g∙day‐1 for 4 weeks), which have reported increases of 50 – 60%

(Kendrick et al., 2008; Kendrick et al., 2009), but still well within the range (30 ‐ 80%) reported

by Baguet et al. (2009), Derave et al. (2010) and Harris et al. (2006). Based on this data, we are

confident that our total dose of beta‐alanine administered to the participants was adequate to

improve muscle carnosine levels sufficiently to potentially improve exercise performance, and

is not a reason why inconclusive results were recorded.

Conclusions and Practical Application

In conclusion, supplementing with beta‐alanine (80 mg∙kg‐1BM∙day‐1 ~ 6 ‐ 7 g∙day‐1) for 28 days

did not conclusively improve 2000 m rowing ergometer race times of well‐trained rowers.

Importantly, this result matches that of Baguet et al (2010a), who also reported an

inconclusive improvement in 2000 m rowing ergometer times in elite rowers after 7 weeks of

supplementation. Until future research can further examine the relationship between

supplementation protocols, intramuscular carnosine concentrations and sporting performance

using larger samples of trained athletes, beta‐alanine should not be regarded as ergogenic for

high‐intensity events of ~ 6 ‐ 7 min duration.

58

References



Baguet, A., Bourgois, J., Vahnee, L., Achten, E., & Derave, W. (2010a). Important role of muscle


Baguet, A., Koppo, K., Pottier, A., & Derave, W. (2010b). Beta‐alanine supplementation reduces


of Applied Physiology, 108(3), 495‐503.



Physiology, 106(3), 837‐842.

Bangsbo, J., & Juel, C. (2006). Reply: The last word: Point:Counterpoint: authors respond to

commentaries on "Lactic acid accumulation is an advantage/disadvantage during

muscle activity." [Letters to the Editor]. Journal of Applied Physiology, 101, 369‐370.

Batterham, A.M., & Hopkins, W.G. (2005). Making meaningful inferences about magnitudes.

Sportscience, 9, 6‐13.



and Exercise, 44(8), 1545‐1551.





Dutka, T.L., & Lamb, G.D. (2004). Effect of carnosine on excitation‐contraction coupling in

mechanically‐skinned rat skeletal muscle. Journal of Muscle Research and Cell Motility,

25, 203‐213.


carnosine on contractile apparatus Ca2+‐sensitivity and sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+

release in human skeletal muscle fibers. Journal of Applied Physiology, 112(5), 728‐

736.

59




289.

Hill, C.A., Harris, R.C., Kim, H. J., Harris, B.D., Sale, C., Boobis, L., Kim, C.K., & Wise, J.A. (2007).



Hobson, R.M., Saunders, B., Ball, G., Harris, R.C., & Sale, C. (2012). Effects of beta‐alanine





28, 31‐35.

Hopkins, W.G. (2004). Clinical, practical or mechanistic significance vs. statistical significance

for population effects Retrieved 28/06/2011, from

http://sportsci.org/jour/04/Statistical_vs_clinical_ACSM_2004.ppt




34, 547‐554.






homocarnosine, and anserine present in muscle and brain. Paper presented at the

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.



60




Spangenburg, E.E., Ward, C. W., & Williams, J.H. (1998). Effects of lactate on force production

by mouse EDL muscle: implications for the development of fatigue. Canadian Journal

of Physiology and Pharmacology, 76(6), 642‐648.

Stellingwerff, T., Anwander, H., Egger, A., Buehler, T., Kreis, R., Decombaz, J., & Boesch, C.

(2012). Effect of two β‐alanine dosing protocols on muscle carnosine synthesis and

washout. Amino Acids, 42(6), 2461‐2472.


carnosine contributes to the latter half of exercise performance during 30‐s maximal

cycle ergometer sprinting. Japanese Journal of Physiology, 52(2), 199‐205.


skeletal muscle carnosine in humans. International Journal of Sport and Health Science,

2, 105‐110.

Acknowledgements

We thank Professor Louise Burke (Australian Institute of Sport) for her invaluable assistance in

sourcing and obtaining the beta‐alanine used in this study.

61

CHAPTER FOUR

Study Two

Effect of beta‐alanine supplementation on 800 m running performance

Journal article published in the International Journal of Sports Nutrition and Exercise

Metabolism


Running Title: Beta‐alanine and 800 m running

62

Abstract

Beta‐alanine supplementation has been shown to improve exercise performance in short‐

term, high‐intensity efforts. Purpose: The aim of this study was to assess if beta‐alanine

supplementation could improve 800 m track running performance in male recreational club

runners (n = 18). Methods: Participants completed duplicate trials (2 pre‐supplementation, 2

post‐supplementation) of an 800 m race, separated by 28 days of either beta‐alanine (n = 9; 80

mg∙kg‐1BM∙day‐1) or placebo (n = 9) supplementation (single blind design). Results: Using

ANCOVA (pre‐supplementation times as covariate), post‐supplementation race times were

significantly faster following beta‐alanine (p = 0.02), with post‐ versus pre‐supplementation

race times being faster after beta‐alanine (‐ 3.64 ± 2.70 s, ‐ 2.46 ± 1.80%), but not placebo (‐

0.59 ± 2.54 s, ‐ 0.37 ± 1.62%). These improvements were supported by a moderate effect size

(d = 0.70) and a ‘very likely’ (99%) benefit in the beta‐alanine group after supplementation.

Split times (ANCOVA) at 400 m were significantly faster (p = 0.02) post‐supplementation in the

beta‐alanine group, compared with placebo. This was supported by large effect sizes (d = 1.05

– 1.19) and a ‘very likely’ (99%) benefit at the 400 and 800 m splits when comparing pre‐ to

post‐supplementation with beta‐alanine. Additionally, the first and second halves of the race

were faster post‐ compared to pre‐supplementation following beta‐alanine (1st half ‐ 1.22 ±

1.81 s, ‘likely’ 78% chance of benefit; 2nd half ‐ 2.38 ± 2.31 s, d = 0.83, ‘very likely’ 98% chance

of benefit). No significant differences between groups or pre‐ and post‐supplementation were

observed for post‐race blood lactate and pH. Conclusion: Overall, 28 days of beta‐alanine

supplementation (80 mg∙kg‐1BM∙day‐1) improved 800 m track performance in recreational club

runners.

63

Introduction

Running competitively at a high‐intensity for ~ 2 ‐ 3 min requires significant energy from both

aerobic and anaerobic sources to maintain a high velocity over the full duration (Billat,

Harnard, Koralsztein, & Morton, 2009). Recently, several researchers have reported that

supplementation with beta‐alanine can lead to improved performance in short‐term, high‐

intensity exercise efforts lasting 60 – 240 s (Hill et al., 2007; Hobson, Saunders, Ball, Harris, &

Sale, 2012; Sale et al., 2011). This improvement may occur due to increased concentrations of

intramuscular carnosine, which is an important H+ buffer found within muscle fibres (pKa =

6.83; Suzuki, Ito, Takahashi, & Takamatsu, 2002). Additionally, it has been reported that

carnosine can increase the sensitivity of calcium release channels and muscle fibres to calcium

(Dutka, Lamboley, McKenna, Murphy, & Lamb, 2012; Everaert, Stegen, Vanheel, Youri, &

Derave, 2013), can enhance vasodilation of blood vessels (Ririe, Roberts, Shouse, & Zaloga,

2000) and has useful antioxidant properties (scavenges peroxyl radicals, scavenges singlet

oxygen and chelates copper and other transition metals; Kohen, Yamamoto, Cundy, & Ames,

1988).

Supplementing with doses of beta‐alanine ranging from 3 – 6 g∙day‐1 (~ 40 – 80 mg∙kg‐1BM∙day‐

1) for at least 4 weeks can lead to increases in intramuscular carnosine concentrations of 30 –

80% (Baguet et al., 2009; Derave et al., 2007; Harris et al., 2006; Hill et al., 2007). As higher

levels of carnosine can increase muscle buffer capacity and potentially improve exercise

performance in events requiring significant energy contributions from anaerobic glycolysis

(Derave et al., 2007; Suzuki et al., 2002), beta alanine may be a useful ergogenic supplement

for track runners who run distances of 800 to 1500 m (~ 2 ‐ 4 min). These events require

significant contributions from anaerobic energy sources (Billat et al., 2009; Duffield, Dawson, &

Goodman, 2005; Spencer & Gastin, 2001), as demonstrated by high blood lactate (HLa‐)

concentrations of ~ 12 – 18 mmol∙L‐1 being reported post‐race (Hanon, Leveque, Vivier, &

Thomas, 2007; Hill, 1999).

To date, the majority of exercise performance studies assessing supplementation with beta‐

alanine have been laboratory based (i.e., not sport specific) and cycling (rather than running)

has been the exercise mode most utilised. For example, Hill et al. (2007) and Sale et al. (2011)

reported similar improvements (12 – 13%) in total work done and time to exhaustion in

participants completing a 2 – 3 min cycle capacity test (110% of their previously achieved

maximum power outputs), following beta‐alanine ingestion (~ 6 g∙day‐1, 4 weeks). In contrast,

Bellinger et al. (2012) reported no significant improvements in average power output during a

4 min cycling time‐trial following beta‐alanine supplementation. Similarly, Hoffman et al.

64

(2008) reported that beta‐alanine ingestion resulted only in a trend (p = 0.07) for slower

fatigue rates in American football players performing a 60 s Wingate sprint, with no significant

improvements found in power output. Only Derave et al. (2007) have reported on the effects

of beta‐alanine supplementation (4.8 g∙day‐1, 4 weeks) on running performance, finding

significantly increased (~ 35 ‐ 50%) intramuscular carnosine concentrations, but no significant

improvement in 400 m race time of competitive track and field athletes. A recent meta‐

analysis by Hobson et al. (2012) has suggested that any ergogenic benefit of beta‐alanine

supplementation during short (~ 60 s), supra‐maximal exercise efforts may be minimal limited,

but studies investigating slightly longer high‐intensity (i.e. 2 – 4 min) exercise efforts typically

report more positive results. However, the available research has largely investigated exercise

capacity tests and therefore it is important to determine if ergogenic effects can be achieved in

specific sporting events that cover this exercise duration (i.e. 200 – 400 m swim, 800 – 1500 m

run).

Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine if supplementation with beta‐alanine

could improve 800 m track running performance. We hypothesized that supplementing for 28

days with beta‐alanine would lead to significantly faster 800 m run times.

Materials and Methods

Participants

Twenty‐one trained male recreational club runners were initially recruited, with three

participants withdrawing due to personal reasons (of which 2 were the fastest runners in the

placebo group). This left 18 runners (400 – 800 m runners; beta‐alanine group n = 2, placebo

group n = 2; middle/long distance 800 – 5000 m runners, beta‐alanine group n = 7, placebo

group n = 7) who completed the experimental protocol (mean ± SD; beta‐alanine group, n = 9:

age 22 ± 6 y, body‐mass 72.1 ± 9.8 kg; height 180.5 ± 7.9 cm; placebo group, n = 9: age 22 ± 5

y, body‐mass 79.8 ± 12.8 kg; height 181.8 ± 6.3 cm). Participants had not supplemented with

any nutritional substances in the three months preceding study entry or with beta‐alanine for

the previous six months. All were informed of the study requirements, benefits and risks

before giving written informed consent. Approval for the study’s procedures was granted by

the research ethics committee of the University of Western Australia.

Experimental Overview

A randomised, placebo‐controlled study was performed. Firstly, 2 x 800 m practice trials were

conducted on the same day (1 week prior to experimental testing) to allow participants to

familiarise themselves with the track and their race pacing strategy. This was followed by

65

duplicate 800 m race trials (2 pre‐supplementation, 2 post‐supplementation), separated by 28

days of either beta‐alanine or placebo (glucose) supplementation. Duplicate trials (separated

by one week) were conducted to moderate any variation between trials and were performed

at the same time of day to control for diurnal variations in performance. Pre‐supplementation

800 m times were within 1.3 ± 1.7% of the participant’s most recently achieved personal best

times (Beta‐alanine – mean = 144.6 ± 6.0 s, range = 135.5 – 154.9 s; placebo – mean = 153.9 ±

11.2 s, range = 134.5 – 173.0 s).

Participants abstained from completing any vigorous exercise and ingesting caffeine in the 24 h

prior to each testing session and followed the same dietary intake on every day of testing. A

training diary was completed from two days prior to testing through to completion of the

study. A food diary was recorded for the two days prior to each testing session to allow the

participants to review their pre‐race nutrition and attempt to match it as closely as possible

prior to each trial. Participants were instructed to maintain their current training regime

throughout the testing period, with training modality, duration and rating of perceived

exertion (RPE; Borg, 1982) noted so that a training load could be calculated (duration x RPE;

Foster, 1998).

Procedures

The running trials were conducted on a 400 m outdoor compacted grass running track.

Electronic timing gates (Smartspeed, Fusion Sport, Australia) were placed at the 0/400 and 200

m distance marks to record running times. Participants ran alone, with no verbal

encouragement, in typical running shoes and were not allowed to view/hear their race split

times during the trials to minimise the influence of pacing strategies based upon these times

or the performance of other participants. They completed their normal warm‐up prior to each

testing session, with warm‐up intensities and duration noted down and then duplicated during

each subsequent trial. Air temperature and relative humidity were recorded using a thermal

environment monitor (QUESTemp32, Quest Technologies, U.S.A.) and wind speed/direction

was recorded using a digital anemometer (Model AM‐4203HA, Lutron Electronic Enterprise Co.

Ltd., Taiwan). Testing at an identical time of day assisted in achieving relatively consistent

wind/temperature values (mean air temperature – pre‐supplementation = 19.0 ± 4.1 °C, post‐

supplementation = 22.1 ± 2.7 °C; mean relative humidity – pre‐supplementation = 51.0 ±

11.7%, post‐supplementation = 50.8 ± 15.0%; mean wind speed – pre‐supplementation = 5.5 ±

3.5 km∙h‐1, post‐supplementation = 6.3 ± 3.2 km∙h‐1), but when variables were considered to be

extreme, testing was postponed until weather conditions more closely matched those of the

previous trials. The typical error and coefficient of variation for the 800 m races were

66

calculated using the pre‐supplementation trials for the combined sample and were 1.94 s and

1.28%, respectively.

Prior to starting the 800 m races and immediately upon completion, a capillary blood sample

(125 µl) was taken from the earlobe using glass capillary tubes (D957G‐70‐125, Clinitubes,

Radiometer Copenhagen) to assess blood lactate concentration (HLa‐) and pH. These were

transported on ice back to the laboratory, warmed and sampled within 1 h for measurement

via a blood‐gas analyser/radiometer (ABL 625, Radiometer Copenhagen).

Following pre‐supplementation testing, participants were matched on training

level/competition distance before being randomly assigned to either the beta‐alanine or

placebo group. Beta‐alanine (Sustained Release Beta‐alanine, Musashi, Australia) was

administered orally (opaque gelatin capsules) for 28 days with a dose of 80 mg∙kg‐1BM∙day‐1

taken as 4 split doses over each day with a meal or snack to assist with minimising any side‐

effects and to enhance carnosine synthesis (Stegen et al., 2013), whilst the glucose placebo

(Glucodin, Valeant Pharmaceuticals Australasia, Australia) was taken in a similar fashion to

mimic the beta‐alanine supplementation as closely as possible (~ 10 g∙dayˉ¹). Due to the fact

that a matching placebo tablet could not be sourced, the beta‐alanine tablets were broken

into several large pieces (to minimise damage to the tablet’s structure) prior to inserting them

into the capsules. Due to these logistics of capsule preparation, a single blind (participants)

study design was utilised. Typically, supplementation protocols use a dose calculated per kg of

body‐mass to account for differences in individual body size (Graham, 2001; McNaughton,

Siegler & Midgley, 2008). As no literature was available on a body‐mass adjusted dosage of

beta‐alanine, a total daily dose of 6.4 g.day‐1 of beta‐alanine (which equated to the absolute

daily amount of beta‐alanine supplemented with in previous studies: Hill et al., 2007, Kendrick

et al., 2009, & Sale et al., 2011) was selected and corrected for body‐mass using a phantom

mass of 80 kg. We felt it reasonable to assume that a higher dose of beta‐alanine would

provide the greatest increase in carnosine and therefore a similar chance of improving exercise

performance. Prior to the study, pilot testing (2 weeks; n = 6 volunteers) using this daily dose

of beta‐alanine was well tolerated, with no side effects being reported. Décombaz et al. (2011)

have previously reported that an acute dose of 1.6 g of slow‐release beta‐alanine is well

tolerated with minimal side effects, which is similar to the ~ 1.5 g per dose used here. Athletes

were visited weekly to distribute supplements, discuss dose compliance and to check on health

during the study. Following 28 days of supplementation, participants returned for post‐

supplementation testing which was conducted in an identical manner to pre‐supplementation

testing. After completing their final trial, participants were asked (verbally) about what

supplement they thought they had ingested and any reasons for making this decision.

67

Data Analysis

Split times were recorded every 200 m during the 800 m running trials. Total time and 400 m

split times were calculated post‐race. Blood lactate, blood pH and performance results for

both pre‐supplementation and post‐supplementation running tests were combined and

averaged for each group (beta‐alanine and placebo), so that one pre‐supplementation and one

post‐supplementation measure was obtained for each variable. A one‐way repeated measures

ANOVA determined if there was a learning effect between each of the duplicate trials, with no

significant effects being found (pre‐supplementation p = 0.96, post‐supplementation p = 0.22).

Results for each dependent performance variable (800 m time and splits) were analysed using

an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) with pre‐supplementation times being used as a covariate.

Blood variables (pH and HLa‐) were analysed using a split‐plot analysis of variance (SPANOVA),

with statistical significance accepted at p ≤ 0.05. Post‐hoc t‐tests were utilised where

significant interaction effects were found. Pearson correlation coefficients were also calculated

on change in HLa‐ and pH values and 800 m performance. All analyses were carried out using

IBM® SPSS® 20 (IBM Corporation, USA). Differences in exercise performance and blood

variables were also interpreted using Cohen’s d effect sizes and thresholds (< 0.49, small; 0.5 –

0.79, moderate; ≥ 0.8, strong). Only moderate and strong effect sizes are reported. Smallest

worthwhile changes (clinically beneficial change) in performance scores between pre‐ and

post‐supplementation in the beta‐alanine and placebo groups, using the method described by

Batterham & Hopkins (2005) was also undertaken. A Cohen’s unit of 0.2 was used to

determine the smallest worthwhile value of change. Where the chance of benefit or harm

were both calculated to be > 5%, the true effect was deemed unclear. When clear

interpretation could be made, a qualitative descriptor was assigned to the following

quantitative chances of benefit: 25 – 75%, benefit possible; 75 – 95%, benefit likely; 95 – 99%,

benefit very likely; > 99%, benefit almost certain.

Results

Analysis of the completed training diaries revealed no significant (p = 0.50) difference in the

training loads completed by each group throughout the testing period (beta‐alanine = 21355 ±

9424 arbitrary units; placebo = 24858 ± 15918 arbitrary units). Weekly training loads in the

beta‐alanine group were 5911 ± 2822, 5218 ± 2433, 5585 ± 2218 and 4641 ± 2838 arbitrary

units for weeks 1 ‐ 4, respectively. In the placebo group these were 6940 ± 3973, 5383 ± 3945,

5978 ± 4348 and 6558 ± 4227 arbitrary units for weeks 1 ‐ 4, respectively (p ˃ 0.05 for all).

Performance Data

68

Running race total times are presented in Table 5. As consistent differences were noted

between the groups in 800 m performance times at pre‐supplementation testing (at least in

part due to the withdrawal of the 2 fastest runners in the placebo group), ANCOVA was used

to analyse these results using the pre‐supplementation times as the covariate. Following

supplementation, the beta‐alanine group was significantly (p = 0.02) faster when compared

with placebo. Further, the beta‐alanine group was faster overall when post‐ and pre‐

supplementation results were compared for change (beta‐alanine group: ‐ 3.64 ± 2.70 s, ‐ 2.46

± 1.80%; placebo group: ‐ 0.59 ± 2.54 s, ‐ 0.37 ± 1.62%). This improvement in the beta‐alanine

group was supported by a moderate effect size (d = 0.70) and a ‘very likely’ (99%) chance of

benefit. In addition, when post‐ versus pre‐supplementation results were assessed for the first

400 m, the beta‐alanine group was ‐ 1.22 ± 1.81 s faster (near significance; p = 0.054)

compared with little change in the placebo group (‐ 0.26 ± 2.52 s). This result was supported by

a ‘likely’ (78%) benefit to performance. While second 400 m times were not significantly

different between groups post‐supplementation (p = 0.15), the beta‐alanine group improved

their running time by ‐ 2.38 ± 2.31 s pre‐ to post‐supplementation, compared with ‐ 0.42 ± 3.09

s for the placebo group, with this improvement supported by a large effect size (d = 0.83) and a

‘very likely’ (98%) chance of benefit. In respect to 200 m split times (Figure 3), an improvement

of ‐ 1.42 ± 1.00 s was recorded from 200 ‐ 400 m following beta‐alanine supplementation, with

this result being significantly different to the same split time value recorded for the placebo

group post‐supplementation (p = 0.02). This change from pre‐ to post‐supplementation in the

beta‐alanine group was supported by a large effect size (d = 1.05) and a ‘very likely’ (99%)

chance of benefit. No other significant differences were identified in the split times of either

group, although the beta‐alanine group improved their 600 – 800 m split by ‐ 1.97 ± 1.72 s pre‐

to post‐supplementation, which was supported by a large effect size (d = 1.19) and a ‘very

likely’ (99%) benefit to performance.

69

1 significantly different post‐supplementation when compared to placebo (p = 0.02)

Beta‐alanine Placebo Cohen's d effect size / % mean change ± 90% CI / % chance

beneficial (trivial/harmful)

Variable Pre (s) Post (s) Pre (s) Post (s) Beta‐alanine Pre vs. Post Placebo Pre vs. Post

Total time 145.73 ± 5.71 142.09 ± 4.641 156.80 ± 12.27 156.21 ± 12.34 0.70/‐ 2.5 ± 0.3/99(1/0) ‘very

likely’

0.05/‐ 0.4 ± 0.1/3(97/0)

‘trivial’

First 400 m 69.55 ± 3.69 68.34 ± 2.27 74.67 ± 5.15 74.41 ± 4.95 0.40/‐ 1.6 ± 0.3/78(22/0) ‘likely’ 0.05/‐ 0.3 ± 0.3/19(72/9)

‘trivial’

Second 400 m 76.14 ± 2.97 73.76 ± 2.81 82.17 ± 7.66 81.74 ± 8.19 0.83/‐ 3.1 ± 0.5/98(2/0) ‘very

likely’

0.05/‐ 0.5 ± 0.3/16(80/4)

‘trivial’

Table 5.Mean (± SD) total, first/second half split times pre‐ and post‐supplementation in the beta‐alanine (n = 9) and placebo (n = 9) groups.

70

Figure 3. Mean (± SD) total, 200 m split times pre‐ and post‐supplementation in the beta‐alanine (A; n = 9) and placebo (B; n = 9) groups.

1 significantly different post‐supplementation when compared to placebo (p = 0.02).

a large effect size (˃ 0.8) and ‘very likely’ (96 – 99%) chance of benefit pre‐ to post‐supplementation with beta‐alanine.

71

Blood Lactate and pH

No significant (p = 0.17 – 0.83) differences or moderate‐large effect sizes within or between

groups were observed in HLa‐ or pH pre‐ or post‐supplementation (see Table 6). Mean change

(∆) in HLa‐ and blood pH during the races for both pre‐ and post‐supplementation trials were

also calculated, with no significant (p = 0.57 – 0.77) differences again found between groups.

Mean ∆HLa‐ and pH during the races for both before‐ and after‐supplementation trials were

not correlated to the change in race time in the beta‐alanine group (HLa‐: r = 0.10, p = 0.81;

pH: r = 0.44, p = 0.24).

72

Table 6. Mean (± SD) blood lactate (HLa‐; mmol∙L‐1) and pH results pre‐ and post‐supplementation in the beta‐alanine (n = 9) and placebo (n = 9)

groups.

Beta‐alanine Placebo

Variable/Time Pre Post Pre Post

HLa‐

Pre‐race 1.2 ± 0.2 1.1 ± 0.2 1.1 ± 0.3 1.2 ± 0.3

Post‐race 9.8 ± 1.9 10.4 ± 1.6 11.3 ± 3.2 11.8 ± 2.9

Change prepost‐race 8.6 ± 1.8 9.4 ± 1.5 10.2 ± 3.2 10.6 ± 2.9

pH

Pre‐race 7.407 ± 0.027 7.411 ± 0.010 7.399 ± 0.011 7.409 ± 0.011

Post‐race 7.195 ± 0.035 7.186 ± 0.041 7.181 ± 0.050 7.186 ± 0.045

Change prepost‐race ‐ 0.212 ± 0.042 ‐ 0.225 ± 0.044 ‐ 0.218 ± 0.052 ‐ 0.223 ± 0.047

* No significant differences or moderate ‐ large effect sizes recorded within or between groups.

73

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to examine whether 28 days of beta‐alanine supplementation

(80 mg∙kg‐1BM∙day‐1; total dose = 161.5 ± 21.9 g) could improve 800 m race times. The main

finding was that recreational club runners supplemented with beta‐alanine completed the race

significantly faster post‐supplementation compared with placebo (p = 0.02), with the beta‐

alanine group improving their pre‐ to post‐supplementation 800 m time by ‐ 3.6 s (d = 0.70;

99% ‘very likely’ chance of benefit). This improvement is greater than the typical error score

calculated here for the race (1.94 s) and equates to an improvement of ~ 19 m, which may be

practically important. This study is also the first to report enhanced running race performance

following supplementation with beta‐alanine. However, it must be acknowledged that because

recreational, club level runners were used in this study the magnitude of any differences

observed in elite runners may be different. This is an area that requires further investigation.

These results agree with previous research reporting improvements in total work done and

time to exhaustion during cycling exercise efforts of a similar duration to the current study (2 –

3 min; Hill et. al., 2007; Sale et al., 2011). In addition, a recent meta‐analysis by Hobson et al.

(2012) suggested that exercise performances lasting 60 – 240 s, where the concentration of H+

and HLa‐ (12 – 14 mmol∙L‐1) reach high levels, were more likely to show improvement following

beta‐alanine supplementation. High levels of HLa‐, along with low pH values were

demonstrated post‐race in the current study (HLa‐: ~ 9 – 12 mmol∙L‐1; pH: ~ 7.18 – 7.19).

In considering the 200 m split times recorded here, the runners were ‐ 1.2 s faster over the

first 400 m following beta‐alanine ingestion. Most of this improvement was gained from 200 –

400 m, where the beta‐alanine group was ‐ 1.4 s faster (post‐ versus pre‐supplementation).

Improvements in race speed (‐ 2.4 s) were also recorded in the second half of the 800 m race

following supplementation with beta‐alanine. This improvement largely came from a ~ 2 s

faster time occurring between 600 – 800 m. It is possible that significant H+ accumulation

during this intense period of the race may mean that any additional buffering effects of beta‐

alanine supplementation (via carnosine) may have the greatest effects during this period. This

supposition is supported by a recent study by Baguet et al. (2010), who reported that higher

intramuscular carnosine concentrations were correlated with faster rowing times over the

second and third 500 m splits (~ 1.5 – 5 min) of a 2000 m race and hypothesized that this could

be due to improved muscle buffering over this intense period of the race.

As noted above, higher levels of carnosine have been suggested to improve the buffering

capacity of the muscle (pKa = 6.83; intramuscular concentration post‐supplementation = 30 –

40 mmol∙kg‐1DM) and therefore potentially improve exercise performance (Derave et al., 2007;

74

Suzuki et al., 2002). In the current study, the buffering systems of the body were challenged, as

HLa‐ reached ~ 9 – 12 mmol∙L‐1 and blood pH fell to ~ 7.18 – 7.19 by the end of the race, with

these values being typical of an 800 m race (Duffield et al., 2005; Hill, 1999). Given that

performance was improved for a similar change in HLa‐ and blood pH in the beta‐alanine

group, improved intramuscular buffering is one possible explanation for the faster

performance. Although it was not possible to measure muscle carnosine levels in this study,

we calculated that our dosing strategy would have increased intramuscular carnosine

concentrations by ~ 40%, using the linear relationship between total dose and intramuscular

carnosine presented by Stellingwerff et al. (2012). Based on this data, we are confident that

our total dose of beta‐alanine administered to the participants increased muscle carnosine

levels sufficiently to improve exercise performance.

Our results show relatively greater improvement in race times than those reported previously

in runners completing 800 – 1500 m races following ingestion of sodium bicarbonate to

improve their extracellular buffering capacity (here, beta‐alanine = ‐ 2.5%/‐ 3.6 s; previously,

sodium bicarbonate = ‐ 1.1 ‐ 1.8%/‐ 1.5 – 3 s)(Bird, Wiles, & Robbins, 1995; Wilkes, Gledhill, &

Smyth, 1983). Our results suggest that 800 m running performance is improved by a similar or

greater magnitude following beta‐alanine supplementation compared to sodium bicarbonate,

with these improvements most likely a result of improved intracellular buffering, but

potentially also other ergogenic effects associated with beta‐alanine, such as effects on the

Ca²+ sensitivity (release and/or uptake) within the muscle fibres that may attenuate muscular

fatigue (Dutka et al., 2012; Everaert et al., 2013), enhanced vessel vasodilation (Ririe et al.,

2000) and antioxidant effects (Kohen et al., 1988).

In contrast, results of the current study are not in agreement with those of Bellinger et al.

(2012), who recorded no improvement in cycling power output during a 4 min time‐trial. The

lack of benefit of beta‐alanine supplementation found by Bellinger et al. (2012) may have been

due to the lower dose used by these researchers, compared with those who have reported

exercise performance benefits (i.e., Bellinger et al.: ~ 4.6 g∙day‐1, 4 weeks ≈ 129 g total; current

study: ~ 6 g∙day‐1, 28 days ≈ 162 g total; Hill et al.: ~ 5 g∙day‐1, 4 weeks ≈ 146 g total; Sale et al.:

~ 6.4 g∙day‐1, 4 weeks ≈ 179 g total). Furthermore, our results also contrast with the only other

study that has reported the effects of beta‐alanine supplementation on running exercise

performance, which concluded that beta‐alanine supplementation had no effect on 400 m race

time in elite runners (Derave et al., 2007). Moreover, the increases in intramuscular carnosine

measured by Derave et al. (2007) were not correlated with the change in 400 m speed or

maximum HLa‐. Due to the fact that participants in the current study were recreational club

runners and were completing an 800 m race (rather than 400 m), a slower race pace (~ 5 ‐ 6

75

m.s‐1) when compared to the 400 m running race times reported by Derave et al. (2007; ~ 8

m.s‐1) was recorded. In the current study, despite the slower pace of the runners, high blood

lactate concentrations were recorded post‐race indicating significant contributions from

anaerobic glycolytic pathways. This longer duration may have resulted in a greater time for any

enhanced buffering effects to improve exercise performance. Of relevance, it has previously

been reported that high‐intensity exercise efforts lasting ˂ 60 s are less affected by

supplementation with beta‐alanine than longer efforts (Hobson et al., 2012). This may be due

to the fact that during shorter duration exercise efforts less time is spent exercising with

significant metabolite concentrations in the muscles and blood, which may minimise the

effects of any supplement aimed at improving the buffering capacity of the body. Any

ergogenic benefit of improved buffering may only be evident once the exercise effort

continues for a longer duration (i.e. 60 – 240 s).

Conclusions and Practical Application

In conclusion, serially supplementing with beta‐alanine (80 mg∙kg‐1BM∙day‐1 ~ 6 g∙day‐1) for 28

days improved 800 m running race times in recreational club runners. Importantly, this is the

first study to show an improvement in running race performance following beta‐alanine

supplementation. This result supports earlier research that have reported improved exercise

capacity in tests lasting 60 – 240 s. Future research should investigate if these ergogenic

effects exist in elite athletes performing 800 m running races or simulations and in other

modalities of exercise, with efforts lasting a similar time period (i.e. 2 – 4 min).

76

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Acknowledgements


obtaining the beta‐alanine used in this study.

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CHAPTER FIVE

Study Three

Effect of beta‐alanine and sodium bicarbonate supplementation on repeated‐sprint

performance

Journal article published in the Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research


Running Title: Beta‐alanine, sodium bicarbonate and repeated‐sprint performance

80

Abstract

This study aimed to investigate if combining beta‐alanine (BA) and sodium bicarbonate

(NaHCO3) supplementation could lead to enhanced repeated‐sprint performance in team‐sport

athletes, beyond what is possible with either supplement alone. Participants (n = 24)

completed duplicate trials of a repeated‐sprint test (3 sets; 6 x 20 m departing every 25 s, 4

min active recovery between sets) and were then allocated into 4 groups; BA only (n = 6; 28

days BA, acute NaCl placebo); NaHCO3 only (n = 6; 28 days glucose placebo, acute NaHCO3);

BA/NaHCO3 (n = 6; 28 days BA, acute NaHCO3); placebo only (n = 6; 28 days glucose placebo,

acute NaCl placebo), then completed duplicate trials post‐supplementation. NaHCO3 alone

resulted in moderate ES (d = 0.40 – 0.71) and ‘likely’ and ‘very likely’ benefit for overall total

sprint times (TST) and for each individual set, as well as for first sprint (Set 2 and 3) and best

sprint time (Set 2 and 3). Combining BA and NaHCO3 resulted in ‘possible’ to ‘likely’ benefits

for overall TST, as well as for Sets 2 and 3. First sprint (Set 3) and best sprint time (Sets 2 and

3) also showed ‘likely’ benefit after this trial. The BA and placebo groups showed no

differences in performance after supplementation. In conclusion, these results indicate that

supplementation with acute NaHCO3 improved repeated‐sprint performance more than either

a combination of NaHCO3 and BA or BA alone.

81

INTRODUCTION

Team‐sports such as soccer, field hockey and Australian football are characterised by multiple

repeated sprints, separated by short rest periods (38, 39). Maintaining repeated‐sprint ability

(RSA) is a vital performance component in these sports. Typically, repeated‐sprint

requirements of team‐sports comprise several bouts of 6 – 7 sprints over a distance of 10 – 20

m (~ 1.5 – 4 s), generally interspersed with ~ 20 ‐ 25 s of active recovery throughout a game

(38, 39). These repeated short sprints can lead to significant accumulation of H+, which can

consequently impair exercise performance (10). Therefore, any increase in the level or

functioning of the buffering systems of the body, including amino acids, proteins, inorganic

phosphate, bicarbonate, creatine phosphate hydrolysis and lactate production (33), could

significantly attenuate the decline in blood and muscle pH, and potentially lead to improved

repeated‐sprint performance.

Beta‐alanine (3‐Aminopropionic acid, C3H7NO2) is a beta amino acid that has received recent

research interest due to its potential positive effects on muscle pH and exercise performance

when loaded with over several weeks. The level of beta‐alanine is rate limiting for the

production of carnosine (β‐Alanyl‐L‐histidine, C9H14N4O3), a significant H+ buffer found within

muscle fibres (pKa = 6.83). Specifically, supplementing with beta‐alanine doses ranging from 3

– 6 g∙day‐1 (~ 40 – 80 mg∙kg‐1BM∙day‐1) for at least 4 weeks can lead to 30 – 80 % increases in

intramuscular carnosine concentrations (3, 5, 14, 19, 20, 24, 25), which can increase muscle

buffer capacity and potentially improve exercise performance in events requiring significant

energy contributions from anaerobic glycolysis (1, 3, 14, 40‐42). In addition, higher muscle

carnosine concentrations may benefit exercise performance by increasing the sensitivity of

muscle fibres and calcium release channels to calcium (7, 16, 17, 27, 34, 44), by enhancing

vessel vasodilatory effects (32) and by its antioxidant properties (26).

To date, studies investigating the effects of beta‐alanine supplementation on RSA have

reported little ergogenic effect (22, 36, 43). For example, Saunders et al. (36) found no benefit

of beta‐alanine supplementation in both elite and non‐elite team‐sport players performing the

Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test. Sweeney et al. (43) also reported no improvement in

average power output and total work done in healthy males completing sprints on a non‐

motorised treadmill. However, the sprint duration (5 s) and rest times (45 s between sprints)

used in this protocol were not typical of those seen in team‐sport match play (38, 39).

Conversely, Hoffman et al. (22) reported a trend for a lower fatigue rate in American football

players completing a repeated line drill following beta‐alanine supplementation. Similar to the

82

study of Sweeney et al. (43), their protocol also did not match the typical requirements of

team‐sport match play (39). Whether results would be different if exercise performance

involves repeated, short duration sprints separated by brief recovery times, that typically

characterise match play in team‐sports is unclear.

Ingesting an acute oral dose (0.3 g∙kg‐1 BM) of sodium bicarbonate 60 – 90 min prior to

exercise increases the pre‐exercise blood pH to 7.45 or greater, and can then delay the decline

in pH associated with high‐intensity exercise requiring significant anaerobic metabolism (10,

11, 29). To date, several studies have investigated the effects of supplementing with sodium

bicarbonate on exercise trials that reflect the energetic requirements of team‐sports and have

reported improvements in work done, power output and a lower decline in repeated sprint

times (10, 11, 28, 31).

Of interest is whether the combination of sodium bicarbonate (extracellular blood buffer) and

beta‐alanine (intracellular muscle buffer via carnosine) supplementation can lead to enhanced

repeated‐sprint performance beyond what is possible with either supplement alone. Recent

research has found that combining sodium bicarbonate and beta‐alanine supplementation

together resulted in slightly improved high‐intensity cycling performance (2 – 4 min), more so

than when beta‐alanine supplementation was undertaken alone (9, 35). Therefore, the

purpose of this study was to investigate whether supplementation of beta‐alanine for 28 days

combined with a pre‐exercise dose of sodium bicarbonate, could improve prolonged repeated‐

sprint performance in team‐sport athletes. We hypothesized that both beta‐alanine

supplementation and an acute dose of sodium bicarbonate would separately result in

improvements in repeated‐sprint performance, but that combining both treatments would

lead to a greater improvement in RSA compared to either supplement alone.

METHODS

Experimental Approach to the Problem

A randomised, placebo‐controlled study was conducted, which also incorporated duplicate

(one week apart) trials, performed both before and after 28 days of either beta‐alanine or

placebo (glucose) supplementation and a pre‐exercise ingestion of either sodium bicarbonate

or placebo. Duplicate trials were conducted to moderate any variation between trials and were

performed at the same time of day to control for diurnal variations in exercise performance.

Participants abstained from performing any vigorous exercise and from ingesting caffeine 24 h

prior to each trial and followed the same dietary intake on each testing day. Training diaries

were completed two days prior to testing through to the completion of the study, while food

83

diaries were completed for the two days prior to each testing session to ensure exercise and

dietary compliance prior to each trial.

Subjects

Twenty four male, competitive team‐sport athletes, who were currently in the weekly

competitive period of their respective seasons, were recruited to the study (see Table 7).

Participants from Australian football, hockey (field) and soccer were selected because of the

similar physiological and match‐play requirements of each of these sports (6, 13, 15, 38, 39).

They had not supplemented with any nutritional substances in the preceding three months or

with beta‐alanine for the previous six months. All participants were informed of the study

requirements, benefits and risks before giving informed consent. Approval for the study was

granted by the research ethics committee of the University of Western Australia.

Procedures

Repeated Sprint Test (RST)

The RST was performed in an indoor gymnasium on a sprung wooden floor. Participants

performed an individualised warm‐up (similar to their pre‐game warm‐up) that ranged from 5

– 10 min, which consisted of walking, jogging, sprinting and dynamic stretching. Each individual

warm‐up was recorded and replicated in further trials. Two self‐paced sprints (60% and 80% of

maximal ability) were completed at the end of the warm‐up, to ensure readiness to sprint

during the test.

The RST involved 3 sets of 6 x 20 m maximal running sprints, departing every 25 s, which

included the time taken to jog back to the starting position. This distance and timing was

84

chosen to mimic the mean sprint distance/time, recovery and energy requirements of team‐

sports (38). Sprint times were recorded using electronic timing gates (Fusion Sport

Smartspeed, Coopers Plains, Queensland, Australia). Four minutes of active recovery was

completed between sets (1 min rest, 1 min light jogging, 1 min walking and 1 min rest) around

a 20 x 20 m square. Sim et al. (37) completed the same protocol and reported typical error

and coefficient of variation values for the total time taken to complete one set of sprints, best

20 m time, and percentage decrement of 0.060 s and 1.8%; 0.19 s and 1.1%; and 1.5% and

64.6%, respectively. Further, intra‐class correlation (ICC), standard error of measurement

(SEM) and minimal difference (MD) were calculated for each variable (total sprint time ICC =

0.91, SEM = 0.82, MD = 2.28; set 1/2/3 total time ICC = 0.85 – 0.92, SEM = 0.25 – 0.38, MD =

0.71 – 1.06; first and best sprint of each set ICC = 0.87 – 0.91, SEM = 0.04 – 0.06, MD = 0.12 –

0.18; percentage decrement ICC = 0.26 – 0.75, SEM = 0.91 – 1.62, MD = 2.52 – 4.50).

Environmental conditions within the gymnasium were measured using a

temperature/humidity meter (Fluke 971, Fluke Corporation, Washington, U.S.A.) during each

trial, with mean ± SD values for dry bulb temperature and relative humidity being 21.9 ± 3.4 °C

and 56.7 ± 9.5%, respectively.

Blood Analysis

Prior to starting the RST and immediately upon completion, a capillary blood sample (125 µl)

was taken from the earlobe of participants using glass capillary tubes (D957G‐70‐125,

Clinitubes, Radiometer Copenhagen) to assess blood lactate concentration (HLa‐) and pH.

Following each set of repeated sprints, a smaller capillary blood sample (35 µl; due to time

constraints) was taken from the earlobe of participants using similar tubes (D957G‐70‐35,

Clinitubes, Radiometer Copenhagen) for HLa‐ measurement. Samples were transported (on

ice) back to the laboratory where they were analysed using a blood‐gas analyser/radiometer

(ABL 625, Radiometer Copenhagen).

Supplementation

85

Following pre‐supplementation testing, participants were matched in four groups, based upon

sport played (Australian football, soccer or field hockey) and current competition level.

Participants were then randomly assigned to the beta‐alanine only (BA), sodium bicarbonate

only (NaHCO3), beta‐alanine plus sodium bicarbonate (BA/NaHCO3) or placebo only (placebo)

group. Beta‐alanine (Carnosyn® slow release, Collegiate Sport Nutrition, San Marcos,

California, USA) was administered orally for 28 days with a dose of 80 mg∙kg‐1BM∙day‐1 (~ 6

g∙day‐1) taken as 4 split doses over each day, whilst the glucose placebo (10 g∙day‐1; Glucodin,

Valeant Pharmaceuticals Australasia, Rhodes, New South Wales, Australia) was taken in a

similar fashion to mimic the beta‐alanine supplementation as closely as possible. Sodium

bicarbonate (0.3 g∙kg‐1 BM, Sodibic, Aspen Pharmacare Australia Pty Ltd, St. Leonards, New

South Wales, Australia) or placebo (NaCl, matched for osmotic pressure; 0.208 g∙kg‐1 BM) was

taken as an acute dose 1 h prior to the post‐supplementation exercise trials by all groups. This

procedure ensured that all groups took either an active or placebo dose prior to the post‐

supplementation testing (i.e. BA = serial beta‐alanine + acute placebo, NaHCO3 = serial placebo

+ acute sodium bicarbonate, BA/NaHCO3 = serial beta‐alanine + acute sodium bicarbonate,

placebo = serial placebo + acute placebo). All doses were administered in opaque gelatin

capsules in order to blind participants. Prior to the study, pilot testing for 2 weeks on n = 6

volunteers using this daily dose of beta alanine was well tolerated, with no side effects being

reported. Further, an acute dose of 0.3 g∙kg‐1BM of sodium bicarbonate was selected because

it has been shown to be well tolerated, with minimal side effects reported by participants (2,

11, 29, 31). Athletes were visited weekly to distribute supplements, discuss dose compliance

and to check on health during the study. They also completed a food diary for the two days

prior to each RST to ensure that a similar diet (total energy and protein) was consumed prior

to each test, with no differences identified between pre‐ and post‐supplementation values in

each group (average total daily energy intake 8600 – 9900 kJ, p = 0.07 – 0.34; protein 111 –

133 g, p = 0.15 – 0.71). Following 28 days of supplementation, participants returned for post‐

supplementation testing, which was conducted in an identical manner to pre‐supplementation

testing.

Outcome Measures

Performance measures recorded included total sprint time for all 3 sets (TST) for the RST; total

sprint time for the six sprints in each set (SET1, SET2, SET3); first 20 m sprint time and best 20

m sprint time for each set. Further, percentage decrement scores over the 6 sprints in each set

were calculated using the method described by Fitzsimons et al. (18). Exercise performance,

HLa‐ and pH results for the duplicate pre‐supplementation and post‐supplementation RST trials

were combined and averaged for each group (BA, NaHCO3, BA/NaHCO3 and placebo), so that

86

one pre‐supplementation and one post‐supplementation mean value was obtained for each

variable.

Statistical Analyses

Given the small changes in performance that were expected from the running sprint data, the

data was interpreted using Cohen’s d effect sizes and thresholds (< 0.49, small; 0.5 ‐ 0.79,

moderate; ≥ 0.8, strong). Further analysis was conducted to identify the smallest worthwhile

change (clinically beneficial effect) in performance scores between the beta‐alanine, sodium

bicarbonate, beta‐alanine/sodium bicarbonate and placebo trials, using the method (and

spreadsheet) described by Hopkins (23). Each participant’s change score was computed as a

percent of the pre‐supplementation value and log transformed to reduce any bias from non‐

uniformity of error. A smallest worthwhile change of 0.8% was employed in order to

determine the chance that differences were practically significant during the four treatment

trials (30). Where the chance of benefit or harm were both calculated to be > 5%, the true

effect was deemed unclear (23). When clear interpretation was able to be made, a qualitative

descriptor was assigned to the following quantitative chances of benefit: 25 ‐ 75%, benefit

possible; 75 ‐ 95%, benefit likely; 95 ‐ 99%, benefit very likely; > 99%, benefit almost certain

(8).

Results

Total Sprint Times (TST)

The effects of each supplement on the TST and in SET1/2/3 are presented in Table 8. Post‐

supplementation TST was on average, 1.28 s faster (compared to pre‐supplementation) after

sodium bicarbonate only, with this supported by a ‘very likely’ chance of benefit. Further, the

combination of sodium bicarbonate and beta‐alanine resulted in a ‘possible’ benefit (mean

0.58 s faster), with all other group results being trivial with low effect sizes.

Similar results were found for the individual sets, with moderate effect sizes (Sets 2 and 3) and

‘likely’ to ‘very likely’ benefits (all sets) found for the sodium bicarbonate group only, while the

combination of beta alanine and sodium bicarbonate resulted in ‘likely’ benefits for Sets 2 and

3.

88

Mean 20 m Sprint Times for Each Set

Results for mean individual sprint times (post‐supplementation vs. pre‐supplementation) for

Set 1 found that sodium bicarbonate alone resulted in ‘likely ‘to ‘very likely’ benefits in

performance for sprints 3 – 6, with sprint 5 supported by a moderate ES (d= 0.56: Figure 5).

Further, ‘very likely’ to ‘almost certain’ benefits were found for sprints 7 – 12 in set 2 after

sodium bicarbonate supplementation, with sprints 8 – 10 and 12 also supported by moderate

ES (d = 0.56 – 0.63). Also in Set 2, combined beta‐alanine and sodium bicarbonate resulted in

‘likely’ benefits for sprints 7 – 10 and 12, while beta‐alanine alone resulted in ‘likely’ benefits

for sprints 10 and 11. This pattern continued in Set 3, with ‘possible’ to ‘almost certain’

benefits found for sprints 13 – 18 (moderate ES for sprints 13 ‐ 17; d = 0.53 – 0.73) following

sodium bicarbonate supplementation, while combined beta‐alanine and sodium bicarbonate

resulted in ‘possible’ to ‘very likely’ chances of benefit in these same sprints. Finally, beta‐

alanine alone resulted in a ‘likely’ benefit for sprint 18 only.

89

Figure 5. Mean (± SD) sprint times (3 sets of 6 sprints, 18 total) for the beta‐alanine (A, n = 6), sodium bicarbonate (B, n = 6), combined beta‐alanine and sodium bicarbonate (C, n = 6) and placebo (D, n = 6) groups. * Moderate (0.49 – 0.8) effect size for difference between pre and post‐supplementation

a

‘possible’ chances of improvement b

‘likely’ chances of improvement c

‘very likely’ chances of improvement d

‘almost certain’ chances of improvement

90

First and Best 20 m Sprint Times and Percentage Decrement

The results for first and best sprint times for each set are shown in Table 9. First sprint times

(post‐supplementation vs. pre‐supplementation) improved most after sodium bicarbonate in

sets 2 and 3 (mean 0.06 and 0.11 s faster, respectively), with these results supported by ‘very

likely’ chances of benefit, as well as moderate ES (set 3). Combined beta‐alanine and sodium

bicarbonate also resulted in a ‘likely benefit’ to first sprint performance in sets 2 and 3 (0.05

and 0.04 s faster, respectively), but the beta alanine and placebo groups did not record any

meaningful differences.

Similarly, best sprint times improved most following sodium bicarbonate supplementation in

sets 2 and 3 (0.06 and 0.09 s faster, respectively), with these results supported by ‘very likely’

chances of benefit and moderate ES (set 3). The combination of beta‐alanine and sodium

bicarbonate also resulted in ‘likely’ benefit to best sprint times in sets 2 and 3.

Percentage decrement values (post‐supplementation vs. pre‐supplementation) were lower

following sodium bicarbonate supplementation for set 1 (large ES: d = 0.81 and ‘likely’ benefit)

and set 2 (‘likely’ benefit). The placebo group recorded a higher value after supplementation

for set 1 (moderate ES: d = 0.52 and “likely” detrimental), but no meaningful differences were

noted for either the beta‐alanine or combination groups.

91

Table 9. Mean (± SD) first, best and percentage decrement scores for each set of the repeated‐sprint test for the beta‐alanine (BA, n = 6), sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO

3, n = 6),

combined (BA/NaHCO3, n = 6) and placebo (n = 6) groups, pre‐ and post‐supplementation.

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Blood Lactate and pH

These results are displayed in Figure 6 (HLa‐) and 7 (pH). Blood lactate concentrations

increased pre‐ to post‐exercise in all trials, with differences between after‐ and before‐

supplementation values being higher in the sodium bicarbonate and combined beta‐alanine

and sodium bicarbonate groups after sets 1 – 3, with these values supported by moderate to

large ES (d = 0.59 – 0.60, d = 0.80 – 0.97 and d = 0.66 – 0.86, respectively). After‐

supplementation, results were similar to before‐supplementation for both the beta‐alanine

and the placebo groups.

Blood pH decreased pre‐ to post‐exercise in all trials, but post‐supplementation values were

higher at pre‐exercise for the sodium bicarbonate and combined beta‐alanine and sodium

bicarbonate groups, with these results supported by moderate to large ES (range for d = 1.11 –

1.39). Blood pH was lower at pre‐exercise for the beta‐alanine and placebo groups, with these

results supported by moderate to large ES (d = 0.51 – 1.18). After supplementation, post‐

exercise values were higher than before supplementation in the sodium bicarbonate and

combined beta‐alanine and sodium bicarbonate groups (d = 0.51 and 0.80, respectively).

Conversely, blood pH values post‐exercise before‐ and after‐supplementation were similar for

the beta‐alanine and placebo groups.

95

DISCUSSION

This is the first study to assess the effect of combined beta‐alanine and sodium bicarbonate

supplementation on a RST that typifies the duration of (and time between) sprints commonly

performed in team‐sports. Sodium bicarbonate supplementation (alone) resulted in the best

repeated‐sprint performance, with some improvement also seen (but to a lesser extent) when

a combination of beta‐alanine and sodium bicarbonate was used. This outcome was surprising,

as it was hypothesised that combining supplementation of sodium bicarbonate (extracellular

blood buffer) and beta‐alanine (intracellular muscle buffer via carnosine) would result in

enhanced repeated‐sprint performance beyond what is possible with either supplement alone.

Improvement in RSA performance following sodium bicarbonate supplementation alone has

previously been demonstrated in several studies (10, 11, 28, 31). Specifically, Bishop et al. (11)

reported that a similar dose of sodium bicarbonate to that used here, ingested 90 min prior to

completing a single set RST (5 x 6 s cycle sprints departing every 30 s), increased total work and

peak power when compared to a placebo. Further, Bishop and Claudius (10) reported

significant improvements in work done and peak power in several sprints during the second

half of a prolonged RST (2 x 36 min halves, ≈ 2 min blocks of 4 s sprint, 100 s active recovery,

20 s rest with two extra 5 x 2 s repeat sprint bouts during each half). It is likely that the

performance improvements seen in the current study were the result of the alkalosis induced

(as a result of ingesting NaHCO3) prior to the RST, with this higher pH maintained throughout

the duration of the RST (see Figure 7). This is in agreement with the proposed ergogenic

mechanism of sodium bicarbonate (10‐12).

A smaller performance benefit from combined supplementation of beta alanine and sodium

bicarbonate was also seen here. This result was somewhat unexpected, as it had been

previously reported that the combination of beta‐alanine and sodium bicarbonate improved

exercise performance beyond what was possible with either supplement in isolation (9, 35).

For example, Bellinger et al. (9) reported that average power output (3.1%) and total work

done (3.0%) were improved during a 4 min cycling time‐trial following supplementation with

sodium bicarbonate. Adding beta‐alanine supplementation then resulted in a further benefit

(albeit, NS) of 0.2% to average power and total work done, with the researchers noting

improvement in 6 out of 7 participants. Similarly, Sale et al. (35) reported that ingesting

sodium bicarbonate after beta‐alanine supplementation resulted in a further improvement in

time to exhaustion of ~ 6 s (4.1%; NS) in participants completing a 2 – 3 min supra‐maximal

cycle capacity test. As beta‐alanine has been associated with benefit in exercise performance

in efforts lasting 60 – 240 s (21), it is possible that the shorter sprints used in the current study

96

were not long enough to utilise the full potential ergogenic effects of beta‐alanine

supplementation. Our results suggest that beta‐alanine supplementation, either alone, or in

combination with sodium bicarbonate, may have a limited ergogenic effect in repeated short

sprint bouts.

Further, when beta‐alanine and sodium bicarbonate supplementation were combined,

repeated‐sprint performance was not increased by the same magnitude as sodium

bicarbonate supplementation in isolation. It has been reported that the acute ingestion of a

stock rich in carnosine and anserine (1.5 g) reduced the contribution of the bicarbonate

buffering system during a bout of repeated sprints (10 x 5 s cycle sprints separated by 25 s

rest; Suzuki et al. 38). However, the largest buffering effect of carnosine taken orally would be

in the blood (if at all, due to rapid absorption and hydrolysation in the plasma), therefore the

conclusions of this study might be questioned and require further research to confirm.

Conversely, Baguet et al. (4) reported that several weeks of supplementation with beta‐alanine

attenuated the fall in intracellular pH during 6 min of high‐intensity cycling. These authors

noted that circulating bicarbonate and HLa‐ concentrations were unchanged during exercise

and concluded that beta‐alanine supplementation did not affect the function of the blood

bicarbonate buffering system. Therefore, the reason why the combination of supplements

used here was not as beneficial to performance as sodium bicarbonate alone remains

undetermined. More research is needed to investigate the effects of combining supplements

such as sodium bicarbonate and beta‐alanine supplementation together, to attempt to alter

both blood and muscle buffering systems simultaneously.

Interestingly, our results also found that beta‐alanine supplementation alone only marginally

improved RSA (sprints 10, 11 and 18). Hoffman et al. (22) have reported a trend for a slower

fatigue rate in American football players completing a repeated line drill. However, a lack of

benefit of beta‐alanine supplementation on RSA has been found in other studies (36, 43).

Importantly, while Saunders et al. (36) reported no significant improvements in RSA following

supplementation with a similar dose of beta‐alanine to that used in the current study (4 weeks,

6.4 g∙day‐1), they observed little deterioration in sprint times during the test before‐

supplementation, as well as relatively low HLa‐ values post‐test (3 – 6 mmol∙L‐1). In the current

study, percentage decrement values were 3 – 5% for each set (typical of this test; Sim, et al.

37), while the HLa‐ response was higher (6 – 8 mmol∙L‐1). This may have allowed the buffering

effects of carnosine to work more effectively, which may explain the small degree of

improvement found in the later sprints of set 2 and 3 here. Sweeney et al. (43) also reported

no significant improvements in performance of participants (some team‐sport, some healthy

males) completing 2 sets of 5 x 5 s sprints (45 s rest between sprints, 2 min between sets).

97

However, the longer rest periods used in their study, compared to the current one, may have

allowed participants to recover enough to have limited any ergogenic effect by the time the

next sprint commenced.

The limitations of this study include a small sample size within each group that could

potentially limit the meaningfulness of the results. Further research using a larger sample size

should be conducted to confirm/refute these findings. In addition, as no measurements of

intramuscular carnosine were possible here, the relationship between changes in these

concentrations, potential interactions with acute sodium bicarbonate loading and repeat sprint

exercise performance is necessary to support our findings. In conclusion, supplementing with

sodium bicarbonate alone resulted in better RSA, where the repeated‐sprints are of similar

duration (and time between) to those found in team‐sports, than beta‐alanine and sodium

bicarbonate supplementation in combination, or beta alanine alone. This information is

pertinent to team‐sport players as well as coaches.

Practical Applications

Supplementing with an acute dose of sodium bicarbonate (0.3 g∙kg‐1BM, 60 – 90 min prior to

exercise) may be effective for improving repeated‐sprint performance during team‐sport

match play (e.g. Australian football, soccer and field hockey). Supplementation with beta‐

alanine may not be ergogenic for these sports, which require repeated short (~ 2‐4 s) sprints

with brief (~ 15 – 30 s) recovery periods. Further, combining both supplements is not

recommended, as this combination may result in a lower magnitude of performance

improvements than sodium bicarbonate supplementation in isolation.

98

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS


sourcing and obtaining the beta‐alanine used in this study.

The results of the present study do not constitute endorsement of any product by the authors

or the National Strength and Conditioning Association.

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CHAPTER SIX

Thesis Summary and Future Directions

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Thesis Summary

It has been reported that supplementing with beta‐alanine for at least 4 weeks can increase

intra‐muscular carnosine stores, which can enhance the buffering capacity of the muscle and

possibly improve exercise performance in efforts requiring significant contributions from

anaerobic glycolysis. Performance improvements have previously been reported in efforts

lasting 1 – 4 min, however these effects appear to be less (or absent) in shorter (< 60 s) and

longer (> 4 min) high‐intensity exercise efforts. Most of the research that has been published

to date has investigated exercise capacity tests rather than race/match‐play simulations.

Whether supplementation with beta‐alanine is ergogenic to actual sporting events remains

unclear. Also of interest is whether the combination of sodium bicarbonate (extracellular

blood buffer) and beta‐alanine (intracellular muscle buffer via carnosine) supplementation can

lead to enhanced exercise performance for various durations/modalities of exercise, beyond

what is possible with either supplement alone. To address these shortcomings in the literature,

a detailed review of the existing research was completed and then three experimental trials

were undertaken to determine if altering the buffering capacity of the body (intracellular and

extracellular) by supplementing with beta‐alanine and sodium bicarbonate could improve

exercise performance of varying types and duration.

Study one investigated the effect of beta‐alanine supplementation on the 2000 m rowing

ergometer performance of competitive male rowers. The main finding from the study was that

while rowers supplemented with beta‐alanine completed the race 2.9 s faster than before

supplementation, and rowers on placebo were 1.2 s slower, this result only approached

significance and was not supported by moderate‐large ES or ‘likely’ or ‘very likely’ SWC values.

However, performance was improved at the 750 and 1000 m race splits (500 – 1000 m; 1.5 – 3

min) following beta‐alanine supplementation, whilst the placebo group was slower at both

points. Overall, beta‐alanine supplementation had no conclusive effects on 2000 m rowing

performance. Until further research is completed utilising supplementation protocols with

greater numbers of elite athletes, beta‐alanine supplementation should not be regarded as

ergogenic for high‐intensity exercise efforts of ~ 6 – 7 min duration.

Study two examined whether beta‐alanine ingestion could improve the 800 m track running

performance of recreational club runners, to assess whether the slight (but NS) improvements

identified in study one (particularly from 500 – 1000 m rowing race distance; 1.5 – 3 min) after

beta‐alanine supplementation could result in improvements in the performance of a shorter,

higher‐intensity exercise effort (2 – 3 min vs. 6 – 7 min). The main finding of this study was that

800 m running performance was improved by ~ 3.6 s pre‐ to post‐supplementation with beta‐

105

alanine. The majority of this improvement came from faster times performed between 200 –

400 m and 600 – 800 m. It was concluded that beta‐alanine improved the 800 m track running

performance of recreational club runners. However, whether the magnitude of this effect can

be manifested in elite runners remains to be elucidated.

The aim of study three was to investigate the effect of combining beta‐alanine and sodium

bicarbonate supplementation on short repeated‐sprints that were typical of team‐sport match

play. Specifically, this study aimed to identify if the effect of combining the two supplements

was additive, when compared to using either supplement in isolation. The main finding of this

study was that sodium bicarbonate supplementation (alone) resulted in the best repeated‐

sprint performance, with some improvement also seen (but to a lesser extent) when a

combination of beta‐alanine and sodium bicarbonate was used. Further, supplementing with

beta‐alanine alone resulted in no improvement in performance. It was concluded from this

study that combining beta‐alanine and sodium bicarbonate supplementation was not as

effective as supplementing with sodium bicarbonate alone. Therefore, combining these two

supplements is not recommended when attempting to improve repeated‐sprint performance.

Synthesis of results

Results from the three studies described in this thesis suggest that the greatest ergogenic

potential of beta‐alanine supplementation is available when completing high‐intensity exercise

performances ranging in duration from ~ 2 – 3 min. Longer duration, high‐intensity exercise

(i.e. 6 – 7 min) and the performance of multiple, short repeated‐sprints separated by short

active recovery periods (that are typical of team‐sport match play), were not improved by

supplementation with beta‐alanine.

However, despite no significant improvement in rowing race total time/power output in study

1, improvements in performance (time and power output) were recorded from 500 – 1000 m

(1.5 – 3 min), which is similar to the duration where performance improvements were also

found during an 800 m running race (2 – 3 min) in study 2. This time period may represent an

optimal time window where the greatest ergogenic potential of beta‐alanine exists, as several

other researchers have also reported improvements in exercise capacity tests of a similar

duration (Hill et al., 2007; Hobson, Saunders, Ball, Harris, & Sale, 2012; Sale et al., 2011).

Shorter high‐intensity sprints (i.e. short repeated‐sprints in study 3; ~ 3 s) may lead to a lesser

build‐up of H+ when compared to longer high‐intensity exercise efforts (6 – 8 mmol∙L‐1 versus 9

– 13 mmol∙L‐1 following an 800 m running race or 2000 m rowing race) and may not allow

sufficient time or scope for the weaker pH buffer carnosine (via beta‐alanine supplementation)

when compared to acute sodium bicarbonate ingestion (a stronger buffer), to alter short,

106

repeated‐sprint performance. Additionally, the recovery periods between sprints/sets in a

repeated‐sprint protocol (as used in study 3) allows some of the existing metabolic acidosis to

be cleared and may be sufficient to lessen any enhanced H+ buffering induced by beta‐alanine

supplementation alone. Therefore, stronger buffering agents (i.e. sodium bicarbonate), that

induce pre‐exercise metabolic alkalosis may be better suited to eliciting performance

improvements in these exercise modalities. Of interest, longer duration high‐intensity exercise

efforts, such as the rowing test used to assess exercise performance in study 1, had the highest

HLa‐ and lowest blood pH levels compared with the other two studies. This may have led to the

intramuscular buffering system becoming overwhelmed as the race distance extended beyond

1000 m (~ 3 min), which in turn may limit the efficacy of beta‐alanine supplementation.

Although these studies did not specifically seek to investigate the mechanisms via which beta‐

alanine supplementation may improve exercise performance, previous research has proposed

that the primary mechanism is the role of carnosine as a pH buffering agent (Abe, 2000;

Derave et al., 2007; Suzuki, Ito, Takahashi, & Takamatsu, 2002, 2004). For example, Baguet et

al. (2010) recently reported that higher intramuscular carnosine concentrations (without

supplementation) were positively correlated with rowing ergometer speed over 100 m (r =

0.60), 500 m (r = 0.66), 2000 m (r = 0.68) and 6000 m (r = 0.71) in elite rowers. Importantly, in

the current studies HLa‐ and blood pH values were not altered pre‐ or post‐exercise in any of

the groups, despite improvements in exercise performance during the 800 m running race and

the 1.5 – 3 min time points of the rowing race. Improved exercise performance despite similar

changes in these variables could suggest better buffering capacity. However, these effects

could potentially be due to other ergogenic effects associated with beta‐alanine, such as

effects on the calcium sensitivity within the muscle fibres (Dutka et al., 2012), plus enhanced

vessel vasodilation (Ririe et al., 2000) and antioxidant effects (Kohen et al., 1988). Further

research needs to be conducted to identify the exact contribution of all of these factors.

A potential limitation of these studies is that intramuscular carnosine concentrations were not

quantified. However, as several researchers have reported the intramuscular carnosine

concentrations resulting from a similar dosage of beta‐alanine to that used in our studies, we

are confident that our dosing strategy was sufficient to increase intramuscular concentrations

to levels associated with performance enhancement (Kendrick et al., 2008; Kendrick et al.,

2009). Additionally, these studies were conducted single‐blind due to the fact that the beta‐

alanine had to be loaded into opaque capsules by the researchers to effectively blind the

participants. This involved making over a thousand capsules per week by hand. Therefore, to

ensure accuracy with the dosing, this task had to be completed by the researchers, meaning

that a single‐blind study design was used. At the end of each study, when asked what

107

supplement they thought they may have been on, none of the participants were sure, and

answered the question in this way. Therefore, we are confident that the use of a single blind

design did not affect the reported results. This research provides valuable feedback to

researchers, coaches and athletes about practical uses of beta‐alanine supplementation for

the purposes of athletic performance enhancement.

108

Practical Applications

The following practical recommendations can be made based on the findings of this thesis:

A dose of 80 mg∙kg‐1BM∙day‐1 of slow release beta‐alanine (e.g. Carnosyn® slow‐

release, Collegiate Sport Nutrition; Sustained Release Beta‐alanine, Musashi) taken as

4 split doses over each day is well tolerated by male athletes with no side‐effects.

Taking each dose with some form of food/drink (as opposed to on an empty stomach)

to further slow the release of beta‐alanine is recommended to minimise any side‐

effects that may be experienced.

Beta‐alanine supplementation (28 days, 80 mg∙kg‐1BM∙day‐1) does not seem to

improve the exercise performance of rowing races (2000 m, ~ 6 – 7 min) or short

repeated‐sprints separated by short, active rest periods that are typical of team‐

sports.

Supplementing for 28 days with a dose of 80 mg∙kg‐1BM∙day‐1 taken as 4 split doses

over each day can improve exercise performance in 2 – 3 min running events (e.g. 800

m run).

Combining 28 days of beta‐alanine supplementation with the ingestion of an acute

pre‐exercise dose of sodium bicarbonate does not improve exercise performance of

team‐sport athletes completing repeated‐sprints to the same degree as ingesting

sodium bicarbonate in isolation. Scientists/coaches/athletes should be cautious when

combining these supplements in order to improve repeated short sprint exercise

performance.

109

Future Research Directions

Included below are suggestions for future research into aspects of beta‐alanine and the use of

other ergogenic aids to exercise performance that this thesis has helped to identify:

The relationship between the dosage of beta‐alanine, intramuscular carnosine

concentrations and changes in exercise performance needs to be further investigated.

Results from study one suggest that rowing ergometer performance may be similarly

affected by a lower total dose than those previously used on rowers. Given that similar

performance results were reported despite our study using a lower total dose of beta‐

alanine, further research to clarify the relationship between supra‐physiological

intramuscular carnosine concentrations and exercise performance is warranted.

This thesis provides some practical recommendations related to the use of buffering

agents to affect exercise performance in race/match‐play simulations. However, there

are still many modalities and exercise durations that need to be investigated to

determine if effects identified in exercise capacity tests can be translated into

improved race/match‐play performance (high‐intensity exercise efforts lasting 2 – 7

min. e.g. 1500 m running, 200 – 400 m swim, 1000 m canoe/kayak).

Whether elite athletes are affected by beta‐alanine supplementation by a similar

magnitude to less well‐trained athletes remains to be clarified. Studies utilising larger

sample sizes of athletes of both elite and recreational standard would be beneficial to

confirm whether all levels of athletes are similarly affected.

Study three identified that combining beta‐alanine and sodium bicarbonate

supplementation prior to completing repeated‐sprints may not have the efficacy of

only ingesting sodium bicarbonate in isolation. Two studies (Bellinger et al., 2012; Sale

et al., 2011) have reported a small additive effect of combining these supplements on

exercise performance (2 – 4 min high‐intensity cycling capacity tests), but clarifying the

mechanisms behind these results and investigating whether this is typical of other

exercise modalities/performances remains to be investigated.

110

References





Bellinger, P. M., Howe, S. T., Shing, C. M., & Fell, J. W. (2012). Effect of combined beta‐alanine

and NaHCO3 supplementation on cycling performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and

Exercise, 44(8), 1545‐1551.



attenuates fatigue during repeated isokinetic contraction bouts in trained sprinters. Journal of



carnosine on contractile apparatus Ca2+‐sensitivity and sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ release in

human skeletal muscle fibers. Journal of Applied Physiology, 112(5), 728‐736.

Hill, C. A., Harris, R. C., Kim, H. J., Harris, B. D., Sale, C., Boobis, L., Coakley, J., Kim, H.J.,

Fallowfield, J.L., Hill, C.A., Sale, C., & Wise, J. A. (2007). Influence of β‐alanine supplementation

on skeletal muscle carnosine concentrations and high intensity cycling capacity. Amino Acids,

32, 225‐233.

Hobson, R. M., Saunders, B., Ball, G., Harris, R. C., & Sale, C. (2012). Effects of beta‐alanine


Kendrick, I. P., Harris, R. C., Kim, H. J., Kim, C. K., Dang, V. H., & Lam, T. Q. (2008). The effects of

10 weeks of resistance training combined with β‐alanine supplementation on whole body

strength, force production, muscular endurance and body composition. Amino Acids, 34, 547‐

554.

Kendrick, I. P., Kim, H. J., Harris, R. C., Kim, C. K., Dang, V. H., Lam, T. Q., Bui, T.T., & Wise, J. A.


carnosine concentrations in type I and II human skeletal muscle fibres. European Journal of


111






Sale, C., Saunders, B., Hudson, S., Wise, J. A., Harris, R. C., & Sunderland, C. D. (2011). Effect of

beta‐alanine plus sodium bicarbonate on high‐intensity cycling capacity. Medicine and Science



carnosine contributes to the latter half of exercise performance during 30‐s maximal cycle

ergometer sprinting. Japanese Journal of Physiology, 52(2), 199‐205.


skeletal muscle carnosine in humans. International Journal of Sport and Health Science, 2, 105‐

110.

112

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

Participant Information Sheets and Informed Consent

APPENDIX B

Raw Data

113

APPENDIX A

Participant Information Sheets and Informed Consent

Participant Information Sheet – Study One

Informed Consent Form – Study One

Participant Information Sheet – Study Two

Informed Consent Form – Study Two

Participant Information Sheet – Study Three

Informed Consent Form – Study Three

Informed Consent Form – Under 18 y Old Participant – Study Three

114

Effect of beta‐alanine supplementation on 2000 m rowing performance

‐ PARTICIPANT INFORMATION SHEET ‐

Purpose The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of the ingestion of the amino acid, beta‐alanine, as an ergogenic aid to rowing performance. Supplementing with beta‐alanine leads to increases in the lactic acid buffer, carnosine, in the muscles. This allows the muscles to complete higher levels of exercise before fatiguing. This could be of benefit for rowers completing a 2000 m race.

Procedures You will be required to complete 4 x 2000 m rowing ergometer races over the period of six weeks and will be randomly assigned to supplement orally with either placebo (glucose) or beta‐alanine for 30 days. You will be required to complete 2 x 2000 m ergometer races separated by 1 week prior to any supplementation to provide baseline results. Following the baseline session you will complete the 30 day supplementation period and will be required to complete 2 x 2000 m ergometer races, conducted in an identical manner to the baseline sessions so to determine if beta‐alanine supplementation has any effect on 2000 m rowing ergometer performance. Throughout the study you will be asked to complete a daily training/exercise diary as well as completing a food diary in the two days prior to each 2K ergo. You must prepare for each testing session as you would for a competition event and will be instructed to closely mimic this preparation for both sessions. Following a standard 10 min warm‐up, you will complete a 2000 m rowing ergometer race. Capillary blood samples will be taken (approximately 25 drops from the ear lobe) pre and post‐test to determine blood lactate concentrations and blood pH.

Risks Large acute doses of beta‐alanine can lead to mild paraesthesia which is felt as a hot, prickly sensation of the skin that starts soon after taking the dose and lasts up to an hour. The dosage protocol and slow release formulation of the beta‐alanine used in this study aims to avoid these effects. Strenuous exercise can place strain upon the body and cause mild discomfort. You will be carefully monitored by qualified personnel to ensure your well‐being. There is a small risk of infection of the earlobe following blood sampling. The sample site will be well sterilised prior to sampling and you are advised to keep the wound clean and dry until it heals.

Winthrop Professor Brian Dawson School of Sport Science, Exercise and Health M408 The University of Western Australia 35 Stirling Highway Crawley Western Australia 6009 Phone +61 8 6488 2276 Fax +61 8 6488 1039 Email [email protected] Web www.sseh.uwa.edu.au CRICOS Provider Code: 00126G

Parkway (Entrance No 3) Nedlands

115

Benefits Ingesting beta‐alanine could potentially improve the lactic acid buffering capacity of athletes and lead to improvements in performance.

Confidentiality Confidentiality of your identity and data will be maintained. All data will be de‐identified, so that no‐one can be connected with his/her data, and the safe‐keeping of data will be ensured at all times. There will be no video or audio data collected for the purpose of this experiment.

Participant Rights Participation in this research is voluntary and you are free to withdraw from the study at any time without prejudice. You can withdraw for any reason and you do not need to justify your decision. If you withdraw from the study and you are an employee or student at the University of Western Australia (UWA) this will not prejudice your status and rights as an employee or student of UWA. If you withdraw from the study and are a patient recruited from one of the affiliated clinics your treatment will not be prejudiced or affected in any way. If you do withdraw we may wish to retain the data that we have recorded from you but only if you agree, otherwise your records will be destroyed. Your participation in this study does not prejudice any right to compensation that you may have under statute of common law. If you have any questions concerning the research at any time please feel free to ask the researcher who has contacted you about your concerns. Further information regarding this study may be obtained from

116

Effect of beta‐alanine supplementation on 2000 m rowing performance

— Consent Form — I ___________________________ have read the information provided and any questions I have asked have been answered to my satisfaction. I agree to participate in this activity, realising that I may withdraw at any time without reason and without prejudice or without prejudice to my future medical treatment.

I understand that all information provided is treated as strictly confidential and will not be released by the investigator. The only exception to this principle of confidentiality is if a court subpoenas documentation. I have been advised as to what data is being collected, what the purpose is, and what will be done with the data upon completion of the research. I agree that research data gathered for the study may be published provided my name or other identifying information is not used. ______________________ __________________ Participant Date The Human Research Ethics Committee at the University of Western Australia requires that all participants are informed that, if they have any complaint regarding the manner, in which a research project is conducted, it may be given to the researcher or, alternatively to the Secretary, Human Research Ethics Committee, Registrar’s Office, University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA 6009 (telephone number 6488‐3703). All study participants will be provided with a copy of the Information Sheet and Consent Form for their personal records. PHONE EMAIL



117



Purpose The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of the ingestion of the amino acid, beta‐alanine, as an ergogenic aid to running performance. Supplementing with beta‐alanine leads to increases in the lactic acid buffer, carnosine, in the muscles. This allows the muscles to complete higher levels of exercise before fatiguing. This could be of benefit for runners completing an 800 m race.

Participant requirements Healthy, males aged 18 – 40 y who complete running training regularly (alone or with a club), would complete some sort of interval work as part of their training and are capable of running an 800 m running race. Participants must not be taking any performance enhancing supplements that may affect the results of this study (if in doubt then please contact me to discuss).

Procedures You will be required to complete 6 x 800 m running races over the period of approximately 10 weeks and will be randomly assigned to supplement orally with either placebo (glucose) or beta‐alanine for 30 days. You will be required to complete 2 x 800 m practice running races separated by at least 48 h prior to any testing to allow you to develop an adequate pacing strategy (if familiarity of the distance and intensity can be shown then this can be reduced/avoided). Following this you will complete 2 x 800 m running races separated by at least 48 h prior to supplementation to provide baseline results. Following the baseline session you will complete the 30 day supplementation period and will be required to complete 2 x 800 m running races, conducted in an identical manner to the baseline sessions so to determine if beta‐alanine supplementation has any effect on 800 m running performance. Throughout the study you will be asked to complete a daily training/exercise diary as well as a food diary in the two days prior to each race. You must prepare for each testing session as you would for a competition event and will be instructed to closely mimic this preparation for both sessions. Following a standard 10 min warm‐up, you will complete an 800 m running race. Capillary blood samples will be taken (approximately 25 drops from the ear lobe) pre and post‐test to determine blood lactate concentrations and blood pH.

Risks Large acute doses of beta‐alanine can lead to mild paraesthesia which is felt as a hot, prickly sensation of the skin that starts soon after taking the dose and lasts up to an hour. The dosage



118

protocol and slow release formulation of the beta‐alanine used in this study aims to avoid these effects. Strenuous exercise can place strain upon the body and cause mild discomfort. You will be carefully monitored by qualified personnel to ensure your well‐being. There is a small risk of infection of the earlobe following blood sampling. The sample site will be well sterilised prior to sampling and you are advised to keep the wound clean and dry until it heals.

Benefits Ingesting beta‐alanine could potentially improve the lactic acid buffering capacity of athletes and lead to improvements in performance.

Confidentiality Confidentiality of your identity and data will be maintained. All data will be de‐identified, so that no‐one can be connected with his/her data, and the safe‐keeping of data will be ensured at all times. There will be no video or audio data collected for the purpose of this experiment.

Participant Rights Participation in this research is voluntary and you are free to withdraw from the study at any time without prejudice. You can withdraw for any reason and you do not need to justify your decision. If you withdraw from the study and you are an employee or student at the University of Western Australia (UWA) this will not prejudice your status and rights as an employee or student of UWA. If you withdraw from the study and are a patient recruited from one of the affiliated clinics your treatment will not be prejudiced or affected in any way. If you do withdraw we may wish to retain the data that we have recorded from you but only if you agree, otherwise your records will be destroyed. Your participation in this study does not prejudice any right to compensation that you may have under statute of common law. If you have any questions concerning the research at any time please feel free to ask the researcher who has contacted you about your concerns. Further information regarding this study may be obtained from

119



I understand that all information provided is treated as strictly confidential and will not be released by the investigator. The only exception to this principle of confidentiality is if a court subpoenas documentation. I have been advised as to what data is being collected, what the purpose is, and what will be done with the data upon completion of the research. I agree that research data gathered for the study may be published provided my name or other identifying information is not used. ______________________ __________________ Participant Date The Human Research Ethics Committee at the University of Western Australia requires that all participants are informed that, if they have any complaint regarding the manner, in which a research project is conducted, it may be given to the researcher or, alternatively to the Secretary, Human Research Ethics Committee, Registrar’s Office, University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA 6009 (telephone number 6488‐3703). All study participants will be provided with a copy of the Information Sheet and Consent Form for their personal records. PHONE EMAIL



120

Effect of combined beta‐alanine and sodium bicarbonate supplementation on prolonged

intermittent‐sprint ability in team‐sport athletes.


Purpose The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of ingesting the supplements, beta‐alanine and sodium bicarbonate, on exercise performance during a team‐sport game simulation. These supplements improve different facets of the lactic acid buffering capacity of the body and could lead to improvements in performance in team‐sports. Procedures You will be randomly assigned to one of four conditions. These conditions include (1) serially loading (i.e. repeated doses) for a period of 30 days with beta‐alanine, (2) serially loading for a period of 30 days with a combined dose of beta‐alanine and an acute dose of sodium bicarbonate (0.3 g.kg‐1 BM dose 60 min prior) on testing days, or (3) serially loading for 30 days with a placebo dose plus an acute dose of sodium bicarbonate (0.3 g.kg‐1 BM dose 60 min prior) on testing days, or (4) a placebo group. You will be required to complete four testing sessions over the period of approximately six weeks. Once you have completed the first testing session you will be required to attend a week later for another pre‐supplementation trial. Following the pre‐tests you will take the supplement/placebo for one month and will then complete two tests exactly the same as the pre‐tests to complete the trial. The intermittent‐sprint test will be completed on a wooden gymnasium floor. You will perform a pre‐test warm‐up involving some running, dynamic exercises and dynamic stretching. The sprint test involves 3 sets of 6 x 20 m sprints leaving every 25 s with a jog back to the start. Each set will be separated by 4 min of light jogging, walking and resting. During the test, a few drops of blood will be obtained from your earlobe immediately after each set of sprints to assess blood lactate concentrations and pH. Risks Large acute doses of beta‐alanine can lead to mild paraesthesia which is felt as a hot, prickly sensation of the skin that starts soon after taking the dose and lasts up to an hour. The dosage protocol used in this study aims to avoid these effects. Acute doses of sodium bicarbonate can lead to gastrointestinal upset in some people. This occurs in approximately 10% of cases and can lead to short‐term diarrhoea, stomach upset and vomiting



121

Strenuous exercise can place strain upon the body and cause mild discomfort. You will be carefully monitored during each testing session. There is a small risk of infection of the earlobe following blood sampling. The sample site will be well sterilised prior to sampling and you are advised to keep the wound clean and dry until it heals. Benefits Ingesting beta‐alanine and sodium bicarbonate could potentially slow the rate of lactic acid accumulation and fatigue, therefore leading to improvements in performance. Improving two areas of the buffering capacity of the body by ingesting both beta‐alanine AND sodium bicarbonate could lead to improvements in performance beyond what is possible with either supplement in isolation. Confidentiality Confidentiality of your identity and data will be maintained. All data will be de‐identified, so that no‐one can be connected with his/her data, and the safe‐keeping of data will be ensured at all times. There will be no video or audio data collected for the purpose of this experiment. Participant Rights Participation in this research is voluntary and you are free to withdraw from the study at any time without prejudice. You can withdraw for any reason and you do not need to justify your decision. If you withdraw from the study and you are an employee or student at the University of Western Australia (UWA) this will not prejudice your status and rights as an employee or student of UWA. If you withdraw from the study and are a patient recruited from one of the affiliated clinics your treatment will not be prejudiced or affected in any way. If you do withdraw we may wish to retain the data that we have recorded from you but only if you agree, otherwise your records will be destroyed. Your participation in this study does not prejudice any right to compensation that you may have under statute of common law. If you have any questions concerning the research at any time please feel free to ask the researcher who has contacted you about your concerns. Further information regarding this study may be obtained from

122

Effect of combined beta‐alanine and sodium bicarbonate supplementation on

prolonged intermittent‐sprint ability in team‐sport athletes.


I understand that all information provided is treated as strictly confidential and will not be released by the investigator. The only exception to this principle of confidentiality is if a court subpoenas documentation. I have been advised as to what data is being collected, what the purpose is, and what will be done with the data upon completion of the research. I agree that research data gathered for the study may be published provided my name or other identifying information is not used. ______________________ __________________ Participant Date The Human Research Ethics Committee at the University of Western Australia requires that all participants are informed that, if they have any complaint regarding the manner, in which a research project is conducted, it may be given to the researcher or, alternatively to the Secretary, Human Research Ethics Committee, Registrar’s Office, University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA 6009 (telephone number 6488‐3703). All study participants will be provided with a copy of the Information Sheet and Consent Form for their personal records.



123

Effect of combined beta-alanine and sodium bicarbonate supplementation on prolonged intermittent-sprint ability in team-sport athletes.

— Consent Form — I ___________________________ have read the information provided and any questions I have asked have been answered to my satisfaction. I agree to allow my son/daughter/dependant ______________________ (Full name) to participate in this activity, realising that they may withdraw at any time without reason and without prejudice or without prejudice to their future medical treatment.

I understand that all information provided is treated as strictly confidential and will not be released by the investigator. The only exception to this principle of confidentiality is if a court subpoenas documentation. I have been advised as to what data is being collected, what the purpose is, and what will be done with the data upon completion of the research. I agree that research data gathered for the study may be published provided my son/daughter/dependant’s name or other identifying information is not used. ______________________ __________________ Signed Date The Human Research Ethics Committee at the University of Western Australia requires that all participants are informed that, if they have any complaint regarding the manner, in which a research project is conducted, it may be given to the researcher or, alternatively to the Secretary, Human Research Ethics Committee, Registrar’s Office, University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA 6009 (telephone number 6488‐3703). All study participants will be provided with a copy of the Information Sheet and Consent Form for their personal records. PHONE EMAIL



124

APPENDIX B

Raw Data

Raw Data – Study One – Chapter Three

Raw Data – Study Two – Chapter Four

Raw Data – Study Three – Chapter Five

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RAW DATA – STUDY ONE – CHAPTER THREE

2000 m rowing ergometer race 250 m split (s) and total time (min:s) pre‐ and post‐

supplementation in the beta‐alanine and placebo groups.

Pre‐supplementation trial 1


Participant Treatment Total Time Time 250m Time

500m Time 750m

Time

1000m

Time

1250m

Time

1500m

Time

1750m Time 2000m

1 Beta‐alanine 06:40.2 46.2 49.0 50.5 51.0 51.1 51.6 51.4 49.5

2 Beta‐alanine 06:50.1 46.8 49.5 51.2 51.6 52.4 53.7 52.9 52.0

3 Beta‐alanine 06:12.9 43.6 45.5 47.1 47.5 47.8 48.3 47.7 45.4

4 Beta‐alanine 06:23.5 47.1 47.9 47.8 48.7 48.2 48.9 48.6 46.3

5 Beta‐alanine 06:49.7 47.8 49.7 51.7 53.1 53.4 53.3 52.3 48.6

6 Beta‐alanine 06:28.2 43.5 48.0 49.3 49.9 50.2 50.3 49.5 47.6

7 Beta‐alanine 06:26.7 45.3 47.8 49.1 49.5 49.1 49.4 49.4 47.0

8 Placebo 06:12.1 44.9 45.8 46.5 47.3 47.4 47.3 47.1 45.8

9 Placebo 06:36.0 47.8 47.9 49.1 49.8 50.8 50.2 51.1 49.4

10 Placebo 06:51.7 43.5 51.3 49.8 53.1 53.4 54.1 54.6 52.1

11 Placebo 06:31.0 44.7 48.7 51.1 51.1 51.3 50.3 49.3 44.6

12 Placebo 06:26.5 45.5 47.1 48.2 48.5 49.6 50.0 49.3 48.2

13 Placebo 06:37.6 48.1 48.7 49.6 50.2 50.5 50.7 50.7 49.1

14 Placebo 06:46.8 46.1 49.5 50.7 51.4 51.9 52.6 52.7 52.0

15 Placebo 06:46.2 49.4 50.2 51.6 51.7 51.4 51.7 50.5 49.7

16 Placebo 06:14.4 44.9 46.3 47.4 47.8 47.7 47.5 46.9 45.9

Participant Treatment Total Time Time 250m Time

500m Time 750m

Time

1000m

Time

1250m

Time

1500m

Time

1750m Time 2000m

1 Beta‐alanine 06:54.3 53.7 50.1 51.9 51.9 51.6 52.3 52.5 50.2

2 Beta‐alanine 06:48.0 46.6 49.1 51.0 52.4 52.7 52.9 52.5 50.9

3 Beta‐alanine 06:12.2 43.5 45.4 47.0 47.4 47.7 48.2 47.6 45.3

4 Beta‐alanine 06:21.6 45.6 47.6 47.5 48.8 48.0 48.8 48.5 46.9

5 Beta‐alanine 06:49.8 47.1 49.4 51.4 52.9 53.5 53.6 53.4 48.6

6 Beta‐alanine 06:29.1 44.6 47.5 48.9 49.8 49.9 50.7 50.2 47.5

7 Beta‐alanine 06:27.9 46.6 48.2 49.4 49.6 49.5 48.9 48.8 46.9

8 Placebo 06:11.5 44.8 45.7 46.4 47.2 47.3 47.2 47.0 45.7

9 Placebo 06:38.0 48.0 48.1 49.3 50.1 51.1 50.5 51.4 49.6

10 Placebo 06:42.8 47.5 49.6 50.3 51.0 51.0 51.6 51.5 50.3

11 Placebo 06:28.3 43.9 47.5 50.4 51.0 50.6 49.4 48.8 46.7

12 Placebo 06:17.1 45.5 46.5 47.1 46.9 47.9 48.2 48.0 46.9

13 Placebo 06:38.9 49.2 50.0 50.2 50.2 50.3 50.1 49.9 48.9

14 Placebo 06:47.9 45.8 50.0 51.3 52.4 52.7 52.6 52.6 50.5

15 Placebo 06:44.7 49.2 50.4 51.0 51.5 50.5 51.4 51.5 49.1

16 Placebo 06:07.5 43.4 46.0 46.4 47.1 46.8 47.0 46.3 44.6

126

Post‐supplementation trial 1


Participant Treatment Total Time Time 250m Time 500m Time

750m

Time

1000mTime 1250m

Time

1500m Time 1750m Time 2000m

1 Beta‐alanine 06:48.9 47.2 50.2 51.4 52.4 52.4 52.6 52.4 50.4

2 Beta‐alanine 06:37.5 46.5 48.7 49.6 50.1 50.7 50.9 51.9 49.1

3 Beta‐alanine 06:12.5 44.4 46.6 46.7 47.1 47.3 47.1 47.4 45.7

4 Beta‐alanine 06:18.6 45.3 46.5 47.2 47.7 47.8 48.4 48.5 47.3

5 Beta‐alanine 06:49.9 46.5 48.8 51.4 53.5 54.1 54.0 53.7 48.0

6 Beta‐alanine 06:23.8 43.7 47.4 48.2 48.5 49.1 49.9 49.8 47.2

7 Beta‐alanine 06:27.5 45.2 46.9 48.5 49.2 49.4 49.7 49.8 48.7

8 Placebo 06:16.4 45.2 47.5 48.4 49.0 48.5 47.5 46.2 44.1

9 Placebo 06:35.8 45.7 48.7 50.9 51.3 51.2 50.7 50.1 47.3

10 Placebo 06:47.4 44.0 49.7 52.4 53.1 52.7 53.0 52.5 50.2

11 Placebo 06:35.2 45.1 49.0 51.7 52.4 51.1 49.9 49.5 46.3

12 Placebo 06:22.9 44.3 46.1 47.0 47.8 49.8 50.0 49.9 48.0

13 Placebo 06:39.0 48.1 48.8 49.9 50.1 50.3 51.1 50.9 49.8

14 Placebo 06:52.7 45.8 49.9 51.1 52.8 53.5 53.7 53.4 52.5

15 Placebo 06:42.7 47.2 50.5 50.8 51.1 51.6 51.8 50.8 48.9

16 Placebo 06:14.3 44.1 45.5 46.9 47.4 47.6 48.0 48.1 46.7

Participant Treatment Total Time Time 250m Time 500m Time

750m

Time

1000mTime 1250m

Time

1500m Time 1750m Time 2000m

1 Beta‐alanine 06:44.7 47.8 49.3 50.9 51.7 51.9 51.8 51.1 50.3

2 Beta‐alanine 06:37.5 45.9 48.6 49.5 50.5 50.4 51.1 51.9 49.5

3 Beta‐alanine 06:12.4 44.2 46.4 47.6 47.4 47.5 47.4 46.8 45.2

4 Beta‐alanine 06:19.0 44.6 46.5 47.2 47.8 48.2 48.2 48.5 48.0

5 Beta‐alanine 06:50.3 48.1 49.4 50.7 52.2 53.6 54.1 53.7 48.5

6 Beta‐alanine 06:26.6 42.9 47.2 48.4 49.8 50.3 50.6 49.9 47.5

7 Beta‐alanine 06:24.8 46.7 47.1 47.6 48.8 48.9 49.4 48.6 47.7

8 Placebo 06:15.1 46.5 47.1 47.6 47.9 47.8 47.3 46.4 44.6

9 Placebo 06:33.6 44.2 47.6 49.1 50.2 50.1 50.4 51.1 50.9

10 Placebo 06:47.5 45.8 49.6 50.7 51.7 52.4 53.3 53.2 50.7

11 Placebo 06:29.4 44.9 48.9 51.3 52.2 50.0 48.8 48.6 44.5

12 Placebo 06:22.9 45.2 48.0 49.3 49.2 48.9 48.8 48.1 45.3

13 Placebo 06:40.2 48.8 49.4 49.9 50.0 50.7 50.6 50.9 50.0

14 Placebo 06:54.2 45.6 51.0 52.9 53.4 53.5 53.0 53.2 51.7

15 Placebo 06:41.7 46.7 49.4 50.7 51.3 51.1 52.1 50.7 49.6

16 Placebo 06:10.5 42.8 45.9 47.3 47.8 47.9 47.6 46.6 44.8

127

2000 m rowing ergometer race 250 m split and total average power output (W) pre‐ and

post‐supplementation in the beta‐alanine and placebo groups.



Participant TreatmentTotal Average

Power

Power

250m

Power

500m

Power

750m

Power

1000m

Power

1250m

Power

1500m

Power

1750m

Power

2000m

1 Beta‐alanine 349 444 372 340 330 328 318 322 361

2 Beta‐alanine 325 427 361 326 318 304 283 296 311

3 Beta‐alanine 432 528 464 419 408 401 388 403 468

4 Beta‐alanine 397 419 398 401 379 391 374 381 441

5 Beta‐alanine 326 401 356 317 292 287 289 306 381

6 Beta‐alanine 383 532 396 365 352 346 344 361 406

7 Beta‐alanine 387 471 401 370 361 370 363 363 421

8 Placebo 435 483 455 435 413 411 413 419 455

9 Placebo 361 401 398 370 354 334 346 328 363

10 Placebo 321 532 324 354 292 287 276 269 309

11 Placebo 378 455 351 303 303 300 320 339 458

12 Placebo 388 464 419 391 383 359 350 365 391

13 Placebo 356 393 379 359 346 340 336 336 370

14 Placebo 333 447 361 336 322 313 301 299 311

15 Placebo 334 363 346 318 317 322 317 340 356

16 Placebo 427 483 441 411 401 403 408 424 452


Power

Power

250m

Power

500m

Power

750m

Power

1000m

Power

1250m

Power

1500m

Power

1750m

Power

2000m

1 Beta‐alanine 315 283 348 313 313 318 306 302 346

2 Beta‐alanine 330 432 370 330 304 299 296 302 332

3 Beta‐alanine 434 529 465 420 409 402 389 404 469

4 Beta‐alanine 403 461 406 408 376 396 376 383 424

5 Beta‐alanine 325 419 363 322 296 286 284 287 381

6 Beta‐alanine 380 493 408 374 354 352 336 346 408

7 Beta‐alanine 384 432 391 363 359 361 374 376 424

8 Placebo 436 484 456 436 414 412 414 420 456

9 Placebo 355 394 391 364 348 328 340 323 357

10 Placebo 343 408 359 344 330 330 318 320 344

11 Placebo 383 517 408 342 330 338 363 376 430

12 Placebo 418 464 435 419 424 398 391 396 424

13 Placebo 353 367 350 346 346 344 348 352 374

14 Placebo 330 455 350 324 304 299 301 301 340

15 Placebo 338 367 342 330 320 340 322 320 370

16 Placebo 451 535 449 438 419 427 421 441 493

128




Power

Power

250m

Power

500m

Power

750m

Power

1000m

Power

1250m

Power

1500m

Power

1750m

Power

2000m

1 Beta‐alanine 328 416 346 322 304 304 301 304 342

2 Beta‐alanine 357 435 379 359 348 336 332 313 370

3 Beta‐alanine 423 489 421 418 408 403 408 401 446

4 Beta‐alanine 413 471 435 416 403 401 386 383 413

5 Beta‐alanine 319 425 369 316 281 272 273 278 387

6 Beta‐alanine 396 524 411 391 383 370 352 354 416

7 Beta‐alanine 386 474 424 383 367 363 356 354 379

8 Placebo 420 474 408 386 372 383 408 444 510

9 Placebo 361 458 379 332 324 326 336 348 413

10 Placebo 331 514 356 304 292 299 294 302 346

11 Placebo 375 492 385 328 314 338 364 372 426

12 Placebo 422 503 447 421 401 370 377 389 468

13 Placebo 353 393 376 352 348 344 328 332 354

14 Placebo 319 455 352 328 297 286 283 287 302

15 Placebo 343 406 340 334 328 318 315 334 374

16 Placebo 427 510 464 424 411 406 396 393 430


Power

Power

250m

Power

500m

Power

750m

Power

1000m

Power

1250m

Power

1500m

Power

1750m

Power

2000m

1 Beta‐alanine 338 401 365 332 317 313 315 328 344

2 Beta‐alanine 357 452 381 361 340 342 328 313 361

3 Beta‐alanine 434 507 438 406 411 408 411 427 474

4 Beta‐alanine 411 493 435 416 401 391 391 383 396

5 Beta‐alanine 324 393 363 336 308 284 276 283 383

6 Beta‐alanine 388 554 416 386 354 344 338 352 408

7 Beta‐alanine 393 430 419 406 376 374 363 381 403

8 Placebo 424 435 419 406 398 401 413 438 493

9 Placebo 367 507 406 370 346 348 342 328 332

10 Placebo 331 455 359 336 317 304 289 291 336

11 Placebo 379 483 374 324 308 350 376 381 436

12 Placebo 399 474 396 365 367 374 376 393 471

13 Placebo 349 376 363 352 350 386 338 332 350

14 Placebo 315 461 330 296 287 286 294 291 317

15 Placebo 346 430 363 336 324 328 309 336 359

16 Placebo 440 558 452 413 401 398 406 432 487

129

Pre‐ and post‐ 2000 m rowing ergometer race blood lactate concentrations (mmol∙L‐1) pre‐

and post‐supplementation in the beta‐alanine and placebo groups.


Participant Treatment Pre‐test Post‐test

1 Beta‐alanine 0.9 11.7







8 Placebo 1.1 12.2

9 Placebo 1.1 13.0

10 Placebo 1.0 12.2

11 Placebo 0.1 6.8

12 Placebo 1.2 12.2

13 Placebo 0.8 12.1

14 Placebo 0.3 13.6

15 Placebo 1.4 12.3

16 Placebo 1.0 15.0

130











8 Placebo 1.1 12.2

9 Placebo 0.7 11.1

10 Placebo 1.0 11.2

11 Placebo 0.6 8.7

12 Placebo 1.2 16.0

13 Placebo 1.2 9.5

14 Placebo 0.6 13.4

15 Placebo 1.1 12.2

16 Placebo 1.0 15.0









8 Placebo 1.4 17.0

9 Placebo 1.2 9.8

10 Placebo 0.8 10.9

11 Placebo 0.4 6.2

12 Placebo 1.1 12.0

13 Placebo 0.9 14.6

14 Placebo 0.5 11.9

15 Placebo 2.2 16.1

16 Placebo 1.1 12.9

131










8 Placebo 0.8 13.9

9 Placebo 1.4 13.1

10 Placebo 0.9 12.2

11 Placebo 0.7 4.5

12 Placebo 1.1 12.0

13 Placebo 2.1 15.6

14 Placebo 0.5 11.9

15 Placebo 1.7 16.0

16 Placebo 0.7 12.1

132

Pre‐ and post‐ 2000 m rowing ergometer race blood pH pre‐ and post‐supplementation in

the beta‐alanine and placebo groups.










8 Placebo 7.398 7.011

9 Placebo 7.380 7.055

10 Placebo 7.460 7.066

11 Placebo 7.381 7.225

12 Placebo 7.405 7.159

13 Placebo 7.376 7.107

14 Placebo 7.435 7.009

15 Placebo 7.410 7.111

16 Placebo 7.429 7.148

133











8 Placebo 7.398 7.011

9 Placebo 7.395 7.059

10 Placebo 7.419 7.016

11 Placebo 7.376 7.095

12 Placebo 7.402 7.159

13 Placebo 7.371 7.147

14 Placebo 7.422 7.044

15 Placebo 7.406 7.057

16 Placebo 7.436 7.148









8 Placebo 7.411 7.054

9 Placebo 7.397 7.079

10 Placebo 7.421 7.046

11 Placebo 7.395 7.239

12 Placebo 7.391 7.133

13 Placebo 7.388 7.161

14 Placebo 7.434 6.976

15 Placebo 7.384 7.048

16 Placebo 7.419 7.127

134










8 Placebo 7.412 7.054

9 Placebo 7.412 7.014

10 Placebo 7.419 7.031

11 Placebo 7.413 7.177

12 Placebo 7.391 7.133

13 Placebo 7.388 7.142

14 Placebo 7.434 6.976

15 Placebo 7.384 7.048

16 Placebo 7.448 7.127

135

RAW DATA – STUDY TWO – CHAPTER FOUR

800 m running race 200 m split and total time (s) for the pre‐ and post‐supplementation

trials in the beta‐alanine and placebo groups.


Participant TreatmentTotal

Time

Time

200m

Time

400m

Time

600m

Time

800m

1 Beta‐alanine 136.928 32.313 33.882 35.285 35.448

2 Beta‐alanine 141.570 29.493 36.675 35.779 39.624

3 Beta‐alanine 144.090 32.440 38.200 33.770 39.680

4 Beta‐alanine 143.111 32.101 36.156 37.279 36.927

5 Beta‐alanine 157.252 36.802 41.811 38.721 39.918

6 Beta‐alanine 147.465 34.242 37.759 37.234 38.230

7 Beta‐alanine 151.819 33.283 37.195 40.997 40.344

8 Beta‐alanine 149.658 35.214 38.123 38.341 37.980

9 Beta‐alanine 141.700 29.200 35.182 35.182 42.136

10 Placebo 134.454 30.377 33.482 35.450 35.145

11 Placebo 169.427 41.295 39.181 45.583 43.368

12 Placebo 151.082 36.876 37.675 39.323 37.208

13 Placebo 150.446 35.184 38.206 37.671 38.799

14 Placebo 151.950 35.420 40.400 37.100 38.820

15 Placebo 167.800 31.123 43.918 45.229 47.530

16 Placebo 159.740 36.085 39.166 42.435 42.054

17 Placebo 150.023 32.901 36.734 40.075 41.313

18 Placebo 173.999 36.998 41.950 46.146 48.905

136


Participant TreatmentTotal

Time

Time

200m

Time

400m

Time

600m

Time

800m

1 Beta‐alanine 137.808 31.893 34.046 35.754 36.115

2 Beta‐alanine 144.901 29.246 36.639 37.019 41.997

3 Beta‐alanine 141.800 31.300 39.000 32.400 39.100

4 Beta‐alanine 145.290 32.952 35.859 38.079 38.400

5 Beta‐alanine 154.899 35.170 37.231 39.319 43.179

6 Beta‐alanine 147.008 32.835 36.289 38.241 39.643

7 Beta‐alanine 150.406 33.736 38.892 40.623 37.155

8 Beta‐alanine 148.004 35.693 37.196 37.444 37.671

9 Beta‐alanine 139.420 27.960 35.930 36.710 38.820

10 Placebo 136.533 31.993 33.753 35.319 35.468

11 Placebo 171.102 40.798 42.511 46.830 40.963

12 Placebo 152.846 36.890 39.021 39.481 37.454

13 Placebo 146.576 33.595 36.865 37.984 38.445

14 Placebo 148.440 34.985 36.820 37.844 38.803

15 Placebo 165.679 35.051 41.880 42.014 46.734

16 Placebo 165.380 36.671 39.849 43.581 45.279

17 Placebo 153.969 35.395 37.902 39.891 40.781

18 Placebo 173.022 40.967 42.119 44.526 45.410

137



Participant Treatment Total Time Time

200m

Time

400m

Time

600m Time 800m

1 Beta‐alanine 138.444 31.556 34.078 35.649 37.161

2 Beta‐alanine 142.227 30.710 35.889 38.281 37.347

3 Beta‐alanine 138.260 31.260 36.210 32.890 37.900

4 Beta‐alanine 141.208 32.891 35.393 37.185 35.739

5 Beta‐alanine 148.249 33.287 35.508 39.197 40.257

6 Beta‐alanine 145.988 34.272 36.628 37.597 37.491

7 Beta‐alanine 144.892 33.493 35.363 38.434 37.602

8 Beta‐alanine 145.866 34.879 36.829 37.877 36.281

9 Beta‐alanine 137.390 29.180 36.013 35.181 37.016

10 Placebo 134.247 31.141 33.922 35.154 34.030

11 Placebo 172.135 36.584 39.696 46.485 49.370

12 Placebo 153.880 38.358 37.929 40.355 37.238

13 Placebo 149.309 36.437 37.319 37.984 37.569

14 Placebo 145.839 32.519 34.892 38.596 39.832

15 Placebo 165.698 35.315 38.118 44.604 47.661

16 Placebo 160.310 36.943 38.961 41.484 42.922

17 Placebo 155.887 33.510 37.775 41.635 42.967

18 Placebo 173.333 40.629 42.495 44.594 45.615

Participant Treatment Total Time Time

200m

Time

400m

Time

600m Time 800m

1 Beta‐alanine 136.574 32.063 33.376 35.546 35.589

2 Beta‐alanine 142.900 29.816 36.401 37.026 39.656

3 Beta‐alanine 140.169 32.100 35.926 35.700 36.443

4 Beta‐alanine 135.192 31.781 34.197 35.111 34.103

5 Beta‐alanine 149.781 36.070 37.498 38.390 37.823

6 Beta‐alanine 147.489 34.594 35.349 37.815 39.731

7 Beta‐alanine 144.934 34.156 36.139 37.646 36.993

8 Beta‐alanine 144.201 35.037 35.525 36.758 36.881

9 Beta‐alanine 133.896 32.282 34.281 34.434 32.899

10 Placebo 132.582 32.029 33.071 33.305 34.177

11 Placebo 170.618 37.717 38.899 44.758 48.243

12 Placebo 156.345 40.149 39.997 40.271 35.928

13 Placebo 145.640 35.012 36.588 37.068 36.972

14 Placebo 148.838 36.258 37.564 37.786 37.230

15 Placebo 159.300 37.320 41.359 43.100 37.521

16 Placebo 164.843 38.239 39.964 42.486 44.154

17 Placebo 153.553 34.353 37.758 40.668 40.774

18 Placebo 169.450 39.129 41.465 43.958 44.898

138

Pre‐ and post‐ 800 m running race blood lactate concentrations (mmol∙L‐1) pre‐ and post‐

supplementation in the beta‐alanine and placebo groups.













10 Placebo 2.0 8.9

11 Placebo 1.3 14.1

12 Placebo 1.4 16.0

13 Placebo 1.4 5.9

14 Placebo 0.8 8.5

15 Placebo 0.7 10.7

16 Placebo 1.7 12.9

17 Placebo 1.0 10.3

18 Placebo 1.2 11.4











10 Placebo 1.1 9.1

11 Placebo 0.8 14.0

12 Placebo 1.2 14.8

13 Placebo 1.5 4.9

14 Placebo 0.9 9.0

15 Placebo 0.5 10.1

16 Placebo 1.2 13.9

17 Placebo 0.8 16.0

18 Placebo 1.0 12.9

139













10 Placebo 1.1 15.0

11 Placebo 0.8 13.5

12 Placebo 1.2 12.9

13 Placebo 1.9 5.2

14 Placebo 0.5 10.1

15 Placebo 1.0 10.9

16 Placebo 1.4 14.2

17 Placebo 1.9 11.9

18 Placebo 1.3 9.4











10 Placebo 1.0 16.0

11 Placebo 1.1 14.5

12 Placebo 1.3 12.9

13 Placebo 1.3 7.4

14 Placebo 1.0 7.1

15 Placebo 0.7 10.2

16 Placebo 1.3 13.2

17 Placebo 1.2 13.5

18 Placebo 1.2 14.0

140

Pre‐ and post‐ 800 m running race blood pH pre‐ and post‐supplementation in the beta‐

alanine and placebo groups.













10 Placebo 7.366 7.230

11 Placebo 7.389 7.162

12 Placebo 7.409 7.176

13 Placebo 7.389 7.277

14 Placebo 7.391 7.174

15 Placebo 7.398 7.091

16 Placebo 7.372 7.141

17 Placebo 7.419 7.216

18 Placebo 7.390 7.208

141













10 Placebo 7.407 7.177

11 Placebo 7.416 7.197

12 Placebo 7.413 7.188

13 Placebo 7.396 7.291

14 Placebo 7.398 7.164

15 Placebo 7.415 7.111

16 Placebo 7.392 7.129

17 Placebo 7.405 7.169

18 Placebo 7.422 7.161











10 Placebo 7.411 7.203

11 Placebo 7.422 7.198

12 Placebo 7.435 7.186

13 Placebo 7.391 7.319

14 Placebo 7.416 7.160

15 Placebo 7.416 7.160

16 Placebo 7.401 7.134

17 Placebo 7.421 7.197

18 Placebo 7.405 7.206

142

RAW DATA – STUDY THREE – CHAPTER FIVE

Pre‐supplementation sprint times (s) for each of the 3 sets of the repeated sprint test (6 x 20

m sprint) in the beta‐alanine (BA), sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), combined beta‐alanine

and sodium bicarbonate (BA+NaHCO3) and placebo groups.

Pre‐supplementation trial 1 set 1











10 Placebo 7.418 7.130

11 Placebo 7.410 7.179

12 Placebo 7.421 7.191

13 Placebo 7.405 7.276

14 Placebo 7.390 7.180

15 Placebo 7.402 7.154

16 Placebo 7.388 7.143

17 Placebo 7.418 7.179

18 Placebo 7.398 7.159

143


Participant Treatment Sprint 1 Sprint 2 Sprint 3 Sprint 4 Sprint 5 Sprint 6

1 BA 2.95 2.95 2.97 3.05 3.07 3.14

2 BA 2.82 2.88 2.95 2.99 3.03 3.07

3 BA 3.16 3.23 3.35 3.33 3.47 3.58

4 BA 3.12 3.24 3.27 3.28 3.30 3.31

5 BA 3.15 3.29 3.26 3.27 3.29 3.34

6 BA 3.31 3.31 3.39 3.36 3.37 3.47

7 NaHCO3 3.29 3.42 3.34 3.36 3.42 3.37

8 NaHCO3 3.45 3.46 3.51 3.58 3.61 3.73

9 NaHCO3 2.96 3.16 3.32 3.13 3.33 3.13

10 NaHCO3 3.26 3.39 3.33 3.42 3.44 3.47

11 NaHCO3 3.13 3.15 3.16 3.23 3.26 3.28

12 NaHCO3 3.10 3.22 3.22 3.19 3.26 3.31

13 BA+NaHCO3 3.32 3.35 3.38 3.43 3.50 3.51

14 BA+NaHCO3 3.03 3.03 3.12 3.02 3.08 3.05

15 BA+NaHCO3 2.91 3.11 3.06 3.10 3.17 3.09

16 BA+NaHCO3 2.96 2.95 3.03 3.11 3.07 3.08

17 BA+NaHCO3 2.86 2.94 3.07 3.08 3.18 3.26

18 BA+NaHCO3 3.11 3.18 3.28 3.25 3.30 3.36

19 Placebo 3.02 3.11 3.15 3.12 3.08 3.16

20 Placebo 3.23 3.35 3.34 3.33 3.44 3.43

21 Placebo 3.19 3.17 3.24 3.15 3.21 3.36

22 Placebo 3.21 3.30 3.47 3.56 3.46 3.45

23 Placebo 3.44 3.47 3.44 3.41 3.45 3.52

24 Placebo 3.01 3.11 3.05 3.04 3.18 3.13

144



1 BA 2.99 2.98 3.02 3.04 3.13 3.14

2 BA 2.88 2.95 3.03 3.18 3.13 3.29

3 BA 3.26 3.19 3.36 3.45 3.54 3.57

4 BA 3.14 3.17 3.28 3.26 3.32 3.29

5 BA 3.04 3.24 3.14 3.36 3.28 3.27

6 BA 3.24 3.40 3.33 3.33 3.29 3.29

7 NaHCO3 3.30 3.42 3.40 3.54 3.40 3.49

8 NaHCO3 3.41 3.43 3.53 3.66 3.73 3.80

9 NaHCO3 2.95 3.05 3.23 3.18 3.13 3.22

10 NaHCO3 3.33 3.33 3.38 3.40 3.47 3.44

11 NaHCO3 3.22 3.21 3.25 3.34 3.25 3.36

12 NaHCO3 3.03 3.26 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.33

13 BA+NaHCO3 3.29 3.33 3.34 3.41 3.46 3.48

14 BA+NaHCO3 3.00 2.99 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.08

15 BA+NaHCO3 2.86 2.95 2.92 3.12 3.14 3.16

16 BA+NaHCO3 2.91 2.98 3.04 3.10 3.09 3.13

17 BA+NaHCO3 2.90 3.02 3.20 3.23 3.32 3.45

18 BA+NaHCO3 3.17 3.17 3.32 3.34 3.36 3.43

19 Placebo 2.99 3.04 3.08 3.10 3.13 3.09

20 Placebo 3.34 3.44 3.22 3.45 3.47 3.57

21 Placebo 3.09 3.13 3.12 3.18 3.19 3.37

22 Placebo 3.05 3.25 3.41 3.35 3.48 3.47

23 Placebo 3.30 3.31 3.35 3.33 3.42 3.36

24 Placebo 3.09 3.10 3.14 3.16 3.18 3.24

145



1 BA 3.01 3.14 3.04 3.01 3.09 3.18

2 BA 2.86 3.08 3.01 3.09 3.21 3.25

3 BA 3.32 3.40 3.36 3.46 3.59 3.65

4 BA 3.21 3.29 3.38 3.35 3.39 3.31

5 BA 3.08 3.10 3.28 3.19 3.38 3.16

6 BA 3.24 3.24 3.29 3.27 3.29 3.31

7 NaHCO3 3.38 3.37 3.34 3.42 3.54 3.44

8 NaHCO3 3.48 3.55 3.63 3.70 3.70 3.61

9 NaHCO3 3.03 3.08 3.23 3.35 3.24 3.16

10 NaHCO3 3.31 3.38 3.45 3.46 3.45 3.34

11 NaHCO3 3.31 3.21 3.27 3.37 3.42 3.30

12 NaHCO3 3.09 3.27 3.33 3.21 3.28 3.25

13 BA+NaHCO3 3.33 3.34 3.38 3.41 3.53 3.57

14 BA+NaHCO3 2.96 3.15 3.06 3.10 3.09 3.08

15 BA+NaHCO3 2.91 3.07 3.07 3.10 3.19 3.18

16 BA+NaHCO3 2.94 2.98 3.08 3.09 3.13 3.07

17 BA+NaHCO3 2.98 3.09 3.22 3.32 3.33 3.38

18 BA+NaHCO3 3.27 3.36 3.36 3.42 3.39 3.40

19 Placebo 2.99 3.06 3.12 3.12 3.16 3.12

20 Placebo 3.28 3.36 3.46 3.44 3.34 3.38

21 Placebo 3.27 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.15 3.21

22 Placebo 3.10 3.27 3.40 3.39 3.47 3.55

23 Placebo 3.30 3.35 3.42 3.39 3.41 3.39

24 Placebo 3.08 3.10 3.21 3.20 3.24 3.23

146



1 BA 2.89 3.19 3.08 3.23 3.19 3.30

2 BA 2.81 2.92 2.97 2.98 3.08 3.02

3 BA 3.28 3.42 3.48 3.51 3.58 3.77

4 BA 3.15 3.22 3.16 3.21 3.24 3.21

5 BA 3.07 3.29 3.20 3.42 3.34 3.37

6 BA 3.22 3.37 3.34 3.39 3.38 3.40

7 NaHCO3 3.21 3.26 3.25 3.26 3.32 3.31

8 NaHCO3 3.49 3.60 3.68 3.75 3.74 3.82

9 NaHCO3 3.09 3.12 3.23 3.32 3.38 3.25

10 NaHCO3 3.30 3.39 3.43 3.43 3.51 3.45

11 NaHCO3 3.29 3.38 3.39 3.39 3.37 3.37

12 NaHCO3 3.18 3.29 3.35 3.35 3.41 3.44

13 BA+NaHCO3 3.17 3.22 3.29 3.31 3.37 3.42

14 BA+NaHCO3 2.97 3.05 3.07 3.11 3.14 3.13

15 BA+NaHCO3 2.87 3.08 3.06 3.04 3.06 3.05

16 BA+NaHCO3 3.03 3.14 3.16 3.11 3.10 3.23

17 BA+NaHCO3 2.78 2.86 2.98 3.01 3.13 3.15

18 BA+NaHCO3 3.09 3.14 3.18 3.25 3.27 3.27

19 Placebo 2.99 3.11 3.11 3.19 3.14 3.16

20 Placebo 3.19 3.28 3.28 3.25 3.39 3.29

21 Placebo 3.32 3.42 3.37 3.51 3.33 3.54

22 Placebo 3.26 3.38 3.42 3.37 3.44 3.34

23 Placebo 3.30 3.36 3.39 3.39 3.43 3.45

24 Placebo 2.89 3.12 3.10 3.15 3.28 3.28

147



1 BA 2.92 3.05 3.20 3.07 3.14 3.21

2 BA 2.79 2.99 2.95 3.03 3.14 3.11

3 BA 3.39 3.43 3.44 3.72 3.76 3.58

4 BA 3.17 3.27 3.22 3.31 3.23 3.23

5 BA 3.00 3.09 3.10 3.19 3.24 3.32

6 BA 3.25 3.31 3.37 3.39 3.37 3.34

7 NaHCO3 3.21 3.19 3.24 3.29 3.32 3.41

8 NaHCO3 3.39 3.55 3.64 3.70 3.69 3.72

9 NaHCO3 3.01 3.15 3.17 3.23 3.19 3.24

10 NaHCO3 3.32 3.35 3.41 3.46 3.47 3.43

11 NaHCO3 3.25 3.25 3.27 3.44 3.47 3.44

12 NaHCO3 3.09 3.21 3.29 3.34 3.37 3.37

13 BA+NaHCO3 3.27 3.23 3.32 3.32 3.39 3.49

14 BA+NaHCO3 2.98 3.04 3.12 3.07 3.12 3.07

15 BA+NaHCO3 2.84 2.95 3.00 3.00 3.02 3.10

16 BA+NaHCO3 2.95 3.03 3.10 3.05 3.07 3.07

17 BA+NaHCO3 2.82 3.02 3.09 3.18 3.23 3.34

18 BA+NaHCO3 3.12 3.21 3.26 3.25 3.25 3.26

19 Placebo 2.97 3.07 3.12 3.14 3.15 3.14

20 Placebo 3.26 3.26 3.39 3.34 3.39 3.40

21 Placebo 3.25 3.40 3.32 3.53 3.29 3.25

22 Placebo 3.28 3.29 3.43 3.37 3.53 3.50

23 Placebo 3.36 3.34 3.43 3.42 3.48 3.43

24 Placebo 3.03 3.11 3.16 3.06 3.18 3.20

148

Post‐supplementation sprint times (s) for each of the 3 sets of the repeated sprint test (6 x

20 m sprint) in the beta‐alanine (BA), sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), combined beta‐alanine

and sodium bicarbonate (BA+NaHCO3) and placebo groups.


1 BA 3.02 3.19 3.21 3.16 3.22 3.24

2 BA 2.82 3.07 3.04 3.06 3.02 3.19

3 BA 3.37 3.45 3.36 3.45 3.51 3.59

4 BA 3.15 3.24 3.25 3.30 3.23 3.30

5 BA 3.08 3.18 3.28 3.19 3.20 3.26

6 BA 3.24 3.31 3.39 3.38 3.38 3.37

7 NaHCO3 3.15 3.26 3.30 3.29 3.36 3.41

8 NaHCO3 3.42 3.54 3.63 3.66 3.70 3.58

9 NaHCO3 3.05 3.17 3.22 3.31 3.29 3.21

10 NaHCO3 3.30 3.42 3.39 3.41 3.47 3.44

11 NaHCO3 3.31 3.24 3.32 3.38 3.54 3.41

12 NaHCO3 3.12 3.25 3.28 3.33 3.29 3.34

13 BA+NaHCO3 3.27 3.37 3.41 3.40 3.52 3.48

14 BA+NaHCO3 3.07 3.12 3.13 3.15 3.17 3.13

15 BA+NaHCO3 2.87 2.99 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.10

16 BA+NaHCO3 2.96 3.06 3.10 3.08 3.11 3.04

17 BA+NaHCO3 2.93 3.11 3.18 3.27 3.35 3.37

18 BA+NaHCO3 3.17 3.21 3.24 3.32 3.30 3.35

19 Placebo 2.96 3.07 3.12 3.13 3.16 3.16

20 Placebo 3.26 3.32 3.44 3.40 3.45 3.31

21 Placebo 3.19 3.22 3.39 3.28 3.24 3.24

22 Placebo 3.23 3.34 3.46 3.56 3.49 3.45

23 Placebo 3.40 3.39 3.45 3.58 3.51 3.58

24 Placebo 3.06 3.19 3.25 3.15 3.26 3.21

149

Post‐supplementation trial 1 set 1



1 BA 2.97 3.06 3.05 3.13 3.15 3.21

2 BA 2.85 2.92 3.08 3.22 3.17 3.20

3 BA 3.35 3.53 3.60 3.58 3.70 3.70

4 BA 3.05 3.17 3.22 3.19 3.22 3.22

5 BA 2.93 3.03 3.13 3.18 3.23 3.18

6 BA 3.24 3.28 3.38 3.25 3.32 3.35

7 NaHCO3 3.11 3.19 3.19 3.25 3.29 3.28

8 NaHCO3 3.51 3.67 3.68 3.67 3.66 3.80

9 NaHCO3 3.04 3.18 3.24 3.12 3.22 3.27

10 NaHCO3 3.21 3.36 3.40 3.38 3.43 3.38

11 NaHCO3 3.25 3.26 3.15 3.23 3.33 3.28

12 NaHCO3 3.10 3.22 3.28 3.37 3.36 3.48

13 BA+NaHCO3 3.28 3.31 3.37 3.42 3.44 3.50

14 BA+NaHCO3 3.02 3.04 3.03 3.00 3.05 3.01

15 BA+NaHCO3 2.85 2.97 2.92 2.95 3.00 2.95

16 BA+NaHCO3 3.02 3.08 3.20 3.24 3.23 3.20

17 BA+NaHCO3 2.88 2.97 3.05 3.11 3.18 3.30

18 BA+NaHCO3 3.11 3.18 3.22 3.25 3.29 3.32

19 Placebo 3.07 3.17 3.23 3.28 3.26 3.29

20 Placebo 3.16 3.30 3.23 3.31 3.36 3.30

21 Placebo 3.24 3.36 3.36 3.43 3.48 3.34

22 Placebo 3.14 3.07 3.16 3.23 3.30 3.34

23 Placebo 3.22 3.34 3.26 3.27 3.30 3.36

24 Placebo 2.94 3.09 3.09 3.12 3.23 3.20

150



1 BA 2.96 3.00 3.11 3.09 3.13 3.20

2 BA 2.82 3.04 3.12 3.18 3.13 3.29

3 BA 3.39 3.48 3.41 3.54 3.59 3.73

4 BA 3.04 3.13 3.22 3.20 3.25 3.25

5 BA 3.12 3.11 3.12 3.17 3.22 3.20

6 BA 3.18 3.24 3.32 3.31 3.27 3.28

7 NaHCO3 3.21 3.13 3.18 3.23 3.31 3.29

8 NaHCO3 3.33 3.43 3.42 3.54 3.57 3.56

9 NaHCO3 2.97 3.03 3.10 3.09 3.14 3.12

10 NaHCO3 3.35 3.37 3.38 3.48 3.41 3.45

11 NaHCO3 3.16 3.17 3.19 3.21 3.26 3.31

12 NaHCO3 3.06 3.22 3.29 3.31 3.31 3.30

13 BA+NaHCO3 3.21 3.29 3.36 3.38 3.41 3.55

14 BA+NaHCO3 2.88 2.98 2.94 2.99 2.97 2.93

15 BA+NaHCO3 2.79 2.88 2.91 2.95 3.03 3.01

16 BA+NaHCO3 2.97 2.99 3.04 3.05 3.10 3.16

17 BA+NaHCO3 2.85 2.98 3.04 3.12 3.26 3.30

18 BA+NaHCO3 3.12 3.19 3.28 3.29 3.32 3.34

19 Placebo 2.99 3.22 3.14 3.12 3.32 3.39

20 Placebo 3.24 3.39 3.32 3.37 3.32 3.28

21 Placebo 3.28 3.28 3.35 3.35 3.37 3.38

22 Placebo 3.11 3.38 3.23 3.44 3.53 3.48

23 Placebo 3.28 3.31 3.27 3.32 3.28 3.35

24 Placebo 3.08 3.11 3.14 3.13 3.19 3.21

151



1 BA 3.02 3.14 3.12 3.12 3.16 3.21

2 BA 2.86 3.15 3.18 3.18 3.22 3.32

3 BA 3.48 3.45 3.59 3.58 3.63 3.67

4 BA 3.12 3.12 3.25 3.18 3.28 3.07

5 BA 3.02 3.18 3.09 3.17 3.14 3.20

6 BA 3.17 3.26 3.28 3.30 3.31 3.26

7 NaHCO3 3.04 3.14 3.14 3.24 3.23 3.28

8 NaHCO3 3.38 3.48 3.57 3.57 3.59 3.57

9 NaHCO3 3.06 3.03 3.13 3.25 3.22 3.23

10 NaHCO3 3.31 3.34 3.40 3.52 3.40 3.37

11 NaHCO3 3.17 3.14 3.18 3.17 3.18 3.28

12 NaHCO3 3.19 3.19 3.26 3.28 3.27 3.27

13 BA+NaHCO3 3.32 3.29 3.32 3.41 3.51 3.53

14 BA+NaHCO3 2.93 2.97 2.97 2.97 2.98 2.96

15 BA+NaHCO3 2.83 2.90 2.96 3.01 3.01 3.04

16 BA+NaHCO3 2.99 3.06 3.03 3.06 3.15 3.16

17 BA+NaHCO3 2.87 3.06 3.21 3.24 3.35 3.23

18 BA+NaHCO3 3.20 3.26 3.29 3.37 3.34 3.37

19 Placebo 2.99 3.07 3.07 3.12 3.15 3.06

20 Placebo 3.28 3.34 3.34 3.37 3.37 3.31

21 Placebo 3.24 3.24 3.33 3.45 3.40 3.36

22 Placebo 3.06 3.22 3.42 3.31 3.47 3.44

23 Placebo 3.26 3.25 3.36 3.35 3.27 3.39

24 Placebo 3.05 3.16 3.18 3.16 3.21 3.25

152



1 BA 3.07 3.05 3.10 3.10 3.19 3.19

2 BA 2.88 2.99 3.00 3.12 3.14 3.12

3 BA 3.27 3.40 3.50 3.55 3.53 3.58

4 BA 3.08 3.12 3.15 3.14 3.16 3.19

5 BA 3.05 3.20 3.20 3.29 3.29 3.30

6 BA 3.32 3.36 3.38 3.39 3.39 3.38

7 NaHCO3 3.16 3.20 3.27 3.30 3.33 3.38

8 NaHCO3 3.55 3.53 3.56 3.60 3.65 3.67

9 NaHCO3 3.05 3.06 3.09 3.07 3.06 3.07

10 NaHCO3 3.31 3.40 3.41 3.36 3.32 3.42

11 NaHCO3 3.08 3.22 3.18 3.22 3.19 3.23

12 NaHCO3 3.14 3.26 3.35 3.38 3.43 3.44

13 BA+NaHCO3 3.21 3.27 3.32 3.39 3.42 3.41

14 BA+NaHCO3 3.01 3.04 3.07 3.04 3.09 3.06

15 BA+NaHCO3 2.88 2.97 3.05 3.01 3.05 3.10

16 BA+NaHCO3 2.94 3.09 3.11 3.08 3.12 3.12

17 BA+NaHCO3 2.86 2.93 3.01 3.01 3.11 3.16

18 BA+NaHCO3 3.12 3.23 3.21 3.26 3.30 3.33

19 Placebo 3.05 3.19 3.24 3.26 3.20 3.25

20 Placebo 3.18 3.27 3.28 3.32 3.35 3.39

21 Placebo 3.25 3.32 3.32 3.36 3.34 3.41

22 Placebo 3.10 3.12 3.28 3.31 3.38 3.46

23 Placebo 3.17 3.23 3.23 3.26 3.27 3.33

24 Placebo 3.00 3.12 3.13 3.17 3.28 3.22

153



1 BA 2.96 2.98 3.10 3.15 3.12 3.24

2 BA 2.85 3.04 3.11 3.14 3.11 3.16

3 BA 3.29 3.43 3.43 3.48 3.64 3.57

4 BA 2.98 3.04 3.11 3.12 3.15 3.10

5 BA 3.05 3.15 3.12 3.24 3.25 3.26

6 BA 3.19 3.26 3.28 3.32 3.30 3.31

7 NaHCO3 3.11 3.18 3.24 3.28 3.28 3.37

8 NaHCO3 3.34 3.31 3.54 3.60 3.63 3.70

9 NaHCO3 2.99 3.03 3.19 3.18 3.07 3.16

10 NaHCO3 3.24 3.35 3.30 3.40 3.36 3.40

11 NaHCO3 3.13 3.11 3.23 3.22 3.26 3.25

12 NaHCO3 3.16 3.40 3.37 3.33 3.40 3.37

13 BA+NaHCO3 3.13 3.20 3.32 3.36 3.36 3.43

14 BA+NaHCO3 2.90 2.93 2.99 2.98 3.11 3.02

15 BA+NaHCO3 2.88 2.93 3.02 3.06 3.07 3.08

16 BA+NaHCO3 2.91 3.00 3.06 3.04 3.08 3.07

17 BA+NaHCO3 2.88 2.97 3.07 3.13 3.31 3.23

18 BA+NaHCO3 3.06 3.20 3.25 3.29 3.35 3.34

19 Placebo 3.01 3.13 3.16 3.12 3.18 3.18

20 Placebo 3.25 3.29 3.31 3.30 3.32 3.41

21 Placebo 3.21 3.27 3.26 3.35 3.28 3.33

22 Placebo 3.18 3.18 3.33 3.33 3.36 3.38

23 Placebo 3.30 3.29 3.29 3.29 3.33 3.41

24 Placebo 3.04 3.12 3.16 3.15 3.18 3.23

154


1 BA 3.02 3.09 3.12 3.19 3.18 3.20

2 BA 2.91 3.03 3.27 3.21 3.21 3.17

3 BA 3.39 3.56 3.54 3.51 3.60 3.44

4 BA 2.99 3.06 3.15 3.11 3.17 3.10

5 BA 3.06 3.15 3.22 3.18 3.24 3.21

6 BA 3.19 3.28 3.30 3.30 3.35 3.29

7 NaHCO3 3.05 3.19 3.28 3.32 3.40 3.45

8 NaHCO3 3.41 3.50 3.58 3.60 3.65 3.60

9 NaHCO3 2.91 3.08 3.10 3.20 3.23 3.20

10 NaHCO3 3.22 3.32 3.36 3.44 3.33 3.31

11 NaHCO3 3.15 3.23 3.17 3.29 3.23 3.27

12 NaHCO3 3.17 3.28 3.34 3.39 3.39 3.36

13 BA+NaHCO3 3.17 3.27 3.31 3.38 3.39 3.55

14 BA+NaHCO3 2.88 3.00 2.99 3.02 3.03 3.02

15 BA+NaHCO3 2.86 2.96 2.98 3.10 3.12 3.11

16 BA+NaHCO3 2.93 2.93 2.99 3.07 3.06 3.06

17 BA+NaHCO3 2.95 3.00 3.15 3.22 3.27 3.23

18 BA+NaHCO3 3.17 3.21 3.26 3.37 3.33 3.35

19 Placebo 3.06 3.08 3.12 3.16 3.18 3.25

20 Placebo 3.29 3.34 3.27 3.39 3.41 3.34

21 Placebo 3.23 3.20 3.29 3.29 3.26 3.27

22 Placebo 3.08 3.23 3.40 3.44 3.45 3.58

23 Placebo 3.27 3.26 3.27 3.25 3.33 3.36

24 Placebo 3.06 3.15 3.23 3.20 3.26 3.22

155

Pre‐ and post‐supplementation blood lactate (mmol∙L‐1) pre‐test and following each of the 3

sets of the repeated sprint test in the beta‐alanine (BA), sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3),

combined beta‐alanine and sodium bicarbonate (BA+NaHCO3) and placebo groups.


Participant Treatment Pre‐test End Set 1 End Set 2 Post‐test

1 BA 0.8 5.4 6.2 8.2

2 BA 0.7 6.1 7.3 7.5

3 BA 0.8 5.9 7.0 7.1

4 BA 1.3 5.2 5.9 5.5

5 BA 0.6 5.8 7.0 8.0

6 BA 0.4 2.8 3.5 3.3

7 NaHCO3 0.5 4.6 6.4 9.7

8 NaHCO3 0.9 4.1 5.8 8.1

9 NaHCO3 0.7 4.8 6.8 6.9

10 NaHCO3 0.5 5.4 6.3 6.3

11 NaHCO3 0.8 5.9 5.5 8.0

12 NaHCO3 0.9 4.6 6.0 6.1

13 BA+NaHCO3 1.3 4.3 8.4 5.9

14 BA+NaHCO3 1.2 3.8 7.7 9.5

15 BA+NaHCO3 1.0 5.9 7.9 9.6

16 BA+NaHCO3 0.6 6.5 8.3 11.5

17 BA+NaHCO3 0.7 8.7 10.2 12.6

18 BA+NaHCO3 0.8 9.0 10.4 12.0

19 Placebo 1.3 4.5 7.3 10.0

20 Placebo 1.0 4.1 3.7 5.0

21 Placebo 0.4 4.2 6.1 6.2

22 Placebo 0.7 4.6 5.3 6.4

23 Placebo 0.7 5.1 6.6 5.8

24 Placebo 1.1 7.7 8.3 9.1

156



1 BA 0.6 4.9 3.1 8.1

2 BA 0.8 3.5 5.7 5.8

3 BA 1.0 5.0 5.6 7.7

4 BA 1.2 2.7 4.3 4.8

5 BA 0.8 5.8 6.9 9.8

6 BA 0.5 2.9 3.5 3.5

7 NaHCO3 1.4 4.6 8.1 9.9

8 NaHCO3 0.7 3.8 3.9 5.8

9 NaHCO3 0.7 4.1 5.0 5.8

10 NaHCO3 0.9 3.9 4.8 3.7

11 NaHCO3 0.9 5.6 8.5 6.7

12 NaHCO3 1.4 3.8 5.0 6.8

13 BA+NaHCO3 1.1 6.2 11.4 9.3

14 BA+NaHCO3 0.9 5.6 6.0 8.2

15 BA+NaHCO3 1.1 6.6 8.4 10.0

16 BA+NaHCO3 0.7 5.8 7.3 6.9

17 BA+NaHCO3 0.7 9.2 11.3 13.0

18 BA+NaHCO3 0.8 5.7 5.6 7.3

19 Placebo 1.5 5.0 6.8 5.7

20 Placebo 1.2 3.4 4.5 4.4

21 Placebo 0.9 4.8 5.2 5.2

22 Placebo 0.6 4.8 7.5 7.7

23 Placebo 0.9 4.4 4.5 5.7

24 Placebo 1.1 6.9 8.5 7.7

157



1 BA 0.8 5.7 6.1 8.2

2 BA 0.8 2.6 2.6 2.5

3 BA 0.9 5.3 6.2 6.8

4 BA 1.4 5.3 6.2 7.0

5 BA 0.8 4.5 8.4 8.6

6 BA 2.1 4.4 5.2 5.3

7 NaHCO3 0.9 4.2 9.3 9.4

8 NaHCO3 1.3 3.7 5.3 9.5

9 NaHCO3 1.0 4.5 7.2 8.3

10 NaHCO3 1.2 4.5 4.9 6.1

11 NaHCO3 1.0 5.1 6.9 5.5

12 NaHCO3 1.2 5.5 6.8 8.1

13 BA+NaHCO3 1.0 6.4 8.8 7.9

14 BA+NaHCO3 0.7 6.1 8.3 9.2

15 BA+NaHCO3 1.0 6.9 9.1 11.0

16 BA+NaHCO3 0.9 5.3 8.9 7.3

17 BA+NaHCO3 0.9 8.0 10.8 12.9

18 BA+NaHCO3 0.8 5.8 9.5 13.9

19 Placebo 1.0 4.7 5.6 8.0

20 Placebo 1.1 3.9 4.7 4.8

21 Placebo 1.4 3.6 4.1 3.5

22 Placebo 1.1 7.1 11.1 12.6

23 Placebo 0.7 4.1 5.5 6.9

24 Placebo 0.8 5.5 7.2 8.4

158



1 BA 0.9 6.8 9.0 8.2

2 BA 0.6 2.9 3.2 3.4

3 BA 0.7 5.0 6.0 5.5

4 BA 1.2 5.5 6.6 6.9

5 BA 0.7 5.4 7.4 8.8

6 BA 1.1 3.8 5.3 3.7

7 NaHCO3 0.9 4.9 7.9 9.7

8 NaHCO3 0.6 5.8 8.2 7.5

9 NaHCO3 1.1 4.5 5.4 7.0

10 NaHCO3 0.9 5.9 6.1 6.4

11 NaHCO3 1.8 6.1 7.7 9.7

12 NaHCO3 0.9 3.7 5.6 7.0

13 BA+NaHCO3 1.0 6.4 8.8 7.9

14 BA+NaHCO3 0.8 6.3 8.3 9.5

15 BA+NaHCO3 0.9 8.1 11.0 13.4

16 BA+NaHCO3 0.7 6.2 7.8 6.7

17 BA+NaHCO3 0.9 8.8 12.6 13.9

18 BA+NaHCO3 0.7 7.2 10.0 14.7

19 Placebo 0.8 4.7 7.5 8.3

20 Placebo 1.3 3.7 4.3 5.0

21 Placebo 0.9 4.2 5.1 5.0

22 Placebo 0.8 5.5 8.0 8.9

23 Placebo 0.6 4.7 5.9 6.6

24 Placebo 1.2 7.3 9.1 10.4

159

Pre‐ and post‐repeated‐sprint test blood pH pre‐ and post‐supplementation in the beta‐

alanine (BA), sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), combined beta‐alanine and sodium bicarbonate

(BA+NaHCO3) and placebo groups.



1 BA 7.415 7.239

2 BA 7.423 7.289

3 BA 7.411 7.277

4 BA 7.433 7.344

5 BA 7.407 7.192

6 BA 7.451 7.381

7 NaHCO3 7.412 7.200

8 NaHCO3 7.426 7.266

9 NaHCO3 7.411 7.240

10 NaHCO3 7.415 7.298

11 NaHCO3 7.424 7.265

12 NaHCO3 7.410 7.322

13 BA+NaHCO3 7.390 7.212

14 BA+NaHCO3 7.402 7.247

15 BA+NaHCO3 7.418 7.234

16 BA+NaHCO3 7.412 7.180

17 BA+NaHCO3 7.405 7.174

18 BA+NaHCO3 7.427 7.244

19 Placebo 7.405 7.325

20 Placebo 7.391 7.322

21 Placebo 7.422 7.276

22 Placebo 7.404 7.292

23 Placebo 7.405 7.255

24 Placebo 7.421 7.177

160



1 BA 7.411 7.256

2 BA 7.418 7.343

3 BA 7.374 7.274

4 BA 7.429 7.388

5 BA 7.403 7.228

6 BA 7.408 7.373

7 NaHCO3 7.426 7.210

8 NaHCO3 7.409 7.303

9 NaHCO3 7.400 7.297

10 NaHCO3 7.409 7.328

11 NaHCO3 7.405 7.254

12 NaHCO3 7.416 7.352

13 BA+NaHCO3 7.460 7.231

14 BA+NaHCO3 7.424 7.260

15 BA+NaHCO3 7.407 7.187

16 BA+NaHCO3 7.423 7.231

17 BA+NaHCO3 7.448 7.186

18 BA+NaHCO3 7.398 7.264

19 Placebo 7.390 7.280

20 Placebo 7.399 7.326

21 Placebo 7.449 7.324

22 Placebo 7.426 7.296

23 Placebo 7.406 7.315

24 Placebo 7.414 7.214

161



1 BA 7.416 7.239

2 BA 7.393 7.369

3 BA 7.400 7.296

4 BA 7.406 7.323

5 BA 7.421 7.252

6 BA 7.389 7.327

7 NaHCO3 7.431 7.219

8 NaHCO3 7.458 7.332

9 NaHCO3 7.458 7.338

10 NaHCO3 7.437 7.345

11 NaHCO3 7.403 7.289

12 NaHCO3 7.507 7.406

13 BA+NaHCO3 7.410 7.254

14 BA+NaHCO3 7.502 7.396

15 BA+NaHCO3 7.487 7.229

16 BA+NaHCO3 7.422 7.325

17 BA+NaHCO3 7.449 7.241

18 BA+NaHCO3 7.408 7.212

19 Placebo 7.393 7.272

20 Placebo 7.369 7.321

21 Placebo 7.369 7.321

22 Placebo 7.396 7.194

23 Placebo 7.387 7.315

24 Placebo 7.417 7.222

162



1 BA 7.422 7.221

2 BA 7.420 7.372

3 BA 7.416 7.337

4 BA 7.397 7.306

5 BA 7.410 7.224

6 BA 7.417 7.326

7 NaHCO3 7.461 7.170

8 NaHCO3 7.497 7.341

9 NaHCO3 7.438 7.338

10 NaHCO3 7.434 7.342

11 NaHCO3 7.350 7.221

12 NaHCO3 7.470 7.360

13 BA+NaHCO3 7.402 7.135

14 BA+NaHCO3 7.457 7.388

15 BA+NaHCO3 7.487 7.227

16 BA+NaHCO3 7.435 7.287

17 BA+NaHCO3 7.459 7.223

18 BA+NaHCO3 7.474 7.257

19 Placebo 7.383 7.210

20 Placebo 7.388 7.316

21 Placebo 7.413 7.307

22 Placebo 7.409 7.261

23 Placebo 7.411 7.284

24 Placebo 7.408 7.189

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