Effect of Familiarity on a CrossCultural Acceptance of a...

EFFECT OF FAMILIARITY ON A CROSS-CULTURAL ACCEPTANCEOF A SWEET ETHNIC FOOD: A CASE STUDY WITH KOREANTRADITIONAL COOKIE (YACKWA)J.H. HONG1, H.S. PARK2, S.J. CHUNG3, L. CHUNG4, S.M. CHA5,6, S. LÊ7 and K.O. KIM2,8

1Department of Foods and Nutrition, Kookmin University, Seoul, KoreaDepartments of 2Food Science and Engineering and3Nutritional Science and Food Management, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 120-750, Korea4Department of Culinary and Service Management, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Korea5National Academy of Agricultural Science, RDA, Suwon, Korea6Department of Food Service Industry, Hanyang Women’s University, Seoul, Korea7Applied Mathematics Laboratory, Agrocampus Ouest, Rennes, France

8Corresponding author.TEL: +82-2-3277-3095;FAX: +82-2-3277-3095;EMAIL: [email protected]

Accepted for Publication January 29, 2014

doi:10.1111/joss.12087

ABSTRACT

This study was conducted to understand the relationship between familiarity andcross-cultural acceptance for an ethnic sweet treat (Yackwa; Korean traditionalcookie) by Korean, Japanese and French consumers. Descriptive analysis and con-sumer testing were performed on six Yackwa samples. Overall, the samplesreceived favorable responses from the foreign consumers. Korean consumers likedsamples with a soft and cohesive texture, whereas Japanese and French consumersliked flaky and crispy texture. French consumers rated stronger sweetness to bemore appropriate for Yackwa compared to Korean and Japanese consumers.Texture liking was strongly correlated with familiarity rating in all three countries,indicating that the consumers’ previous experience with similar products mightaffect their preference for certain textural attributes. Familiarity was correlatedwith all hedonic ratings by Korean consumers, who are most familiar withYackwa, but with overall and texture liking by Japanese consumers and flavor andtexture liking by French consumers. These results suggest that familiarity partlycontributes to a foreign consumers’ hedonic rating.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Globalization and cultural diversity have increased interest in ethnic foods. Thistrend is motivating food industries to expand into the ethnic food market sector.In this study, the sensory attributes and the cross-cultural acceptability of Yackwa(Korean traditional cookie) were evaluated and the potential role of familiarity indetermining consumer acceptance was measured. The outcome of this study willhelp food exporters, R&D scientists and food marketers in ethnic food marketto optimize an ethnic food for other cultural communities by educatingthem to consider familiarity as an important factor for product development andpromotion.

INTRODUCTION

There is growing interest in ethnic foods worldwide (Sloan2011; D’Antuono and Bignami 2012). This trend is drivenby an increase in ethnic diversity in the U.S.A. and Europe,and other industrialized countries due to immigration andtrade (Verbeke and Lopez 2005; Sloan 2011). Travel and

media also help consumers develop a taste for ethnic foods(Mintel 2011). Ethnic food markets have been a rapidlygrowing sector in the global food market, and its growth hasbeen projected to be 20% by 2014 (Yusop et al. 2009; Mintel2011).

Ethnic food in a cultural community is often regarded asnovel food by another community. Acceptance of a novel

bs_bs_banner

Journal of Sensory Studies ISSN 0887-8250

110 Journal of Sensory Studies 29 (2014) 110–125 © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

mailto:[email protected]

food varies depending on experience with the food, particu-larly in cultural context (Prescott et al. 2004). When Beijingyouth tasted cheese, a relatively new type of food to China(Zhang et al. 2011), they preferred cottage and cream cheeseto harvatti and Cheddar, accepting milk-like or yogurt-likeattributes abundant in fresh cheeses, while rejecting freefatty acid and umami attributes that are typical of agedcheeses. European naïve consumers perceived Chinese-stylemarinated chicken as more juicy and spicy, and moreauthentic and acceptable compared to Chinese naïve con-sumers (Yusop et al. 2009). Prescott et al. (2004) found thatSingaporean consumers preferred lamb patties seasoned inChinese style to patties seasoned in Indian or Europeanstyle, whereas New Zealand consumers least liked the lambpatty seasoned in Chinese style. Prescott (1998) suggestedthat familiarity provides the context for new foods andsignals their palatability and safety. Familiarity is acquiredthrough previous experience and exposure, and previousrepeated exposure influenced liking positively by decreasinguncertainty about safety and identity particularly whenencountered to novel foods (Zajonc 1968; Berlyne 1970;Methven et al. 2012). Previous exposure also enhanced per-ception of sensory stimuli in a food system, increasing “per-ceptual fluency” (Bornstein and d’Agostino 1994), whichleads to hedonic adjustment.

Recently, D’Antuono and Bignami (2012) reported thatUkrainian traditional foods, which are similar to Italiandishes, such as Varenyky and Pirashky, were perceived morefavorably by the Italian population than the food that wasnot similar. Ponchyky, a traditional Ukrainian donut, wasalso considered significantly more attractive than otherunfamiliar Ukrainian food. The preference for Ponchykymay also be partly explained by a human’s innate preferencefor sweet taste (de Graaf and Zandstra 1999). Therefore,sweet varieties of ethnic foods, such as desserts or sweetsnacks, would face less resistance when introduced toanother culture.

Yackwa is a representative sweet treat in Korean tradi-tional cuisine. Yackwa is typically made by frying doughcontaining flour, honey and sesame oil, and then dippingthe fried dough in honey or syrup. Yackwa is shaped bymolding a ball of dough, or cutting several thin layers ofdough which result from several successions of rolling andfolding (Han and Jung 2002). Yackwa shaped by cuttingfolded dough had a flakier and crispier texture compared tothe molded type. The tender, flaky and crispy texture andrich flavor are similar to some baked/fried products in othercultures, such as pies or tarts in Europe and Baklava incentral Asia. Therefore, the sensory attributes of Yackwamay be perceived as familiar in some cultures that havealready been exposed to similar products, and Yackwa maybe accepted differently across cultural communities depend-ing on their previous exposure to similar products.

This study was conducted for understanding a role offamiliarity in the cross-cultural acceptance of a sweet ethnicfood, particularly focusing on the traditional Korean friedcookie, Yackwa. The responses from Korean, Japanese andFrench consumers were compared considering that they haddifferent food culture. It was thought that French consum-ers would be less resistant to Yackwa due to their pastry con-sumption. Japanese consumers have similar food culturesand dietary items as those of Koreans. In the present study,sensory attributes that affect consumer acceptability ofYackwa in each country were identified. The relationshipbetween hedonic responses and familiarity to the productwas studied to better understand the effect of familiarity onthe cross-cultural acceptance of Yackwa.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A preliminary screening test was carried out to selectsamples based on their perceived similarities from 12 com-mercial Yackwa samples available in Korean markets, each ofwhich belongs to one of three Yackwa categories: a moldtype (shaping the dough using a mold); a cut type (pre-pared by cutting the folded dough into a quadrangle shape);and a bite-sized mold type (diameter 3.4 cm, depth 1 cm).The six samples (Table 1) were chosen by 40 naïve

TABLE 1. DEFINITIONS OF THE SENSORY ATTRIBUTES OF YACKWASAMPLES

Sensory attributes Definitions

Flavor Sweet taste Fundamental taste sensation of whichsucrose is typical

Salty taste Fundamental taste sensation of whichsodium chloride is typical

Brown sugar flavor Aromatics associated with brown sugarRice syrup flavor Aromatics associated with rice syrupCinnamon flavor Aromatics associated with cinnamonGinger flavor Aromatics associated with gingerFried flour flavor Aromatics associated with fried flour

Texture Hardness The force to attain a given deformation,such as force to compress betweenmolars

Crispness The noise with which a product breaksor fractures (rather than deforms)when chewed with the molar teeth

Cohesiveness The degree to which sample deformsrather than crumbles, cracks or breaks

Denseness The compactness of the cross sectionFlakiness Amount of layers between teeth during

chewPowderiness Amount of minute particles between

teeth during chewTooth packing The degree to which product sticks on

the surface of teethOiliness Amount of oil left on mouth surfaces

J.H. HONG ET AL. CROSS-CULTURAL ACCEPTANCE OF YACKWA

111Journal of Sensory Studies 29 (2014) 110–125 © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

consumers (all female, ages 18–52) using the sorted nappingprocedure (Park 2011). Three samples of the mold type, twosamples of the cut type, and one sample of the bite-sizedmold type were selected as the sample representing eachcategory.

Descriptive Analysis

Sample Preparation and Presentation. The sixsamples were purchased on the same day and used for thesensory analysis within 3 weeks. Each sample was dividedinto a portion for one test and stored in polyethylene bagsat 10C until used. Because all the Yackwa samples weremanufactured in different sizes, all samples were cut tomake the serving mass similar as those of two pieces ofbite-sized mold-type samples. Each sample was placedin a disposable cup (2.5 oz, Easepack Co., Namyangju,Gyeonggi-do, Korea) coded with three-digit randomnumbers and instantly sealed with a polyethylene film toprevent drying. Six samples were simultaneously presentedin a random order to each panelist at room temperature(20 ± 2C). Warm-filtered tap water (RO-5P, Enex Co., Seoul,Korea) at 40 ± 2C was provided to the panelists to rinsetheir mouths before and between tasting samples.

Panel Selection and Training. Eight panelists (allfemale, ages 23–34) were recruited from the Department ofFood Science and Engineering at Ewha Womans University(Seoul, Korea). The panelists were trained for 3 months.Training sessions were held three to four times a week, andeach session took approximately 1 h.

During the training sessions, the panelists were firstexposed to various types of Yackwa to generate a prelimi-nary set of descriptive terms. The panelists developed anddefined sensory descriptors and established reference stan-dard materials (Table 2). For evaluation of five texture

attributes, reference intensity scales were developed toimprove panel reproducibility (Table 2, Meilgaard et al.2007).

The training was continued until the panelists showedconsistency and reproducibility in ratings across sessions.Panel performance was checked by examining the signifi-cance of the panel effect and the interaction effects of panelby sample and panel by replication using paneliperf func-tion of SensomineR 1.10 package (Husson and Lê 2009).

Evaluation Procedure. The descriptive analysis was con-ducted following the quantitative descriptive analysis (QDA,Stone and Sidel 1992) procedure with a partial adoption ofthe Spectrum descriptive analysis (Muñoz and Civille 1992).The panel evaluated flavor attributes first, and then thetexture. Flavor attributes were evaluated separately from thetexture attributes to prevent the panelists from associating acertain texture attribute to a flavor attribute. The samplesused to rate texture were coded with three-digit numbersthat were different from the numbers used for flavor evalua-tion. The test was performed in a monadic manner. Thepanelists evaluated the intensities of the attributes in indi-vidual booths under a red light to mask color differencesbetween the samples. The panelists rinsed their mouthswith lemon water (20 ± 2C, lemon juice concentrate 0.4%v/v) and filtered water (40 ± 2C) between the samples. A16-point category scale (0 – none, 15 – strong) was used forevaluation. The evaluations were carried out twice a day at10:00 a.m. and at 5:00 p.m. for 2 consecutive days. The pan-elists were not allowed to consume any food or drink otherthan water and to use oral care products or strong perfumes1 h before the testing.

Data Analysis. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was per-formed to evaluate the effects of the samples, the panelistsand their interactions on sensory attributes (α = 0.05).Duncan’s multiple range test was conducted as a follow-up

TABLE 2. REFERENCE SCALE VALUES FOR THE TEXTURE ATTRIBUTES OF YACKWA SAMPLES

Sensory attributes Value Reference Brand/type/manufacturer Sample size

Hardness 1.0 Brownie Market O/Orion Confectionery Co., Ltd., Seoul, Korea 1/4 piece15.0 Caramelized biscuit Original Caramelized Biscuit/Lotus Bakeries, Lembeke, Belgium 2.5 cm square

Crispness 1.0 Brownie Market O/Orion Confectionery Co., Ltd., Seoul, Korea 1/4 piece15.0 Energy bar Calorie Balance/Haitai Confectionery & Foods Co., Ltd., Seoul, Korea 1/3 bar

Cohesiveness 1.0 Agar gel Yangkaeng/Haitai Confectionery & Foods Co., Ltd., Seoul, Korea 2.5 cm square4.0 Brownie Market O/Orion Confectionery Co., Ltd., Seoul, Korea 1/4 piece

15.0 White bread, sliced Migam Platinum/Samlip Foods Co., Ltd., Seoul, Korea 2.5 cm sliceDenseness 1.0 Pie Hannip Nuneddine/Samlip Foods Co., Ltd., Seoul, Korea 1 piece

8.0 Biscuit Bebe/Orion Confectionery Co., Ltd., Seoul, Korea 1 piece15.0 Agar gel Yangkaeng/Haitai Confectionery & Foods Co., Ltd, Seoul, Korea 2.5 cm square

Tooth packing 1.0 White bread, sliced Migam Platinum/Samlip Foods Co., Ltd., Seoul, Korea 2.5 cm slice9.0 Graham cracker Honey Maid/Nabisco Brands Inc., East Hanover, NJ 2.5 cm square

15.0 Cheese ball Ligo Cheese Flavored Balls/Liberty Gold Fruit Co., Inc., San Francisco, CA 3 pieces

CROSS-CULTURAL ACCEPTANCE OF YACKWA J.H. HONG ET AL.


post hoc comparison between the samples (α = 0.05). Boththe ANOVA and the Duncan’s post hoc test were carried outusing SPSS for Windows software (version 18.0, SPSS Inc.,Chicago, IL). Principal component analysis (PCA) was con-ducted on the mean values of the intensities of the attri-butes using FactoMineR 1.14 package (Husson et al. 2009).

Consumer Acceptability Test

Sample Preparation. The samples were prepared asdescribed in the descriptive analysis. Samples were pre-sented in a disposable polypropylene cup with a lid(diameter 7 cm, height 4 cm, Easepack Co.), coded with athree-digit random number. The samples were presentedsimultaneously following a William Latin square design. Fil-tered tap water was also provided so panelists could cleantheir palates between samples.

Test Procedure. A total of 324 consumers were recruitedin Korea, Japan and France (Table 3). Before the test wasstarted, the consumers were instructed on the tasting,rinsing and rating methods. The consumers rated theiroverall liking and liking for color, flavor and texture on9-point hedonic scales (1 – dislike very much, 9 – like verymuch). Hardness, crispness, flakiness, sweetness and oilinesswere evaluated using a 9-point just-about-right (JAR) scale(1 – not strong enough, 5 – just about right, 9 – much toostrong). Then they were asked to choose reasons why theyliked or disliked the product using check-all-that apply(CATA) format. Finally, the panelists rated familiarity usinga 9-point Likert scale (1 – strongly disagree, 9 – stronglyagree). The questionnaire for the consumer test was firstdeveloped in Korean, and then translated into Japanese andFrench. The consumer panelists were allowed to retaste thesamples and change the scores if needed. The tests in Koreaand Japan were conducted in a meeting room style arrange-ment with enough space between the panelists similar to aschool cafeteria or other facilities. The test in France wascarried out in booths in a sensory testing room.

Statistical Analysis. The effects of sample, nationalitiesand sample by nationality interaction on all consumerratings were tested using ANOVA (α = 0.05). Duncan’smultiple range test was conducted as a post hoc analysis. Inorder to determine if the JAR rating was significantly differ-ent from the JAR midpoint, a one-sample t-test was con-

ducted (α = 0.05) (Pitts 2009). Pearson’s correlationcoefficient was obtained to better understand the relation-ship between liking ratings (overall, color, flavor andtexture) and attitudinal questions (familiarity, willingness topurchase and willingness to recommend) (Porcherot andIssanchou 1998). PCA was carried out on the mean data ofdescriptive analysis as active variables and hedonic ratingsand familiarity rating of the consumers of each nationalityas supplementary variables to identify the drivers of likingin each country. Frequencies of CATA responses werecounted and then constructed into a contingency table forthe following chi-square analysis (Bécue-Bertaut et al. 2007)using textual function of FactoMineR 1.14 package (Hussonet al. 2009).

ANOVA, t-test and correlation analysis were conductedusing the SPSS package for windows 18.0. PCA and textualanalysis of CATA data were performed using FactoMineR1.14.

RESULTS

Descriptive Analysis

The relationship between sensory attributes and the Yackwasamples is summarized by PCA (Figs. 1 and 2). The first,second and third principle components (PC1, PC2 andPC3) explained 53.23, 23.11 and 14.98% of the total vari-ance, respectively. “Flakiness,” “crispness,” “hardness,” “toothpacking” and “oiliness” were highly loaded on PC1 in thepositive direction (PC loadings > 0.8), while “powderiness,”“cohesiveness” and “denseness” were loaded in the negativedirection (PC loadings < −0.8). This suggests that variancesin texture attributes can be explained by PC1 in general.“Cinnamon” flavor, “brown sugar” flavor, “saltiness” and“sweetness” were highly loaded on PC2 in the positive direc-tion (PC loadings > 0.6), indicating that flavor attributesseem to be well explained by PC2. “Rice syrup” and “ginger”flavors were highly loaded on PC3 in the negative direction(PC loadings < −0.7).

Figure 1 shows that the two mold-type products, M-BEand M-NW, were loaded on the negative PC1 dimension,sharing similar textural attributes, such as strong “cohesive-ness,” “denseness” and “powderiness.” In contrast, the twocut-type samples (C-JC and C-JS) that were loaded in thepositive PC1 direction were similar in that they were both

TABLE 3. DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION OFTHE CONSUMERS IN THREE DIFFERENTCOUNTRIES

Korea Japan France

Age (±SD) 35.26 (± 10.32) 41.73 (± 14.62) 36.24 (± 8.44)Gender (%) Female 106 (60.23) 37 (56.06) 45 (54.88)

Male 70 (39.77) 29 (43.94) 37 (45.12)Total 176 (100.00) 66 (100.00) 82 (100.00)



flaky and crispy. Based on these findings, it appears that thedough-making process played a critical role in developing aunique texture of each type of Yackwa. The dough-makingprocess of the cut-type Yackwa, which is also observed inpastry making in other cultures, produces a flaky and crispytexture. Pressing the dough into a mold for the mold-typeYackwa results in a cohesive and dense texture. The ANOVAmean results (Table 4) indicate that the samples sharingsimilar textural characteristics were still distinguishable dueto slight differences in texture. M-BE was significantlyharder, more powdery and denser, and less cohesive thanM-NW. C-JC had a significantly weaker hardness, crispinessand flakiness when compared to C-JS. These slight differ-ences may be due to the difference in the processing tech-niques. For example, the hardness of a Yackwa decreases inproportion to how long it is dipped in honey syrup (Chunet al. 2002).

M-HW and MB-SL were positioned on the positive PC1direction, close to C-JC. Although they were mold-typeproducts, they were rated significantly higher for crispiness,hardness, and tooth packing, and significantly lower forcohesiveness, denseness and powderiness, compared toM-BE and M-NW (Fig. 1, Table 4).

The samples were also differentiated by flavor and tasteattributes. M-BE was characterized by a strong “sweetness,”“saltiness” and “rice syrup” flavor. M-HW had a significantlystronger “brown sugar” flavor compared to the othersamples with the exception of C-JC where it rated parity toM-HW. C-JC had a strong “cinnamon” and “brown sugar”flavor, whereas C-JS was characterized by a strong “ginger”flavor. M-NW had a mild flavor and taste overall. MB-SLwas rated the highest in terms of a “fried flour” flavor butwas among the weakest for the rest of the flavor attributes(Figs. 1 and 2, Table 4). Flavor and taste of Yackwa vary by

FIG. 1. PRINCIPAL COMPONENT (PC) LOAD-INGS OF THE SENSORY ATTRIBUTES (A) ANDYACKWA SAMPLES (B) FOR DIMENSIONS 1AND 2



recipe and depend on the concentration of each ingredient,such as ginger juice, cinnamon powder, honey or sugar, andsalt, as well as dipping time in honey syrup (Han and Jung2002). Therefore, differences in flavor and taste must haveresulted from the unique formulation of each manufacturer.

Consumer Acceptability Test

Overall Liking. The overall liking scores of Yackwasamples were rated close to or above 5 (neither dislike norlike) by Japanese and French consumers, indicating theirlow resistance to Yackwa samples. Table 5 showed thatKorean consumers liked M-NW and MB-SL the most, andthe cut-type products C-JC and C-JS the least. Japanese

consumers liked MB-SL the most, but overall scores forM-BE, M-HW and C-JS were also not significantly differentfrom that of MB-SL. Moreover, the difference in the likingscores among the samples was small. Japanese consumersgave M-NW and C-JC a significantly lower liking score thanthat of MB-SL. French consumers preferred MB-SL, M-BEand C-JC, and disliked M-HW and C-JS. MB-SL was likedby consumers in all three countries. The liking for flavor,color and texture will be discussed in the following section,particularly with regard to their relationship with overallliking.

JAR Ratings. Figure 3 summarizes the relationshipbetween JAR ratings and intensity rating obtained from thedescriptive analysis. The significant differences between the

FIG. 2. PRINCIPAL COMPONENT (PC) LOAD-INGS OF THE SENSORY ATTRIBUTES (A) ANDYACKWA SAMPLES (B) FOR DIMENSIONS 1AND 3



consumer JAR ratings and JAR score (5 on a 9-point scale)are shown in Table 5. Korean consumers rated M-NW andM-BE as the samples with the lowest hardness, close to theJAR point, whereas the samples with a medium to stronghardness, MB-SL, M-HW and C-JS, were rated to be slightlybut significantly “much too hard” when cross-checked withTable 5 (Fig. 3a). Japanese consumers considered the hard-ness of M-BE and MB-SL to be appropriate, but they ratedM-NW as “not hard enough” and M-HW and C-JS as“much too hard.” French consumers reported that the hard-ness of most samples, excluding C-JC and C-JS, was not sig-nificantly different from the JAR level. The JAR score ofC-JS, whose hardness intensity was the strongest among thesamples, was rated significantly higher by the consumers ofall three countries. In contrast, the consumers of all threecountries rated C-JC, which was harder than M-BE andM-NW, as “not hard enough.” These findings indicate thatthe other textural attributes might influence the consumer’sperception of hardness. Because it is often observed that

consumer panelists could not differentiate the densenessfrom hardness (Lawless and Heymann 2010), the weakdenseness of C-JC may have given the consumer panel theimpression that its hardness was not strong.

The crispiness of MB-SL and C-JC was rated “just aboutright” by Korean consumers, while other samples wereeither “not crispy enough” or “much too crispy” (Fig. 3b,Table 5). This suggests that Korean consumers’ standard forthe appropriate crispiness level is different between themold-type products and cut-type products. Japanese con-sumers rated all the samples, excluding C-JS, “not crispyenough,” and French consumers considered all the samples“not crispy enough.” The JAR rating scores provided by theFrench consumers were significantly lower than Korean andJapanese consumers (Table 5). This result can be attribut-able to the fact that French consumers, who are familiarwith the crispiness of cookies, might prefer Yackwaproducts with a crispiness intensity that is comparable tothat of their cookies.

TABLE 4. MEAN INTENSITY SCORES* FORTHE SENSORY ATTRIBUTES† OF YACKWASAMPLESSensory attributes

Samples

M-BE M-HW M-NW C-JC C-JS MB-SL

Flavor Sweetness 11.22a 8.88c 5.00e 10.03b 3.81f 7.91d

(1.74) (2.37) (2.02) (2.48) (1.36) (2.56)Saltiness 10.13a 5.13d 3.72e 8.84b 3.53e 5.97c

(2.47) (2.72) (2.10) (2.53) (1.78) (1.89)Brown sugar flavor 5.16b 8.53a 2.94c 8.09a 1.72d 1.38d

(2.83) (1.57) (1.27) (2.68) (1.30) (1.10)Rice syrup flavor 8.50a 4.50b 4.75b 5.19b 7.81a 1.53c

(3.68) (2.27) (2.19) (2.65) (2.66) (1.59)Cinnamon flavor 5.69b 5.47b 2.38d 9.84a 4.09c 1.09e

(2.76) (2.58) (1.19) (2.07) (3.80) (1.12)Ginger flavor 3.47b 2.47c 1.31d 3.88b 9.56a 0.91d

(1.72) (2.38) (1.80) (2.51) (2.06) (1.99)Fried flour flavor 2.84f 6.91d 5.09e 8.31c 9.75b 10.97a

(0.99) (1.61) (2.37) (2.26) (1.83) (1.28)

Texture Hardness 4.28d 9.22a 3.34e 6.50c 9.47a 7.31b

(1.46) (0.83) (0.83) (1.61) (1.55) (1.03)Crispness 0.81d 9.53c 0.78d 10.28b 12.94a 9.66c

(0.86) (2.08) (1.01) (2.14) (1.11) (2.09)Cohesiveness 10.28b 4.25d 11.41a 2.38e 2.31e 5.97c

(1.59) (1.46) (1.13) (1.07) (1.18) (1.53)Denseness 12.75a 6.72d 11.12b 2.63e 2.41e 9.25c

(0.84) (1.28) (1.41) (2.08) (0.95 (1.22)Flakiness 0.00d 1.84c 0.00d 10.59b 11.72a 0.00d

(0.00) (1.14) (0.00) (2.17) (1.51) (0.00)Powderiness 11.88a 6.00d 10.88b 2.50e 2.31e 7.88c

(1.43) (2.44) (1.56) (0.72) (0.69) (1.76)Tooth packing 4.56e 8.44d 4.03e 9.56c 11.47a 10.47b

(2.26) (1.87) (1.47) (1.70) (1.44) (1.93)Oiliness 2.72f 7.94d 4.78e 10.16b 9.34c 12.16a

(0.85) (1.85) (1.83) (2.17) (2.61) (0.81)

* Standard deviation values are shown in parentheses. The highest and the lowest mean scoresfor a given sensory attribute were highlighted in bold.† Means of four replicates from the eight panelists; mean values within a row not sharing asuperscript letter are significantly different (P < 0.05, Duncan’s multiple range test).



In regard to flakiness, Korean consumers thought all thesamples were either “not enough flaky” or “much too flaky”(Fig. 3c). It is likely that Korean consumers did not knowtheir JAR point for flakiness in Yackwa. Flakiness of Yackwamight even be unfamiliar to Korean consumers who aremore exposed to cohesive mold types. Japanese consumersrated flakiness of M-HW and C-JS “just about right,”whereas French consumers gave closer to more “just right”JAR scores to the cut-type samples with strong flakiness.French consumers also gave significantly lower scores to themold-type samples than Korean and Japanese consumers(Table 5). Because French consumers are familiar with flakypastries, they might consider the highly flaky texture inYackwa more appropriate than the samples with a lowerflaky texture.

Korean consumers thought that the sweetness of M-NWand C-JC was “just about right” (Fig. 3d). This result israther confusing because C-JC was significantly sweeter

than MB-SL and M-HW (Table 4), which were rated“much too sweet.” It is assumed that the interaction withother flavors might have influenced the consumers’ sweet-ness perception. C-JC had a significantly stronger saltinessand cinnamon flavor than MB-SL and M-HW (Table 4),and these flavors might have made the sweet taste less pro-nounced than in M-NW and C-JC. Japanese consumersreported that the sweetness of all the samples, except C-JS,was “much too sweet,” indicating that the sweetness levelof Yackwa was overall too strong for Japanese consumers.Meanwhile, French consumers rated the samples withstrong sweetness (MB-SL, M-HW, C-JC and M-BE) “justabout right,” and the samples with weaker sweetness(M-NW and C-JS) “not sweet enough.” In addition, theJAR ratings of the French consumers tended to be lowerthan Korean and Japanese consumers. This indicates thatFrench consumers considered strong sweetness moreappropriate for Yackwa.

TABLE 5. MEAN RATINGS OF CONSUMERTEST FOR SIX YACKWA SAMPLES TESTED INKOREA, JAPAN AND FRANCE

Country Categories M-BE M-HW M-NW C-JC C-JS MB-SL

Korea Overall liking B*5.01b† B5.06b A5.75a C4.45c B4.33c B5.85aColor liking B5.39c B4.80d AB5.88b B4.82d B5.04d A6.40aFlavor liking B5.02c A5.41b A5.64ab B4.81cd B4.50d A5.86aTexture liking A5.04b B5.10b A5.61a C4.46c B4.34c A5.62aHardness intensity A4.84b A5.61a AB5.02b A4.41c A5.36a A5.44aCrispness intensity A3.48b A5.35a A3.69b A5.13a A5.33a A5.20aFlakiness intensity B3.64e A4.55c A4.04d A6.44a A5.90b AB4.08dSweetness intensity A5.69a A5.29b B4.94c B5.02bc B4.57d A5.68aOiliness intensity C5.13e B6.15bc C5.72d B6.65a A6.49ab B6.07cFamiliarity A4.85b A4.99b A5.93a C3.75c B4.03c A6.14a

Japan Overall liking B5.37ab A5.70ab B5.16b B5.15b A5.42ab B5.85aColor liking B5.63bc A5.44c B5.66bc A6.23a A5.88abc B5.94abFlavor liking A5.86ab A5.88ab A5.45bc B5.12c A5.56abc A6.06aTexture liking A5.29bc A5.88a B4.89c B5.59ab A5.81ab A5.82abHardness intensity A5.06bc A5.65a B4.72c A4.77c A5.27b B4.94bcCrispness intensity A3.69cd B4.68ab A3.50d B4.58b A4.98a B4.02cFlakiness intensity A4.37d A4.83bc A4.33d B5.41a B5.03ab A4.50cdSweetness intensity A5.91a A5.53abc A5.41bc A5.52abc A5.19c A5.77abOiliness intensity A6.45b A6.82ab A7.11a A7.29a A6.86ab A6.97aFamiliarity A4.75a A4.92a B4.53a B4.59a A4.91a B5.09a

France Overall liking A6.18a AB5.35c AB5.44bc A6.06ab AB4.87c A6.49aColor liking A6.44ab A5.85c A6.15bc A6.59ab A6.10bc A6.74aFlavor liking A5.93a A5.49ab B4.91bc A5.96a B4.72c A5.94aTexture liking A5.32bc A5.63ab B4.96c A6.18a A5.44bc A5.76abHardness intensity A4.90b B4.84b A5.21ab A4.73b A5.46a B4.94bCrispness intensity B2.43c C3.51b B2.33c B4.39a B4.15a C3.61bFlakiness intensity B3.18c B3.84b B3.12c B4.93a B5.26a B3.67bcSweetness intensity B5.17a A5.10ab C4.30c AB5.06ab B4.57bc B5.24aOiliness intensity B5.73b B6.16ab B6.27ab C5.80b A6.43a B6.09abFamiliarity A4.79abc A4.91ab B4.12c A5.23a B4.24bc B4.91ab

Bold means significantly differ from the midpoint (5 of 9-point JAR scale) at the 95% confidencelevel.* Means for the sample sharing a common capital alphabet letter are not significantly differentamong different countries at α = 0.05.† Means sharing a common lower case letter are not significantly different at α = 0.05.



FIG. 3. MEAN JAR RATINGS OF THE SIX YACKWA SAMPLES PLOTTED AS A FUNCTION OF INTENSITY VALUES OBTAINED FROM DESCRIPTIVEANALYSIS FOR (A) HARDNESS, (B) CRISPINESS, (C) FLAKINESS, (D) OILINESS AND (E) SWEETNESS



The oiliness of all the Yackwa samples was evaluated to be“much too oily” by all consumers from the three countries(Fig. 3e). Japanese consumers gave significantly higher JARscores to all the samples than those rated by Korean andFrench consumers (Table 5).

CATA. The terms mentioned most frequently (>20% oftotal CATA counts) as reasons for liking were: “cinnamonflavor” (21.3%), “color” (23.6%) and “softness” (25.8%) byKorean consumers; “cinnamon flavor” (29.3%), “sweetness”(21.1%) and “crispiness” (20.2%) by Japanese consumers;and “color” (38.2%), “cinnamon flavor” (24.0%), “softness”(23.8%), “gloss” (23.0%), “moistness” (21.7%), “rich flavor”(21.3%) and “sweetness” (21.1%) by French consumers.Particularly, “rich flavor” was the attribute favored byFrench consumers because it was chosen by Korean andJapanese consumers only on a few occasions (less than 10%of total CATA counts).

“Oily” was the most frequently selected term as a reasonfor disliking (Korea 37.7%, Japan 69.9% and France 50.0%).This result is consistent with the JAR result in which con-

sumers in all three countries replied that all the Yackwasamples were “much too oily,” and particularly Japaneseconsumers gave significantly higher JAR values to all thesamples than Korean and French consumers. “Stickiness”was chosen as the reason of disliking by Japanese consumers(20.7%) and French consumers (28.3%), but selected by lessthan 15% of Korean consumers. In addition, “dryness” wasselected as the reason for disliking by more than 20% of theFrench and Korean consumers, whereas this reason wasselected by less than 5% of the Japanese consumers. Thisimplies cross-cultural differences in preferred texture char-acteristics among the three countries. In general, the reasonsfor liking and disliking were similar across the three coun-tries, but consumers in each country reported differentattributes for their liking or disliking. To better understandthe difference across countries, the CATA data were ana-lyzed by country and samples (Tables 6 and 7).

For each sample, more various descriptive terms wereselected as reasons for liking and disliking by Korean con-sumers than those selected by French and Japanese consum-ers. Korean consumers liked M-NW and MB-SL because of

TABLE 6. DESCRIPTIVE TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH A CONSUMERS’ LIKING FOR EACH SAMPLE, SORTED BY DESCENDING ORDER OFSIGNIFICANCE

Sample

Korea Japan France

Words Frequency† P value‡ Words Frequency P value Words Frequency P value

M-BE Softness 23.16 ** Cinnamon flavor 22.41 * NS – –Moist 23.71 **Hardness 28.99 **Not flaky 34.62 *

M-HW Crispy 26.92 *** Cinnamon flavor 31.03 *** NS – –Rich flavor 27.54 *

M-NW Sticky 43.28 *** Sticky 36.36 * NS – –Softness 28.31 ***Moist 29.38 ***Familiar flavor 28.42 ***Roasted carbohydrate flavor 22.73 **Sweetness 22.01 **

C-JC Cinnamon flavor 30.67 *** Not flaky 50.00 *** Flaky 39.74 ***Flaky 36.23 *** Crispy 33.75 *** Crispy 36.25 ***Crumbly 32.31 *** Color 30.00 * Cinnamon flavor 29.66 **Ethnic flavor 34.15 **

C-JS Ginger flavor 33.33 *** Ginger flavor 46.67 *** Flaky 30.77 **Crispy 24.52 *** Crispy 33.75 ***Gloss 24.57 ***

MB-SL Color 31.73 *** Familiar flavor 50.00 ** Softness 26.50 **Familiar flavor 29.51 *** Cinnamon flavor 25.86 *Roasted carbohydrate flavor 27.84 ***Balanced flavor 27.17 ***Crispy 24.03 *Gloss 24.57 *Softness 22.43 *

† Frequency indicates the ratio (%) of word used to describe the sample.‡ *, ** and *** indicate significance at P < 0.05, P < 0.01 and P < 0.001, respectively.NS, not significant.



their soft and sticky texture, balanced flavor, and roastedcarbohydrate (“goso”) flavor (Table 6). They also dislikedC-JC and C-JS because of their flaky and crumbly textureand strong flavor (Table 7). Cinnamon and ginger flavorswere selected as the reason for both liking and disliking,indicating that perception and acceptance of these charac-teristic flavors may vary by consumer.

M-BE, M-HW and MB-SL were liked by Japanese con-sumers because of their cinnamon flavors (Table 6). C-JSwas liked for its crispy texture and ginger flavor. Japaneseconsumers selected stickiness for M-NW and unfamiliarflavor for C-JC as reasons for disliking (Table 7).

For French consumers, the flaky texture and cinnamonflavor were the reasons why they liked MB-SL, M-BE, andC-JC, and ginger flavor was one of the reasons why they dis-liked M-HW and C-JS. However, flaky texture was also

selected as one of the reasons for disliking (Tables 6 and 7).This may be due to differences in the perceptions of idealflakiness by individual consumers.

Familiarity. Korean consumers felt that the mold-typeproducts were more familiar than the cut-type products(Table 5). However, Japanese and French consumers did notconsider a specific type of product more familiar than theothers. The familiarity rating of Japanese consumers wasnot significantly different among samples, and French con-sumers perceived C-JC, MB-S and M-HW more familiarthan M-NW and C-JS.

Familiar/unfamiliar flavor was one of the most oftenmentioned terms associated with consumer liking or dislik-ing of each sample (Tables 6 and 7). The hedonic liking ofthe Yackwa samples by Korean consumers was closely

TABLE 7. DESCRIPTIVE TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH CONSUMERS’ DISLIKING FOR EACH SAMPLE, SORTED BY DESCENDING ORDER OFSIGNIFICANCE

Sample

Korea Japan France

Words Frequency† P value‡ Words Frequency P value Words Frequency P value

M-BE Cinnamon flavor 28.70 *** Color 51.14 * Hardness 31.67 **Unfamiliar flavor 32.35 ***Saltiness 47.62 **Gloss 28.28 **Sweetness 25.37 **Sticky 24.03 **Bitterness 41.18 *Off flavor 23.71 *

M-HW Dry appearance ofsurface

34.59 *** NS – – NS – –

Color 34.74 ***M-NW Sticky 25.32 ** Sticky 30.49 ** Dryness 29.00 ***

Adhere in mouth 23.89 * Bitterness 47.06 **Softness 33.33 * Not flaky 29.41 **Roasted carbohydrate

flavor37.50 * Dry appearance of surface 28.57 *

Sticky 21.58 *C-JC Crumbly 46.67 *** Unfamiliar flavor 34.29 * Flaky 45.00 **

Flaky 52.86 ***Dry appearance of

surface33.96 ***

Cinnamon flavor 35.19 ***Strong flavor 28.94 *

C-JS Ginger flavor 47.25 *** Dryness 52.94 *** Ginger flavor 55.56 ***Flaky 37.14 *** Ginger flavor 41.67 ** Flaky 50.00 **Unbalanced flavor 25.98 * Strong flavor 44.44 *Strong flavor 27.63 * Familiar flavor 38.10 *Unfamiliar flavor 27.94 *Crumbly 23.64 *Off flavor 25.77 *

MB-SL Adhere in mouth 24.77 * NS – – NS – –

† Frequency indicates the ratio (%) of word used to describe the sample.‡ *, ** and *** indicate significance at P < 0.05, P < 0.01 and P < 0.001, respectively.NS, not significant.



related with familiarity (r = 0.99 for overall liking, r = 0.85for color liking, r = 0.94 for flavor liking, r = 0.99 for textureliking; P < 0.05 for all). The familiarity score of Japaneseconsumers was significantly correlated with the overall(r = 0.95, P < 0.01) and texture liking (r = 0.83, P < 0.05),and the familiarity rating of French consumers was signifi-cantly correlated with flavor (r = 0.90, P < 0.05) and textureliking (r = 0.86, P < 0.05). For all the three countries, likingof Yackwa texture was influenced by familiarity.

The Relationship among Sensory Attributes,Hedonic Ratings and Familiarity

The relationship between attributes and liking ratings sum-marized by PCA was further investigated to better under-stand the attributes that affect consumer hedonic ratings(Figs. 4–6). For Korean consumers, texture liking was highlyloaded on PC1 and PC2. Texture liking was positivelyrelated with cohesiveness and denseness, and negativelyassociated with hardness, crispiness and flakiness (Fig. 4a).Flavor liking was highly loaded in the negative direction ofPC2 (Fig. 4a), indicating that strong sweet taste, salty taste,brown sugar flavor and cinnamon flavor may have a nega-tive impact on overall liking. In addition, flavor liking washighly loaded in the positive direction of PC3, which wasin the opposite direction of rice syrup flavor and gingerflavor (Fig. 4b). However, sweetness was also loaded (PCloading = 0.597) on PC3, showing a positive correlation

with flavor liking. This suggests that there may be anoptimal level of sweet taste that drives flavor liking. Overallliking was more closely related to texture liking than toflavor or color liking (Fig. 4). Familiarity was highly loadedon the negative PC2 dimension, exhibiting a positive corre-lation with cinnamon flavor, brown sugar flavor, saltinessand sweetness.

Texture liking by Japanese consumers was highly loadedon the positive PC1 dimension, where crispiness, hardnessand flakiness were placed (Fig. 5a). CATA result also showedthat the crispy texture was one of the characteristics favoredby Japanese consumers. Overall liking was most stronglycorrelated with PC3 and located in the opposite direction of“rice syrup flavor” and “ginger flavor” (Fig. 5b). This resultis contradictory to the CATA result in that “ginger flavor”was selected as a reason of liking. Flavor liking, color likingand familiarity did not show strong correlations withPC1–3 (|PC loadings| < 0.5). The likings of Japanese con-sumers showed a weaker correlation with the PC dimen-sions compared to Korean consumers (data not shown),suggesting that the rating by Japanese consumer was notexplained fully by attributes that constructed the factorialplane in Fig. 5.

Figure 6 showed that the texture liking by the Frenchconsumers was closely associated with flakiness and crispi-ness. Cohesiveness and denseness were negatively correlatedwith texture liking. Overall liking was more closely relatedto flavor liking than texture liking (Fig. 6b), and highly

FIG. 4. PC LOADINGS OF THE SENSORY ATTRIBUTES WITH KOREAN CONSUMERS’ LIKING AND FAMILIARITY SCORES AS SUPPLEMENTARY VARI-ABLES FOR DIMENSIONS 1 AND 2 (A) AND DIMENSIONS 1 AND 3 (B) KL, KOREAN LIKING; K_FAMILIARITY, KOREAN FAMILIARITY



loaded in the positive direction of PC3. In the plot showingthe PC dimensions 1 and 3 where flavor liking was morehighly loaded (Fig. 6b), flavor liking was positively corre-lated with sweetness and saltiness, but negatively correlated

with rice syrup and ginger flavor. Familiarity was highlyloaded in the positive direction of PC3, implying that famil-iarity is negatively influenced by rice syrup flavor and gingerflavor (Fig. 6b).

FIG. 5. PC LOADINGS OF THE SENSORY ATTRIBUTES WITH JAPANESE CONSUMERS’ LIKING AND FAMILIARITY SCORES AS SUPPLEMENTARY VARI-ABLES FOR DIMENSIONS 1 AND 2 (A) AND DIMENSIONS 1 AND 3 (B) (JL, JAPANESE LIKING; J_FAMILIARITY, JAPANESE FAMILIARITY)

FIG. 6. PC LOADINGS OF THE SENSORY ATTRIBUTES WITH FRENCH CONSUMERS’ LIKING AND FAMILIARITY SCORES AS SUPPLEMENTARY VARI-ABLES FOR DIMENSIONS 1 AND 2 (A) AND DIMENSIONS 1 AND 3 (B) FL, FRENCH LIKING; F_FAMILIARITY, FRENCH FAMILIARITY



DISCUSSION

For the interpretation of the liking result, previous studies(Hong et al. 2011; Chung et al. 2012; Jung et al. 2012)recommended considering a cross-cultural difference inscale usage (Yao et al. 2003). It was reported that Westernconsumers (Americans) used a wider range of hedonicscales compared to Korean and Japanese consumers. Hence,the significant differences in hedonic scores among the dif-ferent countries might have partially resulted from this scaleusage difference. The cross-cultural differences in ratingpattern were less significant in this study because consumersin different countries clearly showed a preference for differ-ent samples. In addition, even with considering the scaleusage effects, French and Japanese consumers’ overall likingscores that were not significantly different from or weregreater than the middle score indicate that Yackwa, anethnic sweet food, was well accepted. However, the effect ofsweetness on acceptance of ethnic desserts/snacks would bemore clearly demonstrated in a study that compares theacceptance of sweet foods to those of the other food catego-ries. A future study that includes wider variety of food cat-egories may be required.

Although a common feature in Korean, Japanese andFrench consumers’ liking was observed (i.e., preference forMB-SL and judging oiliness of Yackwa “too strong”), cross-cultural difference in consumer perception and hedonicresponses to Yackwa was apparent. When considering allconsumer test results (hedonic ratings, familiarity ratingsand JAR ratings) together, Korean consumers liked Yackwathat had cohesive and a not-so-hard texture and balancedflavor. Their preference for cohesive texture might bebecause flakiness and crispiness of Yackwa might even beunfamiliar to Korean consumers, as the mold type is mostcommonly consumed in Korea.

It was initially hypothesized that French consumers whoconsume flaky pastries quite frequently would perceive thecut type more familiar and prefer them to the mold type.Indeed, French consumers showed a tendency to preferYackwa with a crispy and flaky texture and cinnamonflavor, although they did not clearly prefer the cut-typeYackwa samples to the mold-type ones. C-JS, one of twoflaky samples, was rated less familiar than some other mold-type samples. Their familiarity rating was not solely depen-dent on texture attributes and flavor was also involved infamiliarity perception. French consumers’ familiarity ratingwas more strongly associated with flavor attributes thantexture attributes, showing a strong and negative correlationwith rice syrup flavor and ginger flavor (Fig 6b). This sug-gests that strong rice syrup and ginger flavors play a biggerrole in eliciting unfamiliarity from French consumers thanthat of texture attributes. Furthermore, it is assumed thatFrench consumers’ familiarity with rich pastries might lead

them to choose “rich flavor as a reason for liking more fre-quently than Korean and Japanese consumers” in CATAtask.

Compared to Korean or French consumers who showedmore apparent preference for a cohesive or flaky texture, noclear trend in liking for texture attributes was observed forJapanese consumers; however, they tended to prefer crispi-ness and flakiness to cohesiveness. In addition, Japaneseconsumers seemed to have a lower level of tolerance to oili-ness compared to Korean and French consumers. Japaneseconsumers gave significantly higher JAR scores compared toKorean and French consumers, and CATA results showedthat 70% of the Japanese consumers chose “oiliness” as areason for disliking.

Consumer rating of sweetness also showed cross-culturaldifference. The samples with the higher level of sweetnesswere rated at the JAR level by French consumers, whereasthe samples with the weaker sweetness were perceived asJAR by Japanese or Korean consumers. The PCA results(Figs. 4–6) where overall liking by French consumers wasmore positively correlated with sweetness intensity thanthose by Korean and Japanese consumers provided anotherstrong supporting evidence for French consumers’ prefer-ence for stronger sweetness of Yackwa.

Determinants of flavor liking were not so much appar-ently identified as the drivers of texture liking, as theresponse of the consumers was inconsistent. Cross-checkingof CATA and PCA results implied that the cinnamon flavorand sweet taste were one of the flavor drivers of liking for allthe three countries. However, in the CATA result, cinnamonflavor, ginger flavor and familiar flavor were selected asreasons for both liking and disliking. This might be due tointerpersonal variance of perception and acceptance acrossindividual consumers, even within a community sharing thesame cultural background. Furthermore, consumer-baseddescription is not easily interpreted because consumers usevaried and spontaneous terms which result in a large incon-sistency across individuals and samples (Lelièvre et al.2009).

In addition, sensory expressions unique in Japanese andFrench language might not have been accurately reflectedbecause CATA questions in this study had been developedby Koreans using Korean native language before they weretranslated into English. As mentioned earlier, Japanese andFrench consumers’ liking was not fully explained whensuperimposed on the PCA plane constructed with thedescriptors developed by the trained Korean panelists. Eventhe lexicons developed by a highly trained panel could notbe free of influence of culture where the panel was from(Drake et al. 2005). Some descriptors of soy sauce developedby Thai descriptive panel could not be understood by theU.S. panel because those words were not common or knownto them (Cherdchu et al. 2013). Similarly, Prescott and Bell



(1995) reported that “gusu” flavor, a descriptor used byKorean consumers to describe flavor attributes of noodles,was an important driver of liking for noodle products madefrom different wheat variety, but there was no exact transla-tion for that word in English. Zannoni (1997) reportedpractical problems in applying sensory profile developed inone culture to another culture, particularly due to the influ-ence of culture on language. In a study on the cross-culturalcomparison of texture descriptors using jelly products(Blancher et al. 2007), Vietnamese consumers used fewerwords and used them in a more similar manner to describetextural attributes of jellies compared to French consumers.They suggested that this was because one culture hada richer array of descriptors for a certain modality than theother culture. Therefore, these differences in the expressionof perception across different cultures should be examinedin future studies to better understand the perception ofconsumers.

The result showed a strong correlation between familiar-ity and rated liking. Korean consumers who were mostfamiliar with the products differentiated the samples withregard to liking ratings better than French and Japaneseconsumers. This is also supported by the fact that theyselected more various descriptors as reasons for liking anddisliking than foreign consumers. A positive relationshipbetween familiarity and consumer acceptance has beenobserved in previous studies (Tuorila et al. 2008; Lawlesset al. 2013a,b). Distel et al. (1999) reported that famili-arity resulted in a stronger subjective perception of inten-sity and pleasantness. In addition, it is assumed thatKorean consumers could have a more specific standardfor what Yackwa should taste like because their expectationwas more clearly formed due to their previous expe-riences in Yackwa products (Deliza and McFie 1996). Incontrast, Japanese and French consumers who have notbeen exposed to Yackwa might not develop a particularframe of reference and show more ambiguous hedonicresponses.

The overall result of this study suggests strong influenceof familiarity on liking and perception. Because familiarityis influenced by not only similarity in food culture, but alsoinformation, degree of exposure and personal attitudessuch as neophobia or variety seeking (Chung et al. 2012),future cross-cultural studies should be conducted inwider perspectives considering aforementioned factors togain a deeper insight on foreign consumers’ liking and per-ception of a novel ethnic food.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This study was carried out with the support of “CooperativeResearch Program for Agricultural Science and Technology

Development (Project No. PJ006874),” Rural DevelopmentAdministration, Republic of Korea.

REFERENCES

BÉCUE-BERTAUT, M., A’LVAREZ-ESTEBANB, R. and PAGÈS,P. 2007. Rating of products through scores and free-textassertions: Comparing and combining both. Food Qual.Prefer. 19, 122–134.

BERLYNE, D.E. 1970. Novelty, complexity, and hedonic value.Percept. Psychophys. 8, 279–286.

BLANCHER, G., CHOLLET, S., KESTELOOT, R.,NGUYEN HOANG, D., CUVELIER, G. and SIEFFERMANN,J.M. 2007. French and Vietnamese: How do they describetexture characteristics of the same food? A case study withjellies. Food Qual. Prefer. 18, 560–575.

BORNSTEIN, R.F. and D’AGOSTINO, P.R. 1994. Theattribution and discounting of perceptual fluency:Preliminary tests of a perceptual fluency/attributionalmodel of the mere exposure effect. Soc. Cognition 12,103–128.

CHERDCHU, P., CHAMBERS, E., IV and SUWONSICHON, T.2013. Sensory lexicon development using trainedpanelists in Thailand and the USA. J. Sensory Studies 28,248–255.

CHUN, H.S., CHO, S.B. and KIM, H.Y. 2002. Effects of varioussteeping periods on physical and sensory characteristics ofyukwa (Korean rice snack). Cereal Chem. 79, 98–101.

CHUNG, L., CHUNG, S., KIM, J., KIM, K., O’MAHONY, M.,VICKERS, Z., CHA, S., ISHII, R., BAURES, K. and KIM, H.2012. Comparing the liking for Korean style salad dressingsand beverages between US and Korean consumers: Effects ofsensory and non-sensory factors. Food Qual. Prefer. 26,105–118.

de GRAAF, C. and ZANDSTRA, E.H. 1999. Sweetness intensityand pleasantness in children, adolescents, and adults. Physiol.Behav. 67, 513–520.

D’ANTUONO, L.P. and BIGNAMI, C. 2012. Perception oftypical Ukrainian foods among an Italian population. FoodQual. Prefer. 25, 1–8.

DELIZA, R. and MCFIE, H.J.H. 1996. The generation of sensoryexpectation by external cues and its effect on sensoryperception and hedonic ratings: A review. J. Sensory Studies11, 103–128.

DISTEL, H., AYABE-KANAMURA, S., MARTINEZ-GOMEZ,M., SCHICKER, I., KOBAYAKAWA, T., SAITO, S. andHUDSON, R. 1999. Perception of everyday odors: Correlationbetween intensity, familiarity, and strength of hedonicjudgment. Chem. Senses 24, 191–199.

DRAKE, M.A., YATES, M.D., GERARD, P.D., DELAHUNTY,C.M., SHEEHN, E.M., TURNBULLD, R.P. and DODDS, T.M.2005. Comparison of differences between lexicons fordescriptive analysis of Cheddar cheese flavour in Ireland, NewZealand, and the United States of America. Int. Dairy J. 15,473–483.



HAN, B.J. and JUNG, S.M. 2002. Royal Cuisine in the JoseonDynasty, Haksan Publishing, Seoul, South Korea.

HONG, J.H., YOON, E.K., CHUNG, S.J., CHUNG, L., CHA,S.M., O’MAHONY, M., VICKERS, Z. and KIM, K.O. 2011.Sensory characteristics and cross-cultural consumeracceptability of Bulgogi (Korean traditional barbecued beef).J. Food Sci. 76, S306–S313.

HUSSON, F. and LÊ, S. (2009). SensoMineR: Sensory dataanalysis with R. R package version 1.10. http://cran.r-project.org/package=SensoMineR (accessed December 02,2009).

HUSSON, F., JOSSE, J., LÊ, S. and MAZET, J. 2009. FactoMineR:Factor analysis and data mining with R. R package version1.14. http://cran.r-project.org/package=FactoMineR (accessedDecember 02, 2009).

JUNG, Y.J., PADMANABAHN, A., HONG, J.H., LIM, J. andKIM, K.O. 2012. Consumer freshness perception of spinachsamples exposed to different storage conditions. PostharvestBiol. Technol. 73, 115–121.

LAWLESS, H.T. and HEYMANN, H. 2010. Sensory Evaluation ofFood: Principles and Practices, 2nd Ed., Springer, New York,NY.

LAWLESS, L.J.R., THRELFALL, R.T., MEULLENET, J.F. andHOWARD, L.R. 2013a. Applying a mixture design forconsumer optimization of black cherry, concordgrape and pomegranate juice blends. J. Sensory Studies 28,102–112.

LAWLESS, L.J.R., THRELFALL, R.T. and MEULLENET, J.F.2013b. Using a choice design to screen nutraceutical-richjuices. J. Sensory Studies 28, 113–124.

LELIÈVRE, M., CHOLLET, S., ABDI, H. and VALENTIN, D.2009. Beer trained and untrained assessors rely more onvision than on taste when they categorize beers. Chemosens.Percept. 2, 143–153.

MEILGAARD, M., CIVILLE, G.V. and CARR, B.T. 2007. SensoryEvaluation Techniques, 4th Ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

METHVEN, L., LANGRENEY, E. and PRESCOTT, J. 2012.Changes in liking for a no added salt soup as a function ofexposure. Food Qual. Prefer. 26, 135–140.

MINTEL. 2011. Ethnic food-lovers developing a taste for exoticflavors. Mintel Press Release. Feb 16, 2011. http://www.mintel.com/press-centre/press-releases/666/ethnic-food-lovers-developing-a-taste-for-exotic-flavors (Accessed January 16,2012).

MUÑOZ, A.M. and CIVILLE, G.V. 1992. The spectrumdescriptive analysis method. In ASTM Manual Series MNL 13,Manual on Descriptive Analysis Testing (R.C. Hootman, ed.)pp. 22–34, ASTM International, West Conshohocken,PA.

PARK, H.S. 2011. Perceived similarity, sensory characteristics andcross-cutural consumer acceptability of Yackwa (Korean

traditional cookie). Masters Thesis, Ewha Womans University,Seoul, Korea.

PITTS, S. 2009. Mean versus scale mid-point, Appendix F. InJust-About-Right (JAR) Scales: Design, Usage, Benefits andRisks, ASTM Manual 63 (L. Rotham and M.J. Parker, eds.)pp. 27–28, ASTM Intl, West Conshohocken, PA.

PORCHEROT, C. and ISSANCHOU, S. 1998. Dynamics ofliking for flavored crackers: Test of predictive value of aboredom test. Food Qual. Prefer. 9, 21–29.

PRESCOTT, J. and BELL, G. 1995. Cross-cultural determinantsof food acceptability: Recent research on sensoryperceptions and preferences. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 6,201–205.

PRESCOTT, J. 1998. Comparisons of taste perceptions andpreferences of Japanese and Australian consumers: Overviewand implications for cross-cultural sensory research. FoodQual. Prefer. 9, 393–402.

PRESCOTT, J., YOUNG, O., ZHANG, S. and CUMMINGS,T. 2004. Effects of added “flavor principles” on liking andfamiliarity of a sheep meat product: A comparison ofSingaporean and New Zealand consumers. Food Qual. Prefer.15, 187–194.

SLOAN, A.E. 2011. Top 10 food trends. Food Technol. 65,24–41.

STONE, H. and SIDEL, J.L. 1992. Sensory Evaluation Practices,Academic Press, Orlando, FL.

TUORILA, H., HUOTILAINEN, A., LAHTEENMAKI, L.,OLLILA, S., TUOMI-NURMI, S. and URALA, N. 2008.Comparison of affective rating scales and their relationship tovariables reflecting food consumption. Food Qual. Prefer. 19,51–61.

VERBEKE, W. and LOPEZ, G.P. 2005. Ethnic food attitudes andbehavior among Belgians and Hispanics living in Belgium.Br. Food J. 107, 823–840.

YAO, E., LIM, J., TAMAKI, K., ISHII, R., KIM, K.O. andO’MAHONY, M. 2003. Structured and unstructured 9-pointhedonic scales: A cross-cultural study with American,Japanese and Korean consumers. J. Sensory Studies 18,115–139.

YUSOP, S.M., O’SULLIVAN, M.G., KERRY, J.F. and KERRY, J.P.2009. Sensory evaluation of Chinese-style marinated chickenby Chinese and European naïve assessors. J. Sensory Studies24, 512–533.

ZAJONC, R.B. 1968. Attitudinal effects of mere exposure. J. Pers.Soc. Psychol. 9, 1–27.

ZANNONI, M. 1997. Approaches to translation problems ofsensory descriptors. J. Sensory Studies 12, 239–253.

ZHANG, X.Y., GUO, H.Y., ZHAO, L., SUN, W.F., ZENG, S.S.,LU, X.M., CAO, X. and REN, F.Z. 2011. Sensory profile andBeijing youth preference of seven cheese varieties. Food Qual.Prefer. 22, 101–109.



http://cran.r-project.org/package=SensoMineR

http://cran.r-project.org/package=SensoMineR

http://cran.r-project.org/package=FactoMineR

http://www.mintel.com/press-centre/press-releases/666/ethnic-food-lovers-developing-a-taste-for-exotic-flavors



Effect of Familiarity on a CrossCultural Acceptance of a...

Documents

Transcript of Effect of Familiarity on a CrossCultural Acceptance of a...