Effect of Agricultural Land Reform Development Project … · Thailand has long time faced the...

Abstracts of the 4th ICERD-International Conference on Environmental and Rural Development, January 2013

1

Effect of Agricultural Land Reform Development Project

on Rural Livelihood: Experience from Thailand

Anisara Pensuk Tibkaew*, Niramon Kaewkallaya and Rajendra P Shrestha

* Thaksin University, Thailand

E-mail: [email protected]

Thailand has long time faced the problem of land tenure, which is also understood to be

associated with the poverty in rural area where agriculture is the major source of income.

Agriculture land reform program has been implemented in Thailand for more about three

decades particularly in the areas identified as the encroached national reservation forest.

Todate more than 5.12 million ha of land have been allocated to the farmers in 69

provinces of the country for settlement and agricultural purposes. Agriculture land reform

program also includes promotion of the development programs in order to improve the

quality of life of the farmers through extension of sustainable agriculture, rural

infrastructure development, etc. The collaborative project between JICA and ALRO called

D/S North project has been implemented during 2004-2007 aiming to improve the living

standard of farmers through promoting the practices of sustainable agriculture and

integrating the proper natural resources management and environmental conservation

measures into their living activities. This study, therefore, attempts to examine the

achievement of the integration of the natural resources conservation measures to farmers'

livelihood under the D/S North Project in the representative site, namely Bor Lek Long

sub-district, Phrae Province. The Sustainable Livelihood Framework, developed by DFID

was used to investigate the situation of livelihood of the people who implemented the

project. The investigating results show that the people have better living condition with

better natural, financial, and social capital after project has been implemented.

Keywords: agricultural land reform, rural livelihood, sustainable livelihood framework,

encroached national reserved forest, land allocation


2

Development without Conformity: Impacts of Large Scale Economic

Development on Indigenous Community Livelihoods

in Northeastern Cambodia

Baromey Neth*, Sam Ol Rith and Makoto Yokohari

* Royal University of Phnom Penh, Cambodia

E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Large scale economic development (LSED) has undergone rapid policy and sectoral

reform in Cambodia as part of country’s adaptation to trade liberalism. Under extensive

privatization scheme, LSED is expected to generate revenues to support economic growth

and development at both macro and micro levels. Yet, it is questionable about benefits and

risks of such natural resource-consumptive and extractive development for the host areas,

especially indigenous people (IP) who have been living in harmony with nature for

survival and welfare reasons. IP communities in northeastern Cambodia are vulnerable to

such development. This region has been put under agricultural economic land concession,

forest concession, and mining concession. The conversion of forestlands and farmlands

into commercial cash-crop and agro-industry plantations as well as logging and mining

zones has led IP communities to have limited access to land and natural resources whereby

they are deemed with insecure livelihood strategies due to in-migration, land speculation

and encroachment, and human-induced change upon agro-forestry system. This has caused

reduced livelihood capabilities (resources, knowledge and skills, activities, and protective

security) and distressed cultural diversity and integrity and socio-demographic fabric of IP.

This paper aims to investigate IP livelihood problems and identify LSED opportunities and

strategies in Northeastern Cambodia and their impacts on IP livelihoods. It uses theories

and concepts of sustainable livelihood approach / framework (SLA/SLF), communal land

management by modernized legal approaches and culture / right of indigenous community

over resource access / use / management to discuss and produce research findings from a

holistic analysis of literature, policy papers, reports of previous empirical studies, and

primary data collected from fieldworks. Appropriate mechanisms for integrated economic

and community development are suggested at the later part of the paper.

Keywords: large scale economic development, SLA/SLF, indigenous communities,

community capabilities, integrated economic and community development


3

Factors Influencing Equity in Farmer-managed

Irrigation Distribution in Sindh, Pakistan

Junaid Alam Memon* and Fateh Muhammad Mari

* Pakistan Institute of Development Economics (PIDE), Pakistan


Equitable distribution of irrigation has been one of the most compelling factors for

irrigation management reforms in many countries. Policy response to such need in Pakistan

had been the introduction of farmer-management of the tertiary level irrigation affairs. This

study presents an empirical analysis of the effect of reforms on equitable irrigation

distribution in the Farmer Organizations (FO) of three Area Water Boards (AWBs) in Sindh,

Pakistan. Cross-sectional quantitative and qualitative information was obtained from

primary and secondary sources. These sources included the official datasets on irrigation

discharge measurements, FO maturity indices and profiles prepared by Sindh Irrigation and

Drainage Authority (SIDA) and Water Sector Improvement Program (WISP), in-depth

interviews with SIDA, AWB and FO officials and ordinary farmers. A logistic regression

model, having the Irrigation Delivery Performance Ratio as regressand and Organizational

maturity index, Culturable command area, Membership size of FO, Location of tertiary

channel on the main canal and Rehabilitation of tertiary channels as regressors. The study

identified influential factors explaining variation in the irrigation delivery performance of

FOs. Findings suggest some of the key policy recommendations for the success irrigation

reforms for sustainable agriculture in Sindh Province of Pakistan.

Keywords: farmer managed irrigation, irrigation equity, delivery performance ratio,

Pakistan


4

Socioeconomic Impacts of Community Based Natural Resource

Management (CBNR) in Siem Reap Province, Cambodia

Chanthou Hem*

* Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia


The Cambodian Government has reformed the forestry sector since early 2000 to

engage the communities in natural resource management process through two main forms:

(i) the Community Protected Area (CPA); and (ii) the Community Forestry (CF).Since the

start of the CPA and the CF, there is as yet no specific evidence of how effectively the CPA

and CF operate and what benefits have been gained by the CPA and CF members. This

study investigates these issues at one CPA (CPA Popel) and one CF (CF Thbaeng Lech) in

Siem Reap province, Cambodia. The objectives of the research are to: (i) understand the

reasons and the process for establishing the CPA and CF; (ii) assess the effectiveness of

CPA and CF; and, (iii) examine the benefits gained by community members. Five sets of

questionnaires were developed and used. Two rounds of field interview were conducted

involving the interviews of 73 households and key informants. The researcher adapts the

effectiveness assessment concept used under the ADB Guidelines for Preparing

Performance Evaluation Reports and the effectiveness assessment framework developed by

AVSF to assess the effectiveness of the CPA and CF. SPSS and Microsoft Excel were used

to analyze data. It is found that the CPA was established following government policy and

development partner projects with limited community participation and the CF was also

established following the government policy and development partner projects but the

community was fully engaged. The management and operation of CPA is Less Effective

while CF is Highly Effective in delivering resource conservation and livelihood

improvement services. The level of benefits from participation in the CBNRM process for

CPA group is low while is high for CF. About 67% of CPA members was satisfied while

96% of CF confirmed either satisfied or very satisfied.

Keywords: Cambodia, Siem Reap, CBNRM, community protected area, community

forestry, decentralized natural resource management


5

Public Participation in Real Practices: From Experience

to an Effective Framework in Cambodia

Sam Chanthy*

* Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand


The participation of the poor or those vulnerable in development projects and policy

formulation and implementation has been accepted as an imperative within the

development field. Although the public participation of the key stakeholders in both

development and implementation stages of projects is very crucial, the actual participation

in the formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation stages of large-scale

infrastructure projects is very low and highly limited. In addition, the quality of their

participation is not always effective. This paper investigates public participation in the

Kamchay Hydropower Project financed and constructed by the Chinese Sinohydro

Company. Findings base on from field interviews and discussions with relevant

stakeholders in Kampot province where the project is. Best practices and principles of

effective participation are reviewed and tested against the experiences in this project. The

findings confirm that the project does not meet the acknowledged standards to reach the

minimum level of public acceptance, which is widely recognized to be a good basis of

participation. Additionally, the Kamchay Hydropower Project does not ensure the

effectiveness of public participation by all relevant key stakeholders from the beginning of

the project due to the absence of a working mechanism for participation and a highly

politicized implementation environment. The study conceptualizes and develops a

framework for effective public participation in the context of Cambodia’s hydropower

development. Using the Kamchy case, it identifies the key attributes for effective

participation, which ensures effective participation and inclusive development.

Keywords: public participation, hydropower, best practices, principles, effectiveness


6

Socio-economic Evaluation on How Crop Rotations on Clayey Soils Affect

Crop Yield and Farmers’ Income in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam

Tran Ba Linh*, Wim Cornelis, Sara Van Elsacker and Le Van Khoa

* Ghent University, Belgium


Declining land productivity is a major problem facing smallholder farmers in the

Mekong Delta today. Low soil quality is one of the greatest long-term challenges to

farmers in rice monocultures on alluvial soil. In order to better understand how farm

characteristics and crop rotations affect crop yield and income, a socio-economic

evaluation among smallholder farmers was conducted in Cai Lay District, Tien Giang

province. During farm household surveys, information on household characteristics, farm

cropping activities, farm production practices and performance, and household income was

collected. Four types of farming practices were observed, one based on traditional rice

monoculture with three rice crops per year (RRR), one based on a crop rotation with two

rice and one upland crop (RUR), one based on a crop rotation with one rice and two upland

crops (RUU), and a fourth based on upland crop monocultures (UUU).From the interviews

with the farmers, it was shown that RUR or rotations with RUU gave higher rice yields

than RRR. The rice yield in the last five years increased when rotations with upland crops

were implemented (RUR and RUU), which was strongly in contrast with the rice yield

decrease over the last five years for rice monoculture systems (RRR). The benefit-to-cost

ratio was the highest for RUR. Interestingly, in RUR and RUU, farmers apply less fertilizer

and pesticide for rice production compared to RRR. The survey revealed that many farmers

had a tendency to apply too much nitrogen as a way to compensate for the reduced rice

growth due to land degradation in RRR. Regarding farm size in the study area, the average

size is about 0.62 ha. The size of small farms is 0.36 ha and such small farms are found in

UUU systems. The largest farms (0.91 ha) were found in RRR systems. Farms of 0.68 ha

and 0.43 ha are found in RUR and RUU systems, respectively. The average profit of RUR

and RUU were 2,490USD/ha/year and 2,686USD/ha/year, respectively. Those were higher

than the profit of RRR farming (1,094USD/ha/year), but lower than the profit from UUU

systems (3,058USD/ha/year).

Keywords: alluvial soil, crop rotation, rice yield, profit, Mekong Delta


7

Assessment of Sustainable Energy Potential of Non-Plantation

Biomass Resources in Sameakki Meanchey District in

Kampong Chhnang Province, Cambodia

Vibol San* and Vin Spoann



Biomass has always been a major source of energy for mankind, and accounts for about

14% of the world’s total energy supply. Biomass is one of the clean energy resources and

considered neutral on CO2 emission that shows high potential for meeting the increasing

energy demand and substituting fossil fuels. Biomass energy sources are abundant in

Cambodia. We assess the energy potential of the following non-plantation biomass

resources: (1) agricultural residues, (2) animal manure. The production of agricultural

residue and animal manure was calculated based on the production of crops obtained from

National Census 2008 and study site. These information can be categorized into: (i)

primary residues (paddy straw, sugarcane top, maize stalks, coconut empty bunches and

frond, palm oil frond and male bunches etc.) and, (ii) secondary residues (paddy husk,

bagasse, maize cob, coconut shell, coconut husk, coir dust, saw dust, palm oil shell, fiber

and empty bunches, etc.), and (iii) animal manure. The estimation of residue generated can

be calculated based on the residue to product ratio (RPR). To estimate the potential of

deriving additional energy from a residue, it is important to establish the present utilization

pattern of the residue. The results of energy potential analysis indicate that agricultural

residues can produce 212.11 GJ in 2010. The total annual potential of biogas from animal

manure in 2006, 2007 and 2008 is 1357.96 thousand m3, 1432.89 thousand m3 and 1452.66

thousand m3, respectively, and the corresponding energy potential is 29.87 GJ, 31.52 GJ

and 31.96 GJ, respectively. In conclusion, when the energy potential can be applied to the

area in order to meet energy demand, it can reduce the pressure on natural forest, the

impact of human health, especially women and children, the amount of greenhouse gas

emissions.

Keywords: biomass; conservation; energy potential; residues; sustainable energy


8

Achieving Adoption of Improved Practices by Smallholder

Farmers - Examples of Methodologies from

a Successful Livestock Project

Darryl Savage*, Lorn Sophal, Sorn San, Sar Chetra and Pen Miranda

* University of New England, Australia


Achieving adoption of new technologies and interventions, by smallholders farmers

often proves challenging. This paper reports on a research project, funded by ACIAR

(AH/2003/008 – “Forages for Beef”), during which adoption of a new cattle management

system was more successful than anticipated. The paper examines the methodologies that

were used and the reasons for the better-than-expected rate of adoption of the new

technology. The target group for the project was smallholder farmers in low-lying

provinces in the south-eastern part of Cambodia where green feed shortages are severe for

8 months of the year. Growing rice for home consumption and sale was the dominant

agricultural activity and almost all households raised two draught cattle for transport and

land preparation, at the commencement of the project. Some households had an additional

1-2 cows to produce calves. A combination of university-based research informing on-farm

demonstrations and case studies, development of private-sector supply systems of forages,

establishment a national Learning Alliance to link with multiple partners engaged in

livestock research and development and integrated training programs for government

officials were some of the methodologies used in the project that are examined in the paper.

Farmers cited the main incentive for adoption of improved cattle feeding systems as the

saving of labour (several hours per day) and associated social and economic impacts. Over

the life of the project, adoption of forages for feeding cattle expanded to every province of

Cambodia. The project target was to reach 500 households. This target was exceeded

within Kampong Cham Province alone. Through collaboration with development agencies,

ongoing support from the Cambodian government and ‘organic growth’ (farmer-to-farmer

expansion by word-of-mouth), further expansion of the use of forages for feeding to cattle

will occur, independent of project support.

Keywords: smallholder adoption, methodologies, cattle, incentives


9

Gender and Small Scale Aquaculture Development:

Case in Northeast Cambodia

Chea Seila* and Gareth Johnstone

* The WorldFish Center, Cambodia


In Stung Treng Province in North-east Cambodia, the WorldFish Center in partnership

with the Fishery Administration (FiA) and the NGO, Culture and Environmental

Preservation Association (CEPA) are using community science to improve the uptake of

small-scale aquaculture (SSA) by communities with limited experience of fish culture. The

project is funded by the Wetlands Alliance and the SSA system, called ‘WISH-Ponds’

(water & fish), uses participatory action research to establish a system of transformative

learning in a household to assess and evaluate the costs and benefits of SSA. The

WISH-Pond system has been designed to promote the role of gender along the process of

SSA development. The paper describes the WISH-Pond system and how research has been

used by the community to test and develop aquaculture ponds that meet the needs of

households and in particular women. The paper explores the significance of gender issues

in community science in developing and adopting SSA systems as an alternative livelihood

and as contributor to better management of wetland resources.

Keywords: gender, small scale aquaculture, WISH-Pond, community science,

Northeast Cambodia


10

Sustainable Land Use and Water Management from a Gender Perspective:

A Case in Irrigated Paddy Project in Kilimanjaro Region, Tanzania

Yumiko Tanaka* and Eiji Yamaji

* Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), Japan


The social and economic impact of modernization processes of agriculture is diverse in

rural sub-Sahara Africa. With the introduction of modern agricultural technology, such as

irrigation infrastructure, high yield varieties, water management and land use, the yield of

paddy increased in Lower Moshi Irrigation Scheme (LMIS) in Tanzania. The major aim of

the LMIS project was to reduce rural poverty through improving food security and income

from agriculture. It was partially achieved, however, generated challenging issues, such as

unequal water distribution and land use. In Tanzania, 84% of female labor force is engaged

in agriculture, consisting of about 50% of the total agricultural labor force. Similarly, more

than half of the farmers are females in the LMIS area. Whereas, women have limited

access to and control over land and water, due to pre-existing cultural norms, as well as

limited participation in the decision-making processes. Land-holding is a prerequisite for

obtaining the membership of water associations. Water is becoming scarce due to climate

changes, encroachment to the forests and conflicts between upper-stream and downstream.

The main objective of this paper is to find a new perspective to measure the social and

economic impact of modern irrigated agriculture with a gender consideration through a

case study of LMIS project. The research methods used are literature reviews,

semi-structured interviews with both male and female farmers, with and without land, and

statistical data analysis of land ownership patterns and water use. Main results/conclusions

of the study are, 1) the cultural and gender norms about land inheritance and ownership,

and gender division of labor are still persistent, which prohibit women from equal access to

irrigation water and production means, and 2) changing regulations and practices of water

users associations to be more gender-responsive would improve the rural livelihood,

leading for more sustainable land use and water management.

Keywords: gender-perspective, sustainable land use and water management,

poverty reduction, modern irrigated agriculture, Kilimanjaro region,

Tanzania, Lower Moshi Irrigation Scheme


11

Importance of Traditional Pottery Making to the Household

Economy of Thongjao Village, Manipur, India

Yengkhom Amarjeet Singh*

* North Eastern Hill University, India


Studies on rural livelihood widely acknowledged the traditional crafting sector, often

posing a question of whether returns from crafting is able to provide a substantial income

or not for household sustenance in different geographical areas. It is within this context and

based on a small micro level study, this paper set out to examine the importance of

traditional pottery making to the household economy in Thongjao village, Manipur, India.

The research adopted focus group discussion, followed by an open ended questionnaire

survey using purposive sampling covering 52 individuals comprising of 30 crafters and 22

sellers respectively. Questions were made specifically to explore the importance of crafting

in the household economy and the way these rural artisans perceive their traditional

industry in the midst of lacking alternatives. The analysis was made by employing both

qualitative and quantitative methods. The study found out that craft making/selling

contributes on an average of 57±24 percent to the total monthly income of the households,

involving about two (2) individuals or 38 percent of the household member engaging in

pottery activity. Research results also revealed that pottery work is mainly dominated by

the vulnerable group of middle-aged women with poor level of education and assets,

engaging in primary basis to overcome adversity and meet their basic needs. The paper

also offered the intrinsic values attached to pottery work which is closely related to long

socio-cultural life of the people beside its economic aspect. The paper concludes by

discussing the reasons for sustenance of this craft in the village/region and provides a

convincing explanation to value and encourage traditional crafting sector for strengthening

the livelihood of communities in rural areas.

Keywords: livelihood, security, traditional, pottery, Manipur


12

Study of Poverty Dynamics of AMK Clients and Non-Clients

Thun Vathana*, Pum Sophy and Vong Pheakyny

* Angkor Mikroheranhvato Kampuchea (AMK)


Microfinance is a tool to help the poor to improve their livelihood options through

sustainable and viable microfinance services and products, especially access to inexpensive

sources of funding for income generating activities including business expansion. It

provides the poor with a chance to expand their business, generate more income, build

assets, and escape poverty. This study was designed to evaluate the effects of microfinance

services to poor clients of AMK. We analyzed a three-wave panel of data of AMK client

households and non-client households collected by the AMK research team from 2006,

2008, and 2012. The study addressed poverty dynamics of AMK client households relative

to non-client households living in the same area. Outcomes of the control group

(non-clients) were compared with the treatment group (AMK clients) in terms of

movement among poverty groups. We found evidence that between 2006 and 2008 during

a period of high economic growth and before the fall of land prices, both AMK clients

(active and deserter clients) and non-clients improved their wellbeing, meaning that the

percentage of households whose poverty group improved is higher than the percentage of

households that moved down. The evidence showed that active AMK clients escaped

poverty at the highest rate, followed by deserter clients and non-clients. The study also

indicated that between 2008 and 2012 during a period of slow economic performance and

fall land prices, many households slipped back into poverty, and faced deteriorating

poverty levels. At the aggregate level, only active clients improved, whereas deserter

clients and non-clients have not. Therefore, we concluded that AMK active clients coped

with the situation better than deserter clients and non-clients. We have reached the

conclusion that AMK active clients improved more than non-clients during times of both

strong and slow economic growth.

Keywords: microfinance, loans, poverty dynamics, AMK clients, non-clients


13

Assessment of Disaster Vulnerability for

Rural Development in Thailand

Satomi Kimijima*, Om N. Katel and Masahiko Nagai



There is mounting evidence that human activity is bound to induce the climate change

and continuously affecting the environment in times to come. The most adverse impacts

are predicted in the developing world because of poor planning, lack of resources and low

capacity for adaptation. These factors increase the peoples’ exposure to risk and sensitivity.

One of the most frequent hazards, as indicated in the past, is floods which are induced by

changing climate. It is reported that rural populations are more vulnerable to climate

induced hazards like floods. Vulnerability assessments with regard to flood are widely

used to detect areas sensitivity to changing climate and related disasters. However, most of

the vulnerability assessments are exclusively based on physical, environmental and

economic dimensions whereas social dimensions are neglected. This study highlights the

vulnerability assessment and its importance in integration of assessments from different

aspects such as impact, damage and social assessments. The integrated approach proposed

here can be a comprehensive for assessing, vulnerability in country like Thailand. One of

the components of vulnerability included is social variables which can be helpful for

understanding diverse information of vulnerability and for drawing responses at different

levels for recovery and development especially in rural areas.

Keywords: disaster, flood, vulnerability, assessment, rural development,

rural development


14

Investigating Unsustainable Practice of Rural Biogas

Development from ‘Script’ Perspective

Meredian Alam*

* Gadjah Mada University, Indonesia


The pervasive pressure on Indonesia’s government in developing alternative energy

that is accessible for poor rural households is resurfaced as part of the international

concerns of climate change mitigation. The climate change mitigation that is mostly

discoursed by the international actors has implicitly demanded government of Indonesia to

established affordable energy system that is perceivably usable for people living in the

rural zones. Biogas in this respond is the project that is considered to satisfy the

expectation of enabling poor community to survive from the energy crisis. One of the

construction project of biogases in Indonesia is executed in Ledangsari village situated in

the southwest of Yogyakarta Province Indonesia, which is implemented by a locally

managed non-profit organization owning no prior track records of constructing the

technology. As the project is constrained by the insufficient funding and limited time frame,

many technical issues that perpetuate the application of the technology is widely observed.

The technical issues are regarded to pose destructive challenges towards the sustainability

of the biogas technology and hence may lead the facilities to be dysfunctional. Some

technical observations have proven that the designs overlook users’ views and needs, yet

solely constituted based on dominant expertise of the designers or engineers. Looking

closely at how engineering knowledge serves, the designers have script as technological

manuals that prescribe the users to operate and manage the daily utilization. The ‘script’

concept espoused by French technological sociologist Madeline Akrich is suitable as tool

of analysis why the biogas installation is no longer of use. In her concept, ‘script’ rather

concentrates its messages on the main task and ideal responsibility. According to Akrich

(1992) and Latour (1992) ‘designers inscribe how users will interact with the product they

are designing and, implicitly or explicitly build prescriptions for user into the materiality of

the product” (Verbeek, 2006:362). Throughout this article, we can grab some insightful

perspective on the logics of unsustainable construction of technology, which is not attuned

with social structure of the targeted beneficiaries.

Keywords: biogas, script, and renewable energy


15

Symbiosis between Agriculture and Community-based Ecotourism:

Towards Agro-tourism Product Development in Cambodia

Kakda Khun*, Makoto Yokohari and Eiji Yamaji



This research aims to explore possible linkages between agriculture and

community-based ecotourism (CBET) as an integrated tool towards agro-tourism product

development from the viewpoints of key stakeholders-villagers, local authorities, sellers of

agricultural products, representatives from provincial public institutions, INGO, and

tourists. The research adopted a mixture of quantitative and qualitative methods in

collecting primary data. The quantitative method includes a survey of 158 families out of

550, a response rate of 28.7%, and 64 visitors (70% comparing the same month in 2010).

The qualitative method used a semi-structured interview with 12 key informants. On

supply side, results from household survey depicted that local agricultural products within

the community could not meet the demand of villagers and tourists. As a result, high

importation of meats, vegetables, and fruits from outsources are witnessed. Second, the

only and very weak connection is locally-made souvenirs. On the demand side, visitor’s

survey illustrated that awareness and participation of tourists on local foods and

agricultural activities were critically limited. On one hand, tourists hold expectation that all

foods in CBET are local and above all less chemical or organic, and plus they were very

unlikely to participate in agricultural activities due to not only the prepared package of tour

company and itinerary of CBET but also much pride that community have on primary

attractions as well as neglect of interest on agro-tourism. In-depth interviews to key

informants pointed out that though the existing connection between agriculture and CBET

was very limited due to certain challenges of each institution, potential linkages of the two

sectors were also revealed through support such as related agricultural and tourism

trainings as well as market for agricultural products.

Keywords: symbiosis, agriculture, community-based ecotourism, agro-tourism


16

Agri-supply Chain in Tourism Market: A Case Study of

Koh Trong CBT and Market in Kratie

Saut Moeun* and Masaaki Yamada



Stable supply of agricultural products into tourism business is a key for the both sectors

to sustainably grow together; however, rural farmers still face challenges in effectuating

such a goal. The current research addresses how agri-supply chain exists in tourism market

and issues on such a chain in Cambodia through a case study in Northeastern Region. The

triangulation methods were employed. Surveys were conducted on farmers,

hotels/restaurants and vegetable sellers, whereas semi-structured interviews were done

with middlemen, community chiefs, NGOs and local authorities. The farms of Koh Trong

are operated with family labors. Most farmers do not have advanced knowledge on farming

techniques. Little pesticides are applied, while chemical fertilizers are most commonly

used. Most vegetables and fruits are shipped from Koh Trong across the Mekong River to

town market by middleman, where they meet with the customers, hotels and restaurants.

While middlemen are the price setters, farmers are the price takers. Tourism market

consumes less than half of the total vegetables produced by Koh Trong farmers. Besides,

agri-products are brought in from other places and imported from Vietnam. Koh Trong

responds fairly little to the market demand. Small-scale farms of Koh Trong are less

competitive in terms of product variety; however, they are more competitive in terms of

high quality and unique products. Major issues affecting the supply chain include limited

knowledge, limited transportation, supply irregularity, limited market access, and

imbalanced powers among chain actors. In conclusion, the farms on Koh Trong are

small-scale family-oriented farms. Tourism is yet a small market for agri-products from

Koh Trong, but implies a future potential one. While conventional supply chain is adequate,

there is a barrier to overcome in making the chain more equitable for all market actors.

Keywords: supply chain, vegetables and fruits, farmers, tourism market


17

Enhancing Utilization of Value-added Products from Underutilized

Mabolo (Diospyros blancoi) Fruit

Regucivilla A. Pobar*

* Bohol Island State University, Phillipines


Mabolo fruit is from an endangered Mabolo tree in the Philippines, it is known to be an

ideal source of calcium, vitamin B, iron and protein and contains numerous phenolic

compounds that provide powerful antioxidant activity. It is nutritious, but it is underutilized

as human food because of its unpleasant odor comparable to rotten cheese or cat feces and

is covered with hair which is irritating to the skin. Because of this, it got rotten, eaten by

the birds, used as feeds to domestic animals and some were thrown as garbage. This study

aims to produce Mabolo Cake, Mabolo Boat Tart, Mabolo Fritters and Mabolo Pancake,

and to determine their acceptability; to promote the nutritious products to the community;

to introduce them to the entrepreneurs; and to encourage everybody to have in their snacks

box the value added mabolo products. This is an experimental study utilizing the five-point

Hedonic scale sheet in assessing the acceptability of the products in six sensory attributes;

appearance, texture, odor, taste and overall liking. The products were assessed by

twenty-five panelists. It was found out that Mabolo Cake and Boat Tart ranked first and

second respectively in six sensory attributes, with a rating within the range of Like

Extremely. Fritters ranked third in appearance, texture and odor liking with a rating of Like

Very Much and fourth in taste liking, pancake got fourth in appearance, texture liking and

third in odor and taste liking. It can be concluded that the products are generally acceptable.

The products can be adopted by the people in rural areas since it is easy to prepare and the

ingredients are found in the locality. Mabolo fruit can be eaten without noticing its

unpleasant smell when processed/cooked. It can be fully utilized as human food.

Keywords: Mabolo fruit, sensory attributes, unpleasant odor, acceptability, endangered


18

Organic Agriculture Innovation Networks: Role in Developing

Innovative Organic Business in Thailand

Unchalee Sanguanpong*, Kunawut Boonyanopakun

and Supachai Lorlowhakarn

* Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Thailand


Organic Agriculture Innovation Network (OAIN) is an executing agency under

strategic innovation program of National Innovation Agency (Public Organization), which

is an academic cooperation between Rajamnagala University of Technology Thanyaburi

and National Innovation Agency (Public Organization). As collaborative network it has a

mission to administer and coordinate technical cooperation aspects for organic

agri-business, with a target for all sectors such as organic farmers, academia, and the

private sector as well as concerned NGOs. It also has a role in promoting innovation and

developing its commercial exploitation, which are commonly developed to innovative

organic business. In addition to the activities as mentioned above OAIN also participated

and organized various activities such as 1) Contribution in organic markets to increase

skills and strengthen capacity of organic entrepreneurs and farming operations to

demonstrate new products 2) Development of database retrieving system of agricultural

innovation and organic researches, which can be accessed at http://www.oain.net 3)

Organizing academic meetings and networking with private sector, government agencies to

propel the development of organic expert network as community of practice in organic

farming. These attempts included technical cooperation with regional and international

network to strengthen a powerful network in organic farming. In this paper “Role of OAIN

in developing innovative organic business in Thailand: From conceptual framework to

systemic approaches” will be discussed.

Keywords: organic agriculture innovation network, executing agency,

collaborative network innovative organic business, commercial exploitation


19

La Jota Sevillana of Paete, Laguna, Philippines: A Cultural Identity

for Community Development

Merites M. Buot*

* University of the Philippines Los Banos, College, Laguna, Philippines


Paete, Laguna, Philippines has always been known of its dance, La Jota Sevillana. Jota

dances originally introduced by the Spaniards became the springboard of the present dance

uniquely integrating the people’s attitude and ideas of community development.

Unfortunately, this art might disappear if not given right attention and promotion. It is the

general objective of this paper to address the issue of extinction of arts specifically the

dance. Analysis and comparison of dance movements are done to express the ideas of

people towards community development. Movements like cadenilla (the chain), and the

estrella (the star) depict this concept. Dance festivals utilizing the indigenous dances could

boost the interest and real understanding of the people of its cultural identity. Empowering

the local people by taking advantage of the available resources definitely leads to real

community development.

Keywords: arts, community development, empowerment, indigenous dance, Jota


20

Understanding the Beef Market Chain and Opportunities for

Smallholder Farmers in Kampong Cham Province, Cambodia

Pen Miranda*, Darryl B. Savage, Lorn Sophal and Werner Stür



Most cattle raising in Cambodia is undertaken by smallholder farmers, based on a

system of low nutritional input (crop residues) and high labour input. Options for

increasing efficiency and introducing a market-oriented beef production system are

considered a priority. This paper reports the outcomes of a market chain study conducted in

Kampong Cham province. Three districts were selected: Prey Chhor (paddy area), Tbong

Khmum (highland area) and Kang Meas (Mekong area). A rapid market appraisal was

conducted by following the market chain from producers to consumers. Farmer groups,

cattle brokers, small, medium and large traders were informally interviewed. Farmers in

the highland and Mekong areas had a preference for cross-bred (local breed�Hariana)

cattle, which were used primarily for breeding purposes. Conversely, farmers in the paddy

area of Prey Chhor reported a preference for local-bred cattle, which were used for draught

purposes. Farmers in this area frequently bought and sold draught cattle as a seasonal cycle

for rice cropping. Farmers in the highland area practiced a form of market-orientated

production, buying thin cattle from other districts to fatten and sell. At all points of the

market chain, interviewees reported that kilogram of meat was the basis of price.

Interestingly, sale of raw meat at market (retail) is the only stage of the market chain at

which weighing of meat takes place. At all other stages of the market chain, assessment of

weight is undertaken by visual assessment and is therefore only an estimate. For breeding

animals their appearance (eg. head shape, body condition), rather than production-based

measurements, is the basis of price. There appears to be a trend for the Kampong Cham

cattle herd to be based on crossbred cattle, rather than local bred cattle. Importantly, meat

eating quality was not identified an issue of importance by farmers or cattle traders.

Keywords: forage, beef cattle, ruminant nutrition, cattle production system,

smallholder farmers


21

Food Security and Socio-economic Impacts of Soil Salinization

in Northeast Thailand

Aung Naing Oo*, Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai and Patcharee Saenjan

* Khon Kaen University, Thailand


The objectives of this research were to assess the impacts of soil salinity on the crop

production system and to describe the food security and social and economic conditions in

the salt-affected areas of Northeast Thailand. Ban Nong Na Woaw, Ban Phon Sim, and Ban

Som Sanuk, all in the Northeast region of Thailand, were purposely selected because they

had different salinity levels and different ecosystems. Random sampling method was used

to select 90 households from the three villages and both quantitative and qualitative data

were collected from January to June, 2012 using a questionnaire, semi-structured

interviews, and direct observation. Data were analyzed by means of descriptive methods.

In all studied villages, the production system of rice among the farmers was not much

different. Farmers used organic fertilizers and farmyard manure to alleviate salinity in their

rice field. There were different types of agricultural and non-agricultural activities in the

three studied villages practiced by the farmers in order to improve food security of their

families. The average of rice yields was very low, about 1.5 ton/ha. The main income

source was agricultural work among rural households. Domestic animals raised by most

farm households in all villages were cattle, buffalo, pigs, chicken and crickets for home

consumption and sale. In addition to salinity effects, periodic droughts, the heavy reliance

on monsoons, lack of financial capital and low inputs uses were the other major constraints

for the farmers in all villages. This finding suggests that farmers need to be advised on the

use farmyard manure and green manure in order to reduce salinity. But equally important is

correct application of urea fertilizer, the timely use of urea fertilizer, better weeding, timely

harvesting and proper threshing and winnowing. Since rice is the main source of livelihood

for the farmers, extension agencies should provide farmers with financial and technical

assistance such as salt tolerant rice varieties, knowledge and improved technologies.

Keywords: salinity, food sufficiency, livelihood


22

Household Labor in Smallholding Rubber Farms: Experience

from Traditional Rubber Area in the Southern Thailand

Buncha Somboonsuke*, Wanchai Dhammasachakarn, Chaiya Kongmanee,

Onanong Longpichai and Benedicte Chambon

* Prince of Songkla University, Thailand


This study aimed to look into the dynamic, working, and guidelines for the

development of household labors in the smallholding rubber production system in

Songkhla province. The study found that at present there were 4 types of household labors

in the rubber production system that were husband and wife labors, children labors,

relatives labors, and elderly labors with more complicate of using household labors

according to the development of rubber of the country. For working activities, the study

found that each type of household labor had worked with different activities which the

abilities and working quantities of household in the rubber producing activities turned

around with the rubber owning areas. For knowledge and capability, the study found that

children labors had the lowest level of knowledge and capability of working in rubber

production system when compared with other types of household labors. Indicators

influent on the decision of choosing to use or not to use household labors in working of

rubber production were skills and experiences in rubber plantation working, lacking

amount of household labors, rate of wage and conditions of hiring with the size of owning

area with the capability of labors, impacts of changing situation of economy, society,

environment, policy of government and politics, and intensive use of tapping system to

increase family earnings under the circumstance of high rubber price. The study suggested

some guidelines to increase the efficiency of working of household labors such as

developing and improving of skill, knowledge, and capability of household labors in

rubber working. Government should have plans and policies for labors in the sector of

agriculture for the improvement of skill and expertise with the supporting of using

appropriate technologies for rubber plantation and giving households with knowledge

related to good management of plantation.

Keywords: household labor, smallholding rubber, rubber labor, traditional rubber area


23

Resources Utility and Opinion of Stakeholders on Coastal Resource Values

for Ecotourism of Lipeh Island, The South of Thailand

Chadarat Boonchan*, Buncha Somboonsuke,

Sayan Sdoodee and Parichart Visuthismajarn



Lipeh Island is one of the islands under the domain of Tarutao National Park. The

resources on the island include coral reefs, marine lives, sea, beach and cultural resource.

The increasing number of tourists on Lipeh Island is a main reason of resource changes

during the past 4-5 years. Furthermore, local people lack of knowledge and understanding

to boost their awareness and the right attitude to habitually practice for their suitable

subsistence with their conscious minds attached to nature and avoiding being overly

harmful of nature. The objectives of this research are to study in resources utility and

comparison of the different in opinion on coastal resource values among local people,

government and entrepreneur. The methodology is used both quantitative and qualitative

method with the tools of semi-structured interview form and structured interview form.

The result was found that currently the resources for tourism are not appropriate used and

management that caused of many problems such as the land being exploited, not

appropriate plan and policy for resources conservation, lack of local people participation,

deficient water during tourism season, overfilling garbage, And also, there was founded

that the occupation and livelihood of local people change from fishery occupation to

tourism occupation such as boat riders or tour guides. For the opinion of Stakeholders on

Coastal Resource Values for Ecotourism, there were different opinions among local people,

government and entrepreneur in the issues of scenes value, land value, and community

value, respectively that were statistically significant difference (p ≤ 0.05). For the main

recommendation, tourism stakeholders should be set appropriate plan for coastal resources

conservation, and suitable participation activity for resources used sustainability in the

future.

Keywords: opinion, coastal resource, ecotourism


24

Consumers’ Preferences on Pork in Phnom Penh, Cambodia

Chim Chay*, Mom Seng and Chakriya Norng

* Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia


The objective of this research is: to identify the most important characteristics of fresh

pork which determine consumer preference. A semi structure questionnaire was used to

interview the consumers’ preference and use of pork in the Phnom Penh markets with 120

respondents. The result showed that the pork varieties were frequency eating according to

types of food and bought every day. A flavor of pork is most important reason for

consumer preference. On the other hand, all parts of pork meat were utilized for cooking

such as fried soup, the consumers preferred pork loin, ham, shoulder, belly, and internal

organ. Moreover, pork belly utilized for Prohoc cheumchram. The consumptions used the

pork ham, shoulder and pork spareribs for roast or fried food. The pork backbone, shoulder,

and pork legs were most popular for making soup with vegetables. Pork internal organ was

preferred for boiled and eat with salad with sauce, and pork head was used for offer food to

the respective spirits. Anyway, all parts of pork meat were consumed but the most

preference is pork ham, pork spareribs and pork shoulder. In conclusion, the types of pork

were often eaten according to food types such as fried, roast, and soup. Further research

should be conducted to examine the consumer perspective toward safety pork storage.

Keywords: consumer, preference, pork meat


25

Uplifting the Indigenous People of Jharkhand (India) - Using Microfinance

Hari Shankar Gupta*, Lalbikat Lunga Khiangte and Debajyoti Kundu

* Jharkhand Tribal Development Society, India


Jharkhand Tribal Development Program (JTDP) is an innovative livelihood and

Tribal Development Program, implemented in Jharkhand with support of IFAD. The

project has so far covered 36000 households of 330 tribal dominated villages, in five

districts of Jharkhand in between 2002-2012. To ensure financial inclusion, program has

been able to encourage micro credit/saving groups (popularly called Self Help Groups or

SHG). This initiative is also gaining importance as an alternative tool for social and

economic empowerment of rural tribal’s and SHGs have also been able to ensure

economic independence through successful income generation activities. The paper

attempts to analyze the social and economic empowerment of the beneficiaries, achieved

through different interventions of microfinance by JTDP (done through participatory

survey method in 38 SHGs, chosen randomly). SHGs formed under project has been

linked to alternate livelihood opportunities by providing different trainings, ranging from

group management to income generating activities etc. Thrift habit and credit access has

helped tribal people to avoid moneylenders. Seed capital assistance (One time grant) of

Rs. 10000/- from JTDS has helped villager to enhance corpus for meeting the growing

credit needs. “Improved livelihood” concept has helped to bring significant changes in

the lives of poor tribal women, who have taken up many micro entrepreneurial activities

like livestock rearing, agro-based trading, collecting non-timber forest produce, running

grocery shop etc, thus improving their agriculture based livelihood. Contribution of

women in financial well being of family has raised their stature, leading to empowerment.

Nuanced discussion of gender in groups has helped them to assert their position in

society. Regular loan rotation and repayment has resulted in financial sustainability of

SHGs. Percentage of consumption loan (56%) compared to production loan (44%), has

also reduced. Overall SHGs have emerged as a vehicle for alternative development by

bringing socio-economic revolution, leveraging microfinance.

Keywords: microfinance, self help group, tribal, empowerment, livelihood


26

Local Livelihoods and the Tourism Value Chain: A Case Study in

Siem Reap-Angkor Region, Cambodia

Nara Mao*, Terry Delacy, Helena Grunfeld, David Chandler and Peter Sheehan

* Victoria University, Australia


Tourism, which has grown significantly in the Siem Reap-Angkor Region, has had

significant impacts on the livelihoods of local residents. In this paper we present an

overview of the Tourism Value Chain (TVC) in the region and examine the involvement of

local people in each TVC component. A qualitative approach, incorporating observations

and semi-structured interviews, was applied in this study. Secondary data was collected

from the Siem Reap provincial tourism department. The results revealed that although

tourism has provided more jobs and business opportunities to locals, their earnings have

been consistently low. It is difficult for the poor to access tourism jobs and start up tourism

related businesses because of lack of financial resources, lack of small business knowledge,

inability to use foreign languages and low education levels. A lack of knowledge to

diversify products, a lack of information about market needs and a lack of capital to

purchase production tools, machinery and raw materials are the main constraints facing

local artisans to improve their livelihoods. Poor soil fertility, small agricultural

landholdings, low agricultural technological know-how, poor extension services, lack of

market information, inability to compete with imported products and poor connection

between tourism industry and local peasants also prevent the poor farmers from gaining

economic benefits from tourism.

Keywords: livelihoods, constraints, tourism value chain, agriculture


27

Desire Best Case Scenario and Qualitative Development Guideline

of Communities Microfinance Institutes for Rural Development

Phassakon Nuntapanich*

* Ubonratchathani Rajabhat University, Thailand


This participatory action research (PAR) had objective to find out the desire best case

scenario and qualitative development guideline of communities microfinance institutes.

The main approaches of this research were participatory meeting and brain storming

activities among the representatives of stakeholders. The results found that the goal of

development of normal communities microfinance institutes to be desire communities

microfinance institutes which the members of meeting and brain storming activities

showed point of view as 5 dimensions as 1) microfinance institute 2) law and regulation 3)

socio-economic 4) instruction or learning and 5) environment dimensions. The goal of

development with 5 dimensions could lead to define the desire best case scenario

microfinance institutes and could decide the duration of development of microfinance

institutes of communities as 3 phases which specified the goal and indicators of each phase.

The results of this research could show the guideline for qualitative development of normal

microfinance institutes to be desire communities microfinance institutes in the future for

the tool of rural development.

Keywords: desire best case scenario, qualitative development guideline, communities

microfinance institutes, rural development, Thailand


28

Social Economic of Small-scale Dairy Holder in Koh Krabey Village,

Phnom Penh, Cambodia

Pisey Vong*, Noch Nam, Kouch Theng and Mom Seng



Small holder dairy production is considered as a good source of regular income for

household in developing countries. In Cambodia, there several farmer in Koh Krabey

Village, hold dairy cattle. The study was conducted to understand the history of the dairy

cattle practice in the area and current situation of small holder dairy farmers. The data were

collected by interviewing key informants and dairy holder farmers using semi-structure

questionnaires. Since many years ago, farmers in Koh Krabey Village raise cattle for multi

purposes; draft and milk. Draft was the main purpose at the time. In 1998, Nestlé Company

ran a project, Good Will Project, was to promote dairy farming in the mentioned area. The

dairy semen was imported by the company to do artificial insemination to local cow, and

expected to have female calf used for dairy cow purpose. The company project ended in

2005. Then other non-government organization and other collaboration came in to provide

support forming group and facilitate for imported semen. As a result in February 2006, the

Dairy Cow Raising Association of Cambodia (DRAC) was named and legally issued by

the Ministry of Interior (Cambodia). There were 8 dairy farmers raising 51 cattle included

32 crossbred dairy. Raising dairy cows were primary jobs for the farmers. However, they

also had other jobs such as crop farming, grocery seller, and services providers. In average,

a cow produced 6-7 kg per day for crossbred. Milk was transported to users by middlemen

immediately after milking. Economic analysis for cased farmer, family earned a profit of

574.6$/ head/year (for a crossbred milking cow) without reduction of labor cost and

depreciation of the cows. From the respondents and observation, there is needed to support

for knowledge, infrastructure and market arrangement.

Keywords: dairy cattle, smallholder, Cambodia


29

Participatory Appraisal of Basic Need Deprivation

among Rural Dwellers in Borno State, Nigeria

Rafiu Olalekan Yusuf *

* Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria


Basic needs are materials and benefits rural dwellers obtain by utilizing environmental

resource base and public infrastructural provisioning. Inadequacy from these sources

results in deprivation among rural people which in most cases, rapid rural appraisal and

other traditional survey methods rarely adequately capture. This paper employs therefore

employs participatory rural appraisal (PRA) techniques to analyse these phenomena in

Borno state. The objectives are to (i) determine the seasonality of basic needs deprivation,

(ii) analyse the triggers of need deprivation, and, (iii) assess the coping strategies for

deprivation. PRA techniques employed are Seasonal Calendar and Force Field Analysis

and 300 systematically selected participants from 9 local government areas were the study

frame. The findings are that basic need deprivation is an outcome of environmental

scarcities, resource capture, and failure of socioeconomic infrastructure. Episodic drought,

flood, and conflict over resources triggers loss of farm harvest and livestock hence food,

income and other needs there from. Ravage to infrastructure and inadequate health care

and other facilities aggravate the situation. According to seasonal calendar, the cold dry

and hot dry seasons are intense with deprivation. The coping strategies include wild food

foraging, migratory fishing and praying to God. Force field analysis reveals that

deprivation experienced by rural dwellers outweighs the coping strategies which lead to the

conclusion that basic needs satisfaction among the studied rural dwellers in Borno state is

below societal expectations. Recommendation for improvement were proffered.

Keywords: basic needs, rural deprivation, seasonal calendar, force field analysis,

participatory rural appraisal, Borno state


30

Using Cassava Flour in Making Cookie

Sarin Neang*, Vitou Orng, Sarom Men, Vouchsim Kong and Borarin Buntong



Cookie is a kind of food product made from flour and other ingredients such as butter,

egg, sugar, milk, and baking soda. This research was conducted to find the optimum

temperature and the amount of cassava flour in cookie production. The experiment was

divided into nine treatments with three replications, different temperature included 160 °C,

170 °C ; 180 °C and 50 %, 75 %; 100 % of cassava flour. The processing and testing

sensory were conducted in the food processing laboratory of the Faculty of Agro-Industry,

Royal University of Agriculture (RUA) while the analysis of chemicals was tested in the

Industrial Laboratory Centre of Cambodia (ILCC). The results shown that using 50 %,

75 % and 100 % of cassava flour at the temperature of 160 °C, 170 °C and 180 °C affected

the chemicals properties of cookie product such as ash, moisture, protein, fat, sugar,

carbohydrate, and energy. Also, they affected the color, texture, odor, and flavor and crisp,

which were related to consumers’ favorites. The second treatment used 50 % of cassava

flour at the temperature of 170 °C was the best treatment followed by putting the

percentage of ingredient of the treatment because it had high quality of chemicals and high

scores of sensory test; whereas, the ninth treatment used 100 % of cassava flour at the

temperature of 180 °C had the lowest quality. Therefore, 50 % of cassava flour backed at

the temperature of 170 °C for 8 minutes should be recommended and used in cookie

production.

Keywords: processing, temperature, sensory test, chemicals


31

Participatory Approach to Deploy E-Commerce Application System

among Rural Farmers in S’Ang and Kien Svay

Districts of Cambodia

Che Asma Noor Akma Ma’aroff*, Shanmuga Vivekananda Nadarajan and Dyna Theng

* Malaysian Institute of Information Technology, Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia


Cambodia has seen impressive growth in its economy and agricultural productivity and

moves towards becoming a middle-income country in the Asia-Pacific region. However,

the unsustainable situation of traditional agriculture system contributes to low income

capability and farmers are likely to remain below the poverty line. Therefore, a

comprehensive e-commerce application system is being put forward. This creative leverage

of ICT-driven solution could offer farmers up-to-date information, customized knowledge,

input and services to enhance productivity and farm gate realization. There are evidences

that ICT have transformed the lives of rural communities in similar conditions especially in

some part of Asia and Africa. The main objective of the study is to identify the

methodology to measure the success factors of implementing the e-commerce application

in rural agricultural sector using Participatory Approach. There are many participatory

approach which focuses on implementation of ICT application system such as the classic

methodology of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and more precise approach of

Participatory Information and Communication Technology Development (PICTD). The

various approaches in PICTD such as participatory communication and participatory

learning and action research for participation and sharing of knowledge to develop ICTs

including multimedia and social media by acknowledging farmers will lead to

socio-economic development and empowerment of rural communities. This paper

discusses how digital ICT developed by means of participatory learning and action can

stimulate the development and eliminate poverty by providing services to farmers in rural

areas. The study is being conducted in ten villages comprising of over 100 farmers in two

major agricultural districts in the province of Kandal, which are Kien Svay and S’ang. The

majority of the farmers here cultivate vegetables and short terms crops such as corn, peanut

and cassava.

Keywords: participatory approach, e-commerce application, rural farmers


32

The Market Chain for Cattle and Beef from Pursat and Kampong

Cham Provinces into Phnom Penh and Southern Vietnam

Socheat Sieng*, Sok Muniroth, Ian Patrick and Jim Kerr



Smallholder farmers who own cattle in Cambodia have limited access to domestic and

export markets which are increasingly demanding high and consistent quantity and quality

beef. Market access is constrained by a number of factors including growing requirements

for local and international biosecurity, lack of market information and lack of capability to

produce the required quality and quantity of product. A new Australian Centre for

International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) has just commenced in Cambodia. This

project aims to assist smallholder cattle producers in Pursat and Kampong Cham Provinces

take advantage of recent improvements in biosecurity practices, feeding technologies and

increasing demand for beef in Phnom Penh and Southern Vietnam. It aims to develop a

market chain that rewards stakeholders for producing and facilitating a product

increasingly demanded by consumers in these urban markets. This paper outlines the first

steps in this process; a description of the market chain for cattle and beef into the Phnom

Penh and southern Vietnam markets and; an introduction to the transaction costs involved

in the supply of this product from farm to supermarket. Data has been collected through

focus groups, formal surveys and informal interviews involving all stakeholders in the

market chain. The paper describes the present roles of the various stakeholders and

provides some insights into the social, institutional and economic incentives that have led

to the present market structure.

Keywords: market chain, cattle, Cambodia, economic incentives


33

Economic Efficiency of Integrated Farming System and Rural

Livelihood in Samrong District

Sokunthea Toch*, Reth Por, Sinath Pov and Vattana Thon



Rice production is a main source of rural livelihood both for domestic use and profit,

but rural people live dependently on more farming systems for their living survival.

Integrated farming system has been practiced by farmer for long time ago, but most of

them did not know about the real benefit of this system. One study was conducted to

understand clearly about the economic efficiency of this system on rural livelihood and

compared to the single rice production of farmer in CEDAC project, Samrong district. To

get the result of the study, some methods have been conducted such as in-depth interview

with farmers, semi-structure interview with key informants, economics analysis

formulation and some PRA tools. Farmers hold small land, less than one hectare and over

fifty percents used labor in family for their production. Farmers were selected for in-depth

interview are sixty eight households with both project farmers and outside project farmers.

Farmers within the project, 65% were improved their income through the new technique,

integrated farming system, and contributed to reduce cash expenses of the production by

in-kind resources, 47% of total expense. If compare single rice production and integrated

farming system, this study showed that integrated farming system provided double

economic efficiency with 5.7 and 2.4 for single rice production. In conclusion, integrated

farming system is not new technique of farmers, and they used it many years ago. Farmers

can gain more benefit from this system by apply it appropriately and support each of

productions in small land holding of farmers and low land’s quality. In addition, this

system reduces total expenses of the whole production by in-kind resources and provides

high economic efficiency.

Keywords: economic efficiency, integrated farming system, rural livelihood


34

Prolonged Self-life of Cucumber with Low Cost Storage Method

Songhak Phal*, Thida Kem, Vouch Sim Kong and Borarin Buntong



Cucumbers, harvested from a farm at Sa-ang District, Kandal province, Cambodia were

wrapped with low density polyethylene (LDPE) or high density polyethylene (HDPE) or in

the open before they were stored in two types of storage conditions (evaporative cooling

system, ESC, designed in the faculty of agro-industry, royal university of agriculture and in

ice foam box which filling with a known amount of ice for cooling the cucumbers) or in

ambient in order to seek for appropriate and low cost methods to maintain the quality and

enhance self-life of cucumbers. The unacceptable quality or the shelf life of cucumbers were

determined based on weight losses, fruit shriveling, changes in color, titratable acidity (TA)

and total soluble solids (TSS). Of the storage treatments, keeping fruit in both type of

polypropylene film in ice foam box filling with ice was the most effective in reducing weight

loss, maintained higher TA, TSS and the color changes as well as retarding fruit shriveling

than that of the other treatments. Fruit stored in the open at ambient had the highest weight

loss and shortest shelf life due to rapid yellowing and shriveling. Regarding the cost of

storage, ice foam box was significantly reasonable accepted in term of gaining better quality

(benefit) comparison to the higher weight losses and unmarketable quality of other

treatments.

Keywords: cucumber, self-life, quality, evaporating cooling system, ice foam box,

polyethylene


35

The Effectiveness of Alternative Power Sources Utilization

in Kandal Province

Sovatna Phon*, Sopheap Ek, Vary Vun and Vichar Chhom



Limitation on public electrical supplies, 84 percent of Cambodian rural people accepted

private power with even high price consumption. However, the private sector did not meet

the great demand of people because of old and small capacity of power supplies. The

insufficient and high power price made people additionally accept other alternative power

sources unintentionally. At this glance, the survey looked through the better way to

economically choose the power generation of the rural people. Partially, researcher would

find out the sources of electrical supply, the situation of electrical use and daily needs, and

economical effectiveness among all power sources. A 100 randomly sampling selected

from three communes in Kandal Province including key informants, village-commune

heads, batteries-charge providers and grid supplier were interviewed. Furthermore,

Mukkampaul Hall, Ministry of Industry, Mine and Power, and Ministry of Planning were

involved. It was inferred that many additional alternative sources were accepted such as

batteries, self-generator, and solar power resulted from shortage and high price of private

power supply. Among these, batteries was the most consumption for electrical tools up to

55 percent followed by grid power, solar power and self-generator up to 28 percent, 9

percent and 8 percent respectively. Such kinds of power supplies did meet the daily great

demand of rural people. Statistically, they used 34 percent of lamp, 32 percent of TV, 12

percent of radio, 10 percent of fan, 5 percent of loud speaker, 4 percent of VCD player, and

3 percent of iron. Nevertheless, these demands did not satisfy them in the near future as

they needed to doubly increase. Though, in order to economically use the daily electricity,

the researcher recommended to access to electrical grid followed by solar power, own

generator and batteries. For the remote areas, solar power was the best choice.

Keywords: electrical sources, electrical receiving tools, economical


36

The Effectiveness of Vegetable Production on Farmer Livelihood in

Wat Chas Village, Kompong Cham Province

Thira Pinn*



Kampong Cham was famous by its soil fertility. Wat Chas is the village where located

it Prey Chhor District, Kampong Cham Province. In this village, vegetable production was

the important activities represent source of income for many households and a vital

economic link to food markets. Surveys were undertaken to analyze the livelihood asset of

the farmers, and find out the potential and constraint on vegetable production. The Data

was collected by interviewing 68 households by using structured questionnaires and

another eight households to conducted focus group discussion. According to the survey,

villagers of Wat Chas have good relationship among others and most of them trust each

other and cooperate to solve problems. They also supported by several non-government

organizations such as ERECON, CEDAC and IPM. Those NGOs worked on training

vegetable production technique, compost creation, and also established saving group for

villager. Furthermore, in term of agriculture, most of the farmers had rice field. Besides,

farmers also have livestock such as cattle, pig, chicken, and duck; however, there was very

low income from livestock. For the income of the farmers mainly get from vegetable and

rice production then follow by self-employment, running own business, and remittance.

Those farmers who growing vegetable were having some potentials such as enough land

size, high fertility of soil, enough water resource, good accessibility go the market, non-tax

for agricultural land, government policy support agricultural sector, available loan from

micro finance, middleman directly to the village, market need, and supported by NGOs. In

contrast, there were also some constraints such as lacking of labor, high production input,

insects, and irregular of price production. In conclusion, vegetable production plays a very

important role for farmer livelihood, even though there were some constraints, but most of

farmers could deal with those problems.

Keywords: livelihood asset, vegetable production, potentials and constrains,

Wat Chas Village, Kompong Cham Province


37

Subsistence Farmer’s Livelihoods - A Case Study in Konteur 1 Commune,

Banan District, Battambang Province

Tun Toseta*, Prakad Meng, Nara Mao and Bunhor Leng

* University of Battambang, Cambodia


This paper centers on livelihood assets of subsistence farmers who are living in

KonTeur1 Commune, Banan District, Battambang Province. Data was collected via survey

and 50 farmers were interviewed; group discussions were also conducted with 15 key

informants. The results of the study revealed that the main source of farmer income was

rice cultivation (Financial Capital). Farmers also follow diversified livelihood strategies

which include both on and off-farm activities. There was poor human capital, especially,

the education level of farmers (32% were illiterate and 54% finished only primary school).

Poor infrastructure (poor roads during rainy season) was the difficulties for farmer to

access markets or their farm (Physical Capital). The other livelihood asset is natural capital,

farmland holdings. There was a lack of agricultural support services like training, not

enough agricultural information (Social Capital).The main problems and constraints faced

by farmers were uncertain rainfall, infertile soil, crop diseases, pests and weeds, price

fluctuation, high cost of chemical fertilizer, inadequate technical knowledge, improper use

of fertilizer and herbicide, lack of proper varieties. Those problems and constraints affected

subsistence farmer’s livelihood. Therefore, the need to enhance formal education, provide

physical infrastructure, improve support services and strengthen social capital, are the four

points of an appropriate strategies for subsistence farming in the study area.

Keywords: subsistence farmer, livelihood assets, constraints, strategies


38

Evaluation of Improving People’s Quality of Life Project in Thailand

Wanchai Dhammasaccakarn* and Angkana Dhammasajjakan



Thailand is the developing country that has problem in income distribution. Mainly,

poverty people are agricultural career in rural and labor in town. Government has tried to

set the project of improving people’s quality of life for improving and solving problem of

the people’s quality of life by themselves. In study of evaluation this project, we separate

people in three groups as first leader in community second new generation and third staff

in organization that concern community project. And also, this evaluate project is used

methodology of CIPP Model together with Balanced Score Cards (BSC) Objective were

measured of output outcome and impact of this project on three groups’ quality of life. The

analysis is used the mixed methods with both quality and quantity instrument, respectively.

The result of study was revealed that people who participated in this project can develop

themselves by used sufficient economy philosophy for living and more knowledge about

social mind. The leader and new generation can improve the knowledge, attitude and skill

in living by themselves. And also, they appreciate to be member of group in community.

For evaluation of project’s impact, there were founded that this project is directly positive

impact to quality of life of people in rural community as people are more talk together,

more exchange information, cooperation and help to solve their problem, more powerful to

bargaining, more mutual learning, and more participate in government project, respectively,

However, the negatives impact was some leaders used more politic for their benefit.

Keywords: self-management, CIPP model, Balanced Score Cards, human resource


39

Integrating Plant Genetic Resources Conversion and Management into a

State University’s Mandates: BISU’s Initiative for Sustainable Development

Marina A. Labonite*

* Bohol Island State University, Philippines


Plant genetic resources (PGR) are plant materials of actual or potential value for the

present and future generations (Borromeo, 2007). Its conservation, management and

sustainable utilization are important in environmental protection, crop improvement and

food security. In the Philippines, the National Plant Genetic Resources Laboratory, ensures

a number of accessions of crops species are secure and accessible. (Hautea, 1998);

Philippine Coconut Authority, Davao National Crop Research and Development Center,

Bureau of Plant Industry (Bautista, 1994); and International Rice Genebank Collection

(IRRI, 2012) also maintain germplasm collections. Foregoing institutions are

non-academic. Hence, Bohol Island State University (BISU) in Bohol, Philippines with

South-East Asia Regional Initiative for Community Empowerment (SEARICE) worked on

PGR conservation through Farmers Field School (FSS) and Agriculture Curriculum

Enrichment (ACE) Projects purposely to mainstream the principles of sustainable

agriculture and development through conservation, development and utilization of PGR in

the communities. Participatory basic needs assessment; FFS curriculum formulation; ACE

following protocol and networking with Local Government Units, Department of

Agriculture line agencies, non-government and peoples’ organization were employed. As a

result, 16 FFS were conducted while ACE project successfully integrated Plant Genetic

Resources Conservation and Management (PGRCM) into the two Agriculture curricular

programs of BISU. Seventy-five students passed the PGRCM course who also graduated

from FFS with 290 farmers, five faculty-trainers and nine agricultural technician-trainers

with skills in participatory varietal trials, selection and plant breeding that raised rice

diversity in villages by 25-33 percent, produced three stable rice accessions, 25 selections

and 18 breeding lines at F3 today apart from a number of bonus accomplishments. These

developments are realities justifying that PGRCM can be successfully integrated into a

state university’s mandates: instruction, research, extension and production and be

capitalized as valuable initiative for sustainable development in the communities which the

academe serves.

Keywords: plant genetic resources (PGR), conservation and management, mandate,

farmers field school (FFS), state university, sustainable development


40

Characteristics of an Agricultural Innovation and Incentives

for Adoption: Rhizobium in Cambodia

Robert J. Farquharson*, Robert J. Martin, Bruce McCorkell, J. Fiona Scott,

El Sotheary, Chan Phaloeun, Heng Sophors, Srey Sinath,

Cheach Monyda, Svay Sinarong and Bo Sokun

* Melbourne School of Land & Environment, The University of Melbourne, Australia


In this paper we considered whether the processes of farm-level change and adoption

of new technologies in Cambodia can be related to the adoptability characteristics of a

technology. The literature posits that technologies can be assessed in terms of Relative

Advantage, Compatibility, Complexity, Trialability and Observability. Other socio-econo

mic factors may also be important in the adoption process. We tested this proposition

among commercial upland farmers in north-west Cambodia for rhizobium inoculation of

legume seeds to increase crop yields. The objective of this technology is to increase farm

income and, so, reduce poverty and improve food security. We surveyed farmers who have

been involved in a project testing and demonstrating rhizobium inoculation and statistically

analyzed the results. We found that, with respect to their rhizobium-adoption intentions,

Relative Advantage (incentive) is the predominant characteristic, with Observability also

being important. Other socio-economic characteristics in their adoption intentions included

whether they grew legumes, the period since the technology was introduced, the source of

first contact, and the size of farm. Farmer gender was a less-significant factor. The Relative

Advantage characteristic was confirmed by separate economic analyses of the likely return

on investment for rhizobium in the upland farming system context. Using this approach of

assessing adoptability characteristics provides a means of developing and screening

technologies prior to release rather than trying to adapt ill-suited (in terms of these

characteristics) technologies in a particular context.

Keywords: new technology, adoptability, relative advantage, rhizobium, Cambodia


41

Farmers’ Awareness and Factors Affecting Farmers’ Acceptance

to Grow Straw Mushroom in Mekong Delta, Vietnam

and Central Luzon, Philippines

Thi Thanh Truc Ngo*, Zenaida M. Sumalde, Florencia G. Palis and Reiner Wassmann

* Can Tho University, Vietnam


The study aimed to determine the current practices of rice straw uses, to describe

farmers’ awareness and perception about using rice straw to produce straw mushroom, to

determine factors affecting farmers’ acceptance to use this technology, and identify the

enablers and constraints to adopt straw mushroom growing. To achieve these objectives, a

survey of 417 respondents and focus group discussions were conducted in four villages in

Mekong Delta, Vietnam and Central Luzon, Philippines. Interviews of current adopters and

key informants of straw mushroom production were also done at those two study sites. The

survey showed that the majority of rice straw uses in Mekong Delta, Vietnam and Central

Luzon, Philippines was burned. In Mekong Delta, a small percentage of rice straw was use

to grow mushroom, left in the field and used to feed cattle while rice straw in the Central

Luzon was left in the field, used as feed for cattle and for mulching. The study found that

farmers have good knowledge of this subject even low percentage of adopters. Using the

Logit model, the significant factors affecting the acceptability of the straw mushroom

production in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam include household income and household size

while in Central Luzon, Philippines household income, farm size and willingness to attend

additional trainings related to straw mushroom production were the significant factors. On

the other hand, the key informants and straw mushroom growers identified the

requirements to enhance farmers adoption of straw mushroom culture such as: 1) good

quality of mushroom spore, 2) mushroom production site, 3) supply a whole-year

production cycle (if mass production), 4) techniques to grow mushroom, 5) available labor,

6) knowledge in pre-processing mushroom in case farmers are unable to sell fresh

mushrooms, and 7) mushroom marketing.

Keywords: rice straw, rice straw burning, straw mushroom, Volvariella volvacea,

Mekong Delta, Central Luzon


42

Environmental Education through Eri-culture for Reducing Amounts of

Chemical Pesticide Applied in Greater Phnom Penh of Cambodia

Kumiko Kawabe*, Machito Mihara and Keishiro Itagaki

* Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture


Cambodia is located in Southeastern Asia with more than 70 % of population is living

in rural areas and engaged in agriculture and related sectors. Agriculture is the most

important for the country, and the government focuses on increasing productivity to meet

the international market demand. However, farmers are usually less educated and have

difficulties to increase knowledge of agriculture. Farmers apply agricultural chemicals with

low knowledge to increase yields that causes various problems. Statistical data shows

literacy rate of Cambodia from 2005 to 2009 is only 78% for over age of 15 years old and

the rate in rural areas is much worse than the city. Education for All (EFA) aims to provide

quality basic education for everyone. Although education is one of the fundamental factors

for the country to be developed, daily life security is more significant for local people. This

paper deals with environmental education through eri-culture for reducing amount of

chemical pesticide taking into account the perspective of EFA and ESD. The first survey in

March 2011 for evaluating the potential of local farmers to reduce chemical pesticide

through eri-culture, the results showed that expected percentage of chemical pesticide to be

reduced for eri silk-raising farmers was remarkably higher than the other farmers. In the

next stage research interests have been focused on how much amounts of chemical

pesticide local farmers succeeded to reduce. So, this study dealt with the evaluation of the

amounts of chemical pesticide reduced through eri-culture in Kampong Cham province.

The results showed that 35% of eri silk-raising farmers reduced the amounts of chemical

pesticide to 80 to 100%, 44% of eri silk-raising farmers reduced to 60 to 80% while only

4% reduced to 0-20%. Consequently, eri silk-raising farmers succeeded to reduce the

amounts of chemical pesticide use, and eri-culture has educational function to increase the

environmental awareness to local farmers, especially, in terms of reducing chemical

pesticide use.

Keywords: eri-culture, sustainable rural development, EFA, ESD,

environmental awareness


43

Biosecurity Education for Livestock Traders to Reduce the Spread of

Animal Diseases in Laos and Cambodia

James Kerr*, Malcolm Anderson, Phouth Inthavong, Kate Blaszak,

Axelle Scoizec and Socheat Sieng



When designing ACIAR Project AH/2006/025: Understanding livestock movement and

the risk of spread of transboundary animal diseases, the project partners recognised that

regulation alone had limited potential for controlling transboundary diseases in the Greater

Mekong Sub-region (GMS). Consequently, the project aimed to investigate novel

non-regulatory methods of reducing the disease risk associated with livestock movements.

Throughout 2008 and 2009 the project conducted meetings and interviews with livestock

traders throughout Cambodia and Laos. This research identified a number of trading

practices that carried a high risk of spreading disease, but also suggested that many traders

were keen to receive education about prevention of disease spread. Consequently, early in

2010 the project began the development and trial of educational materials aimed at

improving the biosecurity practised by livestock traders in these two countries. Traders

requested that information about prevention of animal diseases be presented in a colour

booklet with plenty of pictures and a minimum of text. In order to extend the audience to

include those with limited literacy, a digital story was produced in addition to the booklet.

Digital stories deliver their message by spoken word commentary accompanying video or

DVD images. This technology represented a cheap and accessible source of information

which could be distributed throughout Laos and Cambodia. English and Lao versions of

the booklet and digital story were trialed in 2010 and further refined in 2011. The disease

prevention message was distilled into a simple ‘5-step’ approach to biosecurity for traders

to routinely apply on all buying trips. This simple ‘5-step’ message also proved suitable to

feature on public awareness posters. Khmer-language versions of all these materials were

created for Cambodia, and local language versions may later be produced for regional

areas of Laos and Cambodia.

Keywords: biosecurity education, non-regulatory, disease control, livestock traders,

5-step message


44

e-Learning Solution on Good Agricultural Practices for Students of

Higher Learning in Cambodia (Focus: Vegetables)

Aruna Rajendram*, Shanmuga Vivekanada Nadarajan, Dahlan Abdul Ghani,

Ahmad Fahmi Mohamad and Lytour Lor

* Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia


Food security is one of the critical development issues faced by several developing

countries. One avenue of yielding quality crops is by ensuring good agricultural practices

are followed throughout the entire farming cycle. This research focuses on educating

students of higher learning on good agricultural practices associated with growing

vegetables. Research target are students who are currently pursuing tertiary education in

the field of agronomy and agroindustry, as it is expected that upon graduation, they will

represent the frontlines of various agricultural concerns. As such, students form the basis

for sustainable education as they can replicate knowledge gained and impact farmers on

good agricultural practices through proper education, as well as enforcement. For the

purpose of this research, students from Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia are

identified as participants. The electronic learning method (e-learning) is deployed to

expose students to new mechanisms of teaching and learning, as well as to encourage

students to be more active in independent studying. As teaching material, interactive

multimedia videos canvassing the general farming guidelines, production and post harvest

practices pertaining to the cultivation of vegetables are produced and distributed to

students through workshops. A web portal is also developed to form an online community

of students and promote interaction through forums, live chats, news updates and social

networking platforms.

Keywords: good agricultural practices, e-learning, sustainable education,

growing vegetables


45

Female Entrepreneurship: A Case Study of Facilitators and

Constraints Faced by University Graduates in Cambodia

Sivchou Teng*, Marylouise Caldwell and Paul Henry

* University of Battambang, Cambodia


Substantive research suggests that female entrepreneurs play a vital role in propelling

economic development in developing countries. Despite this situation, there is very little is

known about female graduates and the factors that impact the likelihood of their becoming

entrepreneurs or not. Female graduates represent a relatively new and noteworthy cohort in

developing countries, because they are likely to be better equipped to take on leadership

roles in industry due to their extensive exposure to critical thinking skills and business

related knowledge as part of their university education. This research attempts by

investigating the facilitators and barriers encountered by female graduates in Cambodia

when they are considering employment as entrepreneurs or otherwise. Due to a lack of

existing theory, the research adopted an exploratory approach. In-depth interviews were

conducted with sixteen informants, all whom had graduated from University of

Battambang. The pre-interview screening questions were used to categorize informants

into four groups along two possible dimensions: i) currently works as an entrepreneur or

not, and ii) hoped to be an entrepreneur upon leaving university or not. Several strategies

were employed in analyzing the data including conducting cross–cases analysis and

choosing quotations by informants to personalize the meanings behind each theme. The

findings suggest that numerous factors impact the likelihood that a female graduate will

become an entrepreneur or not. These factors include psychological factors (self-concept

and lifestyle sought), social factors (family supports and opportunities to work in family

business), access to finance, job satisfaction post-graduation, and other life situation factors.

Moreover, the results suggest that becoming an entrepreneur had a closely relationship

with the previous life history of those female graduates, including their family conditions

(business success and material condition) and transmission of parental values into life

expectations and career goals. Life history resulted in different attitudes to formal

education, confidence, ambition, risk proneness, self/other focus, and lifestyle preferences.

Keywords: female graduates, entrepreneurship, entrepreneur, facilitators, constraints


46

Assessment of Awareness of Organic Fertilizer Application

for Crop Production in Kampong Cham of Cambodia

Lalita Siriwattananon* and Machito Mihara



In the rural areas of Cambodia, more than 70% of the total population is engaged in the

agricultural sector, which is one of the important sectors of the Cambodian national

economy. Rapid development of agricultural technologies depending on agricultural

chemicals such as synthetic fertilizers, herbicide or pesticide has significantly increased

agricultural production since 1990 (MAFF, 2009). However, the overuse of agricultural

chemicals is damaging the long-term soil fertility and productivity of farmlands. Also,

agricultural chemicals released from farmlands to downstream cause the degradation of

water environment. So, attention has been paid to promote the sustainable farming

practices through organic fertilizer application for crop production. The traditional

management practices of rice and vegetable cultivations were identified. Various workshop

and training were conducted to promote the organic fertilizer application. In addition, the

farmers’ awareness and the change of agriculture practices were evaluated.

Keywords: organic fertilizer, crop production, farmers’ awareness


47

Women Roles in Fisheries Governance in Ban Laem,

Phetchaburi Province, Thailand

Daracha Thiammueang*, Kungwan Juntarashote and Ratana Chuenpagdee

* Maejo University, Thailand


In the past, men have been play key role in the way of life of small-scale fishers.

Because of their physical condition is more proper than women. Therefore, the women are

mainly participating in fish processing and marketing. At present, participation of women

in fisheries industry has increased day by day, particularly as a labor force in fisheries

production sector. In this study, women in Ban Panern, a fishing village in Laem Pak Bia

sub-district, Ban Laem district, Phetchaburi province was selected to examine the women

roles that contributing to fisheries governance. Using key informant interviews and

participant observation was carried out from August to September 2011. The results

showed that, the roles of women in this fishing village were more or less the same of

women role in the third world. These roles are classified into 3 categories, i.e., mother role,

labor in production role and community management role. Most of them have been

involved in all three categories particularly, contribution to the fishery management in their

community. They have participated in many activities that relating to public utility

development of the community. Moreover, they have established and conducted a fish

central market in the village in order to solve the unfair price of aquatic animal problem of

the fishers. These demonstrated that, women have a high potential in strengthen the

capability of fishing community in fisheries governance. The success of fisheries

governance will lead to better livelihood of fishing households and a sustainable of their

fisheries.

Keywords: women role, fisheries governance, fishery management, Phetchaburi Province


48

Development of Coastal Tourism and Land Restoration through Community

Empowerment in Ambal District Kebumen, Indonesia

Puji Astuti Astuti* and Dra Winastuti Dwi Atmanto MP

* Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia


This program is located in Sumberjati, Petangkuran, Kenonjayan and Entak Villages,

Ambal District, Kebumen. It is developed based on previous programs on Sustainable Use

of Natural Resources which have been conducted for 4 years through Student Community

Services-Community Empowerment Learning (SCS-CEL) since 2006-2009. Programs in

2006 focused on survey on location and preparation of cultivation and this involved local

community. This activity was followed by development of techniques and organization

which support the physical restoration of coastal tourism in 2007 and then establishing

inventory of resources as well community organization which is responsible for running

and maintaining the program in the following year. The activities in 2009 focused on

rehabilitation effort of coastal land and conducted intensive farming in the area. Efforts of

increasing the economic level of the community became the main targets of 2010 programs.

This was conducted through development of inventory of the local potency for tourism,

workshop, promotion, training on making souvenir from bamboo, eco-education for

children, and inventory of pine trees-cemara udang (casuarinas). Programs on 2012

focused on further development of local potency for tourism and provide training for local

community. These programs were supported by local government, Department of Forestry

and Department of Tourism Kebumen.

Keywords: SCL-CEL, local community, local potency, land restoration, rehabilitation


49

Community Fisheries Empowerment after the

Fisheries Policy Reforms in Cambodia

Khim Kaing* and John Kurien

* Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Cambodia


The fisheries sector is a major contributor to poverty reduction, employment, food

security, and national economic growth in Cambodia. Therefore, the management of

fisheries is required to develop and change overtime according to the situation, demands

and needs. To tackle the present needs, the government has decided to reform fisheries

policy, firstly in October 2000 and secondly in March 2012 by abolishing all fishing lots

and give the rights to poor users to manage, protect and develop the natural fisheries

resources sustainably through Community Fisheries (CFi) as a form of co-management. As

a result from the reforms, there are 516 CFi have been established in the whole country.

Having seen the impacts of the reforms, it raises the question of how CFi manage and

empower. To respond the about question a participatory assessment has been conducted

through 1,095 CFi members’ interviews and 120 (50% women) Focus Group Discussion

(FGD) with purposive selected 60 CFis. The main results of study about the crucial issue

of freedom and tenure rights as the key element of CFi empowerment, there are signaled

three important achievements. First, the most important feature of CFi was that it has given

the people freedom to relate to the natural resources (expressed by 98% of respondents).

Secondly, this freedom of access to resources has helped to reduce the level of poverty in

the village (expressed by 95 percent of respondents). Thirdly, the CFi was a good example

of sharing of responsibilities (resource co-management) and there have been lessons learnt

which can be shared with others (expressed by 92% of respondents).Key recommendations

and guidelines were made for brighter future CFi management and development in

Cambodia and could be the useful lessons learnt to the world for the sustainable rural

development.

Keywords: community empowerment, policy reform, freedom and tenure rights,

rural participation and development, fisheries co-management


50

Prevalence of Gastrointestinal Parasites in Dogs

Koemseang Nhuong*



The domestic dog is generally considered as a working partner and house pet. However,

dogs can be effect to livestock, wildlife and humans by variety of gastrointestinal parasites.

Thus, a cross-sectional study was conducted to determine the prevalence of gastrointestinal

parasites in dogs which was studied for three months in purpose to understand about

presence and the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in dogs. The overall samples

(faces) 118 were examined by Mc Master Technique in arm to count amount of eggs per

gram of faces. Whereas the data was analyzed into Microsoft Excel. According to the result,

there are four kinds of parasites which have found in laboratory such as Ancylostoma

caninum, Toxocara canis, Uncinaria stenocephala, Trichuris vulpis. In addition, among of

the prevalence of them were different Ancylostoma caninum is high and Trichuris vulpis is

low. To sum up we knew that the difference of parasites above can be cause by some

people who lack of knowledge about disease problem, system of management, preventing,

how to take care health, the lack of hygiene, not using anti-parasite, temperature and

environment contamination. Base on this fact can show up that the dogs that did not care

well from their owner were facing to endoparasite disease.

Keywords: gastrointestinal, dogs, prevalence


51

Behavioral Factor of Boiling Drinking Water in Rural India

Morio Sato* and Eiji Yamaji

* Graduate School of Frontier Science, The University of Tokyo, Japan


In India, 0.4 million of children die by diarrhea and this is the most serious number in

the world. There are some kinds of water sources in rural India, but most of them are not

safe because they are contaminated by human excreta. Boiling is an effective way to purify

water and improve its safety for drinking. The objective of this study was to reveal factors

of people's behavior about boiling and encourage them to do it. A village near Sompeta city

in Andhra Pradesh state, India was selected as a survey site of this study. Interviews were

conducted to all 53 households which have a 3 or 4 years old child in this village. 32%

households always use boil-water for their children and 15% households use it only in

rainy season. Most of them answered “To avoid disease” as a reason to use it. They know

that Cholera and Typhoid are caused by drinking water and they use boil-water to protect

their health. 42% households use it only when their children get sick. Some of them think

that water before boiling is safer compare to after boiling, but they use boil-water

according to doctor’s advice. 11% households don’t use boil-water. Most of them think that

their drinking water sources are safe for drinking and don’t know Cholera and Typhoid are

caused by drinking water. All of them were given an advice from doctor to use boil-water

for their children but they don’t use it. They mentioned “Bad taste of boil-water” as a

reason not to use it. People tend to trust the doctor’s advice and it change their behavior

about boiling. Instructing them why Cholera and Typhoid are caused and emphasizing the

importance to use boil-water for their children’s health by doctors can encourage them to

boil water.

Keywords: drinking water, boiling, diarrhea, child health, India


52

Climate Change Vulnerability: Households Assessment Level

in Kampong Speu Province

Nyda Chhinh* and Hoeurn Cheb



Change in temperature in Cambodia was identified by the Ministry of Environment and

United Nations Development Program based on people perceptions. Every year Cambodia

has witnessed flood, drought, windstorm, insect outbreak, underground water salinization

and seawater intrusion. The most pronounced hazards are flood and drought. Since the

country is heavily dependent on the agricultural sector, flood, drought and insect outbreak

are reported to have a severe effect on rural livelihood. The study aims to 1) measure

households’ vulnerability to climate change among communities in Kampong Speu

province, 2) identify locally appropriate adaptation options, and 3) discuss policy

interventions that relate to climate change adaptation in the communities. To reach

objectives, the study employ climate change vulnerability framework of

Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change by using composite index. Kampong Speu

province is highly prone to flashflood and drought. It appears that drought is the most

severe as farmers reported that they regularly experience a late onset of rainfall and lack

most do not have access to irrigation systems or other technology. It is imperative increase

the adaption capacity of farmers who have livelihoods which are highly sensitive to natural

hazards. Based on the current climatic hazards, the most urgent adaptation in Kampong

Speu is to have water for rice fields, especially when there is a prolonged drought during

the wet season. Furthermore, providing training on modern agricultural methods and small

scale water management are also a priority. Some policy recommendations resulting from

this study include building irrigation systems to handle droughts, secondary income

generations for poor households so that households do not depend on exclusively on

agriculture, access, and increasing education level of villagers.

Keywords: climate change, vulnerability, adaptation, assessment, rural development


53

Integrating Agricultural Adoption Pathways in North - Western Cambodia

Robert J Martin* Laura Prota, Stuart Brown and Rouja Johnstone

* Agricultural Systems Research Cambodia Co. Ltd, Cambodia


This paper presents the results of a survey of farm households carried out in

North-Western Cambodia in February 2012 to gather baseline data for a new agricultural

production and marketing research project. One of the objectives of the survey was to

identify ways to improve the delivery of relevant technical information and research

findings to individual farmers. The survey gathered information about maize production

issues, sources of information, training needs, as well as a full network data on seed, maize

and livestock transactions. The survey revealed that farmers rely almost completely on

each other for information about maize inputs especially seed for sowing and herbicides.

The majority of training (68%) was provided by Non-Government Organisations (NGOs)

with Provincial Departments of Agriculture (PDAs) providing 10% and input suppliers 7%.

Network analysis was used to explore the structure of the input supply network. Such

network involved more than half of the surveyed population in a single, fully connected,

giant component. This indicates that any information spread through the input supply

network has the potential to reach almost any actor within this giant component, or 59

percent of the sampled households. Based on these results, we put forward a conceptual

communication and dissemination strategy that can be used to promote adoption of project

results. It involves integrated roles based on comparative strengths for public, private and

non-government organizations to achieve adoption of new technologies and better

practices by farmers.

Keywords: extension, adoption, private sector, government, non-government


54

Agricultural Extension and Advisory Services in Bosnia

Sinisa Berjan*, Hamid El Bilali, Aleksandra Despotovic,

Jasmina Simic, Mirko Kulina and Noureddin Driouech

* University of Bologna, Italy


Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) consists of two governing entities; the Federation of

Bosnia and Herzegovina (FBiH) and the Republika Srpska (RS). Agriculture employs

almost a fifth of the total labour force. Around 61% of the population lives in rural areas.

Easy and timely access to reliable and updated information provided by extension services

is crucial for agricultural and rural development. The paper aims at analysing the public

agricultural extension and advisory services (AEAS) in Bosnia. In particular, it analyses

governance; financing; human resources; role in building social capacity as well as

cooperation projects; decentralisation; gender; and advisory approaches, methods and

media. Some recommendations to improve the AEAS performance are made. The paper is

based on a literature review and semi-structured interviews as well as focus group

discussion carried out in March 2011 with agricultural advisors in the RS. Modern AEAS

started to exist in BiH in 2002 and are organised on entity level: the Agency for Providing

Services in Agriculture in the RS and cantonal agricultural extension services in the FBiH.

The National Extension Services for BiH project helped establishing cantonal and regional

offices. The Advisory Services Agency has five regional offices. Advisors use many group

(e.g. lectures, seminars, field days) and individual (e.g. farm visits, phone calls) extension

methods and media (e.g. internet, leaflets, posters, brochures, mass media). Advisors focus

mainly on crop and animal production, processing and marketing. They also assist

producers to gather in cooperatives. Advisory services face many financial, management

and technical problems. The traditional top-down approach is still widely used. Bosnian

AEAS should be supported by providing them with the necessary means and resources as

well as technical, managerial and soft skills to fully assume their crucial role. That is

necessary to develop a well performing pluralistic, participatory, bottom-up, decentralized,

farmer-led and market-driven advisory system.

Keywords: agricultural extension, performance, governance, Bosnia


55

Off-farm and Non-farm Activities Development in

Rural South-eastern Bosnia

Sinisa Berjan*, Hamid El Bilali, Borko Sorajic, Noureddin Driouech,

Aleksandra Despotovic and Jasmina Simic



Agriculture represents about 9% of the Bosnian gross domestic product and employs

almost a fifth of the labour force. Agriculture is no more sufficient to ensure the

development of Bosnian rural areas; where lives around 61% of the population.

Diversification issue can be considered in terms of resources (land, labour or capital),

location (on-farm or off-farm) and output (farm or non-farm). The paper aims at analysing

income-generating activities diversification in rural south-eastern Bosnia with a focus on

motivations and barriers. It discusses the main factors affecting off-farm and non-farm

activities development, including policies, and provides some recommendations. The paper

is based on an extended secondary data analysis and semi-structured interviews, conducted

in March-April 2012, with 104 households’ heads from Foca, Rogatica, Han Pijesak,

Vlasenica, Sekovici, Milici and Bratunac municipalities. Almost a half of the surveyed

households characterized themselves as mixed (46.1%), 41.3% as agricultural, and 12.6%

as non-agricultural. Income is generated mainly from agricultural products sale (76%),

off-farm activities (52.9%) and pensions (44.2%). Motivations for engaging in off- and

non-farm activities are not always purely financial and also reflect societal changes. In the

last five years, 21.6% of the households started new income-generating activities - mainly

related to services provision and on-farm processing - but gave up while 22.6% of them

still deal with new activities. The main barrier is the lack of financial resources (39.7%)

and time (12.1%). Weak business skills are also a limiting factor. Development of new

activities raise farmers’ income and contribute to a healthy, diversified and viable rural

economy. Public institutions need to make sure that policies in place, whether sectoral or

broader, do not put obstacles in the way of diversification and improve rural planning and

services delivery. Creating an enabling environment for diversification requires the efforts

of many public and civil society actors.

Keywords: non-farm, off-farm, motivations, barriers, Bosnia


56

A Feasibility Study on Payment for Forest Environmental

Services in Cambodia

Sopheak Kong* and Nyda Chhinh



Commercial logging, shift cultivation, wood harvesting for woodfuel and charcoal

production, hunting, and habitat destruction by local villagers and in-migrants are major

drivers of deforestation and forest degradation in Cambodia, and great threats to

biodiversity. Government policies or incentives for forest management are urgently needed

to secure sustainable use of forest resources and improve local livelihoods. In light of the

failure of the command and control approach, payment for forest environmental services

(PFES) may be considered a potential solution. The study conducted a feasibility study on

PFES in Cambodia, combining quantitative and qualitative data sources. Literature reviews

and interviews were conducted to determine conditions required for PES success, and

focus groups discussion and household surveys were employed to villagers’ behaviors in

forest management and PFES. Results showed that conditions for payment for ecosystem

services (PES) success included clear and mutual agreements linking land use to the

provision of ecosystem services; clearly defined ecosystem services; flexible contracts and

payments; transaction costs that do not exceed potential benefits; a reliance on multiple

sources of revenue delivering sufficient and sustainable money; a close monitoring of

compliance, land use change and provision of ecosystem services; and the flexibility to

improve effectiveness and efficiency and adapt to changing conditions. PES-like failures in

Cambodia resulted from inequity of benefit-sharing, a lack of management committee

capacity to monitor participants and carry out punitive measures, and the poor quality of

services and communication skills. Factors contributing to PES-like successes were simple

and local program organization, low administrative costs, transparency of benefit-sharing

to services providers, and active participation from villagers in complying with the

regulations of programs. PFES could be integrated into the REDD finance mechanism. As

a result, the case study in Chambok exemplified a community-based forest suitable for

PFES implementation and possibly a joint program. This would lead to improved

livelihood conditions of local communities through forest cover protection, and increase

the awareness of downstream and upstream villagers in ensuring the sustainable provision

of services.

Keywords: Payment for Environmental Services (PES), livelihood improvement


57

People’s Participation in Community Based Natural Resources

Management in Prek Thnot Community Protected Area,

Kampot Province

Vichar Chhom*



The level of people’s participation in natural resources management is a key factor of

success of natural resources management but there are some challenges faced by

community. This study focused on three points: identify the current situation of the level of

people’s participation in the community based natural resources management (CBNRM),

identify the positive impacts of people’s participation in CBNRM, and analyze the

strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats in the community based participatory

natural resources management. The study was conducted in Prek Thnot community

protected area in Prek Thnot commune which about 90 households of community members

were selected to be interviewed. The result showed that about 58% of the respondents were

not participated in any kinds of meeting whole only 8% participated in frequency. About

34 % of them were participating in sometimes. In decision making process, only 2% of the

respondents had participated in frequency level followed by 6% participated in sometimes

level. The percentage of the respondents who were not participated in decision making was

92% which not too different from participated in planning process was 93%. None of the

respondents participated in planning process in frequency level which 7% was sometimes

level. However, people participated in management and conservation was a bit higher.

About 20% of the respondents participated in sometime level and 16% frequency level

while the rest of 64% did not participated. In implementing, about 62% were not

participated in implementing while the 27 and 11% had participated in sometimes and

frequency level, respectively. With the benefits of participation in capacity building and

skills, about 28% of 44% who attended training claimed that they did not get any benefits

from this knowledge. For this case, 9% of the respondents got high job opportunities while

70% replied no. Moreover, about 11% got high benefit of income while about 72% had

never gotten. Conclusion, level of people’s participation in the Prek Thnot CPA seems to be

very low with some factors: people were not encouraged to participation, non- incentive or

benefits, and lack of knowledge amount of people.

Keywords: participation, meeting, decision making, planning, management


58

The role of Organic Farming in Providing Ecosystem Services

Dieter Trautz*

* University of Applied Sciences Osnabrueck, Germany


Ecosystem Services (ES) are defined as the benefits humans derive from ecological

processes and the ecosystem functions (Porter et al. 2009). The functionality of

agro-ecosystems is strengthens through ES like pollination, biological pest control or

hydrological services provided by natural ecosystems (Sandhu et al. 2010).

Agro-ecosystems also produce several ES such as carbon sequestration, regulation of soil

and water quality and support for biodiversity (Power 2010). On the other hand agriculture

may have a negative impact on neighboring natural ecosystems. This paper deals with the

interaction between land use intensity and agricultural ES. It will be focused on the role of

organic farming by promoting the healthy functioning of ecosystems.

Keywords: ecosystem services, economic value, engineered ecosystem, organic farming


59

Effect of Soaking Stem Cutting in Vermicompost Tea

on Root Germination and Production of Cassava

Jiraphon Choeichit*, Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai and Mongkon Ta-oun



This study investigated the effects of the soaking stem cutting in vermicompost tea on

the root germination; bud and root dry weight of cassava root. The completely randomized

design (CRD) was used with three replications. The stem cutting of three cassava cultivars

(Rayong 7, Rayong 9 and kasetsart 50) were soaked into the different solutions consisting

of distill water (as control), 50% and 100% vermicompost tea. Root and bud number and

root dry weight were monitored at 7, 14 and 21 days after planting. Results showed that the

numbers of cassava root soaking in vermicompost tea treatment were significantly

increased compared to control. The number of cassava root grown in soil amended with

50% and 100% of the original vermicompost tea concentration were increased by 41.69%

and 36.56%, respectively and the buds were increased by 44.09% and 44.18 %,

respectively compared to the control. The dry weights of root were also increased

significantly average 213% and 292%. Therefore, this study indicated that soaking cassava

stem cutting of three varieties in vermicompost tea before planting had a positive effect on

initial root development, bud and root growth. Because of vermicompost tea have organic

substance: humic acids, fuvic acids and plant- growths regulators hormone and soluble

mineral nutrients on cassava growth.

Keywords: vermicompost tea, cassava stem cutting, soaking


60

The Change of Phosphorus Form in Vermicompost

using Cassava Pulp

Nuntawut Champar-ngam*, Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai and Mongkon Ta-oun



The aim of this study was to investigate the change of phosphorus form in

vermicompost using cassava pulp. The ratio of cassava pulps: soil mix (sandy soil and cow

manure) were applied at 75%:25% (W/W) in compost (CP: without earthworm) and

vermicompost (VCP: with earthworm). The qualities of vermicompost and the form of

phosphorus after 60 days incubation were analyzed. The results showed that the pH and EC

(Electrical conductivity) were increased in CP and VCP. The water-soluble P in VCP was

increased 74.03% from initial and higher than CP 55.62%. The exchangeable P in VCP was

increased 76.43% from initial and higher than CP 69.58%. Total P in VCP was increased

85.05% from initial and higher than CP 81.03%. The total N in VCP was increased 87.61%

from initial and higher than CP. Moreover, the decrease of %OC (organic carbon), C/N

ratio, C/P ratio were found in VCP more than CP, the percentage of decreasing from initial

was 76.93%, 97.27%, 96.55%, respectively. These data suggest that vermicompost helps to

enhance phosphorus availability in sandy soil.

Keywords: phosphorus, cassava pulps, vermicompost


61

Development of Organic Animal and Crop Production in Bosnia

Sinisa Berjan*, Noureddin Driouech, Hamid El Bilali,

Aleksandra Despotovic, Jasmina Simic and Mirko Kulina



About 35 million hectares of agricultural land are managed organically worldwide by

1.4 million producers. Bosnia has a big agro-ecological potential and natural capital for

organic production (OP) as traditional small-scale agriculture can be easily converted to

organic. Agricultural land covers 50% of the total area. The paper aims at giving an

overview of the current situation of the Bosnian organic sector especially potential, animal

and crop production, governance, legal framework and market. Some solutions to

overcome the main barriers to OP development are discussed. The paper is based on a

secondary data review and exploratory semi-structured interviews - dealing mainly with

reasons for converting to organic; marketing channels; problems; impacts; access to

agricultural extension - conducted in July 2012 with 20 organic producers from Sarajevo,

Banja Luka, Mostar, Bihac, etc. Organic area represents less than 1% of the total

agricultural area. Plant production - mainly cereals - is more significant than animal

production. Wild collection plays an important role. The complex political structure

renders organic sector governance difficult. There is no national action plan and no

national law on OP was enforced. Only the Republika Srpska entity has a law on OP.

Organska Kontrola is the first local certification body. The organic movement is

experiencing new dynamics, pushed by farmer and consumer associations and market

actors. Organic market is relatively young and small. Supply chains are generally short.

Two marketing channels grow slowly: direct selling (on-farm, farm gate, green/farmer

markets) and conventional retail. Certified organic products are exported primarily to the

European Union. Further organic sector growth is more than likely. OP represents a valid

instrument for sustainable natural resources management and rural development. For

allowing organic farming to express all its potential domestic market should be developed;

legal framework and governance enhanced; and institutional and financial support secured.

Keywords: organic production; governance; market; Bosnia


62

Study on Conventional Farming Practice - A Case Study of

Farmers’ Practice in Samroung Village, Cambodia

Sokornthea Pin* and Machito Mihara

* Institute of Environment Rehabilitation and Conservation, Cambodia branch


Agrochemicals application has been rapidly popularized in Cambodia due to

agricultural development technologies. Although agrochemicals utilization has

significantly increased crop production, it has negative impact on human health,

sustainability of land use and ecosystem. So, this study has been focused on conventional

farming practice in Samroung village of Kampong Cham province, Cambodia. The main

objectives of this study are 1) to understand current situation of farming practices in the

village and 2) to identify the condition of agrochemicals applied at farmlands. To access

the objectives of this study, various participatory researches, both quantitative and

qualitative have been conducted. Semi-structured interviews, in-depth interviews,

focus-group discussion were conducted, and secondary data were used in this study. Data

was summarized and analyzed to observe the significant difference and high confident

correlation of these variables by using One-way ANOVA and Regression Analysis. The

results of this study indicated that the amounts of chemical fertilizer and pesticides applied

did not correlate with the level education of famers, also with the size of farmland as well

(P > 0.05). In addition, the amounts of pesticide applied did not correlate with the total

annual household income, and there was no correlation between the size of farmland and

the farmer’s total income (P > 0.05). However, the amounts of chemical fertilizer applied

showed slight correlation with the total annual household income per year (P < 0.05).

According to the results, it may be concluded that the amounts of agrochemicals applied,

especially chemical fertilizer application, affect to the farmer’s annual income. However,

farmers have to purchase the chemical fertilizer every year. The amounts of expenditure for

chemical fertilizer also affect to their life that depends on low income from their

agricultural products. Therefore, agricultural education such as providing technical training,

workshop is necessarily required for promoting sustainable use of agrochemicals as well as

alternative ways based on organic practices.

Keywords: conventional farming practice, agricultural education,

agrochemical application, Cambodia


63

A New Organic Manure that Increases Yield, Carbohydrate,

Protein and Phenolic Acids in some Crops

Udai Pratap Singh* and Amitabh Singh

* Department of Mycology and Plant Pathology, Banaras Hindu University, India


Organic farming can feed the world. Astonishingly, its more productive than high tech

agriculture. There is a great debate between the proponents and opponents on the virtues of

organic farming. In the present experiment a new composite organic manure which

contains twelve organic ingredients traversing from compost, vermicompost, poultry

manure, neem (Azadirachta indica) cake, mustard (Brassica campestris) cake to fungal

(Aspergillus niger, Trichoderma harzianum) and bacterial strains (PGPRs and others) have

been used to see their effect on wheat (Triticum aestivum), paddy (Oryza sativa), pea

(Pisum sativum), chickpea (Cicer arietinum) and potato (Solanum tuberosum) crop

production compared with inorganic fertilizer with special reference to yield, carbohydrate,

protein and phenolic acid contents in these crops. The High Performance Liquid

Chromatographic (HPLC) analysis and other techniques revealed that the organically

grown crops had several times more carbohydrate, protein and phenolic acids particularly

tannic, gallic, caffeic and ferulic acids than that of inorganically grown crops. The yield

was also higher in organically grown crops than in inorganically grown ones. The

advantages of organic farming are described in detail. The results suggest that organic

farming can be easily adopted for higher yield, medicinal and nutritional values for human

health, ecological safety and soil improvement.

Keywords: organic farming, compost, vermicompost, poultry manure, fungal and

bacterial strains


64

Comparative Reproductive Behavior of α-Male, β-Male and Subordinate

Male Timor Deer (Cervus timorensis Blainville)

Raised Under Captivity

Daud Samsudewa*

* Diponegoro University, Indonesia


Timor deer were used in an experiment to study the comparative behavior of α-male,

β-male and subordinate male raised in captivity. Timor deer twelve males (4.25 years old)

and 24 females (3 to 4 years old) were randomly assigned into three separate cages

following the ratio of 4 males: 8 females. Kruskal-Wallis H test of non-parametric analyses

were done for aggressive, libido and mating behaviors. The α-male was the dominant male

in terms of aggressive, libido and mating behaviors. Subordinate male showed the highest

frequency of wallowing to reduce stress, and of running around for expressing libido.

Successful mating was mostly exhibited by α-male, S2-male did not show actual mating.

Establishment of dominance hierarchy resulted to the manifestation of differences in

reproductive behaviors.

Keywords: reproductive behavior, male Timor deer, captivity


65

Towards Measuring and Understanding the Vulnerability of

Agricultural Production to Flood: Some Insights

from Battambang Province, Cambodia

Jean-Christophe Diepart*, Chinda Heng and Sotheavin Doch

* Learning Institute, Cambodia


The study aims to develop a methodology to measure and understand the vulnerability

of agricultural production to flood. The pilot study area is the Sangkae River watershed

(Battambang province, Cambodia), partly located in the Tonle Sap Lake and river

hydrological system. The study is conducted in conjunction with the provincial spatial

planning team hosted by the Provincial Department of Land Management and can be

viewed as a first step toward a flood management decision-making tool for provincial

authorities. Flood hazards are not restricted to the downstream lowland Tonle Sap plain;

the study also considers river overflows and run-off flood events occurring mid- and

upstream. We address the concept of vulnerability in three dimensions (exposure,

sensitivity and adaption capacity) and operationalized it in a multi-scale framework

including watershed-wide, commune and household level analyses. The analysis of

time-series climate/hydrological and land use data puts flood hazards in the

socio-economic context of the whole catchment area. At commune level (n=31), a

participatory mapping process based on aerial photos allow comparing a minor [usual]

flood event and a major [severe] flood (i.e. in 2011). We also take into account primary and

secondary data relevant to the impacts of floods on the agricultural production and the

adaptive capacity. The study identifies exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity indexes

and analyzes them, both statistically and spatially with a geographic information system.

We then combine these indexes in an overall commune vulnerability [composite] index. On

that basis, we elaborate a commune typology to analyze the different types of vulnerability

across the watershed. A household survey (n=114), conducted in specific agro-ecological

regions in the watershed, allows revealing the variability of vulnerability between

households in a given community. The results of the study show the link between the

vulnerability of agriculture to flood and the different farming systems of rural communities,

which depend on the agro-ecology and on their socio-economic status.

Keywords: flood management, vulnerability assessment, agricultural production,

watershed management, Cambodia


66

A study of Catfish Byproduct Meal in the Diet of Growing Guinea Fowls

in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam

Nguyen Thi Kim Dong* and Nguyen Van Thu



Aiming to valuate the utilization of the available and cheap catfish byproducts

produced in the factories in the Mekong delta of Vietnam for feeding chicken, one

experiment, in which one hundred and fifty Guinea fowls at 5 weeks of age (430±23.8 g)

were arranged in one complete randomized design experiment with 5 treatments and 3

replications, was done. The treatments were different protein levels of sea fish meal from 0,

25, 50, 75 ad 100 % replaced by the catfish byproduct meal corresponding to CFBP0,

CFBP25, CFBP50, CFBP75 and CFBP100 treatment, respectively. The results showed that

the DM and EE intakes were significantly higher (P<0.05) for the CFBP25, CFBP50,

CFBP75 and CFBP100 as compared to the CFBP0 treatment, while the CP intake was

significantly higher (P<0.05) for the CFBP25, CFBP50 and CFBP75 treatments compared

to the others. The daily weight gains (WG) were significantly higher (P<0.05) for the

CFBP0, CFBP25, CFBP50 treatments as compare to the CFBP75 and CFBP100 treatments

and they were 18.5, 18.2, 18.3, 17.7 and 16.7 g/day for the CFBP0, CFBP25, CFBP50,

CFBP75 and CFBP100 treatment, respectively. However, the CP consumption for growth

(g/kgWG) significantly increased (P<0.05) for the CFBP replacement treatments. The

carcass values and profits were similar among the CFBP0, CFBP25, CFBP50 and CFBP75

treatments. The conclusion was that catfish byproduct meal could utilize to feed the

growing Guinea fowls, and the protein replacement of sea fish meal at a level of 50 % by

the catfish byproduct meal in the diets should be recommended.

Keywords: chicken, fish meal, animal protein, replacing, meat production, income


67

Effect of Chitosan and Lotus Extracts as Growth Promoter

in Dendrobium Orchid

Piyavadee Charoenwattana* and Umnoui Petprapai



The effect of chitosan and lotus extracts on growth of orchid plantlets were

investigated in greenhouse conditions. The chitosan was extracted from shrimp (Penaeus

monodon) shell with 90% deacetylation (DD) and 85-89% purity. Hexane extracts of lotus

leaf (Nelumbo nucifera ‘Roseum Plenum’) were also used as a source of antimicrobial

agents. The Dendrobium orchid ‘Sureepeach’ plantlets were treated with 10, 30, 50 and

100 mg L-1 chitosan and 1, 3 and 5 mg L-1 lotus extracts at 7 day interval. The result

showed that orchid plantlets treated with 100 mg L-1 chitosan and 5 mg L-1 lotus extracts

gave the greatest number of leaves and shoots after 10 weeks.

Keywords: chitosan, lotus extracts, orchid, growth, growth promoter


68

Can the Sandy Ridges Soils in Peninsular Malaysia used

for Crop Production?

Roslan Bin Ismail* and Shamshuddin Jusop

* Universiti Putra, Malaysia


Food security issues have initiated this study as fertile and/or suitable land availability

for agriculture is ever decreasing in versa to increase in human population. Opening up

new land and/or area are found to be unfeasible and costly, thus utilization of idle land is

much in interest. Such idle land area are sandy soils of Peninsular Malaysia (200,000 ha)

and thus, a study on the sandy ridges soils in Peninsular Malaysia were conducted to assess

the suitability for agriculture utilization, focusing on crop production. Tobacco cultivation

is dominant in the area; however the government wants to replace it with other eco-friendly

and health-friendly crop. Hence with limited information related to sandy soils and crop

production, a preliminary study was conducted to 1) understand the sandy ridges properties

much better and to make 2) initial comparison of growth requirement with different type of

crops. Hence, field observation, soil data collection and analysis were carried out and later

soil-crop suitability was assessed based on local requirement. And, from the study, these

sandy soils (>95% sand) have severe limitations, labeled as Class 4DnT. These indicate

severe drainage, nutrient imbalance and texture condition that may inhibit crop growth.

Plus with low CEC (<5 cmolc/kg), low Corg (<2%) and high mean temperature (37oC)

makes crop cultivation more challenging. Oil palm, coconut, cocoa and rubber shows

marginal suitability with paddy is definitely unsuitable for cultivation in sandy soils area.

However, all is not lost, with proper management such as soil mixing, mulching and

irrigation development can improve the soil condition. And for sure, an acceptable

agronomic package is need to be put in place before asking the farmers in the area to grow

other crops than tobacco.

Keywords: Sandy soil, crop suitability, low CEC, low fertility, soil improvement


69

Effects of Watermelon Vine Silage (WVS) in Cattle Diets on

Milk Production and Composition and Economic Return

Van Thu Nguyen * and Thi Kim Dong Nguyen



Twelve Holstein Friesian lactating cows at the fourth month of lactation were allocated

in a complete randomized design experiment with four treatments and three replications to

investigate the optimum level of watermelon vine silage in diets. The treatments were the

replacement levels of watermelon vine silage to Elephant grass (Penisetum purpureum) at

a level of 0, 10, 20 and 30 % (DM basis) corresponding to WVS0, WVS10, WVS20 and

WVS30 treatment. The animals were supplemented 4.0 kg concentrates and 5.0 kg

brewery waste per day per cow, the experimental period was two months. The dry matter

(DM), crude protein (CP) and metabolizable energy (ME) contents of the watermelon vine

silage were 17.8%, 15.1% and 2,298 Kcal/kgDM respectively. The results showed that

daily DM intakes were not significantly different (P>0.05) among the treatments and they

were 10.7, 10.7, 10.6 and 10.8 kgDM for WVS0, WVS10, WVS20 and WVS30 treatments,

respectively. Milk yield and composition were not significant differences (P>0.05) among

the diets, however the better profit obtained was for the WVS30 treatment. No significant

differences (P>0.05) of DM, OM, neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and acid detergent fiber

(ADF) digestibilities were found. The conclusion was that the replacement of 30%

Elephant grass by watermelon vine silage (DM basis) in the lactating cow diets would be

beneficial economically and environmentally during in the dry and the flood season.

Keywords: crop residues, digestion, ME intake, milk yield and quality, economic analysis


70

The influence of Earthworm and Rice Straw on Soil Aggregate, Carbon

Sequestration and Soil Fertility in Sandy Loam Paddy Soil

in Northeast Thailand

Ajcharawadee Kruapukdee*, Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai and Mongkon Ta-oun

* Khon Kean University, Thailand


The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of epigeic earthworm

(Eudrillus eugeniae) and rice straw on soil aggregate, SOC, soil fertility and greenhouse

gases (CO2) emission in sandy loam paddy soil in Northeast of Thailand. Experimental

design was a completely randomized design. The four treatments of incubation using Thai

soil (Roi-et series (Sandy loam were: (I) soil control (no additions), (II) soil + rice straw,

(III) soil +earthworms (these added after 8 days’ incubation) and (IV) soil + rice straw

+earthworms (these added after 8 days’ incubation), and then incubated for 20 days.

During the experiment, soil respiration (CO2), the aggregate size, SOC and soil fertility (N,

P and K) were measured. The results suggest that the treatment with adding earthworms

and rice straw had significantly change on soil aggregate) than those without earthworm

and added rice stubble only. Earthworm increased SOC and soil fertility (N, P and K) in

paddy soil (sandy loam) than other treatment. The effect of earthworm on the

decomposition of rice straw in paddy sandy loam may influence the CO2 emission from

paddy soil.

Keywords: sandy loam paddy soil, rice stubble, earthworm, carbon sequestration,

soil fertility


71

The Relationship between Saline Soil and Vegetated Coverage

and Factors Affecting Rice Production in Saline Paddies

Charuwan Phaitong* and Adcharaporn Pagdee

* Faculty of Science, Khon Kaen University, Thailand


Saline soil is usually spotted in low elevation terrain which is normally used for rice

cultivation. Deforestation in recharge areas can accelerate soil salinity due to increasing

capillary action. This study examines the relationship between saline soil distribution and

vegetated areas at Nong Du Village, Khon Kaen Province, Thailand. It also identifies

factors affecting rice production in saline paddies. A field survey with composite soil

sampling was conducted in April, 2012 for soil property analysis, together with a

semi-administered questionnaire on rice production, farm management and farmer’s

household socio-economic conditions. In total, 34 saline paddies were surveyed with

elevation range 148-175m amsl. and salinity levels 0.44-16.58 dS/m. Soil salinity did not

show significant correlation with a distance from the sampled paddies to the closest

vegetated area, but high salinity levels tend to occur in lower elevations. In total, 40

household representatives participated in the questionnaire of which 34 households have

encountered soil salinity, covering approximately 85% of famer’s rice paddies (avg. 0.89

ha/household). An average rice yield from saline paddies was 1,916.92 kg/ha, lower than

the average yield from non-saline paddies (mean difference –113.39 kg/ha). Rice

production costs in saline paddies were estimated 8586.09 Baht/ha of which the highest

spending went to crop maintenance, while the costs from non-saline paddies were 9,812.43

Baht/ha with 40.63% spending on rice cultivation process. Household income and labor

did not show correlation with farm management activities, including amounts of fertilizers

used in rice production. Nevertheless, farmers have adapted to soil salinity using in-farm

resources and traditional techniques. They use cow manure, compost and green manure to

help reduce soil salinity. Moreover, farmers raised the height of paddy borders, so that

more rainwater could be stored and rice paddies were continuously submerged.

Keywords: soil salinity, saline paddies, vegetation coverage, rice production,

Nong Du Village


72

Ecological and Socioeconomic Factors Affecting Rice Production

in Saline Rice Paddies, Borabue, Mahasarakam, Thailand

Jitarree Saisema* and Adcharaporn Pagdee

* Faculty of Science, Khon Kaen University, Thailand


Soil salinity is one of the major threats affecting rice production in Northeastern

Thailand. In addition, farmer adaptation capacity to saline soil may be limited by their

household socioeconomic conditions. This study examines ecological and socioeconomic

factors affecting rice production in saline paddies: a case study of Nongsim sub-district,

Borabue district, Mahasarakham province, Thailand. Composite soil sampling in saline and

non-saline paddies was conducted in April, 2012 (dry season) for soil property analysis. A

semi-administered questionnaire on rice production, farm management and farmer’s

household socioeconomic conditions was also carried out. According to soil ECe, soil

samples in saline paddies were classified very highly saline (the average ECe is

15.33±18.89 dS/m, range 0.79-79.06 dS/m). Soil was sandy loam, slightly acidic, while

soil nutrient contents were very low except total K (estimated low). In total, 53 household

representatives participated in the questionnaire of which 46 households have encountered

soil salinity. The average of saline paddies was 1.47 ha/household, accounted for 86.8% of

the household’s total rice paddies. Two rice cultivars planted include a glutinous mutant of

jasmine rice—RD6 and jasmine rice—KDLM-105. An average rice yield from saline

paddies was 1,494 kg/ha, significantly lower than the average rice yield from non-saline

paddies (mean difference -1126.19 kg/ha, p-value<0.05). Rice production costs, including

land preparation, rice cultivation, crop maintenance and harvesting in saline paddies were

estimated 7,411 Baht/ha while the costs from non-saline paddies were estimated 10,386

Baht/ha. Furthermore, higher income households used greater amounts of fertilizers in

their rice production. Furthermore, farmers have adapted to soil salinity using in-farm

resources and traditional techniques. They use cow and green manure and compost to help

reduce soil salinity. Moreover, farmers raised the height of paddy borders, so that more

rainwater could be stored and rice paddies were continuously submerged.

Keywords: saline rice paddies, soil ecological characteristics, socioeconomic factor,

rice production, Nongsim


73

The Study on Flood’s Impact on Rice Production in Sandek Commune

Bathay District, Kampong Cham Province

Lyly Soueng*



In Cambodia, the natural disasters particularly major is floods. And flood is the natural

disasters cannot stop and Uncertainty predictions. Flooding have caused loss of lives,

affected social welfare and damaged public and household's properties and livestock.

Moreover, flooding make people suffer, afraid and migration. Bye the way, constraining

Cambodia development and poverty alleviation programs. The main objectives are (1) to

identify extent of flood’s impact on farmer rice yields, (2) to economic assessment on rice

production, and (3) to identify farmer’s adaptation of rice on flood. Structured

questionnaires were used on 96 respondents who are farmer growing rice. The Study

showed that the Major flooding events at the last twenty years in 2000, 2001, 2002 and

2011. One of the worst floods in the place study’s history occurred in the year 2011.

According to data analyze, 100 percent of flooding impact of farmer’s rice production, 100

percent of plane around house, 72.9 percent of houses, 96.9 percent of diseases and 96.9

percent of insects. Flood in year 2011 has the potential to affect economic value of

farmer’s rice production, which total average yield 3.862 tones/ha were lost. For farmer’s

adaptation of rice on flood before year2011 is low adaptation. Because they grow wet rice

at the same time of during the flood period and average of rice yield just 0.119 tone/ha,

2011. Low education of farmers is cause of low adaptation to flood. Amount of literacy in

the place study is 98 percent were worst impacted. After flood, 52 percent of farmers grow

dry season rice which got average rice yield 2 tone/ha. Migration is the popular ways after

rice production was damaged by flood. Around 63.5 percent of farmer migrated. In

conclusion, flood in 2011 is the worst impact on rice production in the place study.

Keywords: impact, flood, rice production, adaptation


74

Comparison of Fertilizer Management to Increase Yield

and Quality of Rice

Pumisak Intanon*

* Naresuan University, Thailand


The purpose of this research is to improve productivity and quality of rice. This leads

to promote the cultivation of high-yield rice, and good quality safe consumer by comparing

various types of fertilizers that are suitable to grow rice. The experimental design is RCBD

concludes of 6 treatments and each treatment is 3 replications. The total is 18 plot fields of

5 Rai (1Rai=1600m2). The treatments consisted of the followings: T0, not fertilizer

(Control), T1, pellet fertilizer from compost, T2, granular organic fertilizer mixed

bio-fertilizer, T3, granular organic fertilizer mixed mineral called formula-1, T4,granular

organic fertilizer mixed more mineral called formula-2 and T5, granular organic fertilizer

mixed more higher mineral called formula-3. Rice as a test plant of species: Phitsanulok #2,

from April 2012 to September 2012. The measuring results on vegetative growths to the

stem height, the number of leaves per plant, the number stem per clump, root-system

length and total weight per plant were found that the T3, T5, T4, T2, T1 and T0 methods

represent a maximum output, respectively. The results on productivity and yield

components in the number of seed per spike, the number of spikes per square meter and

weight of 1,000 seeds and yields per Rai, it was found that the T3, T5, T4, T2, T1 and T0

methods have maximum outputs; sequentially, 1,119.4, 990.3, 949.3, 872.2, 813.2 and

781.0 kilograms per Rai, respectively. In case of the T3 method compared with no fertilizer,

it also found that productivity increases 43.3% and the percentage of blighted grain

decreases 60%. In a study of total production costs, it was found that the rice production

cost per 1 kg of T3 gives the lowest to T5, T4, T2, T0 and T1, respectively; that is an

average value of 6.01, 6.19, 7.16, 7.49, 7.52 and 7.84 Baht per kilograms, respectively.

Keywords: fertilizer management, rice, fertilizer, granular organic fertilizer


75

Potential of Rice Intensification in Western Cambodia,Case Study:

Traepang Tmor Tboung and Poey Ta Ong Village,

Banteay Meanchey Province

Ratanak Ou*, Setha Pel and Bopha Hour



Changing traditional to modern farming technique is to increase production yields and

also to improve farmer’s livelihood. Some farmers grow rice only while others integrate

rice, plants and livestock. Currently, system of rice intensification (SRI) has been

manipulated in some areas in Banteay Meanchey province. Therefore, a case study of

Traepang Tmor Tboung and Poey Ta Ong village was focused closely on the potential of

rice intensification as the support of the farmer’s livelihood and external threats

influencing to their choices to grow rice introduced by ECOSORN project. The result

showed that farmers in this village grew both rain-fed and irrigated rice during drought

period. There were many kinds of off-farm activities in which the farmers did to support

their family because growing rice only could not support their livelihood. These activities

were sewing, livestock raising, power hired, vegetable planting, and working in Chamkar.

The farmers, moreover, faced external threats influencing to their choices of growing rice.

Farming market price was one reason and there was no intervention from the government

to stabilize it as a result, the rich farmers did not want to grow during drought period, but

the poor still wanted to grow the rice followed by SRI technique. The main barriers in

using irrigated system were the far-distance from their rice fields and home, labors, lack of

irrigated canals and fertilizers to put into the rice fields. The farmer expected the canals

would be constructed at the south of the reservoir soon and the farmers in eastern reservoir

wanted to have the old canals repaired. Lastly, all the farmers were generally interested in

increasing rice production, but the rich farmers had no interest to grow more during dry

season. The dry season rice and SRI has become a recent development in order to improve

farmer’s income.

Keywords: SRI, rice intensification, agriculture in Banteay Meanchey, SRI development,

rice production


76

Grain Composition and Starch Structures of Rice Grown

in Different Agro-climatic Zones of Cambodia

Seila Sar*, Morgan J. Tizzotti, Jovin Hasjim and Robert G. Gilbert

* The University of Queensland, Australia


The effects of variety, growth location, and interaction between variety and growth

location on kernel composition and starch structures of rice grains were investigated using

three rice cultivars (Phka Romduol, Sen Pidao, and IR66) known to differ in amylose

content. The rice samples were collected from three different agro-climatic zones (Phnom

Penh, Coastal, and Plateau) of Cambodia. Size exclusion chromatography (SEC) is the

main tool used to characterize the structural features of debranched starches and Nuclear

Magnetic Resonance (NMR) was also used to provide complementary data on the degree

of branching. Both lipid and protein contents of polished rice grains depended on variety

and growth location but not on the interaction between variety and growth location, while

this was not the case for starch content. Protein content increased and lipid content

decreased when rice was grown at a higher temperature location. Fine structural features of

rice starches were significantly dependent on variety, but not on growth location and the

interaction between variety and growth location. Those features includes degrees of

polymerization at each peak maximum and peak heights of each local peak maximum as a

ratio to the height of the first amylopectin peak derived from the weight molecular size

distributions of debranched starches, amylose content, and degree of branching. The results

suggested that protein and lipid were more sensitive to the environmental temperature than

starch and the branching structures of both amylopectin and amylose of rice starches were

not affected by the minor change of environmental conditions in different growth locations

of Cambodia. Small variation of environmental temperature and rainfall patterns among

agro-climatic zones can be a valid reason for this stability of starch structures. These

findings are important since little is known about starch structures of Cambodian rice and

its relation to nutritional diseases, especially propensity to diabetes.

Keywords: rice, starch molecular structures, size exclusion chromatography,

growth location, Cambodia


77

The Economics Analysis on Rice Production Providing Environmental

Services in Sangkat Srayov, Kampong Thom Province

Socheat Keo*

* Royal University of Agriculture


The study on “The Economics analysis on rice production providing environmental

services in Sangkat Srayov, Krong Stueng Sean, Kampong Thom Province” has three

objectives: study on rice production in study area, farm’s perception on impact of change

in rice production and economics analysis of each rice productions. In this study, there are

six rice productions were found such as: early season rice, recession rice, medium duration

maturity rice, long duration maturity rice, floating rice and organic rice. As the result, there

are many changes in rice production in this study area because of there are many

companies and farmers whom have much capital invest on short period rice (early season

and recession rice). They built reservoir, cut tree, prepare land, use intensive technology,

use modern equipments and use much chemical fertilizer and pesticide. According to

farmer’s perception, these changes in rice production in this study area have strongly

impact on environment and human well-being. In economics efficiency analysis, ten of rice

productions in this study area were divided such as: rented land early season rice,

non-rented land early season rice, rented land recession rice, non-rented land recession rice,

transplanted medium duration maturity rice, non-transplanted medium duration maturity

rice, transplanted long duration maturity rice, non-transplanted long duration maturity rice,

floating rice and organic rice. All of them, there are three rice productions: transplanted

medium duration maturity rice, transplanted long duration maturity rice and organic rice

are providing environmental services and have more economics efficiency than others.

Keywords: rice production, payment on environmental services, economics efficiency


78

Determinants of Sugarcane Productivity in Pakistan

Anwar Hussain*

* Pakistan Institute of Development Economics (PIDE), Pakistan


This study is an econometric analysis of the impacts of farm inputs on sugarcane

production in Pakistan based on time series data for the period of 1961-2009. Augmented

Dickey Fuller (ADF) test, Johansen Co-integration test (likelihood ratio statistic) and

ordinary least square and log linear Cobb Douglas production function helped in assessing

the response of sugarcane production to different form inputs. Results revealed an increase

of one percent in each: area under sugarcane crop, credit disbursement and fertilizer

off-take increased the sugarcane production by 37 tonnes, 0.03 tonnes and 3.51 tonnes,

respectively. All the coefficients of explanatory variables were statistically significant at

both 5% and 1% confidence levels. Thus, the study found that area under sugarcane crop is

the most important factor. This implies that government should favor extensive over the

intensive policies in order to increase sugarcane productivity and provide incentives to

farmers to expand area under sugarcane crop if the increase in sugarcane production is

required. Further, credit, or perhaps microcredit may also make significant addition in

overall sugarcane production in the country.

Keywords: sugarcane productivity, farm inputs, extensive and intensive farming, Pakistan


79

Developing the Use of Trees and Agroforestry for Treating

Degraded Lands and Increasing Productivity

J. Doland Nichols*

* School of Environment, Science and Engineering, Southern Cross University, Australia


Trees provide both products and environmental services in land-use systems, including

annual and perennial-based agriculture. The many benefits that trees provide cannot be

achieved if recommended systems are too labor-intensive or detract from economic

production. Therefore the great challenge for agroforesters is how to design combinations

that can be effectively used in real-world situations, where landholders can maintain and

improve their incomes while also protecting soils and water.

Keywords: forests, agroforestry, alley cropping, annual crops, degraded lands


80

Community Mungbean Seed Production in Rice-based

Cropping System of Lower Northern Thailand

Nareeluck Wannasai*, Kallaya Netkallayamit,

Angkana Suwannakoot and Somchai Charnnarongkul

* Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Thailand


A monoculture rice production has been widely practiced in the lower northern

Thailand. Intensification of rice farming led to large areas of crop damage due to

inadequacy of irrigation water particularly in the dry season and the outbreak of pests. In

order to bring back sustainability to the rice system, leguminous crops such as mungbean is

designed to grow after rice harvest. Growing mungbean and selling it as seed is a good

strategy to add value to crop and profit to the farm. It also helps improve availability of

mungbean seed while access to improved seed remains limited. The project facilitated the

establishment of a mungbean seed producer group in Sawankalok cooperatives. The seed

grower networks were formed by selecting rice farmers in four villages who met the

required conditions. Training was provided to farmers and cooperative staffs to increase

their knowledge on seed production. Registered mungbean seed was distributed to them for

certified seed production. Continuous monitoring, providing technical support and quality

control were conducted with the public and community participation. Farmers’ field day

was organized at the pre-harvest stage to demonstrate seed production technologies to

farmers in neighboring cooperatives. Seed growers realized the benefits from this

rice-based cropping system and adopted the seed production technologies. Farmers grew

the seed individually, but production was organized on a group basis. Total seed production

of 11,780 kg was sold out and farmers economically benefited from the establishment of

seed enterprise. The higher net income from mungbean seed production compared to grain

mungbean production was observed. Despite the lower net income of mungbean seed crop

compared to dry-season rice, the lower costs can result in almost identical BCR. This

project demonstrates the possibility that community-based seed production and mungbean

seed supply could be widely distributed through this system. Limited-resource farmers will

gain easy access to quality seed at reasonable price from their local sources and help

improve food security; however external support remains necessary for this system.

Keywords: community-based seed production, cooperative enterprise, mungbean


81

Impact of Cassava Farming on Local Farmers’ Income and Land Use

in Banteay Chhmar Commune, Thmar Puok District,

Banteay Meanchey Province

Phanny He*, Sovatna Phon and Vichar Chhom



This paper describes the influence of cassava farming on local farmers’ income and

land use in two villages, namely, Trampang Thlok and Thma Daekeh, in Banteay Chmmar

commune, Banteay Meachey province using semi-structured interview, questionnaire

surveys, participatory rural appraisal, direct observation, land use mapping and transect

walk. The results indicated that the income was predominantly from agricultural products,

followed by forest products and working in Thailand. Many small-scale cassava farmers

went to debt because there was no domestic or foreign market for their products. The

deforestation rate was found to be 55 ha and 432 in 2003 and 2005, respectively. The rate

in 2003 was account for almost 8 times lesser than that in 2005. Data extracted from GIS

indicated that the total cleared area was 74 ha, 194 ha, and 1122 ha in 2000, 2003, 2005

and 2009, respectively. The deforestation rate increased gradually to a rate of 155 ha/year

after year 2003 while appreciable change was not observed in 2003. The main reason of

deforestation is due to an increase in population and agricultural commercialization,

particularly, cassava market. The current land use in Trampang Thlok was estimated to be

61 % for cassava farming, 16 % for cleared forest and 23 % for other fruit trees.

Keywords: Banteay Chhmar commune, cassava product, income, land use change


82

The Water Footprint of Energy Crops in Rainfed

and Irrigated Agricultural in Eastern, Thailand

Sanidda Tiewtoy*, Somjai Thanutyot and Chalita Suwan



Under Thailand's 15-year Alternative Energy Plan, Ministry of Energy promotes the

ethanol producing and using to substitute oil use. Two major crops used to produce ethanol

in Thailand are sugarcane and cassava. This research assesses the water footprint (WF) of

sugarcane and cassava under the rain-fed and irrigated scenario in the eastern part of

Thailand, namely Chonburi, Prachinburi and Sakaeo Province. The data of crop

evapotranspiration, the use of fertilizer and yield are required for the estimation of the

water footprint in crop production which based on “The Water Footprint Assessment

Manual” of Hoekstra et al. (2011). The results of this study show that the average WF of

sugarcane in rain-fed and irrigated cultivation are 174 m3.ton-1 (89% green, 11% grey)

and166 m3.ton-1 (74% green, 15% blue, 11% grey), respectively. For cassava, the average

WF in rain-fed and irrigated agriculture are 377 m3.ton-1 (85% green, 15% grey) and 408

m3.ton-1(63% green, 23% blue, 14% grey), respectively. When consider the proportion of

water use, rainfall is still a key factor in the cultivation of sugarcane and cassava. The

results of this study would be useful for stakeholders and policy makers to plan water

management and water allocation appropriately. Moreover, it could be use as basis data of

sub-national water footprint for crop production.

Keywords: water footprint, sugarcane, cassava, energy crops, Thailand


83

Current Status of Clay Mineral Exploitation and Potential for its

Production in the Mekong Delta

Vo Quang Minh* and Le Huu Nghia

* Cantho University, Vietnam


Clay mineral widely distributed in the Mekong Delta, most used as raw materials for

production of bricks. Research results showed that clay minerals in the Mekong Delta

reserves are widely distributed with reserves of 1,364 million m3 and distribution on

836.469.014 m2, reserve capable of mining concentrated in Dong Thap (361 million m3),

Tra Vinh (226 million m3), Vinh Long (278 million m3), Ca Mau (250 million m3), the rest

of the 100 million m3. The province has licensed 1,069 clay mining facility, most of which

is in An Giang province granted to 607 manufactors, Vinh Long has 418 manufactors, Kien

Giang for 8, Dong Thap for 11, Soc Trang for 25. Actual planning and assessment of

potential clay minerals are not synchronized, mining license for the traditional

manufacturers difficult to manage, causing environmental pollution. The potential reserves

of clay present in the Delta can be applied to produce potential products such as:

decorations, paintings, fertilizers, animal feed, cosmetics, raw materials for environment

treatments.

Keywords: clay mineral, products, exploitation


84

Selection of Corn Varieties for Corn Milk Processing

Chakriya Norng*, Chim Chay and Touch Visalsok



Corn milk is a type of beverage made from fresh corn. The study of “selection of corn

varieties for corn milk processing” was conducted for two main purposes: (i) to determine

corn varieties for appropriate corn milk quality and (ii) to evaluate corn mike quality by

sensory test. In this study, two varieties of corn and three level of sugar were selected and

designed into nine treatments which were white corn with four percent sugar (T1), white

corn with six percent sugar (T2), white corn with eight percent sugar (T3), yellow corn

with four percent sugar (T4), yellow corn with six percent sugar (T5), yellow corn with

eight percent sugar (T6), white mixed with yellow corn with four percent sugar (T7), white

mixed with yellow corn with six percent sugar (T8), and white mixed with yellow corn

with eight percent sugar (T9). After getting production, corn milk was analyzed for pH,

brix, and protein; it was also evaluated through sensory test for consumers’ preferences on

color, odor, taste, and sweetness as well as evaluation of acceptable level for consumption.

The results showed that different varieties of corn could be used as raw materials to

enhance different taste, and the result of chemical analysis also presented the appropriate

level, while color, odor sour taste, and overall quality of corn milk were acceptable based

on analysis of sensory test. The white mixed with yellow corn varieties was highest

preference with six percent sugar while white corn varieties with four percent sugar

preferred the lowest one. The conclusion, white mixed with yellow corn variety with six

percent sugar was acceptably the best product among these treatments.

Keywords: corn variety, corn milk


85

Effect of Feed Supplementation on Local Bee Swarming Apis cerana

Channy Chim*



Most bee keepers provide feed to bee colonies for several objects such as encourage

bee activities or disease treatment as well as feed foraging. There are few types of bee diet

farmers use for bee supplementation, and one of which, sugar solution is used widely due

to its price and its desire source as well. For this reason, a study was conducted to

determine the effect of feed supplementation on local bee keeping, particularly on bee

swarming. This experiment used four bee colonies, all of which were randomly divided

into two treatments with two replicates. One treatment was fed sugar solution while other

one was not. The number of Worker cell and Honey cell were weekly examined by directly

count the cell on the comb pictures introduced into Microsoft Word version 2007. Beside,

the feed resource status was a point to consider and note for further evaluation. Sugar

solution with 2:1 proportion was fed in the night every three days per two week interval.

The study revealed that the average rate of the developing-worker egg of both treatments

was similar. The sugar solution treatment produced 553 developing-worker eggs per day

while another treatment could produce 541. Moreover, the honey productions of both

treatments were significant different which feeding treatment produced 461 cells per day

while controlling treatment produced only 350 cells. However, the important thing we

found was the feeding treatment has successful in swarming, but non-thing happened for

another treatment. In conclusion, the sugar supplementations for bee colonies do motivate

bee activities such as foraging and population increasing especially swarming.

Keywords: bee; sugar solution; swarming


86

Seed Production of Silver Barb and Indian Carp for Famers

in Chan Trey District, Svey Reing Province

Dara Touch*



Fish plays a crucial role for rural Cambodian which provides incomes, foods as well as

improve livelihoods in the area. However, the population growth and over use of these

resources has lead to the declining in biodiversity of fish species. To solve this problem,

the modern aquaculture techniques were introduced through the policy of Cambodia.

Although, lack of technical expertise in fish breeding was still problems in expanding

aquaculture which traditional farmers who raise fish recruited from the wild. So, the study

aimed to: study the possibility of semi-artificial fish breeding technique to farmer by using

cylindrical plastic tank, the growth rate of fry in 4 weeks after breeding, and identify the

constraint in fish breeding and fattening process. The study selected a household for the

trial which conducted in three times with two species: Indian carp and silver barb at a

hatchery comprised a 3 m3 cylindrical plastic tanks, a 2 m3 tank as an incubator and a small

tank filled with gravel and sand for treating water discharged into pond. After 4 days of

incubation, the fry were fattened in Hapa for 3 weeks before released directly in pond. The

results showed that first breeding of Indian carp with 2 females: 4 males by using hormone

Superfact, after 5:45h of injection and 12:45h of hatching, fertilizing rate was 52% which

hatching rate was 88% and survival rate was 79%. The second Indian carp, 1 female: 2

males, spending 5:15h after injection and 12:14h for hatching, fertilizing rate was 49%,

69% of hatching rate and 89.5% of survival rate. For silver barb, 4 females: 8 males, after

4:49h of injection, there was only 1female released eggs with hatching about 11:45h,

fertilizing rate was 81%, hatching rate was 73% and 89% of survival rate. Furthermore,

with the fattening in Hapa, the growth rate of first Indian carps’ fry was 0.014g in weight

and 0.82cm in length. For second fry of Indian carp, the growth rate of weight was 0.016g

and growth rate of length was 0.69cm. Fry of third silver barb, moreover, growth rate of

weight was 0.004g and growth rate of length was 1.3cm. The poor results for Indian carp

and silver barb were attributed to the use of well water which tends to have lower dissolved

oxygen, high amounts of arsenic and elevated iron with in a relatively dry province.

Moreover, both species require large amounts of water during incubation.

Keywords: breeding, hatching rate, spawn, fertilizing rate, survival rate.


87

The Composition and Structure of Cattle Holdings in Cambodia

Darith Siek*, Putheany Ung, Chetra Sar, David Bourn and Mom Seng



Cattle husbandry plays a variety of very important roles in the provision of draught

power, meat, manure and household income in rural Cambodia. The purpose of this study

was to assess the composition and structure of cattle holdings in six provinces: Prey Veng

and Kompong Speu; Kampot and Kompong Cham Mondulkiri and Pursat; with high,

medium and low cattle densities, respectively. Standard questionnaires were administered

by face to face interviews with 360 smallholder farming households - sixty in each

province. Four cattle breed types were recognized: indigenous, local type; white crosses;

mountain type; and colored crosses; held by 70%, 42%; 12% and 9% of respondents,

respectively. Forty-four percent of respondents held 1-3 cattle; 35% had 4-6 head; and 21%

had more than 7 head. Four to five percent of cattle holdings were less than six months old;

15-17% between 6-36 months; and 29-30% more than three years old. Most farmers (78%)

expected to increase their cattle holdings; 17% expected their holdings to remain stable;

and 5% expected to reduce their holdings. Cambodian cattle farmers require better

information and advice about breed characteristics, nutrition, disease control, marketing

and sustainable, environmentally sound forms of production.

Keywords: smallholder; cattle breed/type; cattle production; herd structure


88

Value-Adding Cattle through Improved Management: A Case Study

from Kampong Cham Province, Cambodia

Darryl Savage*, Pen Miranda and Lorn Sophal



Because of increasing demand for quality beef products in Phnom Penh and Ho Chi

Minh City, increasing mechanization and new forage and weaning technologies (defined

through ACIAR projects such as AH/2003/008), smallholders now have the opportunity to

reduce their household labour invested in cattle and manage their cattle for profit. On-farm

data collection was undertaken in Kampong Cham province, Cambodia, over a 5-month

period as a series of case studies. The first month was used for selection of farmers and

animals and preparation of cattle pens. The remaining 4 months were dedicated to

implementation of the feeding program and measurement of the on-farm production

activities and outcomes. Two feeding systems were measured in the commercial context; a)

Traditional cattle management (grazing and household tethering) and b) Non-traditional

management, including ad libitum availability of clean water, improved housing and diets

(such as fresh grass and legume supplementation). Improvements in cattle condition and

liveweight change were reported for animals in the non-traditional feeding systems.

Improvements were directly associated with increases in cattle valuation (by commercial

cattle traders) of up to USD$200 over the 4-month feeding period. Traditional feeding

systems were consistently less profitable than non-traditional feeding systems. There was

large variation in production outcomes in the non-traditional feedings systems that are

explored in the paper. This study demonstrated that the ad libitum intake of cattle is much

higher than that expected by participating farmers. Thus, in smallholder farmer operations,

feed quantity is likely to be as important a constraint to cattle productivity as feed quality.

These on-farm data align with the findings from university-based research. Financial

analyses were undertaken indicating large variations in potential profitability of steer

finishing systems, associated with opportunity costs of forage development and daily

labour allocation.

Keywords: cattle, profit, feeding systems, labour


89

Soil Fertility Evaluation for Pepper Cultivation in Phuquoc Islands,

Kien Giang Province, Vietnam

Huynh Van Dinh* and Vo Quang Minh

* Office of Economic office, Kien Giang Province, Vietnam


Pepper in Phuquoc is considered as the key areas in the Mekong Delta area and the

output is always the top ranked area in the country. However, in recent years Phuquoc

pepper yield significant declined, there are signs that the land degradation affects on its

yield. The study aims to provide a overview of soil fertility and efficient use of organic

fertilizers of pepper farmers gardens in Phuquoc. The survey results from 60 pepper

gardens in 3 villages: Duong Cua, Cua Can and Bai Thom, at four pepper age : <5 years,

5-10 years, 10-15 years and> 15 years, divided into two groups: regular use of organic

fertilizers and less use of organic groups. Each garden is taken 02 samples at 0-20 cm and

20-40 cm soil layers and analyze for soil pH, EC, organic matter, CEC, K, Ca, Mg, Na

exchangeable and base saturation. The results showed that the majority of the soil fertility

in Phuquoc pepper gardens in Phuquoc declined, since nutrient content in the soil is very

poor especially organic matter, K+, Ca2+ exchange, CEC is very low. But no difference was

found in garden with less and frequently applied manure, only high in soil Ca2+

exchangeable of frequently apply manure garden. Because in Phuquoc, only few amount of

cow manure was apply for pepper, while very few or not apply other organic or inorganic

fertilizers. Thus, soil fertility in Phuquoc pepper gardens was declined from very poor soil

organic matter and nutrients needed for plants. Such cultivation will not bring long-term

soil fertility declined, loss in its production and economic. Since, it needs to improve soil

fertility from frequently apply of organic fertilizers, as manure, for sustainable pepper

cultivation in Phuquoc islands.

Keywords: pepper, soil fertility, decline, manure


90

The Differentiation of the Agrarian Systems of Kavet Ethnic Minority

Group in Kok Lak Commune (Rattanakiri-Cambodia)

Jean-Christophe Diepart* and Rithy You

* Learning Institute, Cambodia


Over the last 50 years, the agricultural systems in the Northeastern region of Cambodia

have been transformed under multiple economic and political influences. Forest areas,

which were traditionally managed through shifting cultivation, have been transformed by

new land use practices (rice, annual and perennial cash crops production, forest logging,

etc.). These modifications preceded or followed profound changes in land tenure

arrangements that determine the rules and norms to access and control land (privatization,

concessions, community entitlements, forest protection, etc.). The overall objective of the

contribution is to understand the effects that the evolution of land use management and the

intensification of tenure institutions have had on land management and agricultural

practices of ethnic minority groups. Conceptually, the contribution is articulated to the

theory of agrarian system differentiation (Mazoyer and Roudart, 2002). It is based on field

research conducted with Brao-Kavet communities in Kok Lak commune (Rattanakiri

province) and is an incremental part of a long time involvement in the design of

co-management institutions for the Virachey National Park. Research is primarily based on

the agro-ecological knowledge of Kavet communities (Baird, 2011); the tools include

focus group discussions and household surveys combined with analyses of time-series

satellite images. Agrarian systems are apprehended in the context of forced or induced

migrations movement of Kavet people over the last 50 years. The analysis identifies the

spatially differentiated transformations of shifting cultivation in a mosaic of different land

use systems entailing rice and upland crop productions, cashew plantations and a variety of

subsistence and commercial forest activities. The diversity of tenure arrangement and their

evolution is captured through a land control matrix (Le Roy, Karsenty and Bertrand, 1996)

that helps identifying for each specific land use, the diversity of land property right, on the

one hand, and the actual [co]management of land or forest resources, on the other. Along

the evolution of agrarian system, the analysis presents different processes of farming

system differentiation (at household level) that explain why and how different social

groups of farmers are currently endowed with different types of access to and controls over

land and natural resources.

Keywords: agrarian system, shifting cultivation, differentiation, migration, Cambodia


91

Awareness of Conversion from Conventional Farming System to

Sustainable Farming System in Kampong

Cham Province, Cambodia

Jun Fujihira* and Machito Mihara

* Institute of Environment Rehabilitation and Conservation, Japan


In Cambodia, 71% of labor force engages in agricultural sector and it contributes

creating 36% of Gross Domestic Products on 2010. Besides, Cambodia suits for agriculture

because Mekong River and Tonle Sap Lake provide fertile soil to around the country. In

the research site, Samroung commune in Kampong Cham province, almost all of farmers

engage in agriculture. Agriculture is the source of income for farmers. Eleven villages are

located in this commune and 1,792 families are living. Main crop in the commune is rice

and farmers grow rice. Also, some farmers grow vegetables such as cucumber and morning

glory in this area. In this country, conventional farming system based on chemical fertilizer

and pesticide application becomes a major farming style recent years. But the ways how to

apply the purchased agricultural inputs of farmers, especially chemical pesticides, are not

appropriate. It means popular farming systems depending on agro-chemicals are not only

deteriorating natural environment and ecosystem but also affecting health of humans. For

preventing these impacts, attention has been paid to sustainable farming system.

Sustainable farming system is defined as a system that can evolve indefinitely toward

greater human utility, greater efficiency of resource use and a balance with the

environment. But it also has difficulties for applying. For example, especially in the

beginning, it may difficult for farmers to apply techniques effectively because techniques

of sustainable farming system are new techniques. In addition, these techniques needs

more care, load and period for getting maximum effects compared to applying

agro-chemicals. So farmers may be difficult to keep their motivation for adapting

sustainable farming system. So, this study dealt with awareness of conversion from

conventional farming system to sustainable farming system, based on the questionnaire

survey conducted in Samroung commune of Kampong Cham province, Cambodia.

Keywords: sustainable farming system, conventional farming system, awareness,

agro-chemicals, conversion


92

Variation in Cultural, Morphological and Molecular Characteristics,

and Aggressiveness of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides

on Mango in the Philippines

Kim Eang Tho*, Teresita U. Dalisay, Fe M. Dela Cueva and Rowena T. Baconguis



Fifty six pathogenic isolates of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides were isolated from

mangoes cv. ‘Carabao’ in different locations of the Philippines. The isolates were grouped

based on their colony characteristics at five days after incubation on PDA at room

temperature. The variations of the pathogen were done based on cultural, morphological

characteristics and their aggressiveness across different locations. Sequences of the rDNA

internal spacer region (ITS) of the isolates were also analyzed to determine the variation

and grouping based on molecular aspect. Significant differences of growth rate was found

among isolates from different locations (P<0.05). The highest growth rate was found in the

isolates from Laguna. Based on colony characteristics, 7 groups of C. gloeosporioides

isolated mangoes cv. ‘Carabao’ from different locations in the Philippines. The majority of

colony’s characteristics were found as greenish grey, fluffy, raised, medium dense and

formation of acervuli. The conidia varied in size across locations. The conidia dimensions

of the isolates were 12.5-23.3 x 3-7.2µm, and significantly different at (P<0.05) across

locations. The isolates from Davao City produced small conidia, whereas the biggest

conidia were found from Laguna (Calamba) isolates. Different aggressiveness was

observed in different location, in which the isolates from Davao City were the most

virulent. Bootstrap test of phylogeny using UPGMA analysis of the ITS sequences,

classified all of the isolates into 3 major Clades. Clade I had the highest proportion of

about 95% of the total population. No significant relationship between colony

characteristics and ITS region-sequenced molecular groupings of C. gloeosporioides was

found in this study. Neither relationship was seen between the three major geographical

origins of the Philippines and molecular grouping.

Keywords: Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, mango, cultural, morphological,

aggressiveness, molecular, Philippines


93

Effects of Adding Bacillus sp. on Crop Residue Composting

and Enhancing Compost Quality

Liexiang Li* and Machito Mihara

* Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan


Local farmers tended to burn crop residues for simplifying the preparation for the

following cultivation. Along with the environmental conservation policies that were

implemented by the government, local farmers began to consider the adverse effects of

crop residue burning. In this regard, efficient utilization of organic resources through

composting of crop residues has been practiced. The objectives of this study are to find out

the effects of adding Bacillus sp. on composting of crop residues and to observe the effects

of Bacillus sp. added compost on plant growth. The certain number of Bacillus sp. colonies

existing in crop residue and soil were determined by agar culture medium. Composting

was carried out based on the number of Bacillus sp. colonies (cfu) per mass of crop residue

(g): 3×1012, 3×1014 and 3×1016 cfu/g. Carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio and number of

general bacteria were measured once a week. For observing the effects of Bacillus sp.

added compost on plant growth, the pots were prepared as controlled pots, burned crop

residue pots, crop residue pots and Bacillus sp. added crop residue pots. In each pot,

Komatsuna (Brassica rapa) were cultivated. Based on the experimental results, it was

observed that compost with higher number of Bacillus sp. significantly decreased its C/N

ratio with time. Also, it was indicated that Bacillus sp. added crop residue pots have an

average at 1.4 g of crop weight than that of controlled pots having an average only at 0.5 g.

Therefore, adding of Bacillus sp. can promote decomposition in composting of crop

residues and enhance its quality of compost.

Keywords: Bacillus sp., C/N, amount of growth, general bacterial


94

Resource-base Alternative Approach on Rice Bug

(Leptocorisa oratorius fabricius) Management

for Food Security and Biosafety

Marina A. Labonite*



Rice bug is a serious menace at reproductive stage of rice in the Philippines causing

both quantitative and qualitative losses resulting in yield reduction by 14%

(PGCPP-BPI-MAF, 1986). Thus, chemical pesticides become an instant management

strategy in rice culture for many decades until even after users realized its adverse effects

on environment and human health. Though effective, various reports are made on pesticide

residues in food, soil, water, air and overall environment causing health problems

(Magallona, 1985). These problems are more than lessons from the technology. Hence, the

need to seek for an effective alternative pest management approach that also reduces input

costs while assuring supply of safe and nutritious food for man and all useful organisms,

tapping common yet underutilized pest-repellent plant species. Hindu (2002) reported that

companion planting with repellent and trap crops is among the safe but sure ways to

manage the insect pests of crops. Repellents are plants with strong natural aroma that can

ward-off insect pests away. This experimental research determined the usefulness of

resource-base alternative approach on rice bug management using four repellent plant

species. A two-factorial randomized complete block design was employed with sites and

repellent species as factors. The indigenous repellents tested in three replicates per site

were: Bamboo (Bambusa levis Linn.), Erect Shell (ES) Ginger Plant (Catimbium haenkei

Linn.), Malubago (Hibiscus tiliaceus Linn.) and Ginger Plant (Kaempferia galanga Linn.)

with one control treatment as check. Statistical analysis found that the repellents tested

were all effective in reducing rice bug population and infestation compared to the control,

however, Bamboo and Ginger Plant are the most significantly effective. Findings imply

that resource-base alternative approach using repellents is effective in reducing rice bug

population and infestation, thus, useful in preventing its yield loss, in producing safe food

and in making the rice agro-ecosystem safe for the useful organisms.

Keywords: resource-based alternative approach, pest management, food security,

bio-safety, chemical pest management, repellents/repellent species,

highly significant difference.


95

Study on Homestead Vegetation of Plain-land Rural Homes

of the Brahmaputra Basin

Mohammed Ataur Rahman*

* International University of Business Agriculture and Technology, Bangladesh


Detailed study was conducted on traditional homestead vegetation of the Old

Brahmaputra basin to explore the scientific basis of their establishment and cultures.

Unique biodiversity combination and association of hundreds of species including trees,

shrubs, climbers and herbs; terrestrial and aquatic flora are grown in the homesteads. The

diversified vegetation reflects its importance to such a level that, one can say ‘home is

made in vegetation’ or ‘vegetation is raised for the home’. The people of that region are

social, agriculture-dependent and comfort-loving. Single family homes are rare but most of

the homes are with multi-families with same descendants. Usually a home is demarcated

into covered area with houses, kitchen and cow-shed etc., which is about 25%; open area

15%, water source 20%, passage and walkways 5%, vegetation 33%, garbage and latrines

is 2%. Vegetation covers the highest area of a home and is used for essential purposes e.g.

building materials, windbreaks, hedges and fences, fruits and vegetables, drinks and spices,

green manures, mastication, beverages, medicinal, and for beautification etc., with as many

as 190 species in a single home. It is usually grown considering sunlight, face of home,

windbreaks, and habitat. Homes face south or east to get maximum sunlight and aeration

for a healthy environment. Vegetation of a typical village home is nicely modeled with

right plant species considering essentiality, multipurpose uses, easy culture, and growing

habit. Traditional practices and wide-range uses of hundreds of species in a limited space

widened the implication of biodiversity for maximum productivity.

Keywords: traditional practice, homestead vegetation, biodiversity,

maximum productivity


96

Using of Chicken Manure in Vermicompost to Manage

Different Agro Industrial Wastes

Nattakit Petmuenwai*, Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai and Mongkon Ta-oun

* Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kean University, Thailand


The agro-industrial waste has been increasing every year. Without the proper

management, it would cause problems on soil, water and air pollution to environment.

Thus, the objective of this study was to investigate of using chicken manure in

vermicompost of agro-industrial waste. The vermicompost experiment were conduct by

using different agro-industrial wastes (cassava pulp, cassava peel, eucalyptus peel and oil

palm) and the different rates of chicken manure (2.5%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%). The

qualities of each material and vermicompost in different treatment before and after 30 days

were analyzed. Earthworms (Eudrilus eugeniae) could survive 100% in the vermicompost

using chicken manure at rate 2.5 - 25% in cassava pulp, cassava peel and eucalyptus peel

treatments but could not survive in the oil palm treatment. After 30 days, the growth of

earthworm in the vermicompost treatments with cassava pulp, eucalyptus peel, cassava

peel with chicken manure were increased 134%, 188% and 167%, respectively. Therefore,

chicken manure can be used to increase the growth of earthworms in vermicompost using

industrial wastes (cassava peel, cassava pulp, and eucalyptus peel), produce biofertiliser

and reduce environmental pollution problem.

Keywords: chicken manure, earthworm, vermicompost


97

Effects of Supplementation Levels of Sweet Potato Tuber on Energy

Intakes, Growth Rate and Carcass Values of Crossbred Rabbit

Nguyen Thi Kim Dong* and Nguyen Van Thu



To evaluate effects of the supplementation of sweet potato tubers in diets on nutrient

utilization, growth and meat production of growing rabbits, sixty crossbred rabbits

(Californian x local) at 45 days of age (703±51 g/rabbit) were arranged in one experiment

of complete randomized design with 5 treatments and 3 replications. Four rabbits

balancing in sex were used for one experimental unit. The treatments were the

supplementation levels of sweet potato tubers of 0, 10, 20, 30 and 40 gDM/rabbit/day

corresponding to SPT0, SPT10, SPT20, SPT30 and SPT40 treatments, respectively. The

fresh sweet potato tubers were prepared by washing and cut into small slides for feeding.

The feeds used for the experiment were Para grass (Brachiaria mutica), water spinach

leaves, soya waste and extracted soybean meal, in which the Para grass was fed ad libitum.

The experimental results indicated that supplementing SPT at levels of 30 and 40 gDM in

diets significantly (P<0.05) increased for the daily dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM)

and metabolizable energy (ME) intakes. However no significant (P>0.05) intakes of CP,

EE, NDF and ADF were found in diefferent treatments. The daily weight gains (WG) were

significantly different (P<0.05) among the treatments and were 17.8, 19.5, 21.6, 21.9 and

21.9 g/rabbit for the SPT0, SPT10, SPT20, SPT30 and SPT40 treatments, respectively.

Similarly, the carcass weight values were significantly different (P<0.05) among the

treatments with highest value for the SPT30 treatment. The economic analysis showed that

the profits were higher for the SPT20, SPT30 treatments and they were 22,054 and 21,404

VND/kgWG, respectively. It was concluded that the SPT supplementation to crossbred

rabbit diets should be recommended being from 20 to 40 gDM/rabbit/day to improve the

growth performance, profit and sustainable production.

Keywords: rabbit, soluble carbohydrate, supplements, improvement, meat production,

economic return


98

Influence of Different Kinds of Fertilizers that Affect Productivity

and Quality of Maize in the Region of Kwaew Noi Dam,

Phitsanulok Province, Thailand

Pumisak Intanon*

* Naresuan University, Thailand


The purpose of this project is to increase the productivity and quality of corn output.

An experiment was done at the Region of Kwaew Noi Dam, Phitsanulok province from

June 2011 to September 2011. The experiment design was in RCBD of 6 treatments with 3

replications, totally 18 treatments. The treatments conclude of T0 control (no fertilizer), T1

(pellet organic fertilizer from farm manure), T2 (granular organic mixed bio-fertilizer), T3

(chemical and granular organic fertilizer), T4 (chemical fertilizer applied by soil analysis

programs) and T5 (chemical and granular organic fertilizer mixed with hormones). The

fertilizer for each treatment was 50 kilograms per Rai (1Rai=1600m2), using corn as a test

plant of species: NK#48. The vegetative growths data was recorded in every 10 days and

the yields and yield components data was also collected when harvesting. According to

results of studies analyzing the chemical properties of fertilizer was found that the most

highest values of major nutrients are nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus, respectively. The

highest major elements contained is T4 method. The highest micro nutrients contained is

T5 method. From study results on the vegetative growths of the stem height, stem size,

leave length and leave width, it was found that T4 represents the highest to T5, T3, T2, T1

and T0, respectively. This corresponds to the level of nitrogen contained in the manure.

According to study results of yield components in sheath length, sheath width, sheath

weight, 100 seeds weight. It was found that T4 represents maximum to T5, T3, T2, T1 and

T0, respectively. The results on productions per Rai, it was also found that the most weight

yield per Rai being the T4, T5, T3, T2, T1 and T0 methods is 1319, 1305, 970, 857, 775

and 428 kilograms per Rai, respectively. The T4 and T5 methods provide similarly

maximum yields and they are not statistical differences.

Keywords: fertilizer, influence of fertilizer, maize, corn


99

Agricultural Practice and Constraints of Ethnic Minority

in Saom Ka Ninh Village

Putheany Ung*, Sophal Lorn, Sokha Thim,

Kouch Theng, Somany Mam and Mom Seng



Ratanakiri is one of the provinces located northeast remote areas of Cambodia. There is

ethnic minority group in some areas of this province. This group livelihood is mainly

connected to agriculture. The study was conducted aiming at understanding their current

practice and constraints in agriculture. Saom Ka Ninh village, Saom Thum commune, Ou

Ya Dav district, Ratanakiri, was selected which a total of 292 households mainly ethnic

minority exist. Information was collected using key information interview, participatory

diagnosis (PD) and secondary data collection during August to October 2012. Household

livelihood of the ethnic minority mainly engages with cash crop production, mainly

cassava and soybean, as the first most important source of household income; following by

livestock raising used for disposable income generation and for meat supplying in any

ethnic minority cultural occasions; the seasonally-harvested cashew nut for cash; the rice

product most needed for household consumption and less for selling; and also vegetables

for only household consumption. The respondents raised concern on insufficient planting

land, infertile-becoming soil, and market inflation of crop price; as the main challenges on

the crop production. With the increasing village population and no traditional practice of

the slash and burn cultivation, the planting land cannot be accessed sufficiently. The crop

land becomes infertile annually because of soil erosion, of most mono-cropping practice,

and of never using fertilizers into the crop land. Additionally, the animal free-ranch system

with inadequate natural grass field and infectious diseases are key constraints on

smallholder livestock rearing. The free-ranch system into the forest causes loss of some of

animals particularly cattle and buffalo herds and their calves died because of poor

management. There is needed for technical support to improve soil fertility, and less free

range for livestock to contribute to improving the ethnic minority’s livelihoods with

sustainable communal resources.

Keywords: agricultural practice, ethnic minority, Saom Ka Ninh village, Cambodia


100

Effect of the Organic Materials from Agro Industrial Wastes

(Molasses and Distillery Slop) on Earthworm under

the Vermicomposting Using Cassava Waste

Ratchanee Wongkogsoong*, Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai and Mongkon Ta-oun

* Khon Kean University, Thailand


The agro industrial wastes management is needed due to the increasing of wastes

nowadays, vermicomposting technology has been offered as the alternative methods.

However, before application of each waste, the study of effects of waste on earthworm

needs to be done. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of the organic

material on earthworms in vermicompost process. The experimental design was conducted

by completely randomized design with three replicates. The toxicity test of organic

material (molasses and distillery slop) on the survival and the growth of earthworms in

vermicompost from cassava industrial wastes were monitored. The result found that after 7

days, earthworm could survive 100% under the concentration of molasses at the rate of

1.25 - 3.75% and the concentration of distillery slop at rates of 6.25 - 25%. In addition, the

application of organic materials (molasses and distillery slop) by mixing with cassava

industrial wastes which increased the growth of earthworms. The survival of earthworm

after 3 weeks in the vermicompost treatment with using of molasses mixed with cassava

pulp and cassava peel were 67 - 100% but without cassava pulp and cassava peel,

earthworms could not survive. Similar result was found with the application of distillery

slop mixed with cassava pulp and cassava peel. Therefore, the suitable rates of using

molasses and distillery slop on earthworm survival were 1.25 - 3.75% and 6.25-25%,

respectively. In conclusion, molasses and distillery slop can be used with cassava industrial

wastes material in vermicomposting.

Keywords: organic material, earthworms, vermicompost


101

The Effect of Pyrantel and Albendazle on Toxocara vitulorum

in Cattle and Buffalo Calves

Rortana Chea*, Meas Sothy, David Hole, Wittigrai Boonkum,

Chea Bunthon,Theng Kouch and Cheat Sophal



Toxocara vitulorum (T.v) is an ascarid nematode with a high prevalence of infection in

water buffalos, cattle and zebu in tropical and subtropical regions. It causes the serious

infection to young cattle, so there is a study of “Effect of Pyrantel Pamoate and

Albendazole on T.v in cattle and buffalo calves in Kampong Chhnang province,

Cambodia”. Faecal samples were taken from 155 calves, age 2 weeks to 12 weeks old to

inspect for the presence of eggs of T.v. They were treated with two drugs: (1) 7 calves were

treated with Pyrantel Pamoate dosed of 25 mg/kg body weight and (2) 7 were treated with

Albendazole dosed at 7.5 mg/kg body weight and all were resample two weeks later to

evaluate the effect of the drugs. The Egg per gram (EPG) count was conducted before and

after each treatment using Mc Master Technique. Fourteen samples (9 less than 4 week and

9 older than 4 week) were contaminated with T.v with a geometric mean of 2680 EPG and

range 50- 72600 EPG. The prevalence of T.v in Kampong Chhnang was 9.03%. Analyzing

with group t.test shown that, P >0.05 indicates that a greater sample size would be required

to detect a non-significant prevalence. There is not any eggs were found second samples.

As a result, the efficacy of either Pyrantel Pamoate or Albendazole is 100%. The result

suggested that people should use Pyrantel Pamoate or Albendazole at least one time for

prophylactic treatment of parasitic disease in their calves less than 3 month of age to kill

T.v and chose which drug is easy to use. Moreover, they should employ best-practice

hygiene in their animal-raising farms.

Keywords: Toxocara vitolorum, prevalence, Pyrantel Pamoat, Albendazole


102

Indigenous Peoples’ Land Use Management Systems in the

Northeastern Cambodia: Pressures and

Resources for Sustainability

Sam Chanthy* and Clemens Grunbuhel



Indigenous peoples have a long history of natural resource use in Cambodia, which is

guided by their tradition and culture. The laws of Cambodia have recognized various

ethnic groups and grant them the same rights and social status as general citizens. This

paper discusses traditional land use and management systems, presents the pressures

affecting their practices and suggests what resources are needed to sustain their traditional

systems. The paper draws on current literature to capture and understand variety and

different perceptions of indigenous land use and highlight the importance of the forest as

the main source of subsistence and income. The paper explores land management by

focusing on traditional institutions, such as communal decision-making as well as

communal and individual ownership. Several land use systems are distinguished, which

highlight the diversity and multi-functionality of traditional economies. Finally, the paper

identifies and classifies external pressures from development projects including

hydropower, mining and tourism, which threaten and endanger traditional resources and

their use systems. We conclude by identifying ways to reduce stresses on indigenous

communities and their resources to help guarantee the secure livelihoods together with

their traditions.

Keywords: land use management system, indigenous peoples, natural resources,

ownership, development pressures


103

Assessing the Most Suitable Nitrogen Application Approach for

Maximum Yield of Mulato II and Minimal Leaching

Sela Phon*, Mom Seng, Khoun Eng,

Sophoan Rith Ro, Songly You and Tassilo Tiemann



A survey in Kampong Cham, Cambodia showed that farmers differ highly in their use

of fertilizer to raise productivity of their forage plots. While common recommendations are

in a range of 100-200kg N/ha, farmers in Kampong Cham used between 50 and up to

1000kg N/ha, claiming that this was needed to keep productivity high. Excessive fertilizer

use is not only a waste of financial resources making animal production less profitable. It is

also harmful to the environment. A pot experiment under natural rain regime was carried

out in four replicates to measure the yield response of Mulato II grass to four levels of

nitrogen (Control, N1 = 50, N2 = 100, N3 = 200 and N4 = 300 kg/ha/6 months) and two

types of fertilizer (urea and compost), applied every two weeks or every two months.

Additionally, N losses through leaching were determined by collecting excess water. As

pots, 70l plastic barrels were used and filled with a typical Cambodian subsoil. N analysis

in plants and soils was done using the Kjeldahl method. The results indicate that an

application of 400 kg N/ha/year split in small, regular doses every 2 weeks results in the

highest conversion efficiency into plant nitrogen. Higher doses seem to result in excessive

leaching losses. Fewer applications (every 2 months) result equally in higher losses and

markedly lower conversion. Replacing half of urea as N-source by compost did not result

in significantly different N-conversion rates or leaching losses.

Keywords: Mulato II grass, N-leaching, N-conversion rate, Kjeldahl


104

Physiological and Quality Changes of Tong Dum Mango

Stored in Different Temperature

Somchai Rattanamalee*

* Nakhon Phanom University, Thailand


Mango (Mangifera indica L.) cv. Tong Dum is the one of most popular tropical fruits.

It has important commercial of Thailand and cultivate in every part of the country. Product

of mango fruits use for both domestic and exporting but it has many problems about

quality after harvesting so this research was to investigate on postharvest physiological

change by stored Tong Dum mango fruits in different temperatures. The first lot was stored

at ambient temperature (average 27.6 °C) second lot was stored in air condition

temperature (average 22.8 °C) and third lot was stored in cold temperature (average -1

°C). This experiment was laid out by CRD (completely randomized design) with 3

treatments and 5 replications. The result indicated that mangoes stored in air condition

temperature (22.8 °C) ripened in 6 days had highest total soluble solids content (TSS)

average 17.38% was higher than TSS of mangoes stored in ambient temperature (27.6°C)

which ripened in 4 days had TSS average 16.43 % was found significant difference

(p<0.05). Furthermore, was higher than TSS of mangoes stored in cold temperature (-1 °C)

which had TSS average 9.33 % and was statistically significant (p<0.01). Titratable acidity

(TA) of ripened mangoes stored in air condition temperature (22.8 °C) was lowest average

0.44% and gave the highest TSS/TA to 39.23 , had sweet taste better than mangoes stored

in ambient and cold storage which was TSS/TA 29.43 and 10.79 respectively. In addition to,

weight loss of mangoes stored in air condition temperature was lowest at 9.4 % while

weight loss of mangoes stored in cold temperature was highest at 23 %.

Keywords: ripening, mango, storage temperature


105

The Occurrence on Rice Yield of Plant - Parasitic Nematodes in

Different Rice Ecosystems in Three Cambodian Provinces

Sophal Chuong* and Kimkhuy Khun


E-mail: sophal1954@hotmail

Plant parasitic nematode, especially also root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp), have

been document to constrain rice and vegetable production in countries neighboring

Cambodia. In case of Cambodia, nematode parasite on rice has never been researched. The

objective of the research was studied about the occurrence of nematodes in different soil

texture, and to know about the occurrence of nematodes on different rice material. This

research was conducted in Kompong Thom (sand clay loam), Takeo and Kompot province

(Sand) and consists of 2 seasons and 3 phases (vegetative phase, reproductive phase and

ripening phase) which have 480 samples in total. Nematodes extraction was done in

nematology laboratory of Faculty of Agronomy of Royal University of Agriculture by

using of sieving method and tray method. The result shown that nematode parasites were

occurred in all soil samples and soil type. Yet, it is just different in population between

sandy and sandy clay loam soil that was about 1085 and 694 consequently. In addition,

nematode occurrence were different on plant material namely root, leaf, flower and seed,

which was about 100%, 74.26%, 19.78% and 19.30% respectively. As the result, nematode

was presented in all soil type in target areas. In contrast, parasitic nematodes were more

existed on root compare to another plant material. Meanwhile study of plant-parasitic

nematodes taxonomy is the most important step in order to know about its different

affected on plant. For instance, further study of plant-parasitic management, plant-parasitic

biology and population dynamic are also prior step for nematology research in order to

identify a suitable management which are good for environment and income benefit.

Keywords: nematodes, parasite, rice, soil texture, Cambodia


106

The Landscape Agroforestry Modeling for Sufficiency Economy in

Huai Raeng-Klong Peed Watershed at Trat Province, Thailand

Sukanya Chaipong*

* Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University, Thailand


This research considered the sufficiency economy theory to conduct land use modeling

on landscape scale. Land suitability method is procedure to encounter the land suitability,

and integrated with Analysis Hierarchy Process (AHP) to evaluate criteria and indicators.

The specific objectives of this research are to study key performances to indicate the

agroforestry and to develop the model achieve to agroforestry under sufficiency economy.

In addition, landscape agroforestry map was established in study area through to

sufficiency economy. Indices in the modeling were investigated weighted by literature

reviews and expert scoring. The agroforestry indices (AFI) are shown as follows,

AFI=[[10((0.1ROM)+(0.69RERO)+(0.21RSPD))]+[8((0.30RICD)+(0.09RNFI)+(0.61RRU))]+[10((0.17RLHS)+(0.83RALU))]]/28

where AFI is agroforestry indices, ROM is ranking of organic matter, RERO is ranking of

soil erosion, RSPD is ranking of species diversity, RICD is ranking of income distribution,

RNFI is ranking of net farm income, RRU is ranking of resource using, RLHS is ranking of

land holding size and RALU is ranking of acceptation of land use. The landscape

agroforestry indices (LAFI) are shown as follows,

LAFI=[[10((0.09RSOT)+(0.61RSLP)+(0.30RDTW))]+[7((0.83RICD)+(0.17RCON))]+(10RACC)]/27

where LAFI is landscape agroforestry indices, RSOT is ranking of soil types, RSLP is

ranking of slope, RDTW is ranking of distance to water, RWCL is ranking of watershed

classes, RCON is ranking of conservation area and RACC is ranking of access to main road.

The AFI and LAFI were measured in sampling plot of each land use types and secondary

data. They were taken into AFI and LAFI equations to establish landscape agroforestry

map. Therefore, AFI and LAFI can be used for land use planning in sufficiency economy

aspect.

Keywords: agroforestry, landscape agroforestry, modeling, sufficiency economy


107

Assessment of the Up-scaling Potential of Forage-based

Feeding Systems for Livestock in Cambodia

Tassilo Tiemann*, Lorn Sophal, Pen Miranda and Darryl Savage

* International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Laos PDR


The rationale of this study was to identify crucial factors for up-scaling a new forage

based livestock feeding system and pinpoint common constraints preventing the efficient

uptake of such systems. Based on animal numbers, need and estimated potential. The set

goal was to introduce the new system to four villages of different cultural groups in Takeo

and Pursat provinces within six months in the late wet season. Independently, a survey was

undertaken at project sites of partners, NGOs or government organizations who had

introduced this feeding system earlier, to identify common constraints of up-scaling

processes in the smallholder livestock sector. The introduction happened in a participatory

approach: After interested farmers were identified, information was shared at village

learning sessions. Farmers received support in selecting suitable plots and were later

provided with vegetative planting material if they had prepared their plot in advance and

would establish immediately. Every farmer received intensive follow-up from project and

local extension staff that got separately trained to fulfill this task. Within two months,

feeding started and farmers quickly recognized the benefit of the system and took care of it.

The survey at other sites showed that intensive support during the establishment phase is

crucial to success, especially for plot selection. More than 35% of farmers had to re-plant

their plots 1-2 times due to unsuitable plot selection. Assessing village rules may help to

find early solutions for protecting forage plantations from free ranging animals. All cases

of failure indicated that farmers did not receive sufficient training, information or

follow-up support to plan their activity thoroughly. The income generation potential of the

systems also often remained unclear to farmers. We conclude that the up-scaling potential

of the developed technology is high but the required intensive support and training of

farmers and extension staff is often insufficient.

Keywords: livestock, forages, adoption, constraints, flooding


108

Changes in Soil Nitrous Oxide and Carbon Dioxide Dynamics

After Digested Liquid Cattle Manure Application

Tomonori Fujikawa* and Masato Nakamura

* Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan


The aim of this study was to clarify the changes in N2O and CO2 emission from the soil

surface, their concentrations in soil gases, and gas diffusion fluxes after application of

digested liquid manure (DL) produced by anaerobic digestion of cattle manure slurry. N2O

emission increased more and faster after application of DL than after application of

conventional inorganic fertilizer. Based on cumulative N2O emission, the N2O emission

rate from the DL was 0.25% of the applied nitrogen. CO2 emission after the DL application

also increased, and the CO2 emission ratio from the DL was 33% of the applied C. Soil

N2O concentration increased after DL application. The highest soil N2O concentration

occurred earlier than the largest N2O emission, which suggests that the increase in N2O

emission is delayed near the soil surface. CO2 concentrations near the surface increased 14

days after DL application, but the increase was small. Near the soil surface, air-filled pore

space and gas diffusivity after DL application were larger than those after the application

of inorganic fertilizer. The largest N2O diffusion flux was observed near the surface, and a

negative flux was observed in deeper layers 14 days after DL application. The difference in

the CO2 flux between deeper and surface layers of the flux was smaller than for N2O. This

suggests that the contribution of CO2 generation in deeper layers is larger than that of N2O

after DL application.

Keywords: methane fermentation, gas concentration, gas diffusion, greenhouse gases,

soil carbon


109

Effect of Organic Manure and Crop Rotation on Rice Growth and

Yield in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam

Tran Ba Linh*, Wim Cornelis, Vo Thi Guong and Le Van Khoa

* Ghent University, Belgium

E-mail: [email protected] or [email protected]

Continuous monocultures of rice inside dykes can lead to reduced soil quality and a

decline in rice yield. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effect of organic

manure and rotations with rice and upland crops on rice growth, rice yield and rice yield

components on an alluvial soil in the Mekong Delta. A field experiment was conducted for

10 years at Cai Lay district – Tien Giang province using a randomized complete block

design with four replications and six treatments: (1) rice – rice – rice (as farmers’ practice),

(2) rice – rice – rice + 10 tons organic manure per crop season, (3) rice – maize - rice, (4)

rice - maize (+ 10 tons organic manure) - rice, (5) rice – mungbean - rice, and (6) rice –

mungbean - maize. Results showed that the rotation of rice with upland crop led to a

significant increase in rice plant height, total tillers, panicle per m2, filled grain percentage,

1,000 grain weight and harvest index in comparison with the conventional practice. Adding

organic soil amendment also resulted in an increase in plant height, total tillers, panicle per

m2 compared with the rice treatment without adding compost. Temporal total biomass was

reduced under mono rice cultivation system. Soil compaction effectively reduced total

biomass due to decreased root development. As a consequence, cropping systems with

upland crops in rotation and organic manure as amendment showed positive effects on rice

yield. Grain yield in rice monocultures was reduced, largely due to a reduction in fertile

panicle and filled grain percentage. All treatments involving rotations of rice with maize,

mungbean or maize and mungbean, and application of organic manure, resulted in

improved NPK uptake. NPK uptake was lower in the continuous rice cultivations when

compared to the rice-upland crop rotations and to the rice treatment with adding compost.

Our study demonstrated that rice in rotation with upland crop or rice monocultures with

application of organic manure is recommended to improve rice productivity.

Keywords: alluvial soil, organic manure, crop rotation, rice growth and yield,

Mekong Delta.


110

Comparison of Rice-Husk Biochar and Wood-Charcoal Debris

Effectiveness on Soil-Chemical Properties and

Batavia Lettuce Yield

Uy Piseth*



Soil is the most necessary factor urging the agricultural sector to be improved. So, the

maintenance of soil quality is very important so that agricultural productivities can be

increased. There are so many materials that can be used to the maintenance of soil quality;

especially acid soil amendment and a part saving environment, but the effectiveness of

those materials are not the same. This study is conducted in purpose to compare the

effectiveness of rice husk biochar and wood charcoal debris on soil chemical properties

and yield of batavia lettuce. In this case, rice husk biochar and wood charcoal debris

samples are analyzed to determine nutrients, nitrogen phosphorus and potassium. The

study on soil chemical properties focuses on the changes of dose of pH and cation

exchange capacity of soil mixed with rice husk biochar and soil mixed with wood charcoal

debris in comparison to plain soil. Soil pH and cation exchange capacity analysis are

launched while small batavia lettuces are planted. Soil sampling for analysis are divided

into three stages: stage 1 is conducted while small batavia lettuces are planted, stage 2 is

conducted while batavia lettuces are 21 days and stage 3 is conducted while batavia

lettuces are 45 days and it is time to harvest. Base on the result clearly shown that rice husk

biochar is a material which is important for agricultural sector, because it contains more

amount of nitrogen phosphorus and potassium nutrients compared to wood charcoal debris

and is more effective to soil chemical properties by increasing dose of pH in acidity

adjusting to be appropriate for crop plants and dose of cation exchange capacity and

getting high yield of batavia lettuce. In conclusion, rice husk biochar is a material having

higher effectiveness in increasing and maintaining soil quality and increases more yield of

batavia lettuce compared to wood charcoal debris.

Keywords: effectiveness, biochar, charcoal, chemical, lettuce


111

Economics of Weed Management in Maize in Pilin Province Cambodia

Van Touch*, Robert J. Martin and J. Fiona Scott



In Pailin Province, Cambodia, small-holder farm households derive most of their

income from upland cash crops such as cassava, maize, soybean, mungbean and sesame.

Since the end of the Khmer Rouge civil war in 1998, large areas of rainforest have been

cleared opening the way for rapid expansion of cropping, especially maize. The crop

expansion has occurred on ferrosols and vertosols which had high initial fertility after

clearing. Continuous cropping with maize has resulted in a decline in soil fertility and an

increase in losses due to biotic factors, especially weeds, have contributed to a decline in

maize yields. Due to the increased cost of agricultural labour, farmers have rapidly taken

up the use of herbicides for weed control in maize. A survey of 88 households in 6 villages

was carried out to determine the effectiveness and economics of weed control methods for

maize being used by farmers. The results indicate that farmers are moving away from the

traditional two cultivations for land preparation and two in-crop hand weedings. This has

been due to replacement of the second ploughing with pre-sowing glyphosate and the

replacement of hand-weeding with selective in-crop herbicides in response to the cost and

scarcity of labour. Although the current herbicide-based system for maize is working well,

it is not likely to be sustainable without crop rotations and use of a wider range of

herbicides. Maize crops in Pailin are being invaded by Sorghum weed species, and these

species are not controlled by the commonly used atrazine. Rotation of crops and herbicides

will be necessary to prevent a build up of naturally resistant weeds and development of

genetic herbicide resistance in weed populations.

Keywords: economics, weeds, maize, herbicide, cultivation


112

A Response of Rumen Parameters and Microbial Protein Synthesis of

Swamp Buffaloes to Sesbania grandiflora

and Molasses Supplementation

Van Thu Nguyen * and Thi Kim Dong Nguyen



To evaluate the effects of the crude protein (CP) and metabolizable energy (ME) from

locally available feed resources in diets on rumen environment, nutrient digestibility and

purin derivatives, four male swamp buffaloes of 250±7.0 kg (X±SE) was arranged in one

experiment of 4*4 Latin square design with 4 treatments. The treatments were rice straw +

Para grass (1), (1) + 0.2% leaves of Sesbania grandiflora (2), (1) + 0.4% leaves of

Sesbania grandiflora (3) and (3) + 0.1% molasses (4) corresponding to RP, RPS0.2,

RPS0.4 and RPS0.4M0.1 treatments. The levels (%) of Sesbania leaves and molasses

added to diets was based on buffalo live weight (dry matter basis). The experimental

period was 2 weeks with one week for dietary adaptation and one week for sampling. Rice

straw was offered buffaloes in ad libitum, while Para grass (Brachiaria mutica) was fed at

a level of 0.63 % live weight (dry matter basis). The results showed that Sesbania

grandiflora and molasses supplementation significantly improved (P<0.05) dry matter

(DM), organic matter (OM), crude protein (CP) and metabolizable (ME) intakes; and

increased apparent DM, OM and CP digestibility, but had no effect (P>0.05) on neutral

detergent fiber (NDF) and acid detergent fiber (ADF) digestibility. The purine derivatives

excretion and efficiency microbial protein synthesis in buffaloes were significantly

increased (P<0.05) with the highest value for the RPS0.4M0.1 treatment. The conclusion

was that supplementation of Sesbania grandiflora and molasses to diets should be done to

improve the nutrient and ME intakes, rumen environment and microbial protein synthesis

of growing swamp buffaloes.

Keywords: nitrogen, carbohydrate, supplement, allatoin, uric acid, ruminants


113

Changes in Surviving Microorganism in Cow Manure

with Lime Nitrogen Adding

Yuta Ishikawa* and Machito Mihara



Pathogenic bacteria known as E. coli may survive in cow manure and may efflux from

upland fields where cow manure was applied. So, treating of E.coli through fermentation

process has been focused. It has been considered that air drying method was effective

method for decreasing E.coli. However, this treatment may possibly eliminate not only

pathogenic bacteria but also beneficial bacteria for decomposition. This study aimed to

investigate the changes in number of E.coli, coliform bacteria and general bacteria during

the fermentation of cow manure under lime nitrogen adding treatment. Samples used were

fresh cow dung, 2weeks and 12 weeks fermented manure. Lime nitrogen was added to all

three types of dung samples then were kept in incubator within 14 days. Sampling, stirring

and supplying of physiological saline were conducted. Based on the experimental results,

there was a significant decrease in E.coli and coliform bacteria in cow manure after adding

of lime nitrogen; however there was no decrease in general bacteria. It was observed that

controlling to pH 9.0 in cow manure samples is appropriate for decreasing E.coli and

coliform bacteria during cow manure fermentation with minimum damage to general

bacteria. Therefore, it was concluded that treating of cow manure by adding lime nitrogen,

especially controlling to around pH 9.0, is an effective strategy for sterilizing pathogenic

bacteria such as E.coli and other coliform bacteria with minimum damage to general

bacteria.

Keywords: Escherichia coli, general bacteria, lime nitrogen, cow dung, pH


114

The Concept of Sustainable Development in Indonesia’s Forest Law

(Case Study: Tesso Nilo’s National Park in Pelalawan Regency,

Riau Province, Indonesia)

Sri Wahyuni A. Kadir*

* Islamic University of Riau, Indonesia


Tesso Nilo National Park, have forest area approximately 153 000 hectare located in

the 4th district in Riau Province. Tesso Nilo is one of eight blocks of natural forests.

Pelalawan Regency is one of the regencies in Riau Province which is known as a district

that is rich in natural resources. With the rich resources, should be able to provide benefits

to economic development, community life as well. While the mobility of people from the

other side against the interests of forestry potential is so high, resulting in the emergence of

bad things to the preservation of forests and the environment of the forest resource itself. In

line with rapid population growth and increasing demand for wood, plantations and

agricultural land expansion, and excessive timber industry practices coupled with the level

of exploitation of forest resources on a large scale through large scale cultivation without

any effort adequate conservation and rehabilitation, as well as policy issues that are less

supportive of forest conservation and forest law enforcement failures increased the level of

deforestation / forest loss. This type of research used in this study was survey research

(Observation Research). As for the population and sample selection was done by purposive

sampling or selection of a deliberate consideration of respondents were actors or

(stakeholders) which consists of three different stakeholder groups on the basis of formal

and informal institutions. The group was the Government, Society, and other groups that

were not incorporated in the two previous groups. The factor that more specifically affect

the implementation of Forest law as follows: Boundaries are not yet complete, lack of

quality and quantity of personnel, lack of quality and quantity of personnel, The existence

of tenure and encroachment, the land use designation that is inconsistent with (oil palm,

rubber and acacia, etc), the existence of settlements in the region, there is still logging /

timber theft, Prone to fire, Overlap with plantation, Weak oversight of the access road

around region, and lack of coordination among relevant agencies. Governments need to

improve the coordination system to each relevant agency to carry out protection and

conservation of the Tesso Nillo forest areas as well as enforcing in the law against any

encroachment and violations under the legislation.

Keywords: environment, environmental law, forest, forest law


115

Application of VIKOR Method to Sustainability Assessment

for Rural Road Project Selection Problem

Thoedtida Thipparat*, Thongpoon Thaseepetch and Vibol San

* Rajamangala University of Technology, Thailand


For the development of the northern highlands of Thailand, rural roads are important.

Rural roads project will contribute to poverty reduction. They provide access to

agricultural watersheds, allowing the transport of crops to markets. However, project

feasibility studies are based on financial criteria rather than economic, social or ecologic

criteria. This study conducted a model for selecting a sustainable rural road project. Four

rural road projects were compared in terms of their impacts on sustainable development,

using a VIKOR method. Civil engineers performed the assessment and they found that the

R1 project was a greener rural road project than other projects. The outcome could have

been different if the assessment had been performed by real stakeholders and

decision-makers instead of only civil engineers. Nevertheless, the study confirmed that

VIKOR can be an efficient method for decision-making especially in a complex situation

relating to sustainable development.

Keywords: rural road, project selection, VIKOR


116

The Politics of Fish: Factors Behind State Interventions in

Tonle Sap, Cambodia

Thol Dina* and Jin Sato

* Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Japan


Natural resources are not only the source of economic benefit, but also provide the

space for the state to extend its power. Many governments have introduced a number of

state-led technologies to manage and exploit natural resources, which have had the effect

of controlling those utilizing the resources. In Cambodia, the government has undertaken

two major interventions in the previous decade. In 2001, the government reformed the

country’s management and regulations of its fisheries by reducing the fishing lots of Tonle

Sap, designating 56 percent of private fishing sites as open access areas, ratifying the

fisheries law, and encouraging villagers to create community fisheries to govern these

areas. In 2011, the government again intervened in Tonle Sap through the closure of all

fishing lots, allocating more than 70 percent of the areas to communal use, and firing

certain high-ranking fisheries officers. These interventions in the great lake trigger a

question: what was the rationale behind these state measures, particularly when the state

itself had acknowledged the declining economic significance of the fishery sector in the

national economy? The government has always indicated that the main objectives of their

intervention in Tonle Sap were conflict reduction and conservation of the lake’s resources.

However, this paper demonstrates that there are other plausible reasons such as the

pretence of accountability to win elections and bureaucratic politics among the related

agencies. Understanding these wider motivations of the state will also help those who wish

to strengthen conservation and poverty reduction in this area.

Keywords: state intervention, Tonle Sap, fishing lots, resources politics,

democratic decentralization, and civil society


117

Improvement of Farm Weather Forecast in the Philippines Through

Rainfall and Sea Surface Temperature Correlation

Moises A. Dorado*, Hiromichi Toyoda and Sawahiko Shimada

* University of the Philippines Los Baños, Philippines


Sequences of wet and dry days are information that are relevant for crop production

especially for plants that are highly dependent on rainfall for their water requirements such

as rice which is widely grown in the Philippines. The timing of the availability of water is

also crucial because the effect of the absence or presence of water is different for every

stage of crop development. Many studies have established significant relationship between

the occurrence of rainfall and sea surface temperature (SST). SST has been effectively

used in the prediction of the coming of El Niño and La Niña. Being able to establish a

correlation between the wet and dry day sequences of rainfall and SST will provide

significant information that will greatly improve the farm weather forecast. Farmers in the

Philippines rely on farm weather forecast for performing their day to day farm activities.

Correlation between wet and dry day sequences of rainfall and SST was established for the

rice areas in the Philippines. The cross-spectrum analysis performed on the frequency

components of the two series showed strong correlation in most of the rice areas studied.

The results indicate that SST can be used to forecast the wet and dry day sequences with at

least four months lead time, thus improving the farm weather forecast.

Keywords: forecast, rainfall, sea surface temperature, correlation, wet and dry day

sequences


118

Land Use Assessment for Proposing Sustainable Farming

Practices in El Jicaral, Mixteca Region, Mexico

Sergio Azael May Cuevas* and Machito Mihara



El Jicaral is an indigenous community of around one thousand inhabitants, located in

the Municipality of Coicoyán de las Flores, Mixteca Region, Mexico. This region is

characterized for being one of the poorest regions in Mexico, with high levels of land

degradation, deforestation and water shortages. Even though several studies have been

undertaken to estimate the region’s area affected by soil degradation, the findings derived

from these studies cannot described accurately the conditions in the community, especially

for scale differences, and hence appropriate sustainable farming practices are difficult to be

proposed. For this reason, this study dealt with the assessment of the present land

degradation condition in the study area, using a satellite map obtained from Google Earth

and through the identification and classification of several variables, namely vegetation

density, slope, steepness, land use, elevation, soil type, among others, to propose the most

suitable farming practice for mitigating land degradation.

Keywords: land use assessment, sustainable development, Mixteca


119

Impact of Deep-Sea Port on Coastal Area: A Case Study of

Songkhla, Thailand

Aekkarak Faiboon* and Sompratana Ritphring

* Marine and Coastal Resources Institute, Prince of Songkhla University, Thailand


This study aims to clarify the influence of deep-sea port on coastal area. Port of

Songkhla situated at the entrance of Songkhla Lake in the Lower Gulf of Thailand since

1988. The dominant wave bring about northward longshore sediment; consequently, the

510 m long quay comprised with approximately 1,800 m long of harbor breakwater

interrupt the sediment transport and produce northward severe erosion. The 13 data sets of

aerial photographs and satellite images taken before and after the construction of the

reclaimed land between 1967 and 2011 are interpreted to study the coastline change by

image difference method. The results show distinctly that the submerged sand bar in

downdrift area became emerged after the construction. Then, this unstable young generated

land has been eroded and moved onshore around 50-150 m caused by sediment obstruction

at structures and wave over wash. Where as abundant amount of northward longshore

sediment has been trapped at the south jetty.

Keywords: erosion, coastal area, Songkhla, deep-sea port


120

Evaluation of Tide Embankment and Protection Forest Width

on Tsunami Disaster Using Tunami Simulator

Okazawa Hiromu*, Maeda Youki, Takeuchi Yasushi and Fujikawa Tomonori



The tsunami that occurred after the Tohoku Earthquake of March 11, 2011, devastated

the infrastructure in Tohoku, including roads and water channels. This study reports the

results of a tsunami simulation experiment using an open channel for evaluation of tide

embankments and protection forest in controlling the force of tsunami waves and flows of

sand carried by tsunami. Coastal areas in Minami Soma City, Fukushima Prefecture, that

were devastated by the Tohoku Earthquake were assumed as the experimental location. A

0.3m-wide, 12m-long open channel was used for the tsunami experiment. To simulate a

tsunami, a removable barrier was set near the upstream end of the channel to retain water.

The barrier was lifted to generate a bore. The scale for the model was 1/100. A model

protection forest and a tide embankment made of acrylic were placed at the longitudinal

midpoint the channel. To examine the sand control effect of the tide embankment and

protection forest at the time of tsunami, Toyoura silica sand was laid in the channel bottom

upstream of the tide embankment and protection forest. The sand left behind after the

tsunami simulation was measured for dry weight. The speed of the wave beyond the

protection forest tended to decrease with increases in forest width. The amount of sand

carried by the tsunami was found to decrease with increases in forest width. The results,

however, are from a simplified model channel experiment. It is necessary to perform

experiments that more closely reproduce the original sites in terms of topography and

vegetation.

Keywords: Tsunami, protection forest, tide embankment, sand, earthquake


121

Increase the Strength of Soil Structure of Irrigation Facilities in Cambodia

Sokline Pheng*


E-mail: [email protected] or [email protected]

Poor technical design and lack of proper maintenance are the major concerns in field of

irrigation development in Cambodia. Most of the irrigation facilities in Cambodia are earth

work based which is vulnerable to erosion and degradation. Thus, improvement of the soil

structure is one effective method to reduce the damaged to irrigation facilities. Soil cement

mixing, one of the soil improvement applications, can strengthen soil structure to resist the

effects of stresses. The main purpose of this investigation is to find the most economical

and efficient method for irrigation maintenance and rehabilitation of the canals in

Cambodia. The laboratory experimental study on DL-Clay mixed cement is carried out to

examine the strength of soil structure under series of consolidated drained triaxial

compression test at different cement proportions, curing times, and confining pressures.

The key findings indicate that soil reacts with cement and significant improves its strengths

with the low cement contents. The hydration of cement with the soil causes a decrease in

the water content of the soil specimens and the strength of the soil structure increases with

greater curing period. Soil cement application is suitable for irrigation rehabilitation and

maintenance due to the fact that cement can improve the strength of the soil and it is

practical. One of the most important points to consider in Cambodia, soil cement is more

economical method. It does not require much cement proportion and indeed 3% or 5% can

improve much strength of the soil structure.

Keywords: soil cement, shear stress, irrigation facilities, consolidated drained triaxial

compression test


122

Evaluation of Evaluation Systems for Rural Water Supply

and Sanitation Systems

Tung Nguyen Nhu*

* Vietnam National University, Vietnam


Evaluation of evaluation systems applied in water supply systems in rural areas would

contribute to improving the validity and quality of the evaluation results. This paper

reviews a case of the evaluation system applied by Mekong Delta Rural Water Supply and

Sanitation Project, funded by Ausaid and examines whether the Project evaluation system

technically satisfies evaluation standards by reviewing evaluation methodologies, identifies

what aspects and methods of evaluation are unreliable and need to be improved and raises

some technical recommendations for improvement for similar interventions. Evaluation of

an evaluation system is based on theory-based evaluation principles, political context and

threats to validity of evaluation. A case study of Mekong Delta Rural Water Supply and

Sanitation Project (AUSAID Project) is used. This project was implemented in five

provinces in Vietnam for the period from 2000 to 2007. Information for this evaluation is

collected from regular project monitoring and evaluation reports and Activity Completion

Report. The fact that the author worked as evaluation officer for the whole project helps

with more understanding on the project’s evaluation approaches. The project evaluation

reports well served the purpose of measuring the effectiveness and sustainability of the

Project activities. Several potential threats to the validity of the evaluation include lack of

intermediate outcomes and the definitions of the Project impacts. It is recommended that

the project’s evaluation design specified better random sampling, ad-hoc inspection visits

and put some more weight on important evaluation indicators. Apart from the above threats,

this evaluation system in rural water and sanitation was the first in this field in Vietnam

and its indicators satisfy the evaluation standards of SMART (simple, measurable,

appropriate, reliable and timely).

Keywords: threats to validity, effectiveness, evaluation systems, water supply,

sustainability, participatory


123

Land-use Changes Affect to Hydrological Response using SWAT Model in

Huaimanai Sub-watershed, Phrae Province, Thailand

Warakorn Sudjarit* and Somnimirt Pukngam

* Kasetsart University, Thailand


The objective of this research was to simulate the effect of land-use to hydrological

response on watershed runoff, water yield, and sediment yield in the Huaimanai

sub-watershed, Phrae province using Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). The

research was carried out during 2011-2012. The collected data from 1982-1997 was used in

the model and collected data from 2008-2011 used for model calibration. The 10 different

land-use scenarios were calibrated under the same precipitation and the same air

temperature. In this study, the sub-watershed was divided into 213 Hydrological Response

Units (HRUs) using a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) in map scale 1:10,000. The area of

HRUs ranged between 0.01 – 1.67 ha. Land-use data in year 2001, 2004, and 2009; two

soil type data, and watershed hydro-meteorological data were used to create HRUs. The

simulated results showed that the SWAT model could effectively simulate the land-use

changes in the Huaimanai sub-watershed. According to the estimation of surface runoff in

this area, the average annual surface runoff yield was 6,671.20 mm. Besides, the predicted

average annual water yield was 7,225.26 mm and the predicted average annual sediment

yield was 8,442.70 ton/ha. In addition, this research was performed by assessing the

impacts of future land-use change on the watershed hydrology. The SWAT model was

found applicable to the Huaimanai sub-watershed, and was further found to be able to

analyze runoff characteristics in sub-watershed.

Keywords: hydrological response, land-use changes, runoff, sediment yields, SWAT model


124

Pilot Case Studies of Climate Risk-coping Strategies of

Small-scale Farmers in Cambodia

Robert J Martin* and Van Touch

* Agricultural Systems Research Cambodia Co. Ltd, Cambodia


Climate predictions for Cambodia are for increases in temperatures and rainfall with

the likelihood of wetter monsoon seasons and less rainfall in the dry seasons. Developing

countries such as Cambodia have few resources and capacity to adapt to climate change

and are therefore considered to be the most vulnerable. Attention so far in Cambodia has

focused on technical interventions and disaster relief rather than on planned adaptive

responses. Here we present the results of pilot case studies to document climate risk-coping

strategies currently employed by small-scale rice farmers in Cambodia. Community

consultations and in-depth interviews with selected participants were conducted in the

Communes of Trapeang Ruessei in Kampong Thom Province and Snam Krapeu in

Kampong Speu Province in 2011. Data were collected by writing down notes to form the

basis of the respondent’s narrative. Two in-depth interviews were done in each Province. It

was immediately obvious from the narratives that the households studied could not survive

from on-farm income alone especially during droughts. Our pilot interviews indicated that

off-farm income might be the predominant coping strategy in the rice-based farming

system. There appears to be a need for researchers and policy makers to shift from an

agricultural systems/commodity mind-set to a household livelihood mind-set with regard to

the ability of households to cope with climate variability and climate change. A complete

breakdown of household income sources is an essential baseline requirement before an

assessment of climate change resilience in the rice-based system can be made. A baseline

assessment of vulnerability at the household level should be considered an essential

prerequisite for developing research priorities and designing interventions.

Keywords: climate change, adaptation, lowland, rice, household


125

Understanding Socio-ecological Production Landscapes

in the Context of Cambodia

Kaoru Ichikawa*

* United Nations University Institute of Advanced Studies, Japan


Humans have always depended on the surrounding nature for various goods and

services. There has been recognition of the importance of fostering such human-nature

relationships in a sustainable manner in order to support human well-being and maintain

biodiversity and a healthier environment. In this context, the term socio-ecological

production landscapes and seascapes (SEPLS) was coined to refer to areas in which such

human-nature interactions have been maintained through production activities such as

agriculture, forestry and fishery. In Cambodia, a large portion of the population engages in

such production activities and their livelihoods are directly dependent upon the availability

of natural resources. The natural environment, however, was severely damaged during the

country’s civil war and the following years of instability, while today the environment has

become strained by the impacts of modernization and globalization. It is important to

explore ways to conserve the environment while allowing people’s livelihoods to develop.

This study aimed to understand Cambodian production landscapes using the SEPLS

concept. Based on a literature review and the author's field visits to the Cambodian

agricultural landscapes, the characteristics of SEPLS were identified based on the various

aspects described in the current definition of SEPLS including the landscapes’ structure,

function and changes. It was found that, in general, Cambodian landscapes can be

described using the current definition of SEPLS, including features such as the landscapes’

mosaic structure and associated ecosystem services. Some unique characteristics were also

identified including land use patterns characteristic of lowland ecosystems and the impacts

of drastic socio-economic changes. Further study is needed to understand Cambodian

SEPLS and their significance in terms of biodiversity and ecosystem services.

Keywords: socio-ecological production landscape and seascapes, mosaic structure,

ecosystem services, Cambodia


126

Assessment of Local Livelihood of Forest-Dependent

Communities in Cambodia

Koy Ra* and Nophea Sasaki

* Hyogo University, Kobe, Japan


Forests are important sources of ecosystem goods and services to billion people around

the world. As tropical forests are gradually disappearing while population is increasing, the

livelihood of forest-dependent communities is being threatened. Cambodia’s forest

subsector contributed 8.4 % to agricultural GDP over the period from 1999 to 2008.

Although this figure provides an indication of the importance of forest resources in

national development, assessment of the detailed contribution of forest goods and services

at the local level is urgently needed so that appropriate intervention and development

policies could be introduced. The objectives of this study are to better understand the

contribution of forest resources to household livelihood by classifying such contribution to

four main forest and non-forest products and to propose a policy recommendation.

Questionnaires were developed to interview 600 households in three communes, namely

the Takaen, Sangke Satob, and Tumring in Kampot, Kampong Speu, and Kampong Thom

provinces, respectively. The interviews were performed quarterly throughout the year so as

to increase the accuracy of the responses from the households. Our analysis found that

forest income contributed 76,892±8,160 riel or 13% of the total household incomes in the

first quarter. However, forest income increased to 24% (142,645±17,540 riel), 33%

(146,422±16,967 riel), and 31% (122,512±9,693 Riel) in the second, third and fourth

quarters, respectively suggesting that local activities vary from one season to another.

Other sources of household incomes were agriculture, outside forest, and other income, all

together, contributing 87%, 76%, 67% and 69% of the total incomes in the first, second,

third, and fourth quarters, respectively. These findings suggest that forest resources are

important sources for the survival of forest-dependent communities. It is recommended

that incorporating forest resources into the development planning with the active

participation of local people could contribute to sustainable development while protecting

the forests.

Keywords: assessment, livelihood, forest-dependent


127

Using Choice Experiment to Estimate the Value of Sustainable Rattan

Resource Management in Cambodia

Ou Ratanak* and Mitsuhiro Terauchi

* World Wildlife Fund, Cambodia


The Cambodian rattan is play very crucial roles in national and international trade for

poverty reduction and conservation in Cambodia which accounts of approximately USD

1.5million of total revenue. Prek Thnot community has been selected for implementing the

sustainable rattan management for over 5 years which covers of nursery management,

enrichment planting and harvesting plan. The paper was interviewed 324 families who are

forest dependence and rattan is one of the top three for their livelihood improvement. The

conditional logic model as an experimental method has been used to establish the marginal

utility of each attribute for sustainable rattan management. It is also used to estimate the

payment of each activity for sustainable management and productions. Results reveal that

93 percent of local communities were willingness to pay tax fee through revolving fund for

managing natural resources at their communities and only 7 percent have been rejected the

payment because they feel they did not gain profit from their contribution. All attributes

found statistically significant at 1 and 5 percent except the benefit sharing from REDD+,

meaning that local community are still not expected to get benefit from REDD+ or they did

not well educated on REDD+ in Cambodia. The mean of willingness to pay of sustainable

rattan management shows that they are willingness to pay more for increasing endangered

species and recovering rattan resources in their communities through conservation and

enrichment planting at degraded forest and over rattan harvesting areas. Hence, it can be

stated the local community are well prepared for participating rattan management activities

and these results should be contribute to the making decisions by stakeholders at the

community of defining a new policy to be implemented by considering important on

biodiversity before implementing any activities.

Keywords: choice experiment, choice modeling, endangered species, rattan coverage,

harvesting plan


128

New Country Record of Rotifers from the Upper Part of

Cambodian Mekong River Basin

Seanghun Meas* and Ratha Sor



Rotifer samples of zooplankton member were collected during two seasons in 2010

from habitats ranging from ponds, lakes, reservoirs streams and rivers in the upper part of

Cambodian Mekong River basin in Kratie, Stung Treng and Ratanakiri Provinces. A 30 µm

mesh size plankton net was used to sample the sites, and temperature, pH, conductivity,

turbidity, dissolved oxygen and sampled localities were recorded. A total of 194 species of

Monogononta rotifers were found, 74 of which were new species record to country. This

investigation brings rotifer fauna recorded in country to 260 species. Among the five

habitat types sampled, lakes and reservoirs were found to harbor high species richness of

rotifers.

Keywords: Rotifers, species richness, Mekong River basin, plankton


129

From the Global-Over Fishing to Sustainable Development

Anucha Wittayakorn Puripunpinyoo*

* Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University, Thailand


The research study aims to measure the World Status of Fishery in order to get the

sustainable development. Econometric Model of Global Fishing was applied for this

research study. The research found that, the present time, the world natural resource of

fishery is encountering with the Global over Fishing. More crucially, it went beyond the

critical point of natural resource damage that can be recovered known as Maximum

Sustainable Yield (MSY) in theory of economics. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), 200

nautical miles away from shore, has been confronted with the Global over Fishing. The

result of this research led to the obvious evident expressed the critical point of Global over

Fishing. Applying the research result to get to the improvement of Global Natural Resource

Fishery, member countries of FAO tried to find out all policies leading to the sustainable

development.

Keywords: econometric model, global over fishing, maximum sustainable yield,

sustainable development


130

Carbon Benefits for Local People through Forest Protection - A Case

Study in Phnom Tbeng

Somanta Chan* and Nophea Sasaki

* Graduate School of Applied Informatics, University of Hyogo, Japan


Carbon emissions are the source of global climate change. Tropical deforestation was

responsible for up to 25% of the global carbon emissions. Foreseeing the danger of losing

tropical forests and impacts on local people and global climate change, world leaders have

adopted the Copenhagen and Cancun Accords to fully recognize the REDD+ scheme of the

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The REDD+ scheme provides

financial incentives for any activities that result in reducing carbon emissions or increasing

carbon stock. Compensation can be made possible only when the amount of reduced

emissions or increased carbon stocks is estimated. This study focuses on estimating the

reduced emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and discusses the benefit

sharing for local people. Phnom Tbeng protected in the Preah Vihear province was selected

as a study site. There are four types of forests, namely evergreen forest, semi-evergreen

forest, deciduous and others forests covering 43,041ha. The results suggest that a carbon

project in this site is likely to result in reduced carbon emissions of about 3.7 million tons

CO2 over 30-year project. Depending on carbon price, carbon revenues would be US$ 19

million or US$ 0.6 million annually for a 30-year REDD project cycle. In addition to

carbon revenues, there are other ecosystem benefits that well-protected forests will provide

to local people. Designing appropriate policies and measures to reduce the drivers of

deforestation and forest degradation along with law enforcement mechanism is essential

for success of the forestry carbon project.

Keywords: REDD+, carbon emissions, climate change, carbon stock,

tropical deforestation


131

Growth Performance of Domesticated Indigenous Trees

in Degraded Karst Areas of Central Philippines

Rumila C. Bullecer* and Loreto Socorin



One major barrier confronting rehabilitation of degraded landscapes in Central

Philippine uplands is the unfounded notion that trees in natural forests are very difficult, if

not impossible, to grow outside its natural habitat. This two-hectare rainforestation

research project was then established in 1999 to find out the domestication potential of

forest-based indigenous trees in open, degraded karst areas. The karstic sites were

characterized by scrubby vegetation, mostly pebble-studded surfaces in a flat to rolling

topography 320 meters above sea level. Average annual rainfall is 1,850 mm in the last

decade. A 100 % inventory and individual measurement was made in the last quarter of

2011. There were 1,040 domesticated individuals belonging to 50 species representing 25

families in the three domestication areas. The trees have the following average biometrics:

DBH of 10.93 cm; total height of 9.06 m; merchantable height of 5.48 m; total

merchantable volume of 47.91 cu m. Terminalia microcarpa and Shorea contorta were

among the top performers in diameter and total height growth. The biggest Terminalia

microcarpa measured 48 cm in dbh. The biggest Shorea contorta had a dbh of 29 cm with

an impressive total height of 29 meters. Located near the island’s government-managed

indigenous tree nursery, the domestication tree farms become a learning-continuum area.

After 13 years of research it is concluded that forest trees can be successfully domesticated

even in degraded karst lands. The standout performers in domestication were Terminalia

microcarpa, Shorea contorta, Vatica mangachapui, Shorea palosapis, Parashorea

malaanonan and Dracontomelon dao.

Keywords: growth performance, domestication, ex-situ conservation, karst, rainforestation


132

Management of Municipal Sewage Sludge by Vermicomposting technology:

Converting a Waste into a Nutritive and Safe Biofertilizer for Agriculture

Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai*, Mongkon Ta-oun,

Thammared Chuasava and Praweena Boonyotha


E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

This paper reports the feasibility of utilization of vermicomposting technology by

using earthworm (Eudrilus eugeniae) for manage the municipal sewage sludge into

beneficial biofertilizer. The Sewage sludge in various concentrations 1%, 5%, 10%, 15%,

20%, and 25% were used to test the avoidance behavior of earthworm. The mix of sewage

sludge with cassava wastes and cow dung were subjected to compost treatment with and

without earthworm for a period of 30 days. During the period of study data were collected

on the survivor and biomass of earthworms and chemical analysis of wastes before and

after treatment. Results obtained indicate that 5% concentration of sludge mixed with

Cassava waste was ideal for Eudrilus eugeniae. There was a decrease in pH, organic

carbon content, C:N ratio, and increase in EC, nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus content

in all the vermireactors. Total Kjeldhal nitrogen (TKN), Available Phosphorus and

Potassium content were increased compared the compost without earthworm 50, 24,

and10 % respectively. The heavy metals’ contents (Cr, Cu, Cd, Pb and Hg) in final

vermicomposts were lower than initial feed mixtures. The earthworm biomass was

increased 40-90 % and can survive 60% from beginning. Therefore, the present study

showed that vermicomposting of municipal sewage sludge into biofertiliser is feasible

besides providing a safe, simple and economical alternative and practical method to

resolve the management of sewage sludge.

Keywords: waste management, safe fertilizer, agriculture


133

Utilization of Inoculated Eri Cocoon for Water Pollutants Removal

Carlos Onan Mendoza Tovar* and Machito Mihara



In this study we focus on the eri silk worm (Samia cynthia ricini). The eri cocoon has

the potential to immobilize effective microorganisms that can be used as a method to

remove pollutants from water. Lactobacillus acidophilus has proven that is capable of

removing up to 60% of Arsenic (III) from water within 3 hours. The main objective of this

study is to quantify the amount of glucose absorbed by inoculated eri cocoon as an

indicator of the capacity for pollutant removal. Lactobacillus spp. was incubated at 37oC

for 48 hours. By microscopic observation, structures were described. The rate of

inoculation was calculated as colony forming units (cfu) in the eri cocoon divided by cfu of

the inoculation solution time one hundred. An absorption trial was setup. The absorption

rate was calculated as final glucose concentration minus initial divided by time. The

untreated (UT) eri cocoon presented nano-tubes where bacteria can easily penetrate. By

soaking eri cocoon in distilled water (WS), cavern-like structures appeared within the silk

fibers. When the Eri cocoon was autoclaved (AC), the cavern structures were more

frequent. The twisted yarn (TY) showed almost no difference with the fibers in the UT eri

cocoon. The sample counts gave no statistical differences between UT and AC. Eri cocoon

has the natural structures to allocate microorganisms within its fibers. In the inoculation

rate there was no difference between UT and AC treatments. The consumption of glucose

showed no difference between UT, AC and WS; but there was a significant difference

between the first three and TY. TY had the lowest glucose consumption.

Keywords: pollutants, eri cocoon, lactobacillus, glucose, absorption


134

Assessment of the Water Quality in Pasig River, Philippines:

Flow Pattern and Heavy Metals Concentration

as Affected by Varying Seasons and Tides

Dahlia Apodaca*, Gypsy Rose Paronda and Carlos Primo David

* Mines and Geosciences Bureau, Philippines


This study dealt with investigating the effect of varying seasons and varying levels of

tides on the flow pattern and heavy metals concentrations in Pasig River. Series of

samplings in four locations along the 27-km stretch of the river were conducted during the

month of April, 2007 copping the dry season and in November 2007 covering the wet

season. The height of tide at Manila Bay was considered prior to the conduct of the

sampling. Flow rate as computed from surface flow velocity (determined using a makeshift

floater) was also measured at each station. Metal concentrations were determined from

water samples collected from each site. Results indicate that an observable backflow

occurred during the dry season when the tide was high. Moreover, the highest flow rate

was noted during the wet season at low tide, particularly at the Kalawaan station. Low flow

rate was found during the dry season at high tides. The levels of heavy metals were also

found to be highest during the dry season and during high tide. Among all the other

stations chosen, elevated metals concentrations were measured from water samples

collected at the Delpan station with lead (Pb) as the dominant heavy metal. The outcome of

this study which includes heavy metals concentrations in water, flow pattern and

hydrologic conditions along Pasig River would be useful in modeling the transport

dispersion of heavy metals along the river to come up with an efficient and effective

remediation measure.

Keywords: astronomical tides, backflow, desorption, flow direction, seasons


135

Water Quality Preservation Effect of Riparian Forests in Watersheds

with Dairy Farming Areas in Eastern Hokkaido

Okazawa Hiromu*, Yamamoto Tadao, Inoue Takashi and Nagasawa Tetuaki



A two-year survey on the water quality and discharge of two rivers whose watersheds

are in dairy farming areas in Eastern Hokkaido was conducted. The two rivers are in

watersheds whose farming areas are typical of this region. The degree of river development

and the land use categories in the watersheds differ between the two rivers: One has

riparian forests and little artificial modification; the other is well developed and

straightened, and has pastures that are very close to the riverbanks. Examination was done

to determine whether the riparian forest influenced the river water quality, by comparing

the river water qualities of the two watersheds. Our observation and examination clarified

that the presence of riparian forests contributed to the maintenance of the water quality

components at low levels. It was also suggested that the nitrogen load from the farmland

was reduced by the riparian forests. Examination of the nitrogen, phosphorous and SS

concentrations revealed that NO3-N was reduced by the riparian forests when the water

level was normal. It is thought that in the riparian forests at normal water level, NO3-N is

consumed by denitrification and plant consumption. When the water level was high during

and after rainfall, it was found that the suspended TON decreased in the riparian forest.

During the survey period, which lasted 162 days, the difference in the T-N load of two

survey areas was 33kg･km-2 for the period with normal water level and 514kg･km-2 for the

period of high water level during and after rainfalls. It was suggested that the

nitrogen-removing capacity of the riparian forest was greater at the time of greater runoff

during and after rainfall than at the time of normal water level.

Keywords: riparian, forest, river, nitrogen, phosphorus


136

The Nitrogen Runoff Characteristics in Agricultural Watersheds

after Enforcement of Animal Waste Regulation

Muneoka Toshimi*, Yuri Yamazaki, Sachiyo Wakou, Motoko Shimura,

Kunihiko Yoshino, Osamu Tsuji and Toshio Tabuchi

* Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Japan


This study examined nitrogen runoff characteristics in river water at normal water level

after enforcement of animal waste regulation with taking notice of the difference of

agricultural land use in watershed in eastern Hokkaido. At 35 watersheds in two large-scale

areas, total nitrogen (T-N) concentration, nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N) concentration and

ammonium nitrogen (NH4-N) concentration in river water, and discharges were

investigated for once a month from May to November in 2005 after enforcement of “law

on promoting proper management and use of livestock excreta”. Tokachi area (24

watersheds) is located in the northwestern part within Tokachi general sub-prefectural

bureau, the agricultural land use is mainly upland with dairy farming. Nemuro area (11

watersheds) is located in the western part within Nemuro sub-prefectural bureau, the

agricultural land use is almost dairy farming. It showed a following tendency between

nitrate concentration (annual mean value) and agricultural land use in watershed. In the

case that the proportion of agricultural land in the watershed was less than about 20 %, T-N

concentration of river water in many of the watersheds was less than 1.0mg/L irrespective

of the difference of agricultural land use. On the other hand, in the case that the proportion

of agricultural land in the watershed was more than 70%, T-N concentration of river water

in some watersheds in Tokachi area was nearly 10mg/L. After enforcement of the law,

water quality environment did not necessarily improve in the two areas. In future, it is

important for the conservation of river water quality in agricultural watersheds to manage

livestock manure in each farmhouse properly as well as to control the proportion of

agricultural land in watershed.

Keywords: nitrogen runoff, agricultural land use, animal waste regulation,

water quality conservation


137

Change of Oxbow Lake Water Quality Under the Agricultural

Water Use Restructuring Project

Tadao Yamamoto*

* Hokkaido University, Japan


Some Oxbow lake is lying near a river and used as irrigation water source, flood

control pond, waterside park and etc.in Ishikari River Basin, Japan. Because originally

oxbow lakes are a part of the river located nearby, these are location where much drainage

water flow into easily. Therefore, its’ water quality is easily influenced by human activities

including the agriculture on the catchment area. In this study, we evaluated the changes in

water quality by the changes of agricultural water management under the restructuring

project in Lake Chashinai-numa. In this catchment area, irrigation water was pumped up

from this lake until 2010, but the pumping station was abolished in 2010 and irrigation

water has been derived from the faraway rive now. In the result, total nitrogen load balance

changed from an outflow type to a retention type due to decreasing of removal load by

pumping from the lake. The lake water residence time also increased significantly.

However, total nitrogen concentration became lower than before the pumping station

abolishment in 2010. I consider that total nitrogen concentration became lower after 2011

because suspension nitrogen decreased than before. Biological purification effects are

expected from chlorophyll concentration rises. And, it is guessed that the cause of that the

load balance changed to a retain type was influenced by changes of agricultural water use

along with that paddy transformed into upland more than that the pumping station

abolished.

Keywords: infrastructure development, water quality, nitrogen, agricultural water use,

drainage


138

Climate Change and Disaster Risk Management in

Banacon Island, Philippines

Jose T. Travero*, Marina A. Labonite and Dioscoro A. Avergonzado



The research was conducted in Banacon Island, a community in northern part of Bohol

Province, Philippines to determine the socio-economic and environmental condition of the

island, to understand the problems and needs of the people of a climate change vulnerable

island, to determine the level of awareness of villagers on climate change, find out the

community initiatives on climate change adaptation and mitigation and find out if disaster

risk management is in place in the community. The project is an initiative of the Regional

Climate Change Center. Banacon is highly vulnerable to climate change. Climate change is

a threat to the socio-economic and environmental stability of the island. Banacon Island

has 318 households sporadically spread in a 15 hectare dryland of the village. It has a

population of 1514 (2010 data), majority (93%) has a family income of less than P3,000

($67) a month or less than P100 ($2.2) per day. The source of electric power is a portable

electric generator which is enjoyed by only 8% of the households and the majority (92%)

are still using kerosene lamp at night. There is no potable water in the island. Majority of

the households (85%) has no toilet, 12% has their own and 3% of the households shared

their toilet. The leading causes of infant mortality are diarrhea, malnutrition and

pneumonia. Only 3% of the residents are well-off while majority (87%) are in the average

level which is below the poverty line. A significant number (3%) lived in a miserable

condition. Fishing is the main source of livelihood. Fifty percent (50%) of the residents are

involved in seaweeds culture and business. Very few are into buying and selling of

seashells which are harvested by the villagers from the mangroves shorelines and shallow

waters of the island.

Keywords: climate change, disaster risk management, awareness, adaptation, mitigation


139

Toxicity of Textile Metal Complex Dark Green Azo Acid Dye (53) and

Surfactant Oil on Nile Tilapia, Oreochromis Niloticus and

Accumulation of Total Chromium in Gill Tissue

Hilma Rantilla Amwele*, Rakpong Petkam*, W. H. Beamish

and Kanit Chukanhom

* Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailand


The experiment was conducted on Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus to determine the

lethal concentration of textile metal complex dark green azo acid in the presence and

absence of surfactant oil during an exposure period of 96 hrs. The design consisted of four

treatments: control, metal complex dark green azo dye, a mixture of metal complex dark

green azo acid dye with surfactant oil and surfactant oil; and each was applied at four

concentrations (1%, 5%, 10% and 15% of stock solution). Data were analyzed by using

Probit analysis. The 96hrs LC50 was 7.25% (6.55-7.96) of stock solution for metal complex

dark green azo acid dye, 2.85% (2.14-3.90) for metal complex dark green azo acid dye

with surfactant oil and 7.27% (6.45-8.43) stock surfactant oil. Chromium accumulation in

gill tissue correlated significantly (P< 0.05) with dye concentration when exposed only to

metal complex dark green azo dye and equally on exposure to a mixture of metal complex

dark green azo acid dye with surfactant oil. The gill tissue exposed only to surfactant oil

was not significantly (P>0.05) related to treatments with dye. The lethal effect observed

during the trial was dose depended, the mortality rate increased with the increased in

treatments concentration.

Keywords: mortality rate, LC50, dyebath, surfactant oil, aquatic animal


140

Effects of Retting Treatment on Coconut Husk Buffer Strips

for Eliminating Nutrient Release

Julian Torillo Jr.* and Machito Mihara



Coconut husk has been applied as buffer strips for soil erosion control on slope upland

fields in Bohol of the Philippines. However, attention has been paid to the loss of nitrogen

and phosphorus components not only those leached from synthetic fertilizer applied in

upland fields but also those components released from coconut husk buffer strips. Thus,

pretreatment of coconut husk by retting before its installation into the field has been

proposed. The objective of this study is to find out the effect of ret treating the coconut

husk utilized as buffer strips on eliminating its releasing nitrogen and phosphorus

components. Coconut husks were trimmed then minor pounding by hammer were applied

to meet the desired porosity of the material as buffer. Retting treatment of 41.34 g in dry

mass of coconut husk was carried out by soaking into 1,300 ml of distilled water for 10

days to extract its nitrogen and phosphorus components. Ret treated coconut husk were

installed into stainless slope model plot filled with Philippine soil and set at 8 degrees in

slope. Another plot was also prepared and installed with untreated coconut husk then

rainfall simulation was carried out into both plots. The experimental results showed that

the amount of nitrogen released from the plot installed with ret treated coconut husk buffer

strip was significantly lower than that of untreated husk buffer strip at 99% significant

level. Therefore, it was concluded that 10 days retting treatment of coconut husk for buffer

strips was effective on eliminating the release of nutrient particularly on nitrogen from

leaching.

Keywords: erosion, buffer strips, coconut husk, retting, nitrogen, phosphorus


141

The Predictive Model for Biochemical Component of Phytoplankton in

the River and Estuary System of the Mae Klong River, Thailand

Boontarika Thongdonphum*, Shettapong Meksumpun, Charumas Meksumpun,

Banthita Sawasdee and Pattira Kasemsiri

* Rajamangala University of Technology, Thanyaburi, Thailand


The Mae Klong River, one the four main river systems of Thailand, flows through the

western part and drains into the Gulf of Thailand. This research was conducted from

February 2006 to May 2008. The results indicated that the levels of NH4+, NO2-+NO3-

and PO43- increased in the lower river and estuary, which leaded to hypertrophic condition

in those areas. Three phyta and 63 genera of phytoplanktons were found in the Mae Klong

River. The dominant groups were diatoms (Plurosigma or Gyrosigma), cyanobacteria

(Trichodesmium) and dinoflagellates (Peridinium and Gonyaulax). In this study,

generalized linear modeling (GLM) was applied to examine the influential factors on the

abundance of phytoplankton in the river systems. The results showed that abundance of

phytoplankton varied according to dissolved inorganic nutrient (DIN), zone and season.

Thus, the predictive model should be considered for water quality management and

sustainable utilization purposes.

Keywords: dissolved inorganic nitrogen, phytoplankton, GLM analysis, Mae Klong River


142

Chemical Properties of Soils in Reforested and Bare Areas in

Salt Affected Area of Khon Kaen Province, Thailand

Jeeranuch Sakkhamduang* and Machito Mihara



Salt affected soil is a severe environmental problem in northeast of Thailand. About

16.82 percent of the total land area in the region is accounted for the salt affected area. In

the study area of Phra Yun district, Khon Khaen province, there were many studies since

1990 and 16 governmental projects of Thailand have been conducted for rehabilitating salt

affected soil since 1999. However, attention has been paid to the current condition of salt

accumulation in Phra Yun district, after many studies and projects have been implemented.

So in this study, soil survey was conducted in four areas, Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus

camaldulensis) reforested area and adjacent bare area, Acacia (Acacia ampliceps)

reforested area and adjacent bare area. Disturbed and undisturbed soil samples were

collected for analyzing physical and chemical properties of soils. The differences in

chemical properties of soils were analyzed by t-test statistical method. The results showed

that EC1:5 values of soils in reforested and adjacent bare areas were significantly different

at 99%. The sodium and calcium concentration of soils at the same depth in reforested and

adjacent bare areas also showed significant different at 95% and 99%. Moreover, there was

a tendency that EC1:5 values, sodium and calcium concentration decreased with soil depth

due to accumulation of salts at the surface layers. Although many studies and projects have

been implemented in Phra Yun district, salt accumulation is still severe, especially in bare

areas. In addition, it was clearly observed that reforested areas of Eucalyptus and Acacia

tended to be lower in electrical conductivity, sodium and calcium concentration than that of

adjacent bare areas. Thus, it was concluded that reforestation is an effective approach to

rehabilitate salt affected soil.

Keywords: salt affected soil, reforested areas, chemical properties of soil


143

Plant Community and Soil Properties on Salt Affected Area

in Northeastern Thailand

Kanlaya Kong-ngern*, Dutsadee Tuanmareng, Bupha Toparkngam,

Vidhaya Trelo-ges and Samang Homchuen

* Khon Kaen University


The study of plant community and soil properties on salt affected area was conducted

in Bamnetnarong District, Chaiyaphum Province, Thailand between March and August

2011. The results of the study revealed that the average of the electrical conductivity (1:5)

of soil was 10.26 mS/cm in the dry season (March) and 7.56 mS/cm in the rainy season

(August). The texture of the soil was sand and loamy sand which drained water well. As a

result, the moisture in the soil was low with an average of 10.71% in the dry season and

13.51% in the rainy season. In average, the pH of soil was acid at 6.86 in the dry season

and base at 7.30 in the rainy season. The study of the plant community showed that there

were 26 species in the dry season and 40 species in the rainy season. It was also found that

there were four species of halophytes; Azima sarmentosa B&H., Maytenus diversifolia,

Pluchia indica L. and Synostemon bacciformis. The other 36 species were salt tolerant

species. The study of the distribution of the plant community unveiled that more than 60%

of the areas was barren, but the rest was covered by the four most found plants; Panicum

repens L., A.sarmentosa B&H., M.diversifolia and P.indica L. respectively. Most of the

plants in the salt affected soils differ from normal soils in respect of soil reaction (pH) and

soluble salt content. Visually, they are recognized by the presence of a white or

grayish-white efflorescence of salts on the soil surface during dry months. Commonly they

are devoid of good natural vegetation. It could be concluded that the seasons had direct

effects on the electrical conductivity and the moisture in soil which further affected the

distribution of the plant community.

Keywords: plant community, salt affected area, northeastern Thailand


144

Screening of Microbes Producing Extracellular Hydrolytic Enzyme from

Corporation Waste Dumping Site and Household Waste

for the Enhancement of Bioremediation Methods

Emimol A.*, Ganga G., Parvathy R., Radhika G. and Nair G.M.

* State-Inter University Centre for Genomics and Gene technology, Kerala, India


Search for microorganisms capable of biodegradation is one of the extensive areas of

research. Screening and Identification of extra hydrolytic enzyme producing microbes

from soil samples of landfill area and households of Trivandrum city was carried out. The

ability of the bacterial isolates to produce various hydrolytic enzymes was determined using

the plate assay. Result showed that the collected sample contains microbes capable for

producing such enzymes and those strain can be further utilized for the enhanced

bioremediation methods.

Keywords: bioremediation, microorganisms, extracellular hydrolytic enzymes,

enzyme assay


145

Utilization of Municipal Solid Waste Soil from Sanitary Landfill

for Marigold (Tagetes erecta L.) Production

Arpaporn Tap-arsa *, Mongkol Ta-uan and Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai

* Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailand


The research work was conducted in order to investigate the possibility of using

municipal solid waste soil (MSWS) from Udornthanee Municipal Landfill, Thailand in the

production of marigold (Tagetes erecta L.). Soil quality and heavy metal concentration in

MSWS were analyzed. The results found that the average nutrient values of nitrogen,

phosphorus and potassium were 0.22, 0.23 and 1.59%, respectively and organic matter, pH

and EC were 3.71%, 8.45 and 0.496 mS/cm, respectively. Hg, Cd, Cr, Pb and Cu were

0.1,0.16,10.1,47.6,30.6 and 39.4 mg/kg. Five treatments using 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 (% v/v

of MSWS) were used to grow the marigold. The marigold could grow in every treatment.

The flowers of marigold were bloom in 100% of MSWS faster than others. However, the

growth of marigold in MSWS treatment were lower than control. However, the Utilization

of solid waste soil from municipal landfill for marigold (Tagetes eracta L.) production is

possible for landfill rehabilitation.

Keywords: flower, rehabilitation, soil quality, landfill


146

One of the Way of Express Bio-diversities in Farmland Soils

Aya Kaneko Ikawa*, Machito Mihara and Masaharu Komamura

* Research Center at Institute of Environment Rehabilitation and Conservation, Japan


Bio-diversities in farmlands are important for sustainable land use. But in Japan,

ecosystems in upland fields were less interested than that in paddy fields. Soil conditions in

agricultural fields are hard for lives. That limits richness of lives of soils. Micro-arthropods

are kinds of group of soil lives, sort of insects and mites. For making out soil lives in

upland field and field properties clearly, micro-arthropods living in farmland soils were

picked up, and population, genera, diversity index of Simpson (1/λ) and that of Fisher

(α+1) were employed for evaluating soil micro-arthropods under different management

were investigated in this study. Also soil physical and chemical properties were measured.

Soil samples were gathered from the fields at Hachiohji, Tama and Machida in Tokyo,

Japan. Planting and fertilized types were collected. And for making out of relationships in

diversity of soil micro-arthropods and soil moisture conditions, soil micro-arthropods in

some types of drip irrigation fields and tube irrigation fields in green house were observed.

The fields in this study were categorized into two groupsbased on the history of dressing or

land degradation. There was no certain difference in population, number of genera and two

types of diversity indices between decollated and not-decollated fields. Fisher’s diversity

index seemed to be larger than Simpson’s in soil dressed fields, while Simpson’s diversity

index seemed to be larger than Fisher’s in non-dressed fields. The difference in types of

diversity may be caused by years of cultivation in those fields. Also, based on the results of

multiple regression analysis, population, number of genera and Simpson’s diversity index

were related with macro porosity. So, it was concluded that those two types of diversity

indices are useful for making clear difference of bio-diversities in upland field soils.

Keywords: soil micro arthropods, bio-diversities, land degradation, soil physical properties


147

Passive Sampling Approach to Identify Contaminants

in a Tropical Freshwater River System

Barry Noller*, Tatiana Komarova, Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai,

Atcharaporn Somparn and Natsima Tokhun

* The University of Queensland, Australia


The Namphong River is a sub catchment of the Mekong River in Northeast of Thailand.

This study aimed to understand labile metal distribution associated with industry and

farming activities along the Namphong River, Northeast of Thailand. An integrated

sampling program was designed to identify the range of potential contaminants in the

Namphong River by incorporating soil analyses, diffuse gradients in thin films technique

(DGTs) for bioavailable toxic heavy metals, field measurements of pH, electrical

conductivity, temperature and dissolved oxygen together with water samples for general

parameters, heavy metals (total and filtered < 0.45 µm) and nutrients. The DGTs were

deployed at 10 different river sites for 3 days to enable sufficient integration of heavy

metals. 1 litre water samples were collected from the sites at the deployment and retrieval

of DGTs. Sediment samples from 4 of the 10 sites were analyzed prior to DGT deployment.

Concentrations of Cd, Cr, Cu. Pb. Zn in the Namphong river calculated from active

sampling significantly exceeded the trigger values. Concentration of metals estimated from

DGT data were below the trigger values. The industrial area (site C - pulp and sugar

industrial) is a major source of contamination of the Namphong river with heavy toxic

metals (Mn,Cr,Fe,Al,Co). The release of Cu, Ni and Pb in the Namphong river occurs in

the area of rice and mixed vegetable cultivation (sites Do – F) and is most likely related to

extensive pesticide use. The outcome of this study will help to develop more focused

monitoring of specific toxic heavy metals at particular locations on the Namphong river.

Keywords: active sampling, aquatic ecosystem, DGT, heavy metals, sediments


148

Strategies for Prevention of Deforestation and

Tribal Population Development in India

Dharampal Singh*

* Department of Animal Husbandry, Government of Rajasthan, India


Genetic erosion of flora and fauna due to deforestation occurred by biotic pressure

have been reported as an ecological hazard in the forest of Ranthambhore Tiger Reserve

(RTR) in India with more than 2, 25,000 Tribal population with estimation of more than 1,

50,000 livestock and never ending pressure of migratory livestock. The population of

people and livestock are directly depend on this forest. Tribal population is carnivorous and

consumes all type of wild animals. The annual requirement of forest wood consumption is

more than 30400 tons and forest green and dry fodder requirement is more than 98200 tons.

The canopy cover is very less (X~ =23%) due to excessive lopping, pollard and cut out of

Trees. The grass cover is also less (X~=28%) due to grazing pressure on RTR. If the

populace is unable to meet their basic biomass demand then no amount of stringent

policing in a democratic set up can prevent them from encroaching upon the forest and

wildlife of RTR. For the stability of flora, fauna, environment and tribal population the

developmental alternatives have to be provided. They should be provided with

unconventional energy sources along with fodder development; genetic upgrading of

livestock and all other facilities which enhance the quality of their life so that they would

be able to use their knowledge of the forest in a productive rather than destructive manner.

This is the only way to prevent genetic erosion, environmental hazard and conservation as

well as development of tribal communities in India.

Keywords: deforestation, genetic erosion, environmental hazard, tribal development,

biotic pressure, prevention strategies


149

The Impact of the Biogas Sludge from Cassava Waste Water Treatment

on Earthworm (Eudrilus eugeniae) and its Potential

to Use for Vermicompost

Jiraporn Bamrungrai *, Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai and Mongkol Ta-uan



The research work was conducted in order to investigate the impact of the biogas

sludge from cassava waste water treatment on earthworm (Eudrilus eugeniae) and its

potential to use for vermicompost. Soil quality and heavy metal concentration before and

after vermicompost process were analyzed. The avoidance and survival test of earthworm

exposed to the biogas sludge were conducted. The result results found that the earthworm

could survive under vermicompost condition at the 10 % concentration of biogas sludge.

The use of 10 % biogas sludge in vermicompost was suitable to make organic compost.

The results found that nutrient values of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium were

increased and help to reduce the concentration of heavy metal in biogas sludge. The use of

biogas sludge after vermicompost process in agriculture would be safe to soil ecosystem.

Keywords: vermicompost, cassava industry, biogas sludge


150

Effects of Utilizing Biomaterials for Soil Rehabilitation

on Salt Affected Areas in Northeast, Thailand

Mai Sato*, Jeeranuch Sakkhamduang and Machito Mihara



The Maha Sarakaham Formation underlying at 100 to 200m deep is the main source of

salt components accumulated on ground surface to rise from underground. The mechanism

of salt accumulation from underground to ground surface is the most serious factor from

solving the salinization problem in the region. Up to the present, technology was

developed to mitigate salt accumulation on ground surfaces by installing geotextile in the

soil ridges (Mihara et al, 2008). There are few studies on the removal of remaining salt

components from soil above geotextile. However, effective techniques have not been

established yet. So, the objectives of this study are to utilize calcium rich biomaterials and

to find out the effects of calcium ion (Ca2+) in biomaterials on soil permeability. Eggshells

and cow bones were utilized as the source of calcium since these are locally available and

renewable resources in the region. Eggshells and cow bones were dried by burning then

crushed into powder. Powdered eggshells and cow bones were mixed into saline soil then

filled up into 100 cm3 steel cores. Falling head method was carried on steel cores to

measure the permeability on soil mixed with eggshell and cow bone powder. Also, the

amount of sodium (Na+) released from steel cores were also measured at certain time

intervals within 120 hours. The experimental results indicated that 4% cow bone powder

added soil has higher permeability coefficient than that of eggshell powder added soil. It

was indicated that the permeability coefficient on eggshell powder added soil significantly

increased and retain longer time than that of cow bone powder added soil. However, the

4% eggshell powder added soil showed lower release of Na. It was concluded that adding

of cow bone powder can improve permeability on saline soil and adding of cow bone

powder can remove sodium from saline soil.

Keywords: biomaterial, soil rehabilitation, salt affected area, Thailand


151

The Important Substances in Plants on Salt Affected Area in Northeast

Thailand, Bamnet Narong District, Chaiyaphum Province

Nararat Poodeetip*, Samang Homchuen, Bupha Toparkngam and Kanlaya Kong-ngern



This study was aimed to examine important substances and their relationships in plants

growing on salt affected area. The study took place in a very high salinity (183 dS/m) in

Bamnetnarong District, Chaiyaphum Province between the dry season (April 2011) and the

rainy season (August 2011). Two groups of plants were analyzed; halophytes and salt

tolerant species. The halophyte group consisted of Azima sarmentosa, Maytenus

mekongensis, and Pluchea indica whereas the salt tolerance group comprised of

Alternanthera sessilis, Typha angustifolia, and Fimbristylis miliacea. The results of the

substances analyzes showed that in the dry season all the plants produced proline,

hydrogen peroxide, peroxidase activity, the content of malondiadehyde and the electrolyte

leakage high when electrical conductivity was increased. During the rainy season the

electrical conductivity was lower than in the dry season, the plants produced proline,

hydrogen peroxide, peroxidase activity, the content of malondiadehyde and the electrolyte

leakage also become smaller. This indicated that when the plant under stress decreased, the

quantity of substances produced by plants also dropped. Additionally, the plants in the

halophyte group produced less substances than those in the salt tolerance group in both two

seasons. The best self-adjustment mechanism was discovered in Azima sarmentosa, which

produced a small and stable quantity of substances even though the electrical conductivity

rose up.

Keywords: important substances, halophytes, salt-tolerant species, salt affected area


152

Effects of Fire Frequencies on Plant Community in Mixed Deciduous

Forest at Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand

Oranut Ninkhet*, Sapit Diloksumpun,

Chongrak Wacharinrat and Kobsak Wangthongchai

* Kasetsart University, Thailand


Mixed deciduous forest (MDF) is one of fire dependence ecosystems and mainly

covers in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, Uthai Thani province. However, frequently

fire occurrences would change in plant composition and structure resulting in biomass

fluctuation and potential in long term of carbon storage in forest ecosystem. The objective

of this study aims to know after four years (during 2007-2012) how plant communities are,

with different burning frequencies: annual burning, 1-year free interval, 2-year free interval,

4-year free interval, and unburned (control). A hectare of permanent plots were established

in each fire frequencies since 2007 and plant data collections were performed during

February to March 2012. Trees identification and measurement of their diameter at breast

height (DBH) and height were conducted. Saplings and seedlings were counted and

identified. Species diversity and similarity index, important value index (IVI), and also

cluster analysis of plants were calculated in order to explain plant species composition and

community among plots. During four years, the results showed that there were no trends to

indicate the effects of fire frequencies on tree species diversity, average DBH and height of

trees, through density and their biomass. Cluster analysis for relative density of saplings

can be used for dividing into 2 groups; 1) annual burning and 2) periodic burning: 1-year

free interval, 2-year free interval, 4-year free interval, and unburned. Therefore, species

composition could be changed by more frequently forest fire. However, long term study

should be investigated to confirm the impact of fire frequencies on plant composition and

structure.

Keywords: burning, forest fire, plant community, mixed deciduous forest,

Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary


153

Spatial Variability of Electrical Conductivity and Sodium Adsorption

Porntip Phontusang*, Roengsak Katawatin,

Krirk Pannangpetch and Sununtha Kingpaiboon



Excessive soil salinity may cause crop loss and, eventually, land degradation. To cope

with this problem, a reliable map of salt-affected soils is important. The currently used map

contains inadequate information because it was made mainly on the basis of the percentage

of surface salt crust. Precise information on some important soil chemical properties

including electrical conductivity of the saturation extract (ECe) and sodium adsorption

ratio (SAR), as well as information on the salt-affected soil types (i.e., saline, sodic, and

saline sodic) are definitely required. The objectives of this study were to investigate, in

areas of different degrees of salt-affected soils, (1) the variability and spatial correlation of

ECe and SAR, and (2) mapping the proportions of different salt-affected soil types.

Attention was on the areas with > 50% of salt crusts (class 1), the areas with 10-50% of

salt crusts (class 2) and the areas with 1-10% of salt crusts (class 3). Soil samples were

taken from areas of every class at 0-15 cm. depth and analyzed for ECe and SAR in the

laboratory. For each of these properties, descriptive statistics and geostatistics were applied

to explain the variability and spatial correlation, respectively. Judging from the coefficient

of variation (CV), for areas of every class of salt-affected soils, generally the variations of

ECe and SAR were very high. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated that ECe

and SAR of soils in different classes (i.e. classes 1, 2 and 3) were significantly different at

the 95% level. Comparisons of the properties of soils from different locations within each

individual class revealed significant differences for the ECe values within every class.

However, for the SAR the difference was found only between different locations within

class 3. According to the geostatistical analyses, the spatial correlation of ECe and SAR

were not perfectly clear. Consequently, mapping the proportions of different types of

salt-affected soils were made by using the Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) interpolation

method. The results showed that, in areas of class 1 the soils were generally very strongly

saline-strongly sodic. The predominant soils in areas of class 2 were highly varied ranging

from normal to very strongly saline-moderately sodic. In areas of class 3, the soils were

also varied but in less degree than those from class 2, ranging from normal to strongly

saline-moderately sodic.

Keywords: spatial variability, salt-affected soils, electrical conductivity


154

Impact Assessment of Land Management on Soil Properties in an

Experimental Rubber Trees Planting of Northeast Thailand

Rachapol Siriboon*, Vidhaya Trelo-ges,

Siwaporn Siltecho and Gaghik Hovhannissian



Under pressure of the increasing demand for natural rubber and its attractive prices in

the world market, the farmers tend to expand rubber tree plantings even in areas, where

climatic and environmental conditions are not favourable for this crop. In NE Thailand, the

annual distribution of moisture is uneven regular, with strongly separated rainy and dry

seasons. Sandy textured soils with low nutrient contents are widespread in this region. In

the experimental site, located 20-25km Southwest of Khon Kaen city, the results of

geophysical studies of the soil spatial variability revealed very resistive anomalies,

extended on the tree ranks. Farmers in this region usually create topographical inequalities,

with higher elevations for the tree ranks, to protect roots from excess water during rainy

seasons. A detailed topographic mapping of the site showed that the differences in altitudes

between "ranks" and "inter-ranks" are about 20-50 cm, and the difference in altitude

between the southern (upstream) and northern (downstream) parts of the planting is

slightly more than 10 m, with main slope of about 2-5% oriented approximately

South-North. The purpose of this work is to assess the overall influence of soil

management on the tendency of land evolution (erosion, leaching, degradation, etc.) by

studying the physico-chemical and hydrological characteristics of soils. In the south-west

part of the planting some plots were selected a relatively "small area" (with dimensions of

20 m x 12 m) where very detailed studies were performed. The results of particle size

distribution (PSD), unsaturated hydraulic conductivity (K unsat) and redistribution of

fertilizer concentrations showed a consistency between the spatial variability of these

parameters and topographical peculiarities. The analysis of the results allows understand

the origins of various phenomena leading to erosion and leaching of soils, most likely

related to the destruction of fragile structures in sandy soils when creating topographical

irregularities.

Keywords: rubber tree planting, soil spatial variability, erosion, leaching,


155

Twenty Years of Forest Cultivation in Bohol, Philippines:

Lessons in TI Issuance in Rural Uplands

Rumila C. Bullecer* and Lebert Omac



In 1982, the Philippine government issued the Certificate of Stewardship Contract

(CSC) under its Integrated Social Forestry (ISF) Program. This tenurial instrument (TI)

was awarded to upland dwellers participating in the program. It allowed them a “peaceful

occupation, possession and sustainable management” of an upland area for a period of 25

years, renewable for another 25 years. After one cycle, some urgent issues and concerns

emerged which prompted the government to change the individual TI to a group issuance

This study examined the present conditions of 91 CSC farms after 16 to 24 years of

implementation in timber land areas. Secondary data analysis, interviews using

semi-structured questionnaire and field validation were employed. Results showed that

only 75% of the original TI holders remained in the area. Some 91% has no substantial

idea of the CSC terms and conditions. Corn and banana is the most common crop

combination in the cultivated areas. Some 58.0 % indicated zero income from CSC areas.

Lack of social preparation and absence of meaningful monitoring emerged as a significant

issue. Many CSC areas have been abandoned due to old age and inaccessibility of the area

and absence of farm-to-market roads. Timber poaching continued. The CSC holders were

unanimous in giving the program a failure rating. The study concluded that the

well-intentioned CSC as a tenurial instrument for a sustainable management of upland

resources failed in the particular study areas mainly due to lack of social preparation and

absence of a meaningful, regular monitoring. The local municipal government units need

to have significant role in ISF program re upland natural resources management.

Keywords: Certificate of Stewardship Contract (CSC); Tenurial Instrument (TI);

Integrated Social Forestry (ISF)


156

The Analysis of Rattan Production: Case study in Prekthnot

Community Protected Area, Kampot Province

Sreyneang Chheun*, Monin Vorn, Ratank Ou and Malyne Neang



Rattan is one of the most important NTPs, which provide an economics benefit,

sustainability of dwellers’ livelihood, poverty reduction in rural area, biodiversity

conservation, and coordination the economic growth. The limitation of rattan growth while

there is an increasing demand, the needed of sustainable and appropriate technique for

collecting is required. This research aims to analysis rattan production in Prekthnot

Community Protected Area by understanding the sustainability of rattan collecting,

analyzing market chain of fresh rattan and rattan furniture, and estimating value of rattan

for livelihood development. For this study, 62 rattan collectors and 13-rattan processer

from three villages (Prek Kreng, Prekthnot, Chanhuon) in Prekthnot commune were

selected to interview in quantitative approach. Seasonal calendar, time line, venn diagram,

semi structure interview, market mapping, and SWOT analysis were used in qualitative

methodology. Result showing that sustainable rattan collection is collecting with

appropriate monitoring and evaluation, using appropriate technique and enhancing the

nursery and plantation in order to reduce the using of the natural rattan in the forest. The

main actors in market chain of fresh rattan and rattan furniture are rattan furniture input

suppliers, collecting and handicraft technical suppliers, rattan collectors, rattan processers,

local collectors, final consumers. Rattan production has contributed to livelihood

development of Rattan Group members. Rattan production contributed 8.5 % to total

income of collector per year and 64.21 % to total income of processer per year. Rattan

processing has a high proficiency, which all community members could be selected to be

an additional job beside their career, while rattan collection is also an easier job that can

provide immediate income for community member.

Keywords: rattan, Prekthnot, market chain, rattan value, sustainability, rattan collecting


157

Biodiversity of Soil Invertebrate in the Different Salt-affected Areas

in Northeast of Thailand

Sutinee Sawet*, Duangrat Thongphak and Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai



Soil invertebrates play an important role in the terrestrial ecosystem. They are actively

involved in decomposition of organic matter, nutrient cycling and energy transformation

within the food web. The salt–affected soil may affects on biodiversity of soil invertebrates.

The objectives of this study were to compare the biodiversity of soil invertebrates and its

influence on the decomposition rate between the different salt affect areas with different

levels of EC at Yang Talad district, Kalasin Province (EC values in wet and dry season

were 5.6+2.1 and 14.3+6.1 mS/cm, respectively) and Ban Phai district, Khon Kaen

Province (EC values in wet and dry season were 22.3+8.1 and 54.3+9.6 mS/cm,

respectively). Soil invertebrate samples and environmental factors were collected randomly

in wet and dry seasons throughout one year in 2012. The results showed that diversity of

soil invertebrates were statistically difference between two different levels of salt affected

soil. The 10, 7, 10 and 4 of taxa of macro soil invertebrates were found in Kalasin and

Khon Kaen province during wet and dry, respectively. Hymenoptera were the dominant

taxa in both areas. The diversity of soil invertebrate in wet season were Hymenoptera

(61.31%), Coleoptera 29.56 %), Arachnida (3.28 %), Arachnida (1.46 %), Diplopoda

(1.09 %), Psocoptera (1.09 %), Blattodea (0.73 %), Collembola (0.73 %), Isopoda

(0.36 %), Orthoptera (0.36 %) in Kalasin Province and Hymenoptera (86.53%), Arachnida

(5.44%), Coleoptera (3.63 %), Isopoda (1.55 %), Collembola (1.04 %), Arachnida and

Hemiptera (0.52 %) Chilopoda, Mantodea and Orthoptera (0.26 %) in Khon Kaen Province.

The diversity of soil invertebrate in dry season were Hymenoptera (67.74%), Coleoptera

(15.32%) Isopoda (8.06 %) Arachnida (5.65 %) Mantidae Blattodea Diplopoda (0.8 %) in

Kalasin Province and Hymenoptera (96.70 %), Arachnida (1.65 %), Coleoptera (0.82 %),

Orthoptera (0.82 %) in Khon Kaen Province. The decomposition rate in the Kalasin and

Khon Kaen Provinces were 32.55 and 18.33 percent, respectively.

Keywords: diversity, soil invertebrates, saline soil


158

Diversity of Underutilized Crops and Rural Livelihood in

Mondulkiri Province of Cambodia

Thorng Ra*, Makara Ouk and Duncan A. Vaughan



The research was undertaken to identify and document an underutilized crops. The

rural livelihood characteristic was obtained including local people’s perception concerning

threats to crop genetic diversity. To obtain the necessary data, both qualitative and

quantitative research was carried out by conducting a survey and focus group discussions.

Fifty species of underutilized crops in the research areas were identified and classified by

crop groups with information on scientific name, common name, local name and part of

plants used. Similarly, the study found and documented 32 species of wild food plants and

their roles in rural communities are described in term of food security and economic

growth opportunities. The major livelihood strategies of farmers are farming, non-timber

forest products (NTFP) collection, fishing, farm labor, animal raising and handicrafts. Rice

was reported to be insufficient for 74.4% of the people as they have experienced crop

failure in rice production. Underutilized crops play a very important role in the lives of the

rural poor and offering opportunities for income generation and employment. The main

outputs of this study were that Mondulkiri province is an area where many underutilized

crops as well as wild food plants remain important to the local communities. The Phnong

minority group continues to maintain significant crop genetic diversity in their fields by

using a traditional seeds and landrace crop varieties; hence allowing for the continued

generation of adaptive traits in these materials. However, farmers may no longer be able to

grow their own traditional varieties and landraces due to changing climate as shown by

recent droughts, pest attacks and crop failure. Therefore conservation of PGR will attempt

to provide the backup in case of diversity loss. Strategies and approaches to conserving

underutilized crops which are the keys for sustainable food security and poverty

alleviation.

Keywords: crop genetic diversity, underutilized crops, wild food plants, rural livelihood,

indigenous knowledge, in situ and ex situ conservation


159

Distribution of Earthworm and Soil Properties under Rubber

(Hevea brasiliensis) Plantations in Northeast of Thailand

Toonyathape Khamjampa*, Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai,

Mongkol Ta-uan and Surasak Seripong



Rubber tree plantation has been increasing interested in Northeast of Thailand.

Population dynamics, diversity and distribution of earthworms in soil ecosystems of the

tropics have received attention in recent years because earthworms play an important role

in maintaining soil fertility, ecosystem function and production. Thus earthworms can be

used as a tool in monitoring the influence of the rubber tree plantation practices on soil

ecosystem. The aims of this study were to study the influence of different practices in

rubber tree plantations on the earthworm distribution in Northeast of Thailand. The

distribution and characteristics of earthworm cast, Pheretima sp. between organic and

conventional rubber tree plantation for 10 years were assessed in rainy season

(August-September 2012) in Kanuan District, Khon Kaen, Thailand. Earthworm

populations varied and significantly difference among systems (p<0.05). The average

number of earthworm cast were found 10 casts per square meter in organic rubber tree

plantation but no earthworm cast found in conventional rubber tree plantation. The

earthworm cast’s height and the earthworm cast’s width were 5.58 and 4.26 centimeter,

respectively. For the biological, physical and chemical soil properties analysis in the

studied soil sample and earthworm cast, the results showed that the biological soil property

as the soil respirations in soil samples of soil and cast were 3.575 mgCO2/day and 15.492

mgCO2/day, respectively. The results showed that the chemical soil property in soil

samples from each land use were not significantly different (p<0.05) but it showed that the

soil physical property in organic rubber tree plantation was better than the conventional

rubber tree plantation.

Keywords: earthworm, rubber tree plantation, soil quality, organic farming


160

The Application of Satellite Images SCIAMACHY/Envisat in Tracking

Trends Emissions Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Vo Quang Minh* and Nguyen Khac Phuong

* Cantho University, Vietnam


Carbon dioxide (CO2) is one of the important greenhouse gases have a strong impact

and a big contributor to climate change, greenhouse gas monitoring is essential to have a

better overview solution to respond to climate change. Monitoring the concentration of

CO2 in the atmosphere by satellite imageries is a scientific research, which growing rapidly,

from which certain facilities on the global carbon cycle and provides insight on the

presence of CO2 on the earth surface. From the recorded data and analysis of monthly

satellite images from 2003 to 2009 on CO2 concentration, using spatial interpolation

techniques to assess the trends and fluctuations of spatial and temporal CO2 distribution for

the whole earth, and as the basis for assessment in the Mekong Delta

Keywords: CO2, interpolation, climate change


161

Ecotoxicology of Sewage Sludge Leachate on Chironomid Species

Wilaiwan Duangcharoen*, Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai and Thammared Chuasavathi



Sewage sludge is one of organic waste that could be used as a fertilizer. However,

metals in sewage sludge are under concerned that they might accumulate in soil and be

leached into water and metal concentrations might reach concentrations that are toxic to

aquatic biota. The objective of this study was to determine toxicity of sewage sludge

leachate from a municipal wastewater treatment plant in Bangkok on aquatic biota. Sludge

leachate was collected in August 2012. Water quality and metal concentrations were

analysed, and the toxicity was determined with two species of Chironomids (48-h

mortality). The water quality of sewage sludge leachate were: Total Solid = 37300.00 mg/L,

pH = 7.12, EC = 2.30 mS/cm, Alkalinity = 4567.50 mg/L, COD = 4382.46 mg/L, BOD =

684.89 mg/L, Total P = 40.32 mg/L, Available P = 43.15 mg/L, TKN = 876.35 mg/L, NH3

= 181.51 mg/L, NO3 = 18.97 mg/L. The contamination of heavy metals; As, Cd, Co,Cr, Cu

and Pb in sludge leachate were found 0.02, 0.02, 0.00001, 1.41, 76.08, and 0.70 mg/L,

respectively. The results showed that toxicity of the sludge leachate on Chironomus

javanus Kiffer and Chironomus striatipennis (Kieffer) were 311.50 and 104.42 %,

respectively.

Keywords: leachate, aquatic biota, environmental impact


162

Vegetation and Relationships of Some Soil Properties on

Plant Species Diversity of Northeast, Thailand

Wissava Kulna*, Vidhaya Trelo-ges and Bubpha Topark-ngarm



Very strongly saline soil area is not appropriate for agricultural and the most of this

area the famers could not cultivate any crops in this area. The distribution of native plant is

scatter in very strongly saline soil area and appear salt patches on the soil surface. The

major objectives of this study are (1) to examine the vegetation and plant species in the

very strongly saline soil area and (2) study the relationships between soil properties and the

number of plant species (diversity). The study site was located in Chi river basin of

Northeast Thailand. 3 sites were determined, first site was located on Haunakham sub

district, Yangtalad district in Kalasin province, second site was located on Huathalay

sub-district, Bamnetnarong district in Chaiyaphum province and third site was located on

Maung pia sub district, Ban pai district in Khon Kean province. The vegetation was

consider on 5 m X 5 m in each plot using stratified sampling method and soil samples were

collected in each plot in rainy (September 2011) and dry season (April 2012). Physical and

chemical properties were analyzed in the laboratory. The results revealed that the plant

species can be found in the first site, there were 54 species 36 family, for the second site

was found 55 species 36 family and the third site found 57 species 33 family and the

number of plant species can be found in rainy season more than in dry season and the most

of plant species in all 3 sites are Azima sarmentosa, Maytenus makongensis and Pluchea

indica, respectively. Consequently, The relationships between soil properties including ECe,

soil texture, soil moisture contents and plant species diversity showed significant

correlation (p<0.01) and the significant correlation of soil bulk density (p<0.05). The

negative relationships between soil properties and plant species diversity were ECe,

proportion of silt particle distribution (soil texture), soil moisture content and exchangeable

sodium content. However, the positive relationships is proportion of sand particle

distribution (soil texture), this phenomena can be occurred in dry season. Meanwhile, in

rainy season showed the negative and positive relationships between plant species diversity

on the proportion of sand particle distribution and exchangeable sodium content,

respectively.

Keywords: halophyte species, saline soils


163

The Difference of Agricultural Land Use in Watersheds and

Long Term Fluctuation on the River Water Quality

Yuri Yamazaki*, Toshimi Muneoka, Sachiyo Wakou, Motoko Shimura,

Kunihiko Yoshino, Osamu Tsuji and Toshio Tabuchi

* Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Japan


This study evaluated the relationship between river water quality at normal water level

and the proportion of agricultural land in watershed based on a twenty-year observation

with taking notice of the difference of agricultural land use in eastern Hokkaido. At 35

watersheds in two large-scale areas, nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N) concentration and electric

conductivity (EC) values in river water, and discharges were investigated for once a year in

late August or in early September in 1992, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006 and 2012. Tokachi area

(24 watersheds) is located in the northwestern part within Tokachi general sub-prefectural

bureau, the agricultural land use is mainly upland with dairy farming. Nemuro area (11

watersheds) is located in the western part within Nemuro sub-prefectural bureau, the

agricultural land use is almost dairy farming. The concentration of river water quality was

actually increasing at several watersheds in the two areas for the twenty years since 1992.

The concentration of river water quality was widely fluctuating at some watersheds in the

two areas in 2004 with the enforcement of “Law on promoting proper management and use

of livestock excreta”. It is remarkable that NO3-N concentration in Tokachi area was higher

than that in Nemuro area on the same level of proportion of agricultural land in the

watersheds. This derives from the difference of agricultural land use in two areas; NO3-N

concentration of river water had increased by large amount of chemical fertilizers as well

as livestock manure in upland field with dairy farming. On the contrary, EC value in

Nemuro area was higher than that in Tokachi area on the same level of agricultural land

area in the watersheds. This leads us a meaning that river water in watershed at Nemuro

area contains many materials besides NO3- ion geologically.

Keywords: NO3-N concentration, EC value, agricultural land use, long term fluctuation

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