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Volume 8 Issue 1 Annual `800

October–December 2019

COVER STORY

VIEWPOINT

TRANSFORMING PV WASTE TO A RESOURCE

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SUSTAINABILITY AS A FRAMEWORK, APPROACH, AND COMMITMENT

MANAGING INDIA’S CLEAN ENERGY WASTE

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The Most Comprehensive Annual Data Diary and Yearbook on

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OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019

Chief Patron

Dr Ajay Mathur

Editor

Amit Kumar Radheyshayam Nigam

Editorial Board

Sumita Misra

Chief Electoral Officer-cum-Commissioner Election,

Government of Haryana

Rakesh Kakkar

Additional Secretary, Ministry of Consumer Affairs

Dr A K Tripathi

Director General, National Institute of Solar

Energy (NISE)

Content Advisors

Dr Shantanu Ganguly

Dr P K Bhattacharya

Editorial & Design Team

Anupama Jauhry

Shashi Bhushan

TCA Avni

Abhas Mukherjee

Rajiv Sharma

Production

Aman Sachdeva

Marketing and Sales

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Sanjeev Sharma

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Editor: Amit Kumar Radheyshayam Nigam

Printed and published by Dr Ajay Mathur for The Energy and Resources Institute,

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© The Energy and Resources Institute. All rights reserved.

In the fight against global climate change crisis, renewable energy has assumed

a central – and critical – role. The Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)

submitted by countries to UNFCCC show that in about 80% cases, clean energy is a

priority. As per IRENA analysis, “a total of 145 NDCs explicitly mention renewables as

part of their mitigation and/or adaptation.” While renewable energy comprises many

resources like solar, wind, hydro, and biomass, solar PV remains a key element of this

framework. Indeed REN21’s ‘Global Status Report 2019’ states that “with around 100

GW added, solar PV was once again the frontrunner for installed renewable power

capacity. Additions from solar PV accounted for 55% of new renewable capacity.” Life

of a solar PV panel is considered to be around 25–30 years and while grid-connected

large solar power plants do not need battery storage, smaller, decentralized/off-grid

solar systems and devices do need battery storage too. Thus, while such systems

provide energy in environmentally benign forms, it is equally important to think

about many unintended consequences of such a large-scale deployment of solar PV

systems. Such consequences essentially arise out of end-of-life batteries and solar PV

panels as well as those panels that have reached the obsolescence stage. In 2016,

IRENA and IEA’S Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme estimated that by 2050

solar PV panel waste could reach 5.5–6 million tonnes. Such a scenario provides both

environmental challenges and opportunities: challenges in terms of sound disposal of

waste and opportunities that arise out of recycling and reuse of waste so generated. It

is evident that we simply cannot ignore this vital aspect of otherwise climate-friendly

solutions. There is an urgent need, therefore, to bring in the circularity dimension

of economy before the problem becomes unmanageable. Fortunately, end-of-life

solar PV has catapulted new businesses as has been the case with several start-ups

attempting to integrate second-life batteries in a variety of decentralized electricity

applications.

On the other end of spectrum is agro-waste, unscientific management of

which also abates air pollution among other ill-effects. Again, through emerging

technological innovations, there are promising possibilities of turning bio-wastes

into different energy forms, including bio-fuels. A combination of measures, for

example, incentives to technology development, right policies, and a progressive

regulatory framework can ensure an energy future that is sustainable in all

its dimensions.

From the editor’s desk...

Amit KumarSenior Director, Social Transformation, TERI

Thank you very much for

your encouragement. The

editorial team of Energy

Future will ensure that

the magazine caters to

your information and

knowledge needs. We

welcome your suggestions

and comments to further

improve our content and

presentation.

EditorEnergy Future


I immensely enjoyed reading the article on building materials in which the author highlights the I immensely enjoyed reading the article on building materials in which the author highlights the importance of energy efficiency in buildings in the overall energy landscape. It would be apt to say importance of energy efficiency in buildings in the overall energy landscape. It would be apt to say that a well-designed and energy efficient landscape can reduce your heating, cooling and lighting that a well-designed and energy efficient landscape can reduce your heating, cooling and lighting costs. In certain circumstances, carefully positioned trees and shrubs can save up to 25% of the costs. In certain circumstances, carefully positioned trees and shrubs can save up to 25% of the energy a typical household uses. Energy efficient landscaping has additional benefits such as lower energy a typical household uses. Energy efficient landscaping has additional benefits such as lower maintenance costs, a reduction in water use, a quieter home and cleaner air. It pays to do ample maintenance costs, a reduction in water use, a quieter home and cleaner air. It pays to do ample research on your region before you begin planning your landscape.research on your region before you begin planning your landscape.

Pramod KumarPramod Kumar

Hyderabad, Telangana

The Product Update column on ‘Switching to Sustainable Alternatives’ is very interesting as it discusses about sustainable products, such as bamboo toothbrushes, reusable drinking straws, coir products, coconut bowls, bamboo tea strainer, seed pencils, and so on. With small steps towards switching to these sustainable alternatives, we pave the way for a greener future. The dependence on plastic for convenience is costing us our planet. Now it is time for us to choose between plastic and planet.

S P Singh

Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh

The article on ‘Why Green Ratings for Buildings Matter’ published in the

July–September 2019 issue of Energy Future is quite interesting. The

author rightly says that the ever increasing adoption of the GRIHA rating

is paramount in evaluating reductions in GHG emissions intensity by 2030

and achieving the Nationally Determined Contributions submitted to the

UNFCCC by the Government of India. All the other articles published in this

issue are also very apt and useful.Aditi Bhanushali

Mumbai, Maharashtra

Letter to the Editor

[email protected]

The July–September 2019 issue of Energy Future is quite an apt one as it captures the essence of sustainable built environments. I will try and never forget the food for thought provided by the author that 70% of India is yet to be built, and if we still mend our ways and adopt sustainability, there is a ray of hope for our posterity. All of us must always remember that sustainability does not cost more, sustainability is common sense, and without sustainability there is no future.

Rajesh DhawanNew Delhi

4 NEWS

COVER STORY

12 Managing India’s Clean Energy

Waste: A Roadmap for the Solar

and Storage Industry

FEATURES

20 Transforming PV Waste to

a Resource24 Energy–Waste Nexus: End-of-

Life Man agement of Lithium Ion

Batteries30 Potential and Market Opportunities

for Energy Generation from Agro

And Livestock Waste in India

36 Commercialization of Compressed

Biogas in India

ENERGY INSIGHTS

42 Horizons of Energy Storage:

Chemistry Nobel Prize 2019

SOLAR QUARTERLY

50 Endeavour of Rajasthan Towards

Ultra-Mega Solar Parks: Sun’s

Glow and Future Opportunities

SPECIAL EVENT

58 BEE Nudges Industry to Adopt

ISO 50001: Energy Management

System to Sustain Energy

Effi cient Culture

VIEWPOINT

60 Sustainability as a Framework,

Approach, and Commitment

64 ABSTRACTS

66 PRODUCT UPDATE

68 BOOK ALERT

70 TECHNICAL CORNER

74 INDUSTRY REGISTRY

75 EVENTS

76 RE STATISTICS

4OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019 ENERGY FUTURE

EWSNIN

DIA

Soon police stations, civil stations, KSRTC

bus depots, Kerala Water Authority and

ITIs in the state will sport solar panels

on their rooftops, as government plans

to boost renewable energy generation

in the next one year. The Agency for

Non-Conventional Energy and Rural

Technology (ANERT) will implement the

project in the five departments from

January. “We have identified that the five

departments have space to generate 22

MW of solar energy by the end of 2020,”

said ANERT director Amit Meena.

ANERT will install solar panels on

rooftops of buildings and on the vacant

land owned by KWA to generate 13.5

MW of power. Around 36 acres of land

owned by KWA at Moongilmada in

Palakkad will be utilized for installing

ground mounted solar panels. It is

expected to generate 6–8 MW of power.

“KWA has an energy intensive operation

by running 1080 schemes. Hence, we

have decided to meet 10 per cent of

the energy needs through renewable

energy,” said KWA managing director A

Kowsigan.

Source: New Indian Express

PLANS AFOOT TO HARNESS SOLAR POWER FROM ROOFTOPS OF GOVT BUILDINGS

GREEN ENERGY POLICIES AMENDED IN ANDHRA PRADESHWith the statutory audit finding an

abnormal spurt in power purchase

cost and deterioration in the financial

position of Discoms, the state

government on Monday amended

the Andhra Pradesh Solar Power

Policy, Andhra Pradesh Wind Power

Policy, and Andhra Pradesh Wind-Solar

Hybrid Policy 2018. According to the

orders, transmission and distribution

charges shall be determined by the

APERC for connectivity to the nearest

central transmission utility via state

transmission utility network for inter-

state and intra-state wheeling of power.

The facility of energy banking and

power drawal from all the generators

has been withdrawn. Any injection of

energy between synchronization and

declaration of commercial operation

date (COD) shall be treated as

inadvertent power and no cost shall be

paid by Discoms.

Tariff for any renewable energy

project shall not exceed the ‘difference

between the pooled variable cost and

the balancing cost’. Andhra Pradesh

Electricity Regulatory Commission

(APERC) will determine the pooled

variable cost and balancing cost every

year. All government land allotments

shall only be on lease basis.

Source: New Indian Express

5 OCTOBER–DECEMBER 2019ENERGY FUTURE

ReNew Power, which is expanding

across the energy sector supply chain, is

aiming to achieve double-digit growth

in power transmission. The company,

which recently started participating in

transmission project tenders, is hopeful

of grabbing $20 billion worth of Central

and state-level power transmission

network projects.

“ReNew Power will target a double-

digit market share in power transmission

in the coming 3–5 years. This translates

into the company’s participation in 40–

50 per cent of the transmission projects

offered,” said Ajay Bhardwaj, President

Transmission, ReNew Power.

“We will look at all the states where

we have existing projects or where we

are building current capacity. These are

the same states where the renewable

capacity is and the Centre is planning

Green Corridors,” he said. Karnataka,

Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and Rajasthan are

some of these states.

Bhardwaj said that the transmission

sector needs to grow significantly, both

as an enabler for generation and for load

growth. The Centre is also planning to

tag power transmission with renewable

energy projects as projects of ‘national

importance’. This will reduce the levels of

approval and the cost of the project will

be shared by all beneficiary states.

Source: Business Standard

RENEW POWER TRANSMISSION EYES DOUBLE-DIGIT GROWTH, PROJECTS WORTH $20 BILLION

Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s push

to expand the country’s solar power

generation received a big boost when

state-owned Solar Energy Corporation’s

manufacturing-linked solar energy

auction received a good response.

Three private sector power producers,

namely, Adani Green Energy, Azure and

Navyug, submitted bids for a total of 10

GW of solar projects.

To develop the domestic manufacturing

of solar power panels, the Modi

government has come up with

manufacturing-linked solar power

projects. Under the scheme, solar power

producers are also required to set up

a manufacturing facility. In this round

of auctions by the SECI, the bidders

are required to set up a manufacturing

facility for producing solar power panels

for generating 1 GW of electricity if they

applied for producing 4 GW of solar

power.

Industry sources said India imports

nearly 95% of its solar power equipment

requirement from China that results

in the forex outflow of $10 billion

per year. Completion of these solar

equipment manufacturing linked

solar power projects is expected to

save nearly `70,000 forex per year and

generate large-scale employment and

development of domestic solar power

equipment industry, they added.

Source: Financial Express

PM MODI’S MEGA PUSH FOR SOLAR POWER GETS BIG BOOST; 3 FIRMS BID FOR PROJECTS OF 10 GW


ROOFTOP SOLAR POWER CATCHES FANCY OF PUNJAB, HRY USERS

Even as industry analysts warn of

slowdown in the renewable energy

sector, the segment has added 4273

MW of new capacity to the grid during

the first half of this fiscal, which is one of

the highest additions in a first-half year

period in the last several years.

However, the addition to capacity

during April-September 2019 is only

36 per cent of the target (11,802 MW)

set for the fiscal. Solar power segment

continues to be the major contributor to

new capacity growth in the renewable

energy sector with a share of more than

two-thirds of the new capacity. It added

2921 MW (2479 MW ground mounted

and 442 MW rooftop) capacity during

April-September 2019, according to the

Ministry of New and Renewable Energy

(MNRE).

Wind sector continues to show

progress and it added about 1304 MW

of new capacity. During the last fiscal,

this segment added 1481 MW, and this

year it is expected to add more capacity.

As on September 30, 2019, the total

grid-connected installed renewable

power capacity in India stood at 82,589

MW. The total installed capacity of wind

power stood at 36,930 MW. The fast-

growing solar segment had a cumulative

installed capacity of 31,101 MW (ground

mounted: 28,863 MW; rooftop: 2238

MW).

Source: The Hindu Business Line

RENEWABLE ENERGY SECTOR ADDS 4,273 MW IN H1

Rooftop solar is fast catching fancy of

micro and small units, offices, schools,

hospitals, and households as a reliable

source of power in Punjab and Haryana.

According to solar power developers, in

the past nine months, there has been a

significant increase in queries related to

rooftop solar projects. The total installed

capacity of rooftop solar power in these

two states has touched 245 MW.

Rooftop solar is mainly installed for

captive consumption. Depending upon

the requirement, the installation starts

from 1 kWp and can go up to 1 MW.

Generally, most of the installed capacity is

between 1 and 20 kWp. Compared to the

ground-mounted projects, the rooftop

solar installations are much smaller in

terms of generation capacity.

Currently, in Haryana, the solar power is

dominated by rooftop plants of 145 MW

(on residential and commercial buildings).

The total installed capacity of solar

power in the state is 225 MW, including

ground-mounted installations. However,

in neighbouring Punjab, the rooftop

capacity is 100 MW.

According to developers, the main

factor for stronger adoption of solar

power is the cost which has fallen sharply

over the past couple of years. Depending

upon the size of the plant, the cost per

unit comes out between `2.77 and `4 per

unit.

Source: The Tribune

EWSNIN

DIA


Central public sector undertakings

(PSUs) will acquire more than two lakh

hectares to set up 47,000 MW of green

power units under a new plug-and-

play model, aimed at accelerating

solar capacity expansion by de-risking

projects from land acquisition and

availability of transmission corridors as

well as reducing tariffs by up to 20 paise

per unit.

Under the new model, PSUs under

the power and renewable energy

ministries will acquire the land

through fully-owned SPVs (special

purpose vehicles). The land may be

purchased outright or leased from state

governments and private land owners.

State governments too can take full

ownership of SPVs in suitable cases.

Central utilities such as PowerGrid will

set up the transmission infrastructure

for these locations. This will result in a

hassle-free staging arena—called ‘ultra-

mega renewable energy power parks’

with hosting aggregate capacity of

4000 MW each—for promoters without

having to worry about stumbling over

land acquisition or transmission issues.

The projects within a park will be given

out on the basis of tariff-based bidding.

The model envisages individual

projects of 2000 MW within a park.

However, projects in multiples of

600 MW will also be allowed in

multiple locations in cases where

new transmission lines have to be

laid. In cases where transmission links

already exist, projects will be allowed

in multiples of 250 MW. Floating solar

projects too are covered under the

model, wherein the minimum size could

be 50 MW.

Source: Times of India

POWER PSUs TO ACQUIRE OVER 2 LAKH HECTARES FOR SOLAR PARKS

Delhi is generating 146 MW solar power

by installing rooftop solar panels in

schools, markets, institutions, and other

buildings under Mukhya Mantri Solar

Power Yojna. “The rooftop installations of

solar panels progressed with significant

pace. It has also helped in cutting CO2

emission by 500 tonnes every day,” Delhi

Power Minister Satyendar Jain said. “Now

we started installing solar panels in

housing societies. From these solar

plants, power can be supplied for the

common utilities like parking, lift, clubs,

gym, etc.” he said.

Jain further said that this initiative has

reduced the electricity bill from `10 per

unit to `1 in these households. “Apart

from this, the overall electricity bill of the

societies with solar plants has also been

reduced by 50 per cent”, he said, adding

that it is not only environment-friendly

but also highly economical compared to

other sources of power.

Source: The Pioneer

CITY GENERATES 146 MW SOLAR POWER: JAIN


EUROPE LEADS IN FINANCING GREEN ENERGY PROJECTSA new Dutch green bond (officially

known as the Sovereign Green Bond)

will fund a wide range of low-carbon

projects undertaken by governments.

This includes three categories:

renewables (including onshore solar

energy and offshore wind energy),

energy efficiency (including residential

energy efficiency upgrades), and

clean transportation initiatives and

infrastructure.

The Netherlands Ministry of Finance’s

Dutch State Treasury Agency (DSTA)

launched this inaugural 20-year green

bond on 21 May of this year. Prior to

the auction, a total of 32 investors

were registered by the DSTA as ‘green

investors’, with a special allocation

set aside for them. Bids from those 32

investors and others arrived into the

DSTA quickly, and it occurred at the start

of the auction.

This May bond established the

government of the Netherlands as the

first country with a triple-A rating to

issue a green bond (known as a DSL).

By issuing the bond, the Dutch aim to

support the establishment of a robust

green capital market that can provide

financing to utilities and others who

have bankable projects.

Source: T&D World

World Media Wire (WMW) has declared

Denmark as the unofficial winner of

REN21’s Renewables in Cities 2019

Global Status Report. “Denmark has

11 cities on the report and is the

uncontestable leader in this strive for

world change!” proclaimed WMW about

a report in which Denmark has 39

mentions and Copenhagen a further 24.

The think-tank REN21 has carried out

what it describes as a ‘stock-taking of

the world’s cities transition to renewable

energy’ and it has detailed the efforts of

Denmark’s cities for all to see. As well as

listing 11 cities with a renewable energy

target – Aarhus, Copenhagen, Egedal,

Frederikshavn, Gladsaxe, Helsingør, Høje-

Taastrup, Hvidovre, Samsø, Skive, and

Sønderborg – it points out that Denmark

has the third biggest share when it

comes to renewable energy fuelling its

district heating network (46 per cent) –

behind only Iceland and Norway.

Source: http://cphpost.dk/news/denmark-a-world-leader-in-renewable-energy.html

DENMARK A WORLD LEADER IN RENEWABLE ENERGY

EWSN


Research published in the journal Nature

Climate Change shows that wind speed

has increased on a global scale over the

past decade, which is good news for the

wind power industry. The research by

scientists from Cardiff University tracks

a trend of decreasing wind speeds since

the 1970s – known as global terrestrial

stilling – and confirms that since 2010

the trend has been reversed with a

significant increase observed. The

report also showed that since 2010, the

increase in wind speeds has been three

times greater than the rate of decrease

before 2010, increasing potential wind

energy by 17 ± 2% for 2010 to 2017,

something they believe could boost

US wind power capacity by a factor of

~2.5%.

Source: https://www.power-technology.com/news/industry-news/global-wind-speed-increases-are-good-for-renewable-

power-say-scientists/

GLOBAL WIND SPEED INCREASES ARE GOOD FOR RENEWABLE POWER SAY SCIENTISTS

Africa, where close to half of its 1.2

billion people have access to electricity,

is set to become a world leader

in renewable energy. In the Africa

Investment Forum (AIF) held during

11–13 November, a key focus was on

sustainable renewable energy. The

forum was organized by the African

Development Bank (AfDB) and its

various partners and attended by

heads of state from countries such

as South Africa, Ghana, Rwanda, and

Mozambique. At an invitation-only

discussion among the leaders, Rwanda’s

President Paul Kagame said that there

was a lot of progress in Africa as a whole.

“I have always thought it was Africa’s

time. We Africans have let ourselves

down, we are now realizing it has always

been our time. And we now need to

seize every opportunity to be where

we should be by now,” Kagame said.

Kagame was the driver of the African

Continental Free Trade Agreement

(AfCFTA) during his time as chair of the

African Union in 2018. The agreement

had not been in existence during the

first AIF last year. Established in March

2019, the AfCFTA has now been

signed by 54 of the 55 African

member states.

Source: https://www.utilities-me.com/news/14355-africa-seeks-to-become-key-global-player-in-renewable-energy

AFRICA SEEKS TO BECOME KEY GLOBAL PLAYER IN RENEWABLE ENERGY


STUDY SHOWS WHERE GLOBAL RENEWABLE ENERGY INVESTMENTS HAVE GREATEST BENEFITSA new study finds that the amount of

climate and health benefits achieved

from renewable energy depends on the

country where it is installed. Countries

with higher carbon dioxide (CO2)

emissions and more air pollution, such

as India, China, and areas in Southeast

Asia and Eastern Europe, achieve

greater climate and health benefits

per megawatt (MW) of renewable

energy installed than those operating

in areas such as North America,

Brazil, and parts of Europe. The study

in Palgrave Communications by the

Center for Climate, Health, and the

Global Environment at the Harvard T.H.

Chan School of Public Health (Harvard

C-CHANGE) offers a new method for

transparently estimating country-

level climate and health benefits from

renewable energy and transportation

improvements that companies, investors,

and policymakers can use to make

strategic decisions around achieving the

United Nations’ Sustainable Development

Goals (SDGs). Researchers measured

two types of benefits—climate benefits

(reductions in carbon emissions)

and health benefits (decreased mortality

attributable to harmful air pollution)—

and developed a user-friendly model

to compare how those benefits vary

based on where renewable energy is

operating.

Source: ScienceDaily

Scientists from Trinity College Dublin

have taken a giant stride towards solving

a riddle that would provide the world

with entirely renewable, clean energy

from which water would be the only

waste product. Reducing humanity’s

carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions is

arguably the greatest challenge facing

21st century civilization, especially given

the ever-increasing global population

and the heightened energy demands

that come with it.

One beacon of hope is the idea that

we could use renewable electricity to

split water (H2O) to produce energy-

rich hydrogen (H2), which could then

be stored and used in fuel cells. This is

an especially interesting prospect in a

situation where wind and solar energy

sources produce electricity to split water

as this would allow us to store energy for

use when those renewable sources are

not available.

Source: https://phys.org/news/2019-11-scientists-renewable-energy.html

SCIENTISTS TAKE STRIDES TOWARDS ENTIRELY RENEWABLE ENERGY

EWSN


RENEWABLE ENERGY TO EXPAND BY 50% IN NEXT FIVE YEARS – REPORTGlobal supplies of renewable electricity

are growing faster than expected and

could expand by 50% in the next 5 years,

powered by resurgence in solar energy.

The International Energy Agency (IEA)

found that solar, wind, and hydropower

projects are rolling out at their fastest

rate in 4 years. Its latest report predicts

that by 2024 a new dawn for cheap

solar power could see the world’s solar

capacity grow by 600 GW, almost double

the installed total electricity capacity of

Japan. Overall, renewable electricity is

expected to grow by 1200 GW in the

next 5 years, the equivalent of the total

electricity capacity of the United States.

Renewable energy sources make

up 26% of the world’s electricity today,

but according to the IEA, its share is

expected to reach 30% by 2024. The

resurgence follows a global slowdown

last year owing to falling technology

costs and rising environmental

concerns.

Source: The Guardian

The Republic is ramping up its drive

to soak up more energy from the sun,

amid growing global awareness on how

fossil fuels are contributing to climate

change. By 2030, Singapore wants to

ramp up its solar capacity by more

than seven times from current levels

and increase the current 260 MWp of

installed solar capacity to 2 GWp. This

is enough to meet the annual power

needs of around 350,000 households

in Singapore or about 4 per cent of

Singapore’s total electricity demand

today.

The new 2 GWp target for Singapore

was outlined by Minister for Trade and

Industry Chan Chun Sing at the opening

of the Singapore International Energy

Week held at the Sands Expo and

Convention Centre.

Currently, solar energy contributes

less than 1 per cent to Singapore’s total

energy mix. More than 95 per cent

comes from natural gas, the cleanest

form of fossil fuel. Other sources, such

as oil and coal, round up the mix.

Source: The Straits Times

SINGAPORE TO RAMP UP SOLAR ENERGY PRODUCTION TO POWER 350,000 HOMES BY 2030

MANAGING INDIA’S CLEAN ENERGY WASTEA ROADMAP FOR THE SOLAR AND STORAGE INDUSTRY


With the increasing penetration of distributed renewable energy sources such as solar PV and energy storage into the Indian electricity sector, it is necessary to prepare for managing the waste generated from these technologies. The reduce, reuse, and recover approach off ers multiple socio-economic benefi ts besides being environmentally benign. In this article, Akanksha Tyagi takes a closer look at the management of clean energy waste.


India is undergoing a clean energy

transition. The government is

consistently implementing policies to

increase the share of renewables in

the total electricity mix. Solar energy,

in the form of rooftop and utility-scale

solar, is at the forefront with significant

capacity addition over the past decade.

The cumulative solar capacity has

grown from 3 MW in 2009 to 31 GW

as of September 2019 and is aimed to

reach 100 GW by 2022.1 Energy storage

is also garnering much attention with

the growing share of renewable energy

in the grid to overcome generation

intermittency. The Union Cabinet

recently approved the National Mission

on Transformative Mobility and Battery

Storage that includes a five-year

phased manufacturing programme

to set up large-scale battery and cell

manufacturing giga plants in India.

1 MNRE. 2019. Physical Progress

(Achievements). New Delhi: Ministry of New

and Renewable Energy

Since then, several renewable plus

storage tenders have been announced.

The share of solar plus storage projects

is only going to increase as India moves

towards achieving the 100 GW target. In

additional to lead-acid batteries, which

have been in use for energy storage and

uninterrupted power supply solutions

for many decades, alternative battery

chemistries such as lithium and redox

flow are emerging for renewable energy

applications.

Although the dramatic augmentation

of solar and storage capacity ensures

access to sustainable energy for all, it

carries an impending issue of disposal

and management at the end of

their useful life. The expected useful

working life of solar photovoltaic

(PV) modules is between 25 and

30 years, after which they have to

be discarded. In addition, some of

these products are also damaged

during transportation, installation,

operation, or natural calamities such

as typhoons and floods. So, even

though most of the installed projects

are well short of decommissioning, it

would not be prudent to delay their

waste management. According to

our analysis,2 the current 31 GW solar

capacity alone would result in 107,000

tons of waste by 2022. Interestingly,

none of this waste would come from the

expected end-of-life of these modules.

About 24,000 tons would result from

damages during transportation and

installation process. The remaining,

about 82,000 tons, would result from

early failures during the plant operation

phase. This amount will continue to

grow as more solar capacity is deployed

in future.

2 This number is derived by multiplying

the average weight of a panel with

the solar capacity under the early loss

scenario assumptions of losing 0.5% of the

capacity while transportation, 0.5% during

installation, and 2% within 10 years of

installation.


Similarly, for batteries, the expected life

varies from 3 to 10 years depending

on the battery chemistry. Further,

several factors can result in an early life

failure of batteries. Besides damage

from improper handling during

transportation and installation, different

operational factors, such as overheating,

deep discharging, and low or high

surrounding temperature, can also cause

an early life failure of batteries. As these

technologies continue to grow, so does

the cumulative waste. In the absence

of a regulatory framework, this entire

waste would end up in landfills, thus

adversely impacting the environment.

Necessity and

Opportunity of Waste

ManagementDedicated waste management and

recycling policies are crucial from

an environmental and a resource

management perspective. The

environment aspect pertains to the

ecological impact of these products

upon disposal. Both PV modules and

batteries contain metals as an active

component. In PV modules, two

different technologies are prevalent:

crystalline silicon and thin-film. The

major components of a crystalline

silicon module are silicon, aluminium,

copper, and silver. Thin-film modules

contain compounds of tin, cadmium,

and lead besides aluminium, copper,

and silver. In parallel, the battery sector

is dominated by different chemistries

of the lithium-ion technology, the main

metallic components of which are

lithium, manganese, nickel, iron, and

cobalt. They also contain a solution of

metals as electrolytes such as lithium

hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6).

Each of these metals has distinct

environmental impact, entailing

specific handling and disposal

procedures. While aluminium and

silicon are relatively less toxic, the

heavy ones such as cadmium, tin, and

lead are an environmental hazard. In

addition to these visible metallic parts,

some bulk components such as module

glass are threats to the environment.

Glass in PV modules contains antimony

to improve the module’s stability under

light irradiation. Antimony is a potent

human carcinogen. Intuitively, none

of these damaged products should be

dumped directly into the environment

or sent for secondary consumption

without proper treatment. However,

this is the prevalent practice that

leads to the second issue of resource

management.

As metals are vital for PV modules

and batteries, they should be used

efficiently. Some of them have

limited reserves and are also used

competitively in other industries.

Researchers at the Council on Energy,

Environment and Water (CEEW) have

conducted an assessment on the

criticality of different metals for Indian


manufacturing industry.3 The analysis

identifies silicon, germanium, lithium,

and cobalt as critical minerals based

on their economic importance in the

renewable sector and the risk associated

with their geographical reserves.

Further, metals such as cobalt, nickel,

3 Gupta, V., T. Biswas, and K. Ganesan.

2016. Critical Non-Fuel Mineral Resources

for India’s Manufacturing Sector: A Vision

for 2030. New Delhi: Council on Energy,

Environment and Water (CEEW) and

NSTMIS

and iron have relatively low supply risk,

but they are extensively used in other

industries, such as chemicals, aerospace,

and electronics. The competitive

consumption of these metals in other

industries, coupled with limited

availability and geopolitical uncertainty

in the supply chain, can increase the

cost of end products. A PV module

represents almost 50% of the overall

cost of solar PV systems. Batteries, on

the other hand, represent almost 70%

of the total cost of two-wheeler electric

vehicles and 50% of four-wheelers. The

cost trajectory of these technologies

will be driven by the availability of these

critical minerals and their replacement

by alternative materials or technologies.

While the latter might take time, the

supply crunch of these critical minerals

threatens the future of these clean

energy technologies.

In this context, the end-of-life

management and recycling of these

products are crucial. It will ensure

sustainability by adhering to the

concept of circular economy, support

new industries, and create employment

opportunities. The metals can be

reused within the industry to locally

manufacture more products in future

that can bring down the cost of these

technologies. Further, as mining of

these metals creates as much waste

as landfilling, material recycling will

decrease the environmental impact at

the manufacturing stage as well.

Current Recycling

Procedures

PV ModulesMuch of the PV module mass comprises

aluminium frames and glass, followed

by the metallic components in solar cells

and wires. The main steps of recycling

PV modules include dismantling,

combustion, and etching. Dismantling

involves removal of metal frames

and terminal boxes from modules.

Combustion involves burning modules

to remove the organic encapsulant.

This process ensures recovery of glass

and solar cells (silicon or thin-film) with

minimal breakage. Etching involves

treating the residual mixture of glass

and metals with acid or alkali for the

separation of these two components.

After recovering glass, the composition

of acid or alkali solution is changed to

recover the different metals.

Lithium-ion BatteriesDepending of the application, lithium-

ion batteries come in varying sizes and


chemistries. The basic structure has a

cathode, an anode, and an electrolyte.

These components are packed in an

aluminium or plastic case. Broadly,

the battery recycling process involves

dismantling, crushing, and processing.

Dismantling refers to the removal of

the externalities such as aluminium or

plastic case encasing the cell. Crushing

refers to the process of grounding

the cell to powder. This is followed

by sieving to remove tailings and

other waste from fine metal particles.

Processing is a broad term for recovering

metal components. This is a multi-step

process involving treatment with alkali

or acid, extraction, and stripping. The

metal ions recovered by treatment with

acid and alkali are dissolved in organic

solvents. As each metal has a different

level of solubility in these solvents, we

get a mixture of metal solutions. Then,

the solution is brought in contact with

solid metal or alloy, which reduces the

ions present in the liquid phase. The

resultant solution is heated at ambient

temperature and pressure to remove the

organic solvent and get metals.

Owing to multiple steps, these

methods are energy intensive and less

efficient. So, the focus of the recycling

processes should be to decrease

the number of steps. Also, because

of the presence of different metals,

there is a strong possibility of metal

contamination in the recovered mass.

Therefore, module and battery recycling

requires separate recycling processes to

efficiently recover and reuse materials.

Way Forward for IndiaIndia is yet to have a dedicated PV

waste management and recycling

policy. At present, solar module and

battery waste is treated as general

electronic waste and comes under

the Ministry of Environment, Forest

and Climate Change. However, given

the distinct nature of this waste and

the economic value of components,

it is necessary to have a separate

regulation in place. At present, India’s

PV module manufacturing industry is

underdeveloped and majority of the

modules are imported from countries

like China. Having a module recycling

policy in place can make India self-

reliant by ensuring a sustainable

supply of raw materials and creating

employment opportunities.

Unlike India, several countries are

already working on addressing the

impending waste disposal problem.

Some noteworthy mentions are the

European Union’s Waste Electrical and

Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive,

the U.S. module manufacturer First Solar,

and pilot projects by Japan’s New Energy

and Industrial Technology Development

Organization (NEDO). India can learn

a lot from these countries to frame a

regulation for its rapidly developing

clean energy market.

First, working on the lines of EU’s

WEEE Directive, India can revise its

existing electronic waste management

framework to include PV modules and

batteries. The revised regulation, an

expansion of the extended producer

responsibility (EPR), should set the

targets for collection and recovery

efficiency of waste and lay out financing

schemes for the same. Under the

extended EPR, developers should report

the sale of their products, collect the


damaged or discarded products from

consumers free of cost, and update

the status of their targets. They should

also maintain transparency and inform

consumers of the procedures and the

economics of module and battery waste

management. This information should

be mentioned on the products to be

easily accessible to consumers.

Second, as the current recycling

processes are capital intensive, access

to finance is crucial. Depending on the

market share, Indian developers can

choose any of the globally available

financing models, such as pay-as-

you-go, pay-as-you-put, and joint-

and-several liability scheme. In the

pay-as-you-go model, the developer

pays for the process at the time of

waste creation. This model is often

implemented with a last-man-standing

insurance. The insurance covers for

an unforeseen event of a developer

going out of business. In such scenario,

the insurance company finances the

waste collection and recovery. On the

contrary, the pay-as-you-put model

requires pre-allocating a fixed amount

for the waste management process.

First Solar, a leading solar module

manufacturer in the United States, uses

this approach for recycling the waste

from its modules. With the sale of each

module, it sets aside a lump sum to

meet the estimated future collection

and recycling cost of its modules.

In addition to these two models,

developers can also opt for a collective

producer responsibility scheme. Here,

they jointly set a financing guarantee

with last-man-standing insurance to

pay for the collection and recycling

costs corresponding to the market

share of their products. Then, they use

the pay-as-you-go model to cover the

cost of managing the waste from their

products. This model is successfully

implemented in Germany.

Third, a market-driven initiative is

important for a thriving waste collection

and recycling industry. The various

stakeholders of the Indian solar industry

should take responsibility to invest in

recycling technologies, finance routes,

and feasibility examination by pilot

projects. They can learn from the Solar

Energy Industries Association (SEIA)

in the United States and Japan’s New

Energy and Industrial Technology

Development Organization (NEDO),

which have taken a lead on clean energy

waste collection and management. SEIA,

a not-for-profit trade association of the

U.S. solar energy industry, is maintaining

a corporate social responsibility

committee to develop and review the

research in recycling technologies. It

introduces developers to recycling

vendors and provides financing options

for waste collection and management.

Some of the members are already

operating the take-back and recycling

programs for their products. In Japan,

NEDO has been undertaking extensive

research activities for PV recycling. In

2014, it developed an automated PV

recycling technology that separates

different types of panels (crystalline Si,

thin-film) to recover valuable materials

such as aluminium, Si, glass, and metal

semiconductor. This technology is

currently in the experimental phase.

In India, the Ministry of New and

Renewable Energy (MNRE) has endorsed

several solar associations, such as the

National Solar Energy Federation of India

(NSEFI), the Indian Solar Manufacturers

Association (ISMA), and the Federation

of Indian Chambers of Commerce &

Industry (FICCI) Renewable Energy.

These associations can collaborate to

develop guidelines for reporting the sale

and damage of modules, invest in new

recycling technologies and examine the

feasibility of existing services, and create

a financing scheme for the same.

As distributed renewable energy

sources such as solar PV and energy

storage penetrate deep into the

Indian electricity sector, it is necessary

to prepare for managing the waste

generated from these technologies.

In addition to being environmentally

benign, the ‘reduce, reuse, and

recover’ approach offers multiple

socio-economic co-benefits. The local

manufacturing industry will benefit from

decreased dependence on the import

of raw materials. It is imperative for

the government to introduce a holistic

policy framework for handling the

waste from clean energy technologies,

highlighting the responsibility of

different stakeholders, and creating an

enabling environment to implement the

same.

Dr Akanksha Tyagi is Research Analyst, Council

on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW),

New Delhi.

Tel. 2468 2100

Fax: 2468 2144

India +91 • Delhi (0)11


Web: http://bookstore.teri.res.in

The Energy and Resources Institute

Attn: TERI Press

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New Delhi – 110 003/India

To purchase the book, visit our online bookstore at http://bookstore.teri.res.in or send us your demand draft or cheque in favour of TERI, payable at New Delhi

(outstation cheques are not accepted).

Energy and Environment discusses various forms of energy. It

examines environmental impacts of energy generation and how non-

renewable sources of energy contributes significantly to environmental

pollution. In the book the role of renewable energy sources in

mitigating global problem of environmental pollution is also discussed

at length. It also elaborates on storage of energy, an important subject,

in the context of rising energy demands of the present world.

RENEWABLES: GLOBAL SOLUTION TO ENERGY AND POLLUTION

ISBN: 9789386536610 • Price: `295.00

Major topics covered

• Types of Alternative

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Chemicals

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TRANSFORMING PV WASTE TO A RESOURCE

Growing resource consumption comes at a cost of the environment. As the global

deployment of PV approaches terawatt levels in an increasingly resource-constrained

world, resource efficiency strategies adopted for PV manufacturing combined with

end-of-life high-value recycling are essential to promote a circular economy and

transform PV waste into valuable secondary raw materials for other industries. In this

article, Karen Drozdiak, Andreas Wade, and Sujoy Ghosh describe how First Solar

continues to proactively invest in the improvement of the recycling technology to

increase resource efficiency and drive down recycling prices for its customers.


The global consumption of natural

resources has more than tripled since

the 1970s and it accounts for half of the

total global greenhouse gas emissions

and more than 90% of biodiversity loss

and water stress. The United Nations’

International Resource Panel warns that

global natural resource consumption

could more than double by 2050,

driven by economic growth, population

growth, and unsustainable production

and consumption patterns.

As one of the fastest growing

economies, India has experienced

fi rst-hand how growing resource

consumption comes at a cost of the

environment. In this context, the

Ministry of Environment, Forest and

Climate Change recently released a

Draft National Resource Effi ciency

Policy that aims to enhance resource

effi ciency and promote the use of

secondary raw materials in order to

decouple the country’s economic

growth from negative environmental

impacts. Circular economy strategies

are also important for the photovoltaic

(PV) industry as India aims to install 100

GW of solar by 2022 under its National

Solar Mission. Under an ambitious solar

deployment scenario of 170 GW by

2030, the total estimated demand for

materials is expected to increase from

0.7 million tons in 2015 to 12 million

tons in 2030.

PV panels typically consist of glass,

aluminum, copper, and semiconductor

materials, which can be successfully

recovered and reused at the end of

their useful life. By mass, approximately

75% of a PV module consists of glass

alone. While bulk recycling focuses

only on recovering high-mass fraction

materials such as glass, high-value

recycling maximizes resource recovery

by also recuperating energy intensive

and valuable materials such as silicon

and silver. The recycling of PV modules

has been a mandatory requirement

in the European Union (EU) under

the Waste Electrical and Electronic

Equipment (WEEE) Directive since 2012.

CENELEC, the European Committee for

0.4

7

0.1

1.7

0.2

3.8

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

2015 2030

Mill

ion

tonn

es

Glass Aluminium Silver

Figure 1 Total estimated material demand for PV in India (2015 versus 2030)

Source Details available at http://moef.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Draft-National-Resourc.pdf, last accessed on 26 November 2019

Figure 2 The First Solar value loop

Electrotechnical Standardization, has

developed a supplementary standard

specifi c to PV panel collection and

treatment (EN50625-2-4 and TS50625-

3-5) to assist treatment operators with

high-value PV recycling.

In 2005, First Solar established the

industry’s fi rst global recycling program

and has been proactively investing

in high-value recycling technology

improvements ever since. As part of the

company’s commitment to responsible

life cycle management, First Solar has

embedded circular material fl ows for

the key components used in its thin fi lm

PV technology to transform waste into

resource – from raw material sourcing

through end-of-life recycling. At the

beginning of the product’s life cycle,

by-products from the zinc and copper

mining industries are converted into a

leading eco-effi cient PV technology that

generates clean and reliable electricity

for 25+ years. First Solar not only designs

its thin fi lm modules to withstand harsh

climatic conditions for 25+ years, but also


handles, and shoe soles, thereby further

closing the loop on our product’s life

cycle. The remainder of the recycled

module scrap (approximately 5–10

percent) that cannot be used in

secondary raw materials is handled

using other responsible waste treatment

and disposal techniques.

Considering a 90% recovery

ratio, one kilogram of First Solar’s

semiconductor material can be recycled

41 times over, which translates into a use

time of more than 1200 years, assuming

a 30-year panel life. The remainder of the

recycled module scrap (approximately

5–10 per cent) that cannot be used in

secondary raw materials is handled

using other responsible waste treatment

and disposal techniques. Owing to

the shredding, crushing, and heating

typically involved in recycling processes,

material losses are inevitable and the

recovery ratio is always less than 100 per

cent.

First Solar continues to proactively

invest in recycling technology

improvements to increase resource

efficiency and drive down recycling

prices for its customers. In 2015, First

Solar piloted its third-generation

recycling technology, a continuous flow

process that achieves superior glass

and semiconductor purity and requires

30 per cent less capital, chemicals,

waste, and labour. The continuous flow

process improves recycling efficiency

and throughput, increasing a recycling

plant’s daily recycling capacity from

30 to 150 tons. As of 2018, routinely

operated recycling plants of First Solar

achieved zero wastewater discharge.

Instead, the wastewater is recycled

and converted into freshwater, which

can then be reused in the recycling

process. By minimizing the dependence

of its recycling process on freshwater,

First Solar is paving the way for the

future roll-out of mobile PV recycling

solutions in areas where water utilities or

wastewater treatment facilities are not

available.

As the global deployment of PV

nears terawatt levels in an increasingly

Figure 4 First Solar’s second-generation (2011) recycling technology based on the chemical industry’s batch process

Figure 3 First Solar’s first-generation (2005) recycling technology based on mining industry’s batch process

ensures that they are suited for high-

value recycling to maximize material

recovery at the end of a module’s useful

life. First Solar’s high-value recycling

process recovers more than 90% of the

semiconductor material for reuse in new

panels of First Solar and 90% of the glass

for use in new glass container products.

In Malaysia, the recovered laminate

material is reused in rubber products

such as bicycle handles and shoe soles.

During the recycling process, First Solar

modules are crushed and shredded

to break the lamination bond. The

crushed modules are chemically

treated to recover the semiconductor

material from the glass. The unrefined

semiconductor material is then sent

externally for further processing. Once

the glass is rinsed and cleaned, it is

packaged so that it can be reused in

new glass products. In Malaysia, our

laminate material is now being recycled

for reuse in rubber mats, bicycle


Figure 5 First Solar’s third-generation (2015) PV recycling technology based on a continuous flow process

industries. Mandating solar PV recycling

and incorporating recovery targets of

85% or more (as stipulated by the draft

National Resource Efficiency Plan) in

government tenders, schemes, and

PPA agreements would provide the

necessary enforcement mechanism

needed to promote responsible PV

waste management and incentivize

investment in high-value PV recycling

infrastructure in India. Internationally, a

new sustainability leadership standard

for PV modules (NSF 457) includes

take-back and recycling requirements

for product end-of-life management.

NSF 457 is in the process of being

adopted by the Electronic Product

Environmental Assessment Tool (EPEAT),

a leading global ecolabel for electronics

and information technology products,

which will enable public and private

purchasers to identify environmentally

leading products and manufacturers

who adhere to responsible end-of-life

management and resource efficiency

practices.

Karen Drozdiak is Manager Sustainability

Communications and Analysis, First Solar;

Andreas Wade is Global Sustainability Director,

First Solar; and Sujoy Ghosh is Vice President

India and the Middle East, First Solar.

resource-constrained world, resource

efficiency strategies adopted for PV

manufacturing combined with end-

of-life high-value recycling are needed

to promote a circular economy and

transform PV waste into valuable

secondary raw materials for other


ENERGY–WASTE NEXUSEnd-of-Life Management of Lithium Ion Batteries

To become competitive in the electric vehicle field and transition towards full

electric mobility, India needs to overcome resource efficiency challenges and create

a sustainable electric vehicle ecosystem, which includes securing its supply of rare

elements, including lithium. In this article, Mehar Kaur emphasizes the need for

domestic manufacturing, battery reuse, and recycling of LIBs.


Electric mobility has gained momentum

in India. Although NITI Aayog’s

proposal of selling only electric

vehicles after 2030 has been refuted

by the government, the general trend

is towards cleaner energy use in

transportation.1,2 This push from the

government along with the support in

the clean energy sector positions India

well to take up the challenge of moving

towards full electric mobility. The

results of the transition can already be

observed in the public transport sector,

such as the metro and e-rickshaws. The

focus of private and public sectors is

to push electric vehicles in the public

transport sector, including public

sharing vehicles, buses, and two- and

three-wheelers.

Given the upward trend of electric

mobility, it is essential to understand

the full life cycle assessment of energy

storage used in electric vehicles and

develop an efficient, low emission

1 Dash, D. K. 2019. Niti Aayog doesn’t have

authority to decide on EV deadline, my

ministry will have final word: Nitin Gadkari.

Times of India, August 23 2 Singh, C. 2019. No need to ban petrol,

diesel vehicles as EVs gaining momentum:

Nitin Gadkari. News18. Details available

at https://www.news18.com/news/auto/

no-need-to-ban-petrol-diesel-vehicles-

as-evs-gaining-momentum-nitin-

gadkari-2320271.html

charging infrastructure for the same.

A consistent supply of electricity is

key to moving towards full electric

mobility; however, scaling up charging

infrastructure is an issue. In addition,

most of the electricity and charging

requirements are met by fossil fuels.

However, we don’t want to burn coal

to save oil. So even though electric

vehicles are an efficient technology to

reduce CO2 emissions, net emissions

per passenger per kilometer in the

electric vehicle sector versus internal

combustion (IC) engine should be

analysed when transitioning towards

electric mobility. To make the full life

cycle sustainable, a shift away from

fossil fuels and towards cleaner energy

solutions, that is, use of solar grid

energy storage to provide electricity, is

essential.

Electric vehicles with cleaner and

more efficient technologies have

successfully gained momentum and

a competitive edge in the market. As

compared to gasoline vehicles, electric

vehicles have fewer moving parts and

therefore require less maintenance.3

However, one of the challenges limiting

the uptake of electric vehicles is the cost

3 How do gasoline & electric vehicles

compare? Idaho National Laboratory.

Details available at https://avt.inl.gov/sites/

default/files/pdf/fsev/compare.pdf

of their battery pack. Battery makes up

about 40–50% of the electric vehicle

sector cost and the cost of the cells in

the pack accounts for 70–80% of the

total cost of battery pack.4 Currently,

India is dependent on imports for the

supply of rare earth elements needed

in the cell. India imports 100% of the

lithium used in lithium ion batteries

(LIBs). LIBs are electrochemical power

sources used in portable devices such

as mobiles, for medical and space

applications, in electric vehicles, and as

energy storage due to their desirable

characteristics. LIBs are known for their

lightweight, long-lasting life, better

life cycle, high energy density, good

efficiency, and high power. Therefore,

several companies have adopted LIBs

for electric vehicle or hybrid electric

vehicles or as a form of energy storage

device, replacing the traditional lead

acid battery. This has directly increased

the use of LIBs in the country. Major

applications of LIBs are expected in

emergency power backups for an

uninterruptible power supply, marine

applications, solar power grid energy

storage, remote monitoring systems/

alarms, for reliable mobility technology,

and so on.5 The automotive and power

market is viewed as the largest future

growth opportunity for LIBs. However,

to become competitive in the electric

vehicle, power sectors and transition

towards full electric mobility, India

needs to overcome resource efficiency

challenges and create a sustainable

electric vehicle ecosystem, which

includes securing its supply of rare

elements including lithium and its future

prices.

4 Society of Indian Automobile

Manufacturers (SIAM). 2017. Adopting

Pure Electric Vehicles: Key Policy

Enablers. Details available at http://

www.siam.in/uploads/filemanager

/114SIAMWhitePaperonElectricVehicles.pdf5 Hecimovich, P. 2017. The Seven Top Uses

for Rechargeable Lithium-ion Batteries.

Battery Systems. Details available at

https://www.batterysystems.net/the-

seven-top-uses-for-rechargeable -lithium-

ion-batteries/


Need for Domestic

Manufacturing, Battery

Reuse, and Recycling Lithium deposits are concentrated in a

few countries, for example, Argentina,

Chile, Bolivia, and China. Any instability

and unrest in these countries can impact

the price of lithium, thereby affecting

battery cost and the cost of electric

vehicles and solar PV.6,7 Therefore,

domestic manufacturing, battery reuse,

and recycling of LIBs are necessary to

secure the supply of LIBs and stabilize

their prices. Recently, with an increase

in the uptake of renewable energy,

there is also an increase in the waste

stream of spent batteries. It has been

estimated that the quantity and weight

of rechargeable lithium batteries in

China would be over 25 billion and

500,000 metric tonnes, respectively,

by 2020.8 A huge amount of battery

6 Hao, H., Z. Liu, F. Zhao, Y. Geng, and J.

Sarkis. 2017. Material flow analysis of

lithium in China. Resources Policy 51:

100–1067 Motavalli, J. 2010. Forget lithium – it’s rare

earth minerals that are in short supply for

EVs. CBC News, June 19. Details available

at https://www.cbsnews.com/news/forget-

lithium-its-rare-earth-minerals-that-are-in-

short-supply-for-evs/8 Zeng, X, J. Li, and Y. Ren. 2012. Prediction

of various discarded lithium batteries

in China. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE

International Symposium on Sustainable

Systems and Technology. pp. 1–4

waste ends up in landfills at present,

causing groundwater pollution through

leachate seepage, air pollution when

the waste is burnt openly, and soil

pollution, especially around the landfill

area. Since the value chain for LIBs is

not yet developed, even in the informal

sector, which treats substantial amounts

of other waste streams, waste lithium

batteries are not picked up. If it is not

addressed, this electric boom could

leave up to 11 million tonnes of spent

LIBs for recycling by 2030.9 To overcome

dependency on other nations and

secure supply, to hedge against price

fluctuations due to geopolitical barriers,

to prevent social and environmental

damage caused by spent batteries,

and to prevent valuable materials from

ending up in landfills, it is important

to reuse, reduce, and recycle the waste

generated.

Closed loop recycling, end-of-life

product management, and reverse

logistics are the key to maintaining

a continuous, cost-effective supply

of rare materials, including lithium,

nickel, manganese, cobalt, titanium,

phosphorus, and so on, enhancing

cost-effectiveness of the supply chain,

alleviating environmental issues

associated with mining, and achieving

9 Kochhar, A. 2017. Li-cycle featured in The

Guardian. Details available at https://li-

cycle.com/2017/08/10/li-cycle-featured-in-

the-guardian/

resource efficiency. This can be achieved

by developing a robust domestic electric

vehicle manufacturing ecosystem

with commercially available cells and

subsequently having India’s own cell

manufacturing gigafactory.4 Although

raw materials are currently imported,

there could still be about a 30% reduction

in the import value as a result of reduced

labour cost and utility rates in India.

Reuse of spent battery should be

considered as the first step in reducing

battery waste as the recycling of LIBs

is complex. Unlike lead acid batteries,

which have a relatively small number

of large lead plates packed together in

a single plastic case, LIBs have a wider

variety of materials. Also, the chemical

composition of active materials in LIBs

is not standardized, and chemistries

depend on battery functions and differ

from manufacturer to manufacturer.10

LIB recycling costs are high, and

recycling of lithium can be five times

more expensive than obtaining the

virgin material through brine-based

processes.11 Recycling of LIBs is also

associated with safety issues as LIBs may

explode during the process of recycling.

This can occur due to oxidation when

lithium metal produced from battery

overcharge sustains a mechanical shock

from exposure to air.12

Spent electric vehicle LIBs reach

end-of-life and need replacement when

their remaining capacity is below 80%

10 Gaines, L. 2014. The future of automotive

lithium-ion battery recycling: Charting a

sustainable course. Sustainable Materials

and Technologies 1–2: 2–711 Reid, G. and J. Julve. 2016. Second

Life – Batteries as Flexible Storage for

Renewables Energies. Bundesverband

Erneuerbare Energie e.V. (BEE). Details

available at https://www.bee-ev.de/

fileadmin/Publikationen/Studien/201604_

Second_Life-Batterien_als_flexible_

Speicher.pdf 12 Shin, S. M., N. H. Kim, J. S. Sohn, D. H. Yang,

and Y. H. Kim. 2005. Development of a

metal recovery process from Li-ion battery

wastes. Hydrometallurgy 79: 172–181


of the initial capacity.13 This is when the

battery fails to meet the requirement for

the automotive service, but there is still

sufficient energy and power capacity

left for its application in less demanding

applications, such as renewable energy

grid storage, integration, and backup

power of battery. These secondary

applications in other less demanding

industries decrease the amount of

battery waste stream generated,

resource exploitation, and waste

disposal. It also postpones the costly

process of recycling, which can be more

expensive than harvesting new supply

through the process of mining.14

Recycling of LIBs is not common

and only about 3% of LIBs are recycled.

Recycling is mostly undertaken to

obtain lithium and other materials in

the cathode; however, recycling of

the anode is also important. Graphite

13 Jiao, N. and S. Evans. 2016. Business

models for sustainability: the case of

second-life electric vehicle batteries.

Procedia CIRP 40: 250–25514 Xu, C., W. Zhang, W. He, G. Li, J. Huang, and

H. Zhu. 2018. Generation and management

of waste electric vehicle batteries in

China. Environmental Science and Pollution

Research 24: 20825–20830.

used in the anode of commercial

LIBs stores lithium ions well when

battery is charged.15 It is important

to consider the supply of graphite

because a lithium ion cell contains

at least 11 times more graphite than

lithium, depending on the battery type

and the application.16,17 Commercially

available recycling processes include

pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical,

and direct recycling. In the

pyrometallurgical recycling, battery is

smelted at elevated temperatures to

recover metals, such as nickel, cobalt,

15 Scrosati, B. and J. Garche. 2010. Lithium

batteries: status, prospects and future.

Journal of Power Sources 195(9): 2419–243016 Bade R., N. Pidgeon, and M. Greene. 2012.

Graphite Sector Review. Details available

at http://minesite.com/media/pub/ var/

release_downloadable_file/38247.pdf17 Dunn, J. B., L. Gaines, M. Barnes, M.

Wang, and J. Sullivan. 2012. Material and

energy flows in the materials production,

assembly, and end-of-life stages of the

automotive lithium-ion battery life cycle.

Argonne National Laboratory (ANL).

Details available at https://publications.anl.

gov/ anlpubs/2014/11/109509.pdf

lithium, and zinc.18 This process does

not recycle graphite. Hydrometallurgy

is a chemical-based recycling process

in which acid–base leaching, solvent

extraction, precipitation, ion exchange,

and electrolysis are used to recover

materials.19 The direct physical process

involves multiple physical and chemical

steps at low temperature and low

energy to separate battery components

and recycle and recover battery grade

materials – all active materials (including

graphite anode) and metals except

the separator for re-use in LIBs.15 These

recycling processes can be combined

for recycling of different LIB chemistries.

Some of the common LIB chemistries

include lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2),

lithium manganese oxide (LiMn2O

4),

lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4),

lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide

(LiNiMnCoO2), lithium nickel cobalt

18 Moradi B. and G. G. Botte. 2016. Recycling

of graphite anodes for the next generation

of lithium ion batteries. Journal of Applied

Electrochemistry 46: 12319 Tanong, K., L. Coudert, G. Mercier, and

J.-F. Blais. Recovery of metals from a

mixture of various spent batteries by a

hydrometallurgical process. Journal of

Environmental Management 181: 95–107


aluminum oxide (LiNiCoAlO2), and

lithium titanate (Li4Ti

5O

12). Recycling

processes are different for different LIB

chemistries. New recycling technologies

are continuously being developed

and tested in lab and pilot scale to

accommodate new chemistries.

End-of-life Management

of New Energy Storage

Technologies (Lithium

Ion Batteries) There is a growing concern regarding

the carbon footprint of electric vehicles

and greenhouse gas emissions from

both battery manufacturing and electric

vehicle’s life cycle. Requia, Mohamed,

Higgins, et al. (2018) found that electric

vehicles consistently showed reductions

in greenhouse gas emissions and

emissions of some criteria pollutants.20

Another review of 11 research studies

concluded that emissions from battery

production for electric vehicles can

vary between 56 and 494 kg CO2/kWh.21

Case studies from Europe revealed that

during the battery production and car

manufacturing stage, emissions are

higher for electric vehicles than the

conventional cars; however, during the

in-use phase, electric vehicles travel

farther with a given amount of energy

and have lower emissions.17 Therefore,

even when accounting for battery

production, overall in Europe, emissions

are lower for electric vehicles than for

a typical car. However, emissions from

electric vehicles are still substantial

and could become worse given the

larger batteries that will become

more common for long-range electric

vehicles. Various factors, discussed next,

20 Requia, W. J., M. Mohamed, C. D. Higgins,

A. Arain, and M. Ferguson. 2018. How

clean are electric vehicles? Evidence-

based review of the effects of electric

mobility on air pollutants, greenhouse gas

emissions and human health. Atmospheric

Environment 185: 64–7721 International Council on Clean

Transportation. 2018. Effects of battery

manufacturing on electric vehicle life-cycle

greenhouse gas emissions. ICCT Briefing

should be considered simultaneously

to ensure low emissions from electric

vehicles and the renewable sector.

Grid DecarbonizationElectricity used for battery

manufacturing and during electric

vehicle life cycle contributes to

considerable amounts of carbon

emissions as fossil fuels are burnt to

produce electricity. Use of low carbon

renewable sources for electricity

production will build a clean grid

ecosystem. Subsequent decrease in grid

carbon intensity will lead to emission

reductions in battery production phase

and in electric vehicles’ life cycle in-use

phase during charging.

Battery Reuse and RecyclingBattery reuse for secondary, less

demanding applications should be

considered before battery recycling.

Using electric vehicle batteries for

electricity grid would further decrease

emissions attributed to the electric

vehicle sector and spent battery waste.

Although recycling new batteries is

complex and costly, it can be made

economical by standardizing the

battery production and ensuring

labelling, monitoring of batteries, and

implementing regulations to ensure

recycling. Also, creation of recycling

parks that include inputs from all

stakeholders, including manufacturers,

through an extended producer

responsibility (EPR) and effective

collection mechanisms that integrate

the informal sector can contribute to a

robust collection and recycling system.

New Battery Technology Improvements in battery technologies

such as chemistries with lower

carbon intensities, increasing battery

energy density, higher charging

and discharging efficiencies, more

environmentally sustainable and

longer lifetime will decrease energy

consumption and emissions from

battery production. Some new, cleaner

technologies are using sulphur in

cathode as opposed to heavy metals.

Policy Intervention Policy intervention through a pan-

India platform is required to develop a

sustainable electric vehicle ecosystem

that also promotes battery recycling.

Robust and stable government policies

should be framed to achieve resource

efficiency, circular economy, and

transition away from full dependence

on imports of rare earth elements. Some

measures could include encouraging

manufactures to collect spent batteries

through ‘take-back’ policy and

mandating minimum recycling of spent

batteries.

Mehar Kaur is Research Associate, Centre for

Waste Management, TERI, New Delhi.

Tel. 2468 2100

Fax: 2468 2144

India +91 • Delhi (0)11


Web: http://bookstore.teri.res.in

The Energy and Resources Institute

Attn: TERI Press

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To purchase the book, visit our online bookstore at http://bookstore.teri.res.in or send us your demand draft or cheque in favour of TERI, payable at New Delhi

(outstation cheques are not accepted).

Fundamentals of Waste and Environmental Engineering deals with the global problem of waste generation. This book discusses the design and operation of engineering hardware and facilities for pollution control. It covers fundamentals of mesophillc and

thermophilic bioprocessing of wastes. The book highlights the ways to control and minimize unwanted pollution and includes research-

generated information and data. In order to make contents applicable, theoretical, multichoice, and practice tutorial numericals are also

included in the book.

ENVIRONMENTAL REMEDIATION THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

ISBN: 9789386530103 • Price: `665.00

Major topics covered

• Air Pollution and its

Abatement

• Wastes to Value-added

Products

• Water, Wastewater, and

Non-aqueous Liquids

• Waste Heat Treatments

and Utilizations

• Solid/Semisolid

Waste Treatments/

Management for

Business Developments

• Environmental Variance

and Effects of Pollution

on Humans.

JustReleasedJustReleased


POTENTIAL AND MARKET OPPORTUNITIES FOR ENERGY GENERATION FROM AGRO AND

LIVESTOCK WASTE IN INDIA


India has a huge potential for installation of anaerobic digestion based biogas plants

for cooking, electricity, and transport fuel applications in both rural and urban areas

owing to the availability of large quantities of animal wastes, wastes from forestry

and agriculture, industrial wastes, kitchen wastes, and so on. Over the years, a

number of projects of diff erent capacities and applications have been taken up

for developing the technical know-how, manpower, and necessary infrastructure.

In this article, Sunil Dhingra focuses on energy generation from agro and livestock

waste in India.


IntroductionIn India, the growing concerns

about long-term energy security,

depleting fossil fuel reserves, and their

environmental impact have created

a greater stimulus to promoting

renewable energy, particularly in sectors

where larger gains are possible. Quality

energy services resulting in improved

productivity are seen as harbinger

driving economies and societies. In

light of the energy security challenge, it

becomes imperative to adopt strategies

for an energy mix that lead towards a

low-carbon development pathway.

India has 140 million hectares of net

sown area, with a large diversity in the

type and productivity of crops. A large

amount of crop residues are generated

after harvest. These residues are mainly

used for animal feeding, mulch and

manure, and as a source of energy

for rural households and industrial

use. However, a large portion of crop

residues is not utilized and burned to

clear fields for sowing the next crop. It is

estimated that about 683 million tons of

crop residues is produced annually from

11 major crops grown in India. The total

annual crop residue surplus is estimated

to be approximately 178 million tons,

which is largely burnt on the field and

has a substantial impact on air quality

due to emissions of particulate matter.1

In addition to the availability of excess

unutilized biomass, urban India also

generates about 70 million tons of

municipal solid waste each year that

mostly goes into unregulated landfills.

According to official estimates, on an

average only 70% of waste generated

is collected, while the remaining 30%

is again mixed up and lost in the urban

environment.

Recent initiatives by the Government

of India have spurred the effort to

address the following challenges:

» Environmental concerns associated

1 Estimation of Surplus Crop Residues in

India for Biofuel Production, Joint Report

of TIFAC and IARI, October 2018

with manure and agro-industrial

waste management

» Increasing energy demand and

growing interest in the utilization of

renewable energy sources to meet

that demand

» New and modified national policies to

facilitate biowaste-based renewable

energy development

» Increase in biowaste utilization and

market development for potential

‘green’ job growth

Biowaste Generation

Potential and Market

OpportunityThe major crops in India and the

producing states are given in Table 1.

The crop-wise annual production and

the surplus quantity are given in Table

2.2 Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Maharashtra,

Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat,

2 Estimation of Surplus Crop Residues in

India for Biofuel Production, Joint Report

of TIFAC and IARI, October 2018


Uttar Pradesh

18%

Punjab

17%

Maharashtra

14%Other

13%

Gujarat

8%

Madhya Pradesh

6%

Haryana

6%

Karnataka

5%

Andhra Pradesh

5%

Tamil Nadu

4%

Telangana

4%

Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana,

West Bengal, and Tamil Nadu are the

major crop producing states.

Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Maharashtra,

Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Madhya

Pradesh, Haryana, Telangana, and

Karnataka account for more than

85% of the total surplus crop residue

production in the country (Figure 1).

The Government of India has already

introduced a number of policies and

initiatives for the effective management

of biowaste materials.

Bioenergy is to be seen as an

important tool to promote socio-

economic development, particularly

in rural areas, besides contributing

to the capacity addition of non-fossil

fuel-based power. Significant progress

Table 1 Major crops in India and the producing states

Crop type States

Rice Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, West Bengal

Wheat Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana

Bajra Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra

Jowar Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh

Sugarcane Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka

Cotton Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh

Groundnut Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh

Oilseeds Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,

Maharashtra

Table 2 Crop-wise total dry and surplus biomass

Crop Dry biomass (million tons) Surplus biomass (million tons)

Rice 225.487 43.856

Wheat 145.449 25.07

Maize 27.88 6.036

Sugarcane 119.169 41.559

Gram 26.515 8.724

Tur 9.167 1.755

Soybean 27.779 9.95

Rapeseed and

mustard

17.085 5.157

Cotton 66.583 29.74

Groundnut 12.9 3.873

Castor 4.604 3.017

All crops 682.618 178.737

Figure 1 Major crop residue producing states by percent of surplus production

has been made in the development of

biopower in the country. About 10 GW

capacity has already been installed,

which largely comprises about 8.7 GW

from biomass and bagasse cogeneration

based plants and 138 MW from waste

to power, besides 676 MW from non-

bagasse captive power plants. Biomass

combustion based power generation

is the most commonly used way of

converting chemical energy of biomass

into thermal and electrical energy. The

advantage of the technology is that

it is similar to that of a thermal power

project except for the type of boiler.

The typical biomass power plants are

in tens of MW capacity. Most of the

existing biomass power plants are

suffering from the lack of continuous

and reliable availability of biomass

supply and its logistics due to absence

of organized biowaste collection and

aggregation in the country. The sector

is facing challenges related to building

fuel supply chains, prevailing low

electricity tariffs, and the absence of

an overarching policy framework for

bioenergy.

Overview of Policies and

Incentives Various programmes and policies

promote anaerobic digestion (AD)

s


of manure and agro-industrial waste

to generate renewable energy. India

has a huge potential and need for the

installation of AD based biogas plants

for cooking, electricity, and transport

fuel applications in both rural and

urban areas owing to the availability

of large quantities of animal wastes,

wastes from forestry and agriculture,

industrial wastes (e.g., agro/food

processing), kitchen wastes, and

so on. Over the years, a number of

projects of different capacities and

applications have been taken up

for developing the technical know-

how, developing manpower and

necessary infrastructure, establishing

a proper arrangement for operation

and maintenance and large-scale

dissemination. As a result, around

five million family-sized biogas plants

have been installed under the biogas

development programme. In addition,

400 biogas off-grid power plants have

been set up with a power generation

capacity of about 5.5 MW.

MNRE is spearheading the waste

to energy programme, a national

programme that promotes the recovery

of energy from urban, industrial, and

agricultural wastes through waste to

energy projects. The programme focuses

on converting municipal solid waste and

agricultural waste into fuel for heating

and cooking, CHP (combined heat and

power), and bio-compressed natural gas

(bio-CNG). The MNRE provides financial

incentives through interest subsidies

for commercial projects, capital cost

for innovative demonstration projects

that generate power from municipal

or industrial waste, and power to

encourage implementation of these

projects.

Ministry of Petroleum and Natural

Gas launched Sustainable Alternative

Towards Affordable Transportation

(SATAT) initiative to develop bio-CNG

plants. It is geared towards reducing

India’s dependence on oil and gas

imports by producing bio-CNG using

agricultural residues, cattle dung,

sugarcane press mud, municipal

solid waste, and waste from sewage

treatment plants. The Ministry

envisages setting up of 5000 bio-CNG

plants in 5 years, guarantees offtake of

bio-CNG by oil marketing companies

(OMCs), and plans to invest `175,000

crore in infrastructure development for

bio-CNG distribution as the automotive

fuel. There is a particular focus on

producing bio-CNG using paddy straw,

especially in the northern states of

Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, and

Bihar where 40 million tons of paddy


straw is burnt every year, causing major

environmental and health problems.

The OMCs assure a purchase price of

`46 per kg of bio-CNG. These facilities

are expected to be large-scale projects

that can consistently provide bio-CNG

as a transportation fuel.

Galvanizing Organic Bio-Agro

Resources (GOBAR)-DHAN was launched

by the Ministry of Drinking Water and

Sanitation. It is an extension of the

Swachh Bharat Mission (Clean India

Mission). It aims to help villages manage

their biowaste and to educate people

about the importance of safe and

efficient bio-agro waste management.

This scheme focuses on converting

livestock manure and solid agricultural

waste into biogas/bio-CNG. The Ministry

aims to set up 700 bio-agro waste

management projects in about 350

districts.

ConclusionIt is apparent that biowaste and livestock

wastes offer a tremendous potential

for power generation in India. The

development of biowaste energy will

help reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

India needs a mix of both large-scale

grid-connected and decentralized

renewable energy to meet its electricity

and energy deficits. Recently, there

has been significant focus on large-

scale renewables. The decentralized

biowaste energy systems based on

the sustainable use of solid wastes,

such as biowaste and livestock wastes,

have the potential to offer low-carbon

development pathways in meeting clean

energy needs in rural areas, besides

creating employment opportunities

in rural areas. Setting up biowaste

collection, aggregation and supply chain

mechanisms holds the key to success.

Additional policies are needed for crop

residue collection and aggregation to

encourage private investment. This will

further provide choices to farmers to

dispose of their biowaste materials and

build viable business models to establish

biowaste supply chain mechanism

that allows private sector to invest in

biowaste energy systems for production

of bio-CNG, bioethanol, bio-pellets, and

biopower in the country.

Sunil Dhingra is Senior Fellow, The Energy and

Resources Institute (TERI), New Delhi, India.



Commercialization of Compressed Biogas

in India


Biomethane is a promising renewable energy option for substitute of natural gas for

grid and vehicular applications. It can be easily compressed to increase its utility as

compressed natural gas and directly fed to transportation vehicles. With increased

awareness, technical knowledge and support, this technology can be applied

worldwide for waste management, energy security, and climate change mitigation.

Rimika Madan Kapoor, Virendra Kumar Vijay, and Vandit Vijay discuss the biogas

production technology from organic waste in India and how it can be expected to

grow in future.


Owing to the rising demand for

energy and the need to minimize the

environmental impacts of fossil fuels,

energy systems fueled by sources that

are more efficient, cost-effective, and

reduce environmental emissions are in

major demand. This search has led to

biogas, an important fuel among the

various biomass derived options.

Biogas to CBGBiogas, which is produced from

organic matter, is an essential source

of renewable methane and has

phenomenal prospects to meet

our future energy demands. It is an

efficient fuel for several end uses as

an alternative to conventional fossil

fuels. It also ensures the recycling of

nutrients present in the manure and

other biodegradable feedstock to the

soil. Biogas can be produced from

anaerobic digestion of organic wastes

generated from agricultural, domestic,

and industrial activities in the presence

of anaerobic microorganisms. Biogas

consists of 50–65% methane, 35–45%

carbon dioxide, 0–10% water vapour,

and traces of O2 N

2, H

2 and H

2S. It is

nearly 20% lighter than air and has

ignition temperature of 650–750 °C. The

calorific value of raw biogas is in the

range of 22–25 MJ/m3 and assuming

50% CH4 in raw biogas, the energy value

is 21 MJ/Nm³, and density is 1.22 kg/

Nm³, which is similar to air (i.e., 1.29 kg/

Nm³). The relative percentages of these

gases depend upon the quality of the

feed material and process conditions.

The major constraint on limited

applications of raw biogas is the complex

composition of biogas. The presence

of CH4 makes biogas a combustible

fuel, while CO2, in addition to being

non-combustible, restrains not only

the energy content per unit mass or

volume (calorific value) but also its

compressibility, thereby making it

difficult to be stored in containers and

limiting its utility for onsite applications

(e.g., for heating purposes and electricity

generation). The undesirable impurities

such as CO2, H

2S, and water vapour

cause problems such as corrosion of

mechanical parts, toxicity, and reduction

in heating value. Therefore, to augment

and widen the scope of utility of biogas

to higher value applications of natural

gas, it is important to remove such

impurities and upgrade it to biomethane

with CH4 content above 90%. Biogas

upgradation is basically a gas separation

process that yields a CH4 rich gas

called compressed biogas (CBG). The

compressed biogas is a dynamic fuel

of the future. It can be blended with

natural gas in any proportions, and

correspondingly the available natural

gas distribution and storage network can

handle biomethane too. The technology

for upgrading biogas to biomethane

is mature, efficient, and safe. However,

choosing the appropriate method

depends upon various factors, such as

cost, energy requirement, site conditions,

and application. The established

technologies for the separation of CO2

from biogas are absorption (pressurized

water scrubbing, physical or chemical

absorption), adsorption (pressure

swing adsorption), and membrane

(high pressure, low pressure) cryogenic

method.

Status and Potential of

Biogas in IndiaLarge quantities of organic wastes

are available in rural and urban areas

of India, and hence biogas can be

produced at different locations and

scales. At present, India produces only

about 2.07 billion m3/year of biogas,

while its estimated production potential

is as much as 48 billion m3/year.1 A total

of about 5 million family size biogas

plants were installed all over the

country till December 2017 out of the

total potential of 12 million family size

biogas plants. For biogas upgrading and

bottling, organic wastes such as cattle

manure in dairy farms, food wastes in

canteens and hostels, and municipal

1 This is just an approximation of biogas

production from organic waste available

in India based on the waste data and

calculations.

solid wastes in urban areas are available

in abundance. There are numerous cattle

farms, dairies, and village communities

with a large number of cattle having

the potential for producing biogas at a

medium to large scale. Biogas can be

produced in large scale in industries

such as distilleries, food processing, pulp

and paper industries, sewage treatment

plants, landfills in urban areas, and so

on. The estimated CBG potential from

various sources in India is nearly 62 MMT

with bio-manure generation capacity

of 370 MMT. CBG is envisaged to be

produced from various biomass/waste

sources, such as agricultural residue,

municipal solid waste, sugarcane press

mud, distillery spent wash, cattle dung,

and sewage treatment plant waste. If

the government provides the necessary

support, biogas market could substitute

a significant quantity of Indian natural

gas consumption by 2030.

If biogas upgrading and bottling

technology is promoted and

disseminated in urban and rural areas

extensively, bottled biogas can be a

substitute to fossil fuels in major energy

consumption sectors (e.g., transport

and cooking). Use of upgraded and

bottled biogas in transport and cooking

sectors would bring several benefits,

such as a carbon-neutral green fuel

production, infrastructure development,

increased employment opportunities

in rural and urban areas, deep

penetration of dedicated upgraded

biogas infrastructure in rural/urban as

well as remote areas, sustainable waste

management, and reduction in GHG

emissions in fossil fuel driven energy

consumption sectors such as cooking

and transportation.

CBG is a way forward for reducing

the fossil fuel dependence in India.

The scope of utilization of bottled

biogas as a vehicular fuel in India can

be understood by the growth of CNG

infrastructure in India. Although natural

gas is not yet a major transportation

fuel in India, the use of compressed

natural gas (CNG) is a key step towards

the goal of using upgraded biogas in

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