Grammatical Notations - Definition of the Grammatical Categories
E_English Grammar Course Unit 2 NOUN PHRASE. 1. Noun and noun classes 2. Reference and the articles...
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Transcript of E_English Grammar Course Unit 2 NOUN PHRASE. 1. Noun and noun classes 2. Reference and the articles...
![Page 1: E_English Grammar Course Unit 2 NOUN PHRASE. 1. Noun and noun classes 2. Reference and the articles 3. Grammatical categories of nouns 4. Pronouns Issues.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022081414/5513d86655034646298b5492/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
E_English Grammar Course E_English Grammar Course
Unit 2
NOUN PHRASE
![Page 2: E_English Grammar Course Unit 2 NOUN PHRASE. 1. Noun and noun classes 2. Reference and the articles 3. Grammatical categories of nouns 4. Pronouns Issues.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022081414/5513d86655034646298b5492/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
1. Noun and noun classes
2. Reference and the articles
3. Grammatical categories of nouns
4. Pronouns
IssuesIssues
![Page 3: E_English Grammar Course Unit 2 NOUN PHRASE. 1. Noun and noun classes 2. Reference and the articles 3. Grammatical categories of nouns 4. Pronouns Issues.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022081414/5513d86655034646298b5492/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
1. Noun and noun classes
2. Reference and the articles
3. Grammatical categories of nouns
4. Pronouns
IssuesIssues
![Page 4: E_English Grammar Course Unit 2 NOUN PHRASE. 1. Noun and noun classes 2. Reference and the articles 3. Grammatical categories of nouns 4. Pronouns Issues.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022081414/5513d86655034646298b5492/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
Noun – Noun classes 1.1
NounNoun = a word used TO NAME …• A person
(E.g.: Tom, John, Bill Jones)• A thing
(E.g.: bed, chair, table, house)• An animal
(E.g.: cat, dog, tiger, lion)• An abstract concept
(E.g.: peace, war, independence)
1/1
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Noun – Noun classes1.2
1/2
Noun classesNoun classes
Proper nounsProper nouns Common nounsCommon nouns
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Noun – Noun classes1.2
1/3
Noun classesNoun classes
Proper nounsProper nouns
Bill Clinton
the Nile
the UNICEF
geographical names
personal names
names of institutions/ organizations
calendar items Easter
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Noun – Noun classes1.2
1/4
car
cars
Noun classesNoun classes
Common nounsCommon nouns
Count NsCount Ns Non-count NsNon-count Ns
Singular
Plural
Singular
salt
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Noun – Noun classes1.2
1/5
Common nounsCommon nouns
Count NsCount Ns Non-count NsNon-count Ns
Concrete Abstract
chair goldactivity
beauty
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Noun – Noun classes
Noun classesNoun classes
Proper nounsProper nouns Common nounsCommon nouns
Count NsCount Ns Non-count NsNon-count NsE.g. Tom, John
ConcreteConcrete AbstractAbstract
1.2
cat failure rice peace
1/6
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Noun – Noun classes
Let’s check
– To which classes does each of the following
nouns belong to?
• Furniture
• Garden
• Victory
• Serenity
• Friday
1.2
1/7
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Noun – Noun classes
Let’s check
• Furniture: Non-count, concrete
• Garden: Count, concrete
• Serenity: Non-count, abstract
• Friday: Proper (calendar item)
• Victory: Count, abstract
1.2
1/8
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1. Noun and noun classes
2. Reference and the articles
3. Grammatical categories of nouns
4. Pronouns
IssuesIssues
![Page 13: E_English Grammar Course Unit 2 NOUN PHRASE. 1. Noun and noun classes 2. Reference and the articles 3. Grammatical categories of nouns 4. Pronouns Issues.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022081414/5513d86655034646298b5492/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
Reference – The articles 2.1
2/1
ReferenceReference
GenericGeneric SpecificSpecific UniqueUnique
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Reference – The articles 2.1
2/2
E.g.: - John loves Mary.
ReferenceReference
UniqueUniqueproper noun
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Reference – The articles 2.1
2/3
ReferenceReference
GenericGeneric SpecificSpecificvs.C/f.(1) A lion and two tigers are sleeping in the cage.(2) Tigers are dangerous animals.
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Reference – The articles 2.1
2/4
Specific or generic?
(1) A lion and two tigers are sleeping in the cage.
(2) Tigers are dangerous animals.
(1) = SPECIFIC (referring to particular specimens of
the class ‘tiger’.
(2) = GENERIC (referring to the class ‘tiger’ without
specific reference to particular tigers)
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Reference – The articles 2.1
Generic Reference & the ArticlesGeneric Reference & the Articles
2/5
1. A German is a good musician.
2. Germans are good musicians.
3. The Germans are good musicians.
4. The German is a good musician (not common).
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Reference – The articles 2.1
Specific Reference & the ArticlesSpecific Reference & the Articles
2/6
COUNT NONCOUNT COUNT NONCOUNT
SINGULAR the tiger the furniture a tiger (some) furniture
PLURAL the tigers (some) tigers
DEFINITE INDEFINITE
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Reference – The articles 2.2
2/7
The articlesThe articles
DefiniteDefinite IndefiniteIndefinite Zero (Ø) Zero (Ø)
E.g.: - The earth goes around the sun. (definite)
- He bought a new bike yesterday. (indefinite)
- He has just arrived in Ø London. (zero)
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Reference – The articles 2.2
Definite article ‘the”Definite article ‘the”
Immediate situation
Larger situation
Anaphoric reference
Cataphoric reference
Sporadic reference
Logical use of THE
With body parts
2/8
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Reference – The articles 2.2
Definite article ‘the’Definite article ‘the’
2/9
Anaphoric reference Cataphoric reference Sporadic reference
= the uniqueness of
reference of some phrase
(the X) is supplied by
information given earlier
in the discourse
The modification of the
noun phrase restricts the
reference of the noun
E.g. The wine that France
produces
Reference is made to an
institution which may be
observed recurrently at
various places and times.
E.g. the theatre, the
cinema, the press, etc.
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Reference – The articles 2.2
2/10
Definite article ‘the’Definite article ‘the’
Anaphoric reference Direct
= The same head noun has occurred in the text and a relation of co-
reference exists between two NPs
E.g.: Susan bought a TV and a video recorder, but she returned the
video recorder because it was defective.
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Reference – The articles 2.2
2/11
Definite article ‘the’Definite article ‘the’
Anaphoric reference Indirect
= A reference becomes part of the hearer’s knowledge indirectly
E.g.: John bought a new bicycle, but found that one of the wheels was
defective.
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Reference – The articles 2.2
The articlesThe articles
DefiniteDefinite Immediate situation = derived from the
extra-linguistic
situation.
E.g.: - The roses are beautiful. (said in the garden)
- Have you fed the dog? (said in the domestic context)
2/12
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Reference – The articles 2.2
The articlesThe articles
DefiniteDefinite = general knowledge
which is shared or
worldwideE.g.: the sun the Equator
the Republic the North Pole
the cosmos the Renaissance
Larger situation
2/13
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Reference – The articles 2.2
The articlesThe articles
DefiniteDefinite = the unique reference
explained by the
logical interpretation
of certain words as
post-determiners and
adjectives
Logical use of THE
2/14
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Reference – The articles 2.2
The articlesThe articles
DefiniteDefinite • Ordinals
(E.g.: first, second)
• General ordinals
(E.g.: next, last, only)
• Superlative Adjs
(E.g.: best, largest)
E.g.: - When is the first flight to Chicago?
- This is the only remaining copy.
- Of the three newspapers we have in
this city, this is the best.
Logical use of THE
2/15
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Reference – The articles 2.2
The articlesThe articles
DefiniteDefinite = when the possessor…
• is subject (1)
• may be implied rather
than stated (2)
• is relevant or clear (3)
With body parts
E.g.: - My mother complains of a pain
in the neck. (1)
- The doctor diagnosed a fracture
of the collarbone. (2)
- Keep the back straight when serving
and your tennis will be better. (3)
2/16
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Reference – The articles 2.2
Indefinite articles a/anIndefinite articles a/an
The referent: not mentioned before, and
assumedly unfamiliar to the speaker or hearer.
C/f:
(1) A house on the corner is for sale.
(2) The house on the corner is for sale.
2/17
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Reference – The articles 2.2
2/18
Indefinite articles a/anIndefinite articles a/an
Non-referring usesNon-referring uses Substitution uses for ONESubstitution uses for ONE
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Reference – The articles 2.2
2/19
Indefinite articles a/anIndefinite articles a/an
Non-referring usesNon-referring uses= with complement function, and a descriptive role rather than a referring role= with complement function, and a descriptive role rather than a referring role
E.g.: - What a miserable day it is!
= sometimes not referring to anything in reality = sometimes not referring to anything in reality
E.g.: - Bob wants to marry a princess who
speaks five languages.
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Reference – The articles 2.2
Indefinite articles a/an Indefinite articles a/an
Substitution uses for ONESubstitution uses for ONE
substitute and generic functionsubstitute and generic function
numerical or quantifying functionnumerical or quantifying function
2/19
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Reference – The articles 2.2
Indefinite articles a/an Indefinite articles a/an
Substitution uses for ONESubstitution uses for ONE
numerical or quantifying functionnumerical or quantifying function
2/20
In expression: a dozen, a hundred…In expression: a dozen, a hundred…
In quantifiers: a few, a great many…In quantifiers: a few, a great many…
In measure phrase: ten dollars a day…In measure phrase: ten dollars a day…
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Reference – The articles 2.2
Indefinite articles a/an Indefinite articles a/an
Substitution uses for ONESubstitution uses for ONE
substitute and generic functionsubstitute and generic function
2/21
= any representative of the class
E.g.: - A woman needs love and support from a
man.
= any representative of the class
E.g.: - A woman needs love and support from a
man.
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Reference – The articles 2.2
Zero (Ø) articleZero (Ø) article
Noun phrases in a copular relation
Noun phrases with sporadic reference
Parallel structures
Fixed phrases
2/22
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Reference – The articles 2.2
Zero (Ø) articleZero (Ø) article Noun phrases in a copular relation
= where the complement means a
unique role or task
E.g.: - John F. Kennedy was (the)
President of the United States in 1961.
2/23
= When the appositional N.P
indicating a unique role or task is
placed first
= When the complement of turn is
used (even when there is no
implication of uniqueness)
E.g.: - Chelsea centre-forward Milton
Smith
E.g.: - Jenny started out as a music
student before she turned linguist.
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Reference – The articles 2.2
Zero (Ø) articleZero (Ø) article Noun phrases with sporadic reference
Means of transport and communication
InstitutionsTimes of day
and nightSeasons
Meals Illnesses
2/24
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Reference – The articles 2.2
Zero (Ø) articleZero (Ø) article Noun phrases with sporadic reference
Institutions
2/25
= nouns do not refer to actual buildings or places, but
to institutions associated with them
E.g.: - “to be in prison” means to be a prisoner
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Reference – The articles 2.2
Zero (Ø) articleZero (Ø) article Noun phrases with sporadic reference
Means of transportation
2/26
E.g.: travel
leave
communicate
by
bicycle
bus
radio
post
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Reference – The articles 2.2
Zero (Ø) articleZero (Ø) article Noun phrases with sporadic reference
Times of day and night
2/27
= take a zero article particularly after at, by, after
and before
E.g.: at/ before dawn by day and night
when day breaks after nightfall
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Reference – The articles 2.2
Zero (Ø) articleZero (Ø) article Noun phrases with sporadic reference
Meals
2/28
= as an institution recurring day by day
(for specific meals: THE/ A(N))
E.g.: - She’s having lunch with her client.
- That day, the lunch was served on the terrace.
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Reference – The articles 2.2
Zero (Ø) articleZero (Ø) article Noun phrases with sporadic reference
Seasons
2/29
= as seasons generally, or a particular part of a
particular year (for a particular season: THE/ A(N))
E.g.: - Winter is coming.
- The spring of last year was cold.
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Reference – The articles 2.2
Zero (Ø) articleZero (Ø) article Noun phrases with sporadic reference
Illnesses
2/30
Note: for well-known infectious diseases such
as: THE/ A(N)
E.g.: diabetes influenza pneumonia
(the) flu (the mumps) (the) meals
a fever a temperature a cold
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Reference – The articles 2.2
Zero (Ø) articleZero (Ø) article Parallel structures
one noun balanced
against another noun
of contrasting meaning
the same noun
repeated after a
preposition
E.g.: day by day
eye to eye
E.g.: from father to son
husband and wife
2/31
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Reference – The articles 2.2
Zero (Ø) articleZero (Ø) article Fixed phrases
Idioms = nouns with
prepositions
before/after
E.g.: in turn
on foot
E.g.: set fire to
get word of
Idioms = verbs with
nouns and
prepositions
2/32
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1. Noun and noun classes
2. Reference and the articles
3. Grammatical categories of nouns
4. Pronouns
IssuesIssues
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Grammatical categories of Ns 3
2/33
Grammatical CategoriesGrammatical Categories
NumberNumber GenderGenderCaseCase
E.g.: mouse - mice
box – boxes
fish - fish
E.g.: my sister’s car
a fall of 10%
E.g.: she-wolf
desk
mother-in-law
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Grammatical CategoriesGrammatical Categories
NumberNumber
InvariablesInvariables
VariablesVariables
= nouns that do not vary
= nouns that do vary
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Invariables
Singular only Plural only
Non-count Ns N-ending in “s”
Substantive Adj
Ns with plural
meaning
Pluralia tantums
Collective Ns
Substantive Adj
material
water, oil
abstract freedom
news
physics
(abstract)
the true
the ugly
scissors
pants
arms
customs
people
cattle
(concrete)
the poor
the blind
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Variables
Regular plural Irregular plural Zero plural
(N + s)
- /s/
books, stops
- /z/
beds, stars
- /iz/
boxes, brushes
- voicing /f/ /vz/
leaf – leaves
- “en” ending
ox – oxen
- change of the
root vowel
tooth - teeth
- foreign plural
medium - media
(same form for both plural &
singular)
sheep, deer, tout
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CaseCase
“of” genitive“of” genitive“s” genitive“s” genitive double genitivedouble genitive
E.g.: her mom’s car E.g.: the paint of the room
= “of” and “’s”
genitives used together
E.g.: a friend of her father’s
= with the nouns of
lower gender class
= with the nouns of
higher gender class
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Case – Genitive meaningCase – Genitive meaning
Genitive meaning Examples Equivalents
Possessive My father’s hat My father has a hat.
Human relation Her sister’s nephew Her sister has a nephew.
Subjective
(+ original)
My father’s permission
The arrival of the bus
My father permits.
The bus arrived.
Objective The criminal’s arrest Someone arrested the criminal.
Descriptive Two days’ visit A visit lasts 2 days.
Appositive The town of Vinh Yen Vinh Yen is a town.
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GenderGender
= In English, there is
not any further
morphological
feature that helps
distinguish gender
(unlike Russian or
French)
Gender Sex (semantic concept)
Masculine: man (male)
Feminine: woman (female)
Common: teacher (both male and female)
Neuter: table Ø
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1. Noun and noun classes
2. Reference and the articles
3. Grammatical categories of nouns
4. Pronouns
IssuesIssues
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Pronouns 4
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PronounsPronouns
FeaturesFeatures
TypesTypes
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PronounsPronouns
FeaturesFeatures PersonPerson
CaseCase
GenderGender
NumberNumber
Main featuresMain features
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PronounsPronouns
FeaturesFeatures Main featuresMain features
• without determiners
• with an objective case
• with person distinction (1st – I/
we; 2nd – you; 3rd – he/she/it/they)
• with overt gender contrast
(masculine, feminine & non-
personal)
• singular and plural form:
not often morphologically
related
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PronounsPronouns
FeaturesFeatures
PersonPerson
CaseCase
GenitiveGenitive
NumberNumber
Main featuresMain features • first person: the speaker
(and one or more other)
• second person: the
interlocutor(s)
• third person: one/more other
persons other than the
interlocutor(s)
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PronounsPronouns
FeaturesFeatures PersonPerson
CaseCase
GenitiveGenitive
NumberNumber
Main featuresMain features • Most pronouns: two-case
system (objective & subjective)
• Other 6 pronouns: three-
case system (subjective,
objective, genitive)
(I, we, he, she, they, who)
(me, us, him, her, them, whom)
(my, our, his, her, their, whose)
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PronounsPronouns
FeaturesFeatures PersonPerson
CaseCase
GenderGender
NumberNumber
Main featuresMain features• with a distinction
between masculine and
feminine in 3rd person
singulars: personal,
reflexive, and possessive.
(he - she; himself - herself;
her - his )
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PronounsPronouns
FeaturesFeatures PersonPerson
CaseCase
GenitiveGenitive
NumberNumber
Main featuresMain features • The 2nd person: a common
form for singular & plural in
the personal & possessive
series, but a separate form for
plural in the reflexive
(you – your but
yourself - yourselves)
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PronounsPronouns
TypesTypes
Personal PronounsPersonal Pronouns
Reflexive PronounsReflexive Pronouns
ReciprocalPronouns
ReciprocalPronouns
PossessivePronouns
PossessivePronouns
RelativePronounsRelativePronouns
InterrogativePronouns
InterrogativePronouns
DemonstrativePronouns
DemonstrativePronouns
Quantifying Pronouns
Quantifying Pronouns
Universal ProNs & determiners
Universal ProNs & determiners
Partitive PronounsPartitive Pronouns
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PronounsPronouns
TypesTypes
Personal PronounsPersonal Pronouns
• Subjective forms: (I, you, we, they, he, she, it) as
Subjects and Subject complements
E.g.: He is a student at this university.
• Objective forms: (me, you, us, them, him, her, it)
as Objects and prepositional complements
E.g.: I saw him with her yesterday in the park.
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PronounsPronouns
TypesTypes
Reflexive PronounsReflexive Pronouns
• Include: myself, yourself(ves), ourselves,
themselves, himself, herself, itself • Objective function
E.g.: He looked after himself after his wife left.• Emphatic function
E.g.: I myself would never love such a girl.
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PronounsPronouns
TypesTypes
Reciprocal PronounsReciprocal Pronouns
• include: each other, one another
E.g.: - Mary likes Mike and Mike likes Mary.
They like each other.
- I have 3 friends. They don’t like one
another.
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PronounsPronouns
TypesTypes
Possessive Pronouns
Possessive Pronouns
• Determiner function
(my, your, our, their, his, her, its)
E.g.: This is my friend.• Nominal function
(mine, yours, ours, theirs, his, hers, its)
E.g.: This friend is mine.
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PronounsPronouns
TypesTypes
Relative PronounsRelative Pronouns
• Personal
(who (ever), whom, whose, that)
E.g.: Whoever comes here needs an ID card.• Non-personal
(which(ever), whose, that, what(ever))
E.g.: Whose is this book?
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PronounsPronouns
TypesTypes
Interrogative Pronouns
Interrogative Pronouns
• Interrogative determiners
- personal: whose
- personal/non-personal: which, that• Interrogative pronouns
- personal: who, whom, whose
- non-personal: what
- personal/non-personal: which
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PronounsPronouns
TypesTypes
Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative Pronouns
• Singular
(this, that)• Plural
(these, those)
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PronounsPronouns
TypesTypes
Quantifying Pronouns
Quantifying Pronouns
• Numeral “one”
E.g.: One went this way, the other that way.• Replacive “one”
E.g.: I’d like a drink, but just a small one. • Indefinite “one”
E.g.: One can’t be too careful, can one/you? • Cardinals/ordinals
(one, two, three, etc.; first, second, third, etc.)
E.g.: He has two wives. The first is so ugly.
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PronounsPronouns
TypesTypes
Universal ProNs & determiners
Universal ProNs & determiners
• Include: each, all, every, and “every”
compounds (everything, everyone, etc.)
E.g.: Each of the students should have
his
own books.
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PronounsPronouns
TypesTypes
Partitive PronounsPartitive
Pronouns
• Assertive ProNs: someone/body, something,
somewhere, some (pronoun or determiner)
E.g.: Somebody has turned on the light. • Non-assertive ProNs: anyone, anybody, anything,
anywhere, either, any (pronoun or determiner) • E.g.: - Have you got anything to eat now?
- Have you got any paper? I need some.• Negative ProNs: no one/body, nowhere, neither,
none, no (pronoun or determiner)
E.g.: None of them were absent.
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HomeworkHomework
Workbook exercises 45, 48-65