Education in Japan:Education in Japan:Overview, Internationalism & ControlOverview, Internationalism & Control

Dr Christopher P. HoodDr Christopher P. Hood(Cardiff University, HoodCP@Cardiff.ac.uk)(Cardiff University, HoodCP@Cardiff.ac.uk)

All photos, diagrams & maps by presenter except where noted otherwise – no copying without permission.All photos, diagrams & maps by presenter except where noted otherwise – no copying without permission.

IntroductionIntroduction

► What is the role of education?What is the role of education?► Basic information about the Japanese education systemBasic information about the Japanese education system► Reforming the education systemReforming the education system► ‘‘Internationalization’ of the systemInternationalization’ of the system► Control of the systemControl of the system

Role of EducationRole of Education

► It’s not just about It’s not just about learning factslearning facts

► Learning to be an Learning to be an member of that societymember of that society

► So of great interest to So of great interest to governments wanting governments wanting to change that societyto change that society

Basic InformationBasic Information

► ‘‘6-3-3-4’ system6-3-3-4’ system► First nine years compulsoryFirst nine years compulsory► Over 96% continue to upper secondary (“senior high school”)Over 96% continue to upper secondary (“senior high school”)► 41% continue to university (up from about 25% in 1990)41% continue to university (up from about 25% in 1990)► More and more now going on to Masters and DoctoratesMore and more now going on to Masters and Doctorates► Literacy rates one of the highest in the worldLiteracy rates one of the highest in the world► Classroom sizes still tend to be large, despite falling populationClassroom sizes still tend to be large, despite falling population

Reforming the SystemReforming the System

► First reform was the Meiji Reforms that created an education systemFirst reform was the Meiji Reforms that created an education system► Second reforms were the Occupation Reforms that aimed to get rid of Second reforms were the Occupation Reforms that aimed to get rid of

the elements that were seen to have helped lead Japan to warthe elements that were seen to have helped lead Japan to war► Third reforms started in 1980s with Prime Minister Nakasone. These Third reforms started in 1980s with Prime Minister Nakasone. These

reforms are still on-going, although many may not be aware that they reforms are still on-going, although many may not be aware that they started so long agostarted so long ago

‘‘Internationalization’ of the SystemInternationalization’ of the System

► What is ‘internationalization’?What is ‘internationalization’?► Nakasone’s view is key in modern times (discussed in previous lecture)Nakasone’s view is key in modern times (discussed in previous lecture)► Hence a seeming mixture of ‘nationalist’ elements with ‘internationalist’ Hence a seeming mixture of ‘nationalist’ elements with ‘internationalist’

elements (even in textbooks)elements (even in textbooks)► For exampleFor example

100,000 Foreign Students Plan100,000 Foreign Students Plan Creation of Japan Exchange & Teaching (JET) ProgrammeCreation of Japan Exchange & Teaching (JET) Programme But also increased usage of But also increased usage of HinomaruHinomaru & & KimigayoKimigayo

► Imbalance between where foreign students come from compared to Imbalance between where foreign students come from compared to where Japanese students go towhere Japanese students go to

HinomaruHinomaru

KimigayoKimigayo

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

United States United Kingdom Australia New Zealand Canada Ireland Others

Participants on the JET Participants on the JET ProgrammeProgramme

Foreign Students in JapanForeign Students in Japan

0

10000

20000

30000

40000

50000

60000

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

Private expense Japanese government expense Foreign government expense

Foreign Foreign Students Students (1998)(1998)

Asia (29,366)Europe (46,278)N. America (90,593)S. America (686)Africa (150)Oceania (13,906)

China (14,940)

South Korea (5,740)

USA (79,044)

Canada (11,329)

UK (24,726)

Germany (4,498)

France (6,317)

Australia (10,037)

Other Oceania (3,869)

Other Asia (8,686)

Other Europe (10,737)

Other N. America (220)S. America (686)

Africa (150)

Asia (45,914)

Europe (1,851)

N. America (1,118)

Central & S. America(844)Africa (655)

Oceania (499)

Middle East (417)

1

32

45

1 Thailand (1,059)2 Bangladesh (750)3 Vietnam (468)4 Philippines (434)5 Other Asia (1,713)6 Other N. America (169)

China(22,810)

SouthKorea(11,467)

Taiwan (4,033)

Malaysia (2,040)

Indonesia (1,140)

Middle EastOceanaAfricaCentral & S. America

EuropeUSA (949) & 6

Kikokushijo (1)Kikokushijo (1)► One of the most discussed issues of the ‘healthy internationalism’ debate One of the most discussed issues of the ‘healthy internationalism’ debate

was that of was that of kikokushijokikokushijo (children returning from living and studying abroad), (children returning from living and studying abroad), for they represented the new vision of an internationalised Japanese youth.for they represented the new vision of an internationalised Japanese youth.

► This is despite the fact that, as Kobayashi (1990:190–1) points out, ‘it This is despite the fact that, as Kobayashi (1990:190–1) points out, ‘it would be erroneous to assume that all children residing abroad would be erroneous to assume that all children residing abroad automatically become internationally minded’. automatically become internationally minded’.

► However, they are perceived to be ‘internationalised’ and the problems However, they are perceived to be ‘internationalised’ and the problems surrounding them also reflected the balancing act that had to be done in surrounding them also reflected the balancing act that had to be done in order to satisfy those who wanted more ‘healthy nationalism’ to be order to satisfy those who wanted more ‘healthy nationalism’ to be introduced into the system.introduced into the system.

► Roesgaard (1998:213) points out that in 1985 – the second year of Roesgaard (1998:213) points out that in 1985 – the second year of RinkyoshinRinkyoshin (the ad hoc body that Nakasone set up to deal with education (the ad hoc body that Nakasone set up to deal with education reform) – there were only around 40,000 Japanese children studying reform) – there were only around 40,000 Japanese children studying abroad, compared with the 15 million children in Japan.abroad, compared with the 15 million children in Japan.

Kikokushijo (2)Kikokushijo (2)► Each year about a quarter of the children abroad return to Japan (Horie, Each year about a quarter of the children abroad return to Japan (Horie,

interview, 21 November 1997), and in 1997 there were 12, 569, of whom interview, 21 November 1997), and in 1997 there were 12, 569, of whom 62.0 per cent returned to elementary school, 22.6% to lower secondary 62.0 per cent returned to elementary school, 22.6% to lower secondary school, and 15.4% to upper secondary school (Shimizu school, and 15.4% to upper secondary school (Shimizu et al.et al. 1999: 294). 1999: 294).

► It is also worth noting that there has been huge regional variations in the It is also worth noting that there has been huge regional variations in the numbers of numbers of kikokushijokikokushijo, with Kanto accounting for 63.0 per cent and Kinki , with Kanto accounting for 63.0 per cent and Kinki 13.4 per cent of the total number, for example (Shimizu 13.4 per cent of the total number, for example (Shimizu et al.et al. 1999: 295). 1999: 295).

► Roesgaard (1998:213) argues that one of the reasons for the amount of Roesgaard (1998:213) argues that one of the reasons for the amount of attention that the attention that the kikokushijokikokushijo issue enjoyed was due to the relative issue enjoyed was due to the relative importance of their parents and the influence that they enjoyed.importance of their parents and the influence that they enjoyed.

► Special provisions have been made to help Special provisions have been made to help kikokushijokikokushijo get back in to the get back in to the education system – both formally and also in terms of allowing them to education system – both formally and also in terms of allowing them to ‘readjust’ to the system.‘readjust’ to the system.

Control of the systemControl of the system

► Control over the teachers – Nakasone reforms aimed to end the Control over the teachers – Nakasone reforms aimed to end the strength of the Japan Teacher’s Union (JTU)strength of the Japan Teacher’s Union (JTU)

► Control over educational content through the controversial textbook Control over educational content through the controversial textbook authorization systemauthorization system

► Not that controversial domestically, but internationally due to what is – Not that controversial domestically, but internationally due to what is – or is not – written in some social science text booksor is not – written in some social science text books

► Moral educationMoral education► Fundamental Law of EducationFundamental Law of Education

Teachers’ Union Membership (1992)Teachers’ Union Membership (1992)

Textbook Authorization (1)Textbook Authorization (1)► Much is made of the authorisation and the possibilities of government abuse and Much is made of the authorisation and the possibilities of government abuse and

many argue that the system is unjustifiable (Horio 1988b:173). many argue that the system is unjustifiable (Horio 1988b:173). ► Opponents of the system believe that it is censorship and ‘improper control’, which Opponents of the system believe that it is censorship and ‘improper control’, which

is prohibited under Articles 21 and 23 of the constitution and Article 10 of the FLE is prohibited under Articles 21 and 23 of the constitution and Article 10 of the FLE (see Horio 1988b:176). (see Horio 1988b:176).

► Indeed, Herzog (1993:200) concludes: ‘If this is not censorship, I do not know what Indeed, Herzog (1993:200) concludes: ‘If this is not censorship, I do not know what censorship is’. censorship is’.

► However, it should be noted that the system is not peculiar to Japan, although it However, it should be noted that the system is not peculiar to Japan, although it tends to be less subtle. tends to be less subtle.

► Howarth (1991:123–4) points out that such practice also occurs in the United Howarth (1991:123–4) points out that such practice also occurs in the United Kingdom, where it is ‘rare to find accounts for classroom consumption, of Britain’s Kingdom, where it is ‘rare to find accounts for classroom consumption, of Britain’s nineteenth-century opium trade and the misery it inflicted upon China. Our [British] nineteenth-century opium trade and the misery it inflicted upon China. Our [British] invention of the concentration camp during the Boer War, African races invention of the concentration camp during the Boer War, African races dispossessed of their lands and some near genocidal attacks on indigenous dispossessed of their lands and some near genocidal attacks on indigenous populations in various parts of the world are equally hard to find in our [British] populations in various parts of the world are equally hard to find in our [British] school books.’school books.’

Textbook Authorization (2)Textbook Authorization (2)► The importance of the system is further emphasised by the fact that the The importance of the system is further emphasised by the fact that the

textbook market is so large in Japan. textbook market is so large in Japan. ► Sato (interview, 17 November 1997) believed that ‘publishing textbooks is Sato (interview, 17 November 1997) believed that ‘publishing textbooks is

one of the safest and most profitable things to do’. one of the safest and most profitable things to do’. ► In fiscal 1994, 177.96 million copies of nearly 1,500 different titles were In fiscal 1994, 177.96 million copies of nearly 1,500 different titles were

published and distributed in Japan. published and distributed in Japan. ► The budget for the free distribution of textbooks to elementary and lower The budget for the free distribution of textbooks to elementary and lower

secondary schools was ¥43.4 billion in the same year, which accounted secondary schools was ¥43.4 billion in the same year, which accounted for 136.15 million textbooks.for 136.15 million textbooks.

► With textbooks at the compulsory level being provided free, it is With textbooks at the compulsory level being provided free, it is understandable why the government would want to ensure that the quality understandable why the government would want to ensure that the quality of the product is satisfactory.of the product is satisfactory.

► Need to remember that there is no problem with most books – just a small Need to remember that there is no problem with most books – just a small part of certain history books, on the whole.part of certain history books, on the whole.

ConclusionConclusion

► The sThe system is ystem is still still changing changing ► Education in Japan is not merely about teaching of information, Education in Japan is not merely about teaching of information,

but also about developing the ‘whole person’ (but also about developing the ‘whole person’ (kokorokokoro))► This lecture has covered some of the more ‘nationalistic’ and This lecture has covered some of the more ‘nationalistic’ and

‘conservative’ areas of the reforms.‘conservative’ areas of the reforms.► The next lecture will look at the areas of ‘liberalization’ and the The next lecture will look at the areas of ‘liberalization’ and the

areas that initiated the debate on education reform (e.g., bullying areas that initiated the debate on education reform (e.g., bullying and ‘exam hell’)and ‘exam hell’)

ReferencesReferences► Herzog, P.J. (1993) Herzog, P.J. (1993) Japan’s Pseudo-DemocracyJapan’s Pseudo-Democracy, Folkestone: Japan Library., Folkestone: Japan Library.► Horio, T. (1988b) Horio, T. (1988b) Educational Thought and Ideology in Modern JapanEducational Thought and Ideology in Modern Japan, trans. S. Platzer, , trans. S. Platzer,

Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press.Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press.► Howarth, M. (1991) Howarth, M. (1991) Britain’s Educational Reform: A Comparison with JapanBritain’s Educational Reform: A Comparison with Japan, London: , London:

Routledge. Routledge. ► Kobayashi, T. (1990) ‘Educational Problems of “Returning Children”’, in J.J. Shields Jr, Kobayashi, T. (1990) ‘Educational Problems of “Returning Children”’, in J.J. Shields Jr,

Japanese SchoolingJapanese Schooling, University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. , University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. ► Roesgaard, M.H. (1998) Roesgaard, M.H. (1998) Moving Mountains: Japanese Education ReformMoving Mountains: Japanese Education Reform, Aarhus: , Aarhus:

Aarhus University Press. Aarhus University Press. ► Shimizu K., Akao K., Arai A., Ito M., Sato H. and Yaosaka O. (eds) (1999) Shimizu K., Akao K., Arai A., Ito M., Sato H. and Yaosaka O. (eds) (1999) Kyoiku Kyoiku

Detarando 1999–2000: A Databook of Educational StatisticsDetarando 1999–2000: A Databook of Educational Statistics, Tokyo: Jiji Tsushinsha., Tokyo: Jiji Tsushinsha.

Many of the ideas, comments and text in the lecture are taken from Hood, C.P. (2001) Many of the ideas, comments and text in the lecture are taken from Hood, C.P. (2001) Japanese Education Reform: Nakasone’s LegacyJapanese Education Reform: Nakasone’s Legacy, London: Routledge, London: Routledge

Recommended ReadingRecommended Reading► Cummings, W. K., 1980, Cummings, W. K., 1980, Education and Equality in JapanEducation and Equality in Japan, New Jersey: Princeton , New Jersey: Princeton

University Press.University Press.► Cummings, W. K. et alCummings, W. K. et al.. (eds.), 1986, (eds.), 1986, Educational Policies in CrisisEducational Policies in Crisis, New York: Praeger., New York: Praeger.► Duke, B., 1986, Duke, B., 1986, The Japanese School: Lessons for Industrial AmericaThe Japanese School: Lessons for Industrial America, New York: , New York:

Praeger.Praeger.► Goodman, R., 1990, Goodman, R., 1990, Japan’s ‘International Youth’: The Emergence of a New Class of Japan’s ‘International Youth’: The Emergence of a New Class of

School ChildrenSchool Children, Oxford: Clarendon Press. , Oxford: Clarendon Press. ► Haiducek, N. J., 1991, Haiducek, N. J., 1991, Japanese EducationJapanese Education, New York: Praeger., New York: Praeger.► Hirano, M., 2008, Hirano, M., 2008, History Education and International Relations: A Case Study of History Education and International Relations: A Case Study of

Diplomatic Disputes on Japanese TextbooksDiplomatic Disputes on Japanese Textbooks, Folkestone: Global Oriental., Folkestone: Global Oriental.► Lynn, R., 1988, Lynn, R., 1988, Educational Achievement in JapanEducational Achievement in Japan, Basingstoke: MacMillan., Basingstoke: MacMillan.► Marshall, B. K., 1994, Marshall, B. K., 1994, Learning To Be Modern: Japanese Political Discussion on Learning To Be Modern: Japanese Political Discussion on

EducationEducation, Boulder: Westview Press., Boulder: Westview Press.► Nakano A., 1989, Nakano A., 1989, Moral Education in Modern JapanMoral Education in Modern Japan, Tokyo: International Society for , Tokyo: International Society for

Education Information.Education Information.► Rohlen, T. P., 1983, Rohlen, T. P., 1983, Japan’s High SchoolsJapan’s High Schools, Berkeley: University of California Press., Berkeley: University of California Press.► Schoppa, L. J., 1991, Schoppa, L. J., 1991, Education Reform in Japan: A Case of Immobilist PoliticsEducation Reform in Japan: A Case of Immobilist Politics, London: , London:

Routledge.Routledge.► Stephens, M., 1991, Stephens, M., 1991, Education and the Future of JapanEducation and the Future of Japan, Folkestone: Japan Library., Folkestone: Japan Library.► White, M.,1987, White, M.,1987, The Japanese Educational ChallengeThe Japanese Educational Challenge, New York: The Free Press., New York: The Free Press.

Education in Japan:Education in Japan:Overview, Internationalism & ControlOverview, Internationalism & Control

Dr Christopher P. HoodDr Christopher P. Hood(Cardiff University, HoodCP@Cardiff.ac.uk)(Cardiff University, HoodCP@Cardiff.ac.uk)

All photos, diagrams & maps by presenter except where noted otherwise – no copying without permission.All photos, diagrams & maps by presenter except where noted otherwise – no copying without permission.