Education at a Glance 2016
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1 Global Webinar Andreas Schleicher Director for the Director of Education and Skills Education at a Glance 2016
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Transcript of Education at a Glance 2016
1
Global Webinar
Andreas SchleicherDirector for the Director of Education and Skills
Education at a Glance 2016
Individuals reap high rewards for investing in better skills…
2
There is a high degree of variation between countries in the private costs
and gross earnings benefits of attaining a tertiary degree for a man
Private costs and benefits for a man attaining tertiary education (2012)
-600 000 -400 000 -200 000 0 200 000 400 000 600 000 800 000 1000 000
New Zealand
Estonia
Denmark
Canada
Spain
Norway
Italy
Finland
Israel
Australia
Netherlands
Japan
EU22 average
Slovenia
OECD average
Austria
Slovak Republic
Portugal
Czech Republic
Hungary
Poland
United States
Luxembourg
Chile
Direct costs Foregone earnings Income tax effect
Social contribution effect Transfers effect Gross earnings benefits
USD
Table A7.3a
Those with tertiary qualifications earn on average 55%
more than those with upper secondary level attainment
Relative earnings of adults working full-time, by educational attainment (2014). Upper secondary education = 100
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
Sw
ede
n
De
nm
ark
No
rwa
y
Esto
nia
Fin
land
Belg
ium
Austr
alia
Gre
ece
Kore
a
Ca
nad
a
Spain
Fra
nce
Ita
ly
Sw
itzerl
and
La
tvia
Ne
w Z
eala
nd
Un
ite
d K
ing
dom
Ne
therl
and
s
Austr
ia
Japa
n
EU
22 a
vera
ge
Lu
xe
mbo
urg
OE
CD
avera
ge
Isra
el
Germ
any
Lithu
ania
Pola
nd
Irela
nd
Un
ite
d S
tate
s
Port
ug
al
Turk
ey
Slo
vak R
epub
lic
Slo
ven
ia
Co
sta
Ric
a
Czech R
epu
blic
Me
xic
o
Hu
nga
ry
Co
lom
bia
Ch
ile
Bra
zil
Below upper secondary All tertiary Short-cycle tertiaryBachelor's or equivalent Master's, doctoral or equivalent
Index
Figure A6.1
…but the choice of subject matters…
9
Adults who studied in the field of education earn less than
the average tertiary-educated full-time worker
Relative earnings of adults with tertiary education by field of education studied (2012 or 2015). All fields of education = 100
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
Slo
vak R
epub
lic
Isra
el
Un
ite
d S
tate
s
Engla
nd
(U
K)
Jakart
a (
Indon
esia
)
Ch
ile
Esto
nia
De
nm
ark
Ru
ssia
n F
ed
era
tion
No
rwa
y
Fla
nde
rs (
Belg
ium
)
Czech R
epu
blic
Sw
ede
n
Austr
alia
Ne
w Z
eala
nd
Ne
therl
and
s
OE
CD
avera
ge
Ca
nad
a
EU
22 a
vera
ge
Austr
ia
Sin
gapo
re
Lithu
ania
Turk
ey
Germ
any
Pola
nd
Fra
nce
Fin
land
Slo
ven
ia
Kore
a
Japa
n
Spain
Irela
nd
Gre
ece
No
rth
ern
Ire
lan
d (
UK
)
Ita
ly
Index
Teacher training and education science Science, mathematics and computing
Engineering, manufacturing and construction Health and welfare
Earn less than average
across all fields
Earn more than average
across all fields
Figure A6.4
…so gender differences in fields of study will, together with other factors, translate into different incomes
11
There remain large gender disparities with regard to
field of study
Share of female tertiary graduates, by field of education (2014)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Arg
en
tin
a
Ind
ia
Po
lan
d
So
uth
Afr
ica
Italy
Po
rtu
gal
Sa
udi A
rab
ia
Esto
nia
Un
ited
Kin
gd
om
Gre
ece
Ice
lan
d
Ind
on
esia
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
De
nm
ark
Tu
rke
y
Isra
el
Co
sta
Ric
a
Bra
zil
Ne
w Z
eala
nd
Co
lom
bia
Sw
ed
en
Cze
ch
Rep
ublic
Canada
Latv
ia
Un
ited
Sta
tes
Me
xic
o
Slo
ve
nia
Fra
nce
Au
str
alia
Hu
nga
ry
Sp
ain
Lith
uan
ia
Kore
a
Luxe
mbo
urg
Ge
rman
y
Fin
land
Ire
lan
d
Be
lgiu
m
Au
str
ia
Ne
the
rla
nd
s
No
rwa
y
Ru
ssia
n F
ede
ratio
n
Sw
itze
rla
nd
Ch
ile
Jap
an
Sciences and engineering Education, humanities and social sciences
%
Education database
Men have higher private benefits to tertiary education than
women, while the costs are evenly balanced among the genders
Private costs and benefits of education on attaining tertiary education over a lifetime, by gender (2012) Countries are ranked in ascending order of financial returns for men
-150 000
-50 000
50 000
150 000
250 000
350 000
450 000
550 000
650 000
-150 000
-50 000
50 000
150 000
250 000
350 000
450 000
550 000
650 000
Ne
w Z
eala
nd
Esto
nia
De
nm
ark
Ca
nad
a
Spain
No
rwa
y
Ita
ly
Fin
land
Isra
el
Austr
alia
Ne
therl
and
s
Japa
n
EU
22 a
vera
ge
Slo
ven
ia
OE
CD
avera
ge
Austr
ia
Slo
vak R
epub
lic
Port
ug
al
Czech R
epu
blic
Hu
nga
ry
Pola
nd
Un
ite
d S
tate
s
Lu
xe
mbo
urg
Ch
ile
Women - total costs Men - total costs Women - total benefits Men - total benefitsUSD
Figure A7.2
The rewards are not just about money
14
Lower levels of educational attainment are associated with
higher shares of adults reporting health-related issues
Average percentage of adults reporting activity limitation due to health problem, by educational attainment and age group (2014)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
25-34 year-olds 35-44 year-olds 45-54 year-olds 55-64 year-olds 65-74 year-olds 75-year-olds andover
Below upper secondaryUpper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiaryTertiary%
Figure A8.2
Tertiary-educated adults tend to report higher levels
of life satisfaction
Life satisfaction today, by educational attainment (2015)
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Icela
nd
Slo
vak R
epub
lic
Sw
ede
n
Ne
w Z
eala
nd
No
rwa
y
Sw
itzerl
and
Ch
ile
Ca
nad
a
Ne
therl
and
s
De
nm
ark
Czech R
epu
blic
Fin
land
Lu
xe
mbo
urg
Austr
alia
Belg
ium
Spain
Co
sta
Ric
a
La
tvia
Irela
nd
Fra
nce
Isra
el
OE
CD
avera
ge
EU
22 a
vera
ge
Un
ite
d S
tate
s
Pola
nd
Saud
i A
rabia
Ita
ly
Port
ug
al
Arg
entina
Ru
ssia
n F
ed
era
tion
Lithu
ania
Un
ite
d K
ing
dom
Ch
ina
South
Afr
ica
Slo
ven
ia
Japa
n
Gre
ece
Austr
ia
Hu
nga
ry
Turk
ey
Kore
a
India
Life satisfaction today - Upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary Life satisfaction today - Tertiary%
Figure A8.5
Also for taxpayers the benefits of better educationfar outweigh the costs
17
The public benefits for a man attaining a tertiary education
are on average nearly 4 times greater than the public costs
Public costs and benefits for a man attaining tertiary education (2012)
-200 000 -100 000 0 100 000 200 000 300 000 400 000 500 000
EstoniaNew Zealand
SwitzerlandCanada
SpainSlovak Republic
NorwayIsrael
PolandAustralia
FinlandChile
Czech RepublicJapan
DenmarkOECD averageEU22 average
PortugalItaly
AustriaNetherlands
HungarySlovenia
United StatesLuxembourg
Direct costs Foregone taxes on earnings Income tax effect
Social contribution effect Transfers effect Unemployment benefits effect
USD
Table A7.4a
Many countries have been able to meet rising demand for tertiary education with more resources…
21
In more than half of the countries, expenditure per tertiary student
increased, with an average increase of 5% between 2008 and 2013
Changes in the number of students, expenditure on educational institutions and expenditure per student in tertiary education (2008, 2013)
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
Esto
nia
Po
lan
d
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
Ru
ssia
n F
ede
ratio
n
Tu
rke
y
Isra
el
Cze
ch
Rep
ublic
Ko
rea
Jap
an
Sw
ed
en
EU
22
avera
ge
Slo
ve
nia
OE
CD
avera
ge
Ch
ile
Italy
Fin
land
Ne
the
rla
nd
s
Au
str
alia
Fra
nce
Ice
lan
d
Hu
nga
ry
No
rwa
y
Be
lgiu
m
Po
rtu
gal
Un
ited
Sta
tes
Me
xic
o
Ge
rman
y
Sp
ain
De
nm
ark
Ire
lan
d
Index of change (2008=100)
Change in expenditure
Change in the number of students (in full-time equivalents)
Change in expenditure per student
Figure B1.5b
On average, over USD 15 000 is spent per student in
tertiary education per year
Annual expenditure per student by educational institutions for all services in tertiary education (2013)
0
5 000
10 000
15 000
20 000
25 000
30 000
35 000
40 000
45 000
Luxe
mb
ou
rg
Un
ite
d S
tate
s
Un
ite
d K
ingd
om
Sw
itze
rlan
d
Sw
ede
n
Ca
na
da
No
rway
Neth
erla
nd
s
Au
str
alia
Ja
pa
n
Fin
land
Ge
rman
y
Au
str
ia
De
nm
ark
Fra
nce
Be
lgiu
m
OE
CD
avera
ge
EU
22 a
vera
ge
Isra
el
Ne
w Z
ea
land
Ire
land
Bra
zil
Sp
ain
Slo
ve
nia
Esto
nia
Ice
land
Ita
ly
Po
rtu
ga
l
Turk
ey
Cze
ch R
epu
blic
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
Hu
ng
ary
Ko
rea
Po
land
Lith
ua
nia
Ru
ssia
n F
ed
era
tion
Latv
ia
Ch
ile
Mexic
o
Co
lom
bia
Indonesia
USD
Figure B1.3c
Countries spend 1.6% of their GDP on tertiary
education, on average
Public and private expenditure on tertiary education institutions as a percentage of GDP (2013)
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
Un
ite
d S
tate
s
Co
sta
Ric
a
Canada
Ch
ile
Ko
rea
Colo
mbia
Esto
nia
Un
ite
d K
ingd
om
Fin
land
Ne
w Z
ea
land
Au
str
ia
De
nm
ark
Neth
erlands
Sw
ede
n
Turk
ey
Lith
ua
nia
Au
str
alia
Isra
el
No
rway
Ja
pa
n
Fra
nce
Ru
ssia
n F
ed
era
tion
Be
lgiu
m
Po
rtu
ga
l
Latv
ia
Pola
nd
Cze
ch R
epu
blic
Hu
ng
ary
Sp
ain
Ice
land
Me
xic
o
Ge
rma
ny
Ire
land
Slo
ve
nia
Arg
en
tin
a
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
Ita
ly
% of GDP
OECD average (total expenditure)
Figure B2.2b
…often by finding new ways to share the costs and benefits
25
Considerably more private spending is directed towards
tertiary education relative to lower levels of education
Share of private expenditure on educational institutions (2013)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Ko
rea
Ja
pa
n
Un
ite
d S
tate
s
Ch
ile
Austr
alia
Isra
el
Co
lom
bia
Ne
w Z
ea
land
Ca
na
da
Un
ite
d K
ingd
om
Port
ugal
Co
sta
Ric
a
Hu
ng
ary
Ru
ssia
n F
ed
era
tion
Ita
ly
Me
xic
o
Latv
ia
Sp
ain
OE
CD
avera
ge
Ne
the
rla
nd
s
Lith
ua
nia
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
Czech R
epublic
Ire
land
EU
22 a
vera
ge
Fra
nce
Turk
ey
Po
land
Esto
nia
Ge
rma
ny
Slo
ve
nia
Be
lgiu
m
Sw
ede
n
Ice
land
De
nm
ark
Au
str
ia
No
rway
Fin
land
Arg
en
tin
a
%
Primary, secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education
Tertiary education
Figure B3.1
On average, 21% of expenditure at the tertiary level
comes from households
Distribution of public and private expenditure on tertiary educational institutions (2013)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Arg
en
tin
a
Fin
land
No
rway
Au
str
ia
De
nm
ark
Icela
nd
Sw
ede
n
Be
lgiu
m
Slo
ve
nia
Ge
rma
ny
Esto
nia
Pola
nd
Turk
ey
Fra
nce
EU
22
ave
rage
Ire
land
Cze
ch R
epu
blic
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
Lith
ua
nia
Ne
the
rla
nd
s
OE
CD
avera
ge
Sp
ain
Latv
ia
Me
xic
o
Ita
ly
Ru
ssia
n F
ed
era
tion
Hu
ng
ary
Co
sta
Ric
a
Po
rtu
ga
l
Un
ite
d K
ingd
om
Ca
na
da
Ne
w Z
ea
land
Co
lom
bia
Isra
el
Au
str
alia
Ch
ile
Unite
d S
tate
s
Ja
pa
n
Ko
rea
Public expenditure on educational institutions Household expenditure
Expenditure of other private entities All private sources%
Figure B3.2b
The share of private expenditure tends to be more variable over
time at the tertiary level compared to lower levels of education
Trends in the shares of private expenditure on educational institutions (2013)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Ko
rea
Ja
pa
n
Un
ite
d S
tate
s
Ch
ile
Austr
alia
Isra
el
Co
lom
bia
Ne
w Z
ea
land
Ca
na
da
Un
ite
d K
ingd
om
Port
ugal
Co
sta
Ric
a
Hu
ng
ary
Ru
ssia
n F
ed
era
tion
Ita
ly
Me
xic
o
Latv
ia
Sp
ain
OE
CD
avera
ge
Ne
the
rla
nd
s
Lith
ua
nia
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
Czech R
epublic
Ire
land
EU
22 a
vera
ge
Fra
nce
Turk
ey
Po
land
Esto
nia
Ge
rma
ny
Slo
ve
nia
Be
lgiu
m
Sw
ede
n
Ice
land
De
nm
ark
Au
str
ia
No
rway
Fin
land
Arg
en
tin
a
% 2013- Tertiary education 2008- Tertiary education
Table B3.2
Independent private tertiary institutions tend to charge
significantly higher tuition fees than public institutions
Tuition fees charged by public and private institutions at bachelor's or equivalent level (2013/14)
0
5 000
10 000
15 000
20 000
25 000
Un
ite
d S
tate
s
Ja
pa
n
Ko
rea
Ca
na
da
Au
str
alia
Ne
w Z
ea
land
Isra
el
Ne
the
rla
nd
s
Ita
ly
Sw
itze
rlan
d
Au
str
ia
Be
lgiu
m (
Fl.)
Colo
mb
ia
Be
lgiu
m (
Fr.
)
De
nm
ark
Esto
nia
Fin
land
No
rway
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
Slo
ve
nia
Sw
ede
n
Turk
ey
Me
xic
o
Un
ite
d K
ingd
om
Public institutions Government-dependent private institutions Independent private institutions
Data not
available or
applicable
for public
institutions
USD
Figure B5.1
But the demand for better education remains unwavering
32
Since 2005, the enrolment rate of 20-24 year-olds in tertiary
education has increased by four percentage points
Change in tertiary enrolment rates among 20-24 year-olds (2005 and 2014)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Kore
a
Slo
ven
ia
Pola
nd
Lithu
ania
Ch
ile
Turk
ey
Gre
ece
De
nm
ark
Spain
Czech R
epu
blic
Irela
nd
Ne
therl
and
s
Belg
ium
La
tvia
Fin
land
No
rwa
y
Austr
alia
Un
ite
d S
tate
s
EU
22 a
vera
ge
Esto
nia
OE
CD
avera
ge
Fra
nce
Ita
ly
Slo
vak R
epub
lic
Arg
entina
Ne
w Z
eala
nd
Port
ug
al
Ru
ssia
n F
ed
era
tion
Austr
ia
Ca
nad
a
Hu
nga
ry
Germ
any
Sw
ede
n
Sw
itzerl
and
Un
ite
d K
ing
dom
Indon
esia
Bra
zil
Me
xic
o
Isra
el
Ch
ina
Lu
xe
mbo
urg
2014 2005%
Figure C1.2
Excluding international students, over 60% of young
adults are expected to enter tertiary education
First-time tertiary entry rates (2014)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Tu
rke
y
Ch
ile
Slo
ve
nia
Po
lan
d
No
rwa
y
Po
rtu
gal
Be
lgiu
m
Ne
the
rla
nd
s
De
nm
ark
Cze
ch
Rep
ublic
New
Zeala
nd
OE
CD
avera
ge
EU
22
avera
ge
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
Ice
lan
d
Ge
rman
y
Au
str
ia
Un
ited
Sta
tes
Un
ited
Kin
gd
om
Sw
ed
en
Fin
land
Sw
itze
rla
nd
Me
xic
o
Luxe
mbo
urg
Sa
udi A
rab
ia
Jap
an
Lith
uan
ia
Sp
ain
Isra
el
Arg
entina
Italy
Hu
nga
ry
Co
lom
bia
First-time entry rates at tertiary level Excluding international students%
Figure C3.1
Close to half of today's young people are expected
to graduate from tertiary education in their lifetime
First-time tertiary graduation rates (2014)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Ja
pa
n
New
Ze
ala
nd
De
nm
ark
Turk
ey
Slo
ve
nia
Ice
land
United S
tate
s
Ch
ile
Sw
itze
rlan
d
Norw
ay
OE
CD
avera
ge
Latv
ia
Austr
alia
Fin
land
Au
str
ia
United K
ingdom
Po
rtu
ga
l
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
EU
22 a
vera
ge
Cze
ch R
epu
blic
Ne
the
rla
nd
s
Ge
rma
ny
Sw
ede
n
Hu
ng
ary
Ch
ina
Luxe
mb
ou
rg
Sp
ain
Lith
ua
nia
India
Ita
ly
Me
xic
o
Indo
ne
sia
Excluding international students First-time tertiary graduation ratesYounger than 30 (excluding international students)
%
Figure A3.1
On average, women make up 58%of bachelor's graduates
and 47% of doctoral graduates
Percentage of female graduates in tertiary levels of education (2014)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Sw
ed
en
Co
sta
Ric
a
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
No
rwa
y
Latv
ia
Cze
ch
Rep
ublic
Ice
lan
d
Arg
entina
Lith
uan
ia
So
uth
Afr
ica
Slo
ve
nia
Be
lgiu
m
Hu
nga
ry
Po
rtu
gal
Sp
ain
De
nm
ark
Ca
nad
a
Ne
w Z
eala
nd
Isra
el
Fin
land
Au
str
ia
Italy
Au
str
alia
EU
22
avera
ge
Luxe
mbo
urg
Co
lom
bia
Un
ited
Sta
tes
Ru
ssia
n F
ede
ratio
n
Sa
udi A
rab
ia
OE
CD
avera
ge
Ne
the
rla
nd
s
United K
ingdom
Me
xic
o
Ch
ile
Ind
on
esia
Ch
ina
Turk
ey
Ind
ia
Sw
itze
rla
nd
Ge
rman
y
Jap
an
Bachelor’s or equivalent Doctoral or equivalent%
Figure A3.3
Not every shining degree is gold
38
There exists a high degree of variation between countries
in the literacy proficiency of tertiary-educated adults
Percentage of adults scoring at literacy proficiency Level 4 or 5, by educational attainment (2012 or 2015)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Japa
n
Fin
land
Ne
therl
and
s
Sw
ede
n
Austr
alia
No
rwa
y
Fla
nde
rs (
Belg
ium
)
Ne
w Z
eala
nd
Engla
nd
(U
K)
Un
ite
d S
tate
s
Czech R
epu
blic
Pola
nd
Ca
nad
a
No
rth
ern
Ire
lan
d (
UK
)
EU
22 a
vera
ge
Austr
ia
OE
CD
avera
ge
Germ
any
Irela
nd
Fra
nce
De
nm
ark
Esto
nia
Sin
gapo
re
Slo
vak R
epub
lic
Kore
a
Slo
ven
ia
Isra
el
Ru
ssia
n F
ed
era
tion
Spain
Gre
ece
Lithu
ania
Ita
ly
Ch
ile
Turk
ey
Jakart
a (
Indon
esia
)
%Tertiary Upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary Below upper secondary
Figure A1.2
While completion rates increase on average by 30 percentage points three
years beyond the theoretical duration, the share of students who failed to
graduate and were no longer in education also increasesFigure A9.2
Distribution of full-time students who entered the bachelor's or equivalent level, by duration (2014)
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
United
Kin
gdom
Norw
ay
Denm
ark
United S
tate
s
Isra
el
France
Finla
nd
Ave
rage
Belg
ium
(Fl
.)
Cze
ch R
epublic
Sw
eden
New
Zeala
nd
Est
onia
Neth
erlands
Aust
ralia
Aust
ria
By theoretical duration plus 3 years (N+3)
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
By the theoretical duration (N)
Graduated from any educational level Still in education Had not graduated and were not in education
While those with advanced skills reap large rewards, people failing to obtain baseline qualifications pay a rising price
41
The unemployment rate of adults with low levels of educational attainment
has increased in more than three fourths of the countries in the past decade
Unemployment rates of 25-64 year-olds, by educational attainment (2015)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Slo
vak R
epublic
Sp
ain
Gre
ece
So
uth
Afr
ica
Lith
uan
ia
Cze
ch
Rep
ublic
Latv
ia
Ire
lan
d
Po
lan
d
Hu
nga
ry
EU
22
avera
ge
Be
lgiu
m
Italy
Fra
nce
Slo
ve
nia
Sw
ed
en
Po
rtu
gal
Esto
nia
Ru
ssia
n F
ede
ratio
n
OE
CD
avera
ge
Fin
land
Ge
rman
y
Au
str
ia
Ca
nad
a
Sw
itze
rla
nd
Ne
the
rla
nd
s
Un
ited
Sta
tes
Tu
rke
y
De
nm
ark
Luxe
mbo
urg
Au
str
alia
No
rwa
y
Co
sta
Ric
a
Un
ited
Kin
gd
om
Isra
el
Ne
w Z
eala
nd
Co
lom
bia
Ch
ile
Bra
zil
Ice
lan
d
Me
xic
o
Ko
rea
Ind
on
esia
Sa
udi A
rab
ia
Jap
an
Below upper secondary Upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary Tertiary%
Figure A5.1a
The unemployment rate of adults with low levels of educational attainment has
increased in more than three fourths of the countries in the past decade
Trends in unemployment rates of adults aged 25-64 without upper secondary education (2005 and 2015)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
Sp
ain
Gre
ece
So
uth
Afr
ica
Lith
uan
ia
Cze
ch
Rep
ublic
Latv
ia
Ire
lan
d
Po
lan
d
Hu
nga
ry
EU
22
avera
ge
Be
lgiu
m
Italy
Fra
nce
Slo
ve
nia
Sw
ed
en
Po
rtu
gal
Esto
nia
Ru
ssia
n F
ede
ratio
n
OE
CD
avera
ge
Fin
land
Ge
rman
y
Au
str
ia
Ca
nad
a
Sw
itze
rla
nd
Ne
the
rla
nd
s
Un
ited
Sta
tes
Tu
rke
y
De
nm
ark
Luxe
mbo
urg
Au
str
alia
No
rwa
y
Co
sta
Ric
a
Un
ited
Kin
gd
om
Isra
el
Ne
w Z
eala
nd
Co
lom
bia
Ch
ile
Bra
zil
Ice
lan
d
Me
xic
o
Ko
rea
Ind
on
esia
Sa
udi A
rab
ia
2005 2015%
Table A5.3
On average, the gender gap in employment rates
decreases as level of educational attainment increases
Gender difference in employment rates, by educational attainment (2015)
Employment rate of men – employment rate of women
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Sa
udi A
rab
ia
Tu
rke
yM
exic
o
Ch
ile
Co
sta
Ric
a
Ind
on
esia
Co
lom
bia
Bra
zil
Isra
el
Italy
Ire
lan
d
Un
ited
Sta
tes
Gre
ece
Ne
the
rla
nd
s
Po
lan
d
Un
ited
Kin
gd
om
OE
CD
avera
ge
Sp
ain
Hu
nga
ry
Ko
rea
Au
str
alia
De
nm
ark
Ru
ssia
n F
ede
ratio
n
Ca
nad
a
EU
22
avera
ge
Latv
ia
So
uth
Afr
ica
Cze
ch
Rep
ublic
Ge
rman
y
Be
lgiu
mS
witze
rla
nd
Luxe
mbo
urg
Sw
ed
en
Ne
w Z
eala
nd
Slo
ve
nia
Ice
lan
d
Fra
nce
Po
rtu
gal
Fin
land
Lith
uan
iaE
sto
nia
Austr
iaN
orw
ay
Slo
vak R
epublic
Jap
an
Below upper secondary Upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary TertiaryPercentage points
Figure A5.2
17% of young people are neither employed nor in education or training, and
young women more likely than men to be classified as NEET
Percentage of NEETs among 20-24 year-olds, by gender (2015)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Italy
Tu
rke
y
Gre
ece
Sp
ain
Me
xic
o
Colo
mbia
Bra
zil
Costa
Ric
a
Ko
rea
Chile
Fra
nce
Po
rtug
al
Ire
lan
d
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
Isra
el
Po
lan
d
Hun
ga
ry
Fin
land
Slo
ve
nia
EU
22
avera
ge
OE
CD
avera
ge
Russia
n F
ed
era
tio
n
Lith
uan
ia
Be
lgiu
m
Unite
d S
tate
s
Unite
d K
ing
do
m
Esto
nia
New
Zea
land
Can
ad
a
Latv
ia
Au
str
alia
Den
ma
rk
Sw
itze
rlan
d
Sw
ed
en
Au
str
ia
Czech
Rep
ublic
Norw
ay
Jap
an
Luxe
mb
ourg
Ge
rma
ny
Neth
erl
an
ds
Ice
lan
d
Men and women Men Women%
Figure C5.1
Since 2005, slightly more than half of the countries have experienced an increase
in the share of young people neither employed nor in education or training
Difference in the percentage of NEETs among 20-24 year-olds (2005 and 2015)
- 20
- 15
- 10
- 5
0
5
10
15
20
Turk
ey
Germ
any
Slo
vak R
epub
lic
Czech R
epu
blic
Belg
ium
Japa
n
Me
xic
o
Pola
nd
Sw
ede
n
Esto
nia
Austr
ia
Un
ite
d K
ing
dom
Hu
nga
ry
OE
CD
avera
ge
Ca
nad
a
Icela
nd
Lu
xe
mbo
urg
Un
ite
d S
tate
s
Sw
itzerl
and
No
rwa
y
Lithu
ania
Ne
therl
and
s
Ne
w Z
eala
nd
EU
22 a
vera
ge
Austr
alia
Fra
nce
De
nm
ark
Slo
ven
ia
Fin
land
Gre
ece
Port
ug
al
Irela
nd
Spain
Ita
ly
Difference (2015 - 2005)Percentage points
Figure C5.2
Adults with immigrant parents are on average more likely to have below upper
secondary level education, but in almost half of the countries with available
data, adults with immigrant parents are more likely to attain tertiary education
Percentage of 25-44 year-olds with below upper secondary or tertiary education, by parents' immigrant status and educational attainment (2012 or 2015)
- 100
- 80
- 60
- 40
- 20
0
20
40
60
80
100
Italy
*
Spain
Northern
Ire
land (UK)
Slo
vak
Republic
*
Engla
nd (UK)
Chile
*
Gre
ece
Irela
nd
Aust
ralia
New
Zeala
nd
Est
onia
Neth
erlands
OECD
ave
rage
Isra
el
Slo
venia
*
Norw
ay
United S
tate
s
Denm
ark
Canada
Lith
uania
*
Sin
gapore
France
Aust
ria
Pola
nd*
Germ
any
Japan*
Flanders
(Belg
ium
)
Sw
eden
Cze
ch R
epublic
*
Finla
nd*
Kore
a*
Both parents are native-born Both parents are foreign-born
Th
e h
igh
est le
ve
l o
f e
du
ca
tio
n
of th
e in
div
idu
al a
nd
his
or
he
r
pa
ren
ts is b
elo
w u
pp
er
se
co
nd
ary
ed
uca
tio
n
Th
e h
igh
est le
ve
l o
f
ed
uca
tio
n o
f th
e
ind
ivid
ua
l an
d h
is o
r h
er
pa
ren
ts is te
rtia
ry
ed
uca
tio
n
*Note: Data on both foreign-born parents are not displayed for some countries because there are too few observations to provide reliable estimates.
%
Table A4.3
A higher share of young men than women have not
attained upper secondary level
Percentage of 25-34 year-old adults with below upper secondary education as their highest level of education, by gender (2015)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Indonesia
Me
xic
o
Co
sta
Ric
a
So
uth
Afr
ica
Tu
rke
y
Bra
zil
Sp
ain
Po
rtu
gal
Co
lom
bia
Sa
udi A
rab
ia
Italy
Ice
lan
d
Ch
ile
Ne
w Z
eala
nd
No
rwa
y
Sw
eden
Be
lgiu
m
OE
CD
avera
ge
De
nm
ark
Gre
ece
Luxe
mbo
urg
Latv
ia
EU
22
avera
ge
Un
ited
Kin
gd
om
Ne
the
rla
nd
s
Hu
nga
ry
Fra
nce
Ge
rman
y
Au
str
alia
Esto
nia
Fin
land
Lith
uan
ia
Au
str
ia
Un
ited
Sta
tes
Ire
lan
d
Isra
el
Sw
itze
rla
nd
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
Ca
nad
a
Cze
ch
Rep
ublic
Po
lan
d
Slo
ve
nia
Ru
ssia
n F
ede
ratio
n
Ko
rea
Total Men Women%
Figure A1.1
Over 85% of young people are expected to graduate
from upper secondary education in their lifetime
Upper secondary graduation rates (2014)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Po
rtu
gal
Fin
land
Jap
an
Ne
w Z
eala
nd
Ne
the
rla
nd
s
Ko
rea
De
nm
ark
Italy
Lith
uan
ia
Ge
rman
y
Slo
venia
Au
str
ia
Isra
el
Ice
lan
d
Ca
nad
a
Hu
nga
ry
Latv
ia
Ch
ile
EU
22
avera
ge
Ch
ina
OE
CD
avera
ge
No
rwa
y
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
Po
lan
d
Un
ited
Sta
tes
Spain
Cze
ch
Rep
ublic
Luxe
mbo
urg
Sa
udi A
rab
ia
Co
lom
bia
Ind
on
esia
Sw
ed
en
Tu
rke
y
Bra
zil
Arg
en
tin
a
Co
sta
Ric
a
Me
xic
o
Ru
ssia
n F
ede
ratio
n
So
uth
Afr
ica
Total Over 25 years old Below 25 years old%
Figure A2.1
On average, the majority of young adults with upper secondary or post-
secondary non-tertiary attainment have studied in vocational programmes
Percentage of 25-34 year-olds whose highest level of education is upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary, by programme orientation (2015)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Czech R
epu
blic
Slo
vak R
epub
lic
Germ
any
Hu
nga
ry
Slo
ven
ia
Ch
ile
Austr
ia
Pola
nd
Ita
ly
Fin
land
Esto
nia
OE
CD
avera
ge
Bra
zil
Isra
el
La
tvia
EU
22 a
vera
ge
Un
ite
d S
tate
s
Gre
ece
Saud
i A
rabia
Sw
itzerl
and
Fra
nce
Ne
w Z
eala
nd
Ne
therl
and
s
Japa
n
Austr
alia
Co
lom
bia
Belg
ium
De
nm
ark
Irela
nd
Ru
ssia
n F
ed
era
tion
Un
ite
d K
ing
dom
Sw
ede
n
Icela
nd
South
Afr
ica
Lithu
ania
Lu
xe
mbo
urg
Ca
nad
a
Port
ug
al
No
rwa
y
Indon
esia
Kore
a
Spain
Turk
ey
Me
xic
o
Co
sta
Ric
a
Ch
ina
General orientation Vocational orientation No distinction by orientation%
Figure A1.3
On average, more young adults are enrolled in general rather
than vocational programmes at the upper secondary level
Upper secondary enrolment rates of 15-19 year-olds, by programme orientation (2014)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Sa
udi A
rab
ia
Ire
lan
d
Hu
nga
ry
Ne
w Z
eala
nd
Spain
Ko
rea
Jap
an
Arg
en
tin
a
Un
ited
Kin
gd
om
Gre
ece
Ch
ile
Bra
zil
De
nm
ark
Esto
nia
Fra
nce
Po
rtu
gal
Latv
ia
OE
CD
avera
ge
Sw
ed
en
EU
22 a
vera
ge
Au
str
alia
No
rwa
y
Isra
el
Italy
Lith
uan
ia
Ge
rman
y
Fin
land
Slo
ve
nia
Be
lgiu
m
Po
lan
d
Tu
rke
y
Ch
ina
Luxe
mbo
urg
Ind
on
esia
Sw
itzerland
Me
xic
o
Ne
the
rla
nd
s
Cze
ch
Rep
ublic
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
Co
sta
Ric
a
Ru
ssia
n F
ede
ratio
n
Au
str
ia
Co
lom
bia
General programmes Other vocational programmes Combined school- and work-based programmes%
Figure C1.1
For those who studied only through the upper secondary level, vocational
programmes tend to lead to greater employment prospects
Employment rates of 25-34 year-olds whose highest level of educational attainment is upper secondary, by type of programme (2015)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Ice
lan
d
Sw
ed
en
Sw
itze
rla
nd
No
rwa
y
Ca
nad
a
Luxe
mbo
urg
Au
str
ia
Germ
any
De
nm
ark
Un
ited
Kin
gd
om
Latv
ia
Ne
the
rla
nd
s
Au
str
alia
Esto
nia
Isra
el
Slo
ve
nia
Be
lgiu
m
OE
CD
avera
ge
Hu
nga
ry
Ne
w Z
eala
nd
Po
rtu
gal
EU
22
avera
ge
Lith
uan
ia
Fin
land
Ch
ile
Po
lan
d
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
Fra
nce
Co
sta
Ric
a
Sp
ain
Tu
rke
y
Ire
lan
d
Italy
Gre
ece
Vocational programmes General programmes%
Table A5.5
There are significant gendered divisions with regard
to field of study in vocational programmes
Share of females graduates from upper secondary vocational programmes, by field of education (2014)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Lithu
ania
Esto
nia
La
tvia
Hu
nga
ry
Icela
nd
Turk
ey
Fra
nce
Czech R
epu
blic
Sw
itzerl
and
No
rwa
y
Ne
therl
and
s
Austr
alia
De
nm
ark
Fin
land
Japa
n
Ch
ile
Port
ug
al
Bra
zil
OE
CD
avera
ge
Slo
vak R
epub
lic
EU
22 a
vera
ge
Irela
nd
Belg
ium
Kore
a
Austr
ia
Lu
xe
mbo
urg
Germ
any
Sw
ede
n
Gre
ece
Pola
nd
Slo
ven
ia
Spain
Ita
ly
Ne
w Z
eala
nd
Indon
esia
India
Social sciences, business and law Engineering, manufacturing and construction
Health and welfare Services
%
Figure A2.4
Investment in basic skills varies widely among countries
57
Countries spend 3.7% of their GDP on primary, secondary
and post-secondary non-tertiary education, on average
Public and private expenditure on primary, secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education institutions as a percentage of GDP by level of education (2013)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Costa
Ric
a
Un
ite
d K
ingd
om
Po
rtu
ga
l
Ne
w Z
ea
land
No
rway
De
nm
ark
Ice
land
Arg
en
tin
a
Be
lgiu
m
Co
lom
bia
Isra
el
Ire
land
Au
str
alia
Mexic
o
Fin
land
Ne
the
rla
nd
s
Fra
nce
Sw
ede
n
Slo
ve
nia
Ko
rea
Ca
na
da
Un
ite
d S
tate
s
Po
land
Turk
ey
Au
str
ia
Ch
ile
Esto
nia
Latv
ia
Ge
rma
ny
Sp
ain
Ita
ly
Luxe
mb
ou
rg
Ja
pa
n
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
Lith
ua
nia
Cze
ch R
epu
blic
Hu
ng
ary
Ru
ssia
n F
ed
era
tion
% of GDP
Public expenditure on education institutionsPrivate expenditure on education institutions
OECD average (total expenditure)
Figure B2.2a
On average, over USD 8 400 is spent per student in
primary education per year
Annual expenditure per student by educational institutions for all services in primary education (2013)
0
5 000
10 000
15 000
20 000
25 000
Luxe
mb
ou
rgS
witze
rlan
dN
orw
ay
Denm
ark
Un
ite
d S
tate
sA
ustr
iaU
nite
d K
ingd
om
Sw
ede
nIc
ela
nd
Be
lgiu
mC
ana
da
Slo
ve
nia
Ja
pa
nE
U2
2 a
vera
ge
Fin
land
OE
CD
avera
ge
Ita
lyN
eth
erlands
Au
str
alia
Ge
rma
ny
Ire
land
Ko
rea
New
Ze
ala
nd
Po
rtu
ga
lF
ran
ce
Esto
nia
Sp
ain
Isra
el
Po
land
Latv
iaS
lova
k R
ep
ub
licH
ungary
Lith
ua
nia
Cze
ch R
epu
blic
Ch
ileB
razil
Arg
en
tin
aT
urk
ey
Me
xic
oS
outh
Afr
ica
Co
lom
bia
Indo
ne
sia
USD
Figure B1.3a
On average, over USD 9 800 is spent per student in
secondary education per year
Annual expenditure per student by educational institutions for all services in secondary education (2013)
0
5 000
10 000
15 000
20 000
25 000
Luxe
mbo
urg
Sw
itze
rla
nd
Norw
ay
Au
str
ia
Be
lgiu
m
Un
ited
Sta
tes
Neth
erlands
Un
ited
Kin
gd
om
Fra
nce
Sw
ed
en
Ge
rman
y
De
nm
ark
Au
str
alia
Ire
lan
d
Jap
an
Fin
land
Ne
w Z
eala
nd
Po
rtu
gal
EU
22
avera
ge
OE
CD
avera
ge
Ice
lan
d
Italy
Slo
ve
nia
Ko
rea
Sp
ain
Cze
ch
Rep
ublic
Po
lan
d
Esto
nia
Latv
ia
Isra
el
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
Arg
en
tin
a
Ru
ssia
n F
ede
ratio
n
Lith
uan
ia
Hu
nga
ry
Ch
ile
Bra
zil
Tu
rke
y
Me
xic
o
Co
lom
bia
So
uth
Afr
ica
Ind
on
esia
USD
Figure B1.3b
In two thirds of the countries, expenditure per student in primary to post-
secondary non-tertiary education increased, with an average increase of 8%
between 2008 and 2013
Changes in the number of students, expenditure on educational institutions and expenditure per student in primary, secondary and post-tertiary non-tertiary education (2008, 2013)
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
Tu
rke
y
Po
rtu
gal
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
Ko
rea
Po
lan
d
United K
ingdom
Ru
ssia
n F
ede
ratio
n
Isra
el
Cze
ch
Rep
ublic
Me
xic
o
Ch
ile
Ge
rman
y
Au
str
alia
Ne
the
rla
nd
s
OE
CD
avera
ge
Jap
an
No
rwa
y
Fin
land
Sw
ed
en
EU
22
avera
ge
Be
lgiu
m
Fra
nce
De
nm
ark
Slo
ve
nia
Un
ited
Sta
tes
Esto
nia
Ire
lan
d
Ice
lan
d
Italy
Spain
Hu
nga
ry
Index of change (2008=100)
Change in expenditure
Change in the number of students (in full-time equivalents)
Change in expenditure per student
Figure B1.5a
Two thirds of the countries saw an increase in public expenditure on
educational institutions expressed as a share of GDP between 2008 and 2013
Index of change between 2008 and 2013 in public expenditure on education institutions as a percentage of GDP, primary to tertiary levels of education (2008 = 100, 2013 constant prices)
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
Tu
rke
y
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
Ne
the
rla
nd
s
Po
rtu
gal
Fin
land
Sw
itze
rla
nd
De
nm
ark
Russia
n F
edera
tion
Ko
rea
Jap
an
Me
xic
o
Au
str
alia
Ge
rman
y
Isra
el
Be
lgiu
m
OE
CD
avera
ge
Ch
ile
Slo
ve
nia
EU
22
avera
ge
Sw
ed
en
Fra
nce
No
rwa
y
Po
lan
d
Ice
lan
d
Ire
lan
d
Sp
ain
Italy
Esto
nia
Un
ited
Sta
tes
Hu
nga
ry
Change in public expenditure on educational institutions
Change in gross domestic product
Change in public expenditure on educational institutions in percentage of GDP
Index of change
(2008=100)
Table B2.4
Those who need better education most get the least of it
71
Among adults aged 25-64, around half of both men and women
participate in formal and/or non-formal education, on average
Participation in formal and/or non-formal education (2012 or 2015)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Ne
w Z
eala
nd
Fin
land
De
nm
ark
Sw
ede
n
No
rwa
y
Ne
therl
and
s
Un
ite
d S
tate
s
Ca
nad
a
Sin
gapo
re
Engla
nd
(U
K)
Austr
alia
Isra
el
Germ
any
Esto
nia
Irela
nd
Kore
a
Czech R
epu
blic
OE
CD
avera
ge
Fla
nde
rs (
Belg
ium
)
No
rth
ern
Ire
lan
d (
UK
)
Austr
ia
Slo
ven
ia
Ch
ile
EU
22 a
vera
ge
Spain
Japa
n
Fra
nce
Pola
nd
Lithu
ania
Slo
vak R
epub
lic
Ita
ly
Turk
ey
Gre
ece
Ru
ssia
n F
ed
era
tion
Jakart
a (
Indon
esia
)
%
Figure C6.1
Adults that report frequent use of reading skills are more than twice as likely
to participate in formal and/or non-formal education than those who do not
Adult participation in formal and/or non-formal education, by frequency of use of reading skills in everyday life (2012 or 2015)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Fin
land
De
nm
ark
Sw
ede
n
Isra
el
Ne
therl
and
s
Esto
nia
Ne
w Z
eala
nd
No
rwa
y
Slo
ven
ia
Kore
a
Un
ite
d S
tate
s
Ch
ile
Sin
gapo
re
Spain
Ca
nad
a
Austr
alia
OE
CD
avera
ge
Irela
nd
Pola
nd
EU
22 a
vera
ge
Lithu
ania
Czech R
epu
blic
Germ
any
Engla
nd
(U
K)
Fla
nde
rs (
Belg
ium
)
Turk
ey
No
rth
ern
Ire
lan
d (
UK
)
Austr
ia
Jakart
a (
Indon
esia
)
Japa
n
Slo
vak R
epub
lic
Ita
ly
Gre
ece
Fra
nce
Ru
ssia
n F
ed
era
tion
%
Participation among adults with the highest frequency of use of reading skills in everyday life
Participation among adults with the lowest frequency of use of reading skills in everyday life
Figure C6.2
The internet is the primary source of information for those
who participate in formal and/or non-formal education
Sources of information on formal and/or non-formal education used by participants (2011)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Lith
uan
ia
Fin
land
Sw
ed
en
Esto
nia
Po
lan
d
Spain
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
No
rwa
y
Sw
itze
rla
nd
Ire
lan
d
Cze
ch
Rep
ublic
Ne
the
rla
nd
s
Luxe
mbo
urg
Ca
nad
a
Hu
nga
ry
Latv
ia
Gre
ece
OE
CD
avera
ge
EU
22
avera
ge
Italy
Be
lgiu
m
Ge
rman
y
Slo
ve
nia
Au
str
ia
De
nm
ark
Port
ugal
Tu
rke
y
Fra
nce
Un
ited
Kin
gd
om
%Internet Education or training institution Employer
Figure C6.a
Employers are the major providers of non-formal
education in about half of the countries
Distribution of non-formal education and training activities, by provider (2011)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Po
lan
d
Slo
ve
nia
Lith
uan
ia
Tu
rke
y
Cze
ch
Rep
ublic
Au
str
ia
Esto
nia
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
Latv
ia
Ge
rman
y
OE
CD
avera
ge
Fin
land
EU
22 a
vera
ge
Sw
itze
rla
nd
Ne
the
rla
nd
s
Fra
nce
Po
rtu
gal
Luxe
mbo
urg
Ire
lan
d
Sp
ain
Italy
Be
lgiu
m
Ca
nad
a
De
nm
ark
No
rwa
y
Sw
ed
en
Hu
nga
ry
Gre
ece
Un
ited
Kin
gd
om
% Education institution Employer Other labour market institutions Civil society
Figure C6.b
Countries also spend their money differently
77
In many countries, teacher pay is not competitive…
78
Teachers at the lower secondary level earn about
85% of the average tertiary-educated worker's salary
Lower secondary teachers' salaries relative to earnings for tertiary-educated workers (2014)
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
Lu
xe
mbo
urg
Gre
ece
Isra
el
Fin
land
Germ
any
Engla
nd
(U
K)
Fra
nce
Belg
ium
(F
l.)
Esto
nia
Slo
ven
ia
De
nm
ark
Ne
w Z
eala
nd
Austr
ia
EU
22 a
vera
ge
Ne
therl
and
s
Austr
alia
OE
CD
avera
ge
Belg
ium
(F
r.)
Sw
ede
n
Sco
tla
nd (
UK
)
Pola
nd
Ch
ile
Hu
nga
ry
No
rwa
y
Ita
ly
Un
ite
d S
tate
s
Slo
vak R
epub
lic
Czech R
epu
blic
Teachers' actual salaries relative to earnings for tertiary-educated workers
Teachers' actual salaries relative to earnings for similarly-educated workers (weighted averages)Ratio
Figure D3.1
Salary cost of teachers per student tends to be
highest at the upper secondary level
Salary cost of teachers per student in public institutions, by level of education (2014)
0
2 000
4 000
6 000
8 000
10 000
12 000
14 000
Luxe
mb
ou
rg
Au
str
ia
Be
lgiu
m (
Fl.)
Ge
rma
ny
Be
lgiu
m (
Fr.
)
Fin
land
De
nm
ark
Au
str
alia
Slo
ve
nia
No
rway
Sp
ain
Ire
land
EU
22 a
vera
ge
Ne
the
rla
nd
s
Ca
na
da
Po
rtu
ga
l
Un
ite
d S
tate
s
Ja
pa
n
OE
CD
avera
ge
Gre
ece
Ita
ly
Ko
rea
Isra
el
Fra
nce
Po
land
Hu
ng
ary
Cze
ch R
epu
blic
Turk
ey
Ch
ile
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
Me
xic
o
USD Lower secondary Primary Upper secondary
Figure B7.1
Teachers' salaries were hit by the financial crisis,
but have been rising again since 2013
Change in teachers’ salaries in OECD countries (2005-14)
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Primary Lower secondary, general programmes
Upper secondary, general programmes
Figure D3.3
…and does not offer much in terms of career progression
82
In some countries there is very little salary progression, while in others the
salaries of teachers increase significantly over their careers
Lower secondary teachers’ salaries at different points in teachers' careers (2014)
0
20 000
40 000
60 000
80 000
100 000
120 000
140 000
Lu
xe
mbo
urg
Sw
itzerl
and
Germ
any
De
nm
ark
Spain
Austr
alia
Un
ite
d S
tate
s
Ne
therl
and
s
Ca
nad
a
No
rwa
y
Fin
land
Belg
ium
(F
l.)
Austr
ia
Belg
ium
(F
r.)
Sw
ede
n
Port
ug
al
OE
CD
avera
ge
EU
22 a
vera
ge
Irela
nd
Fra
nce
Ita
ly
Ne
w Z
eala
nd
Japa
n
Turk
ey
Sco
tla
nd (
UK
)
Kore
a
Slo
ven
ia
Me
xic
o
Engla
nd
(U
K)
Isra
el
Gre
ece
Ch
ile
Czech R
epu
blic
Esto
nia
Co
lom
bia
Pola
nd
Hu
nga
ry
Bra
zil
Slo
vak R
epub
lic
Starting salary/minimum qualifications
Salary after 15 years of experience/typical qualifications
Salary at top of scale/maximum qualificationsUSD
Figure D3.2
The time students spend in class varies hugely…
84
On average, compulsory instruction time exceeds 7 500 hours for
combined primary and lower secondary education
Compulsory instruction time in general education (2016)
0 2 000 4 000 6 000 8 000 10 000 12 000
Australia 11Denmark 10Colombia 9
United States 9Israel 9
Netherlands 9Chile 8
Mexico 9Ireland 9
Canada 9France 9
Luxembourg 9Spain 9
Norway 10Switzerland 9
Iceland 10Portugal 9
OECD average 9Italy 8
Germany 9Japan 9
EU22 average 9Greece 9
Czech Republic 9Belgium (Fr.) 8
Slovak Republic 9Belgium (Fl.) 8
Sweden 9Lithuania 10
Estonia 9Austria 8Korea 9
Finland 9Slovenia 9
Turkey 8Poland 9
Russian Federation 9Latvia 9
Hungary 8
Total number of compulsory instruction hours
Primary Lower secondaryDuration of primary and lower
secondary education, in years
Figure D1.1
…as do class sizes
86
Primary classes tend to be smaller than lower
secondary classes
Average class size, by level of education (2014)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Chin
a
Jap
an
Ko
rea
Chile
Indo
nesia
India
Isra
el
Tu
rke
y
Me
xic
o
Bra
zil
Unite
d S
tate
s
Sp
ain
Fra
nce
New
Zea
land
Ge
rma
ny
Au
str
alia
OE
CD
avera
ge
Po
rtug
al
Po
lan
d
Czech
Rep
ublic
Italy
Au
str
ia
Hun
ga
ry
EU
22
avera
ge
Sw
ed
en
Ice
lan
d
Slo
ve
nia
Fin
land
Lith
uan
ia
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
Un
ite
d K
ing
do
m
Russia
n…
Luxe
mb
ourg
Esto
nia
Latv
ia
Neth
erl
an
ds
Lower secondary education Primary educationStudents
Figure D2.1
Three fourths of the countries have experienced a decrease in class
size at primary and/or secondary levels between 2005 and 2014
Change in average class size (2005, 2014)
- 40
- 30
- 20
- 10
0
10
20
30
40
Fra
nce
Un
ite
d S
tate
s
Spain
Ita
ly
Icela
nd
Port
ug
al
Ru
ssia
n F
ed
era
tion
Germ
any
Hu
nga
ry
Japa
n
Slo
ven
ia
Lu
xe
mbo
urg
Austr
alia
OE
CD
avera
ge
EU
22 a
vera
ge
Pola
nd
Me
xic
o
Czech R
epu
blic
Ch
ile
Isra
el
Kore
a
Austr
ia
Un
ite
d K
ing
dom
Bra
zil
Slo
vak R
epub
lic
Esto
nia
Turk
ey
Ne
therl
and
s
Lower secondary education Primary educationIndex of change
(2005=0)
Figure D2.2
Vocational programmes in upper secondary education tend to
have higher student-teacher ratios than general programmes
Ratio of students to teaching staff in upper secondary education, by type of programme (2014)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Indo
nesia
Chile
Un
ite
d K
ing
do
m
Neth
erl
an
ds
Chin
a
New
Zea
land
Latv
ia
Esto
nia
Fin
land
Den
ma
rk
Hun
ga
ry
Slo
ve
nia
OE
CD
avera
ge
Ge
rma
ny
Tu
rke
y
EU
22
avera
ge
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
Fra
nce
Italy
Ko
rea
Czech
Rep
ublic
Sp
ain
Au
str
ia
Be
lgiu
m
Po
lan
d
Luxe
mb
ourg
Lith
uan
ia
Bra
zil
Gre
ece
Ire
lan
d
Au
str
alia
Sw
itze
rlan
d
Vocational programmes General programmesStudents
Figure D2.3
Countries make very different tradeoffs between better pay and smaller classes…
90
The salary cost of teachers per student has increased in more than half of the
countries between 2010 and 2014, driven primarily by changes in class size
Change in the salary cost of teachers per student, teachers' salaries and estimated class size in public institutions in primaryeducation (2010 and 2014)
- 40
- 30
- 20
- 10
0
10
20
30
40
50
Isra
el
Ch
ile
Luxe
mb
ou
rg
Hu
ng
ary
Kore
a
Turk
ey
Me
xic
o
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
Ge
rma
ny
Ja
pa
n
Au
str
alia
No
rway
OE
CD
avera
ge
Fin
land
Be
lgiu
m (
Fr.
)
Au
str
ia
Be
lgiu
m (
Fl.)
EU
22 a
vera
ge
Po
land
Fra
nce
Ire
land
Denm
ark
Slo
ve
nia
Ita
ly
Sp
ain
Po
rtu
ga
l
change in teachers' salary
change in estimated class size
change in salary cost of teachers per student%
Figure B7.3a
The salary cost of teachers per student has increased in more than half of the
countries between 2010 and 2014, driven primarily by changes in class size
Change in the salary cost of teachers per student, teachers' salaries and estimated class size in public institutions in
lower secondary education (2010 and 2014)
- 40
- 30
- 20
- 10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Po
land
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
Ch
ile
Hu
ng
ary
Isra
el
Ko
rea
Ge
rma
ny
Me
xic
o
No
rway
Ja
pa
n
Au
str
alia
Fin
land
EU
22 a
vera
ge
OE
CD
avera
ge
Au
str
ia
Ire
land
Luxe
mb
ou
rg
De
nm
ark
Fra
nce
Ita
ly
Slo
ve
nia
Be
lgiu
m (
Fr.
)
Be
lgiu
m (
Fl.)
Po
rtu
ga
l
Sp
ain
%
Figure B7.3b
…and between teaching and working hours
93
Average class size seems to have a weak relationship with the
percentage of total statutory working time spent teaching
Lower secondary level schools (2014)
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
10 15 20 25 30 35
Percentage of total statutory working time spent
teaching
Average class size
Tables D2.1 & D4.1
The proportion of working time spent teaching tends to
increase with the annual number of teaching hours
Percentage of lower secondary teachers' working time spent teaching (2014)
Scotland (UK)
England (UK) Chile
United States
Colombia
Spain
Portugal
Netherlands
Germany
Slovak Republic
FranceEstonia
Denmark
Norway
Czech RepublicKorea Austria
Poland
Japan
Hungary
Turkey
Israel
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
Percentage of total statutory working time spent teaching
Average
Annual number of teaching hours
Average
Figure D4.3
The higher the level of education, the fewer the
teaching hours per year
Number of teaching hours per year, by level of education (2014)
0
200
400
600
800
1 000
1 200
Co
lom
bia
Ch
ile
Sco
tla
nd (
UK
)
Me
xic
o
Austr
alia
Ne
w Z
eala
nd
Ne
therl
and
s
Engla
nd
(U
K)
Ca
nad
a
Lu
xe
mbo
urg
Irela
nd
Germ
any
Spain
Fra
nce
OE
CD
avera
ge
EU
22 a
vera
ge
Ita
ly
Slo
vak R
epub
lic
Belg
ium
(F
r.)
Port
ug
al
Hu
nga
ry
Czech R
epu
blic
Austr
ia
Slo
ven
ia
Esto
nia
Kore
a
Fin
land
Pola
nd
Isra
el
No
rwa
y
Japa
n1
Belg
ium
(F
l.)
Turk
ey
Ru
ssia
n F
ed
era
tion
Gre
ece
De
nm
ark
Hours per year
Upper secondary, general programmes Primary Lower secondary, general programmes
Figure D4.2
In many countries teaching is a life-time job
97
The share of teachers over the age of 50 has been
increasing in more than two thirds of the countries
Average annual growth rate of the share of teachers over the age of 50 in secondary education (2005, 2014)
- 4
- 2
0
2
4
6
8
10
Ko
rea
Po
rtu
ga
l
Au
str
ia
Slo
ve
nia
Ja
pa
n
Gre
ece
Sp
ain
Hu
ng
ary
Po
land
Ne
w Z
ea
land
Sw
itze
rlan
d
EU
22 a
vera
ge
OE
CD
avera
ge
Isra
el
Ita
ly
Fin
land
Be
lgiu
m
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
Sw
ede
n
Un
ite
d S
tate
s
Ch
ile
Fra
nce
Ge
rman
y
Luxe
mb
ou
rg
Ire
land
Un
ite
d K
ingd
om
Average annual growth rate %
Figure D5.2
Around 45% of lower secondary principals are women,
and the majority of principals are aged 50 or over
Gender and age distribution of principals in lower secondary education (TALIS 2013)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Bra
zil
Ab
u D
ha
bi (U
AE
)
Ro
man
ia
Isra
el
Sh
ang
hai (C
hin
a)
Un
ited
Sta
tes
Se
rbia
Engla
nd (
UK
)
Sin
ga
pore
Sw
ed
en
Ru
ssia
n F
ede
ratio
n
Sp
ain
Cze
ch
Rep
ublic
Po
lan
d
Ge
org
ia
Ice
lan
d
No
rwa
y
Be
lgiu
m (
Fla
nd
ers
)
Fin
land
Bu
lga
ria
Mexic
o
EU
22
avera
ge
OE
CD
avera
ge
Esto
nia
Cro
atia
Fra
nce
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
Ne
the
rla
nd
s
Latv
ia
Ch
ile
Po
rtu
gal
De
nm
ark
Au
str
alia
Ne
w Z
eala
nd
Italy
Ma
laysia
Cyp
rus
Jap
an
Ko
rea
%Under 40 years 40-49 years 50-59 years 60 years or more Female
Figure D6.1
The share of female teachers decreases as the level
of education increases
Share of female teachers by level of education (2014)
The zero line represents 50% of female teachers
- 30
- 20
- 10
0
10
20
30
40
50
Ru
ssia
n F
ede
ratio
n
Latv
ia
Lith
uan
ia
Esto
nia
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
Isra
el
Slo
ve
nia
Italy
Ire
lan
d
Hu
nga
ry
Po
rtu
gal
Po
lan
d
Cze
ch
Rep
ublic
Fin
land
Bra
zil
EU
22
avera
ge
Au
str
ia
Sw
ed
en
Be
lgiu
m
OE
CD
avera
ge
Ne
w Z
eala
nd
No
rwa
y
Un
ited
Sta
tes
Ge
rman
y
Un
ited
Kin
gd
om
Ch
ile
Fra
nce
Ko
rea
Gre
ece
Co
sta
Ric
a
Sp
ain
De
nm
ark
Ind
on
esia
Luxe
mbo
urg
Co
lom
bia
Ne
the
rla
nd
s
Ch
ina
Sa
udi A
rab
ia
Me
xic
o
Tu
rke
y
Sw
itze
rla
nd
Jap
an
Ca
nad
a
So
uth
Afr
ica
Secondary education Tertiary education Primary educationPercentage point
difference from 50%
Share of female teachers is higher
Share of male teachers is higher
Figure D5.3
Instructional leadership is not yet universal
101
Some 40% of principals observe instruction in the
classroom
Collaboration between teachers and principals in lower secondary education (TALIS 2013)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Shan
gha
i (C
hin
a)
Bulg
aria
Ma
laysia
Abu D
hab
i (U
AE
)
Ro
man
ia
Un
ite
d S
tate
s
Engla
nd
(U
K)
Geo
rgia
Ch
ile
Serb
ia
Kore
a
Ru
ssia
n F
ed
era
tion
Japa
n
Me
xic
o
Cypru
s
Pola
nd
Slo
vak R
epub
lic
Bra
zil
Sin
gapo
re
Czech R
epu
blic
Cro
atia
Isra
el
La
tvia
Ne
therl
and
s
Ne
w Z
eala
nd
OE
CD
avera
ge
Ita
ly
EU
22 a
vera
ge
Austr
alia
Spain
Sw
ede
n
Belg
ium
(F
lande
rs)
No
rwa
y
De
nm
ark
Icela
nd
Fin
land
Fra
nce
Esto
nia
Port
ug
al
%
Observe instruction in the classroom
Take action to support co-operation among teachers to develop new teaching practices
Take action to ensure that teachers take responsibility for improving their teaching skills
Figure D6.2
Starting strong
103
Participation in pre-primary education is associated with a
lower likelihood of becoming a low performer in mathematics
Percentage of low performers in PISA mathematics assessments, by attendance in pre-primary school (2012)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Esto
nia
Ko
rea
Ca
na
da
Irela
nd
Latv
ia
Slo
ve
nia
Ne
the
rla
nd
s
Ja
pa
n
Po
land
Ge
rma
ny
Ru
ssia
n F
ed
era
tion
Norw
ay
Port
ugal
Lith
ua
nia
Fin
land
Ice
land
Au
str
ia
Au
str
alia
EU
22 a
vera
ge
Sw
itze
rlan
d
Luxe
mb
ou
rg
New
Zeala
nd
Un
ite
d S
tate
s
OE
CD
avera
ge
Un
ite
d K
ingd
om
De
nm
ark
Sp
ain
Czech
Re
pu
blic
Sw
ede
n
Ita
ly
Turk
ey
Be
lgiu
m
Fra
nce
Gre
ece
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
Isra
el
Me
xic
o
Ch
ile
Bra
zil
Co
lom
bia
Indo
ne
sia
Arg
en
tin
a
More than a year of pre-primary education A year or less of pre-primary education%
Figure C2.2
Over 70% of 3 year-olds and 86% of 4 year-olds are
enrolled in early childhood education
Enrolment rates at age 3 and 4 in early childhood and primary education (2014)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Fra
nce
Belg
ium
Isra
el
Spa
in
No
rwa
y
Germ
any
Sw
ede
n
Italy
Denm
ark
Kore
a
New
Ze
ala
nd
Latv
ia
United
Kin
gd
om
Slo
ven
ia
Ja
pa
n
Neth
erla
nds
Hung
ary
Ru
ssia
n F
ede
ratio
n
Lithu
ania
Port
ug
al
EU
22 a
vera
ge
Luxe
mb
ou
rg
OE
CD
ave
rag
e
Czech R
ep
ub
lic
Fin
land
Slo
vak R
epu
blic
Austr
ia
Pola
nd
Chile
Ire
land
United
Sta
tes
Me
xic
o
Austr
alia
Bra
zil
Tu
rkey
Sw
itze
rla
nd
Costa
Ric
a
Gre
ece
Enrolment rates at age 3 in early childhood educational programmesEnrolment rates at age 3 in pre-primary educationEnrolment rates at age 4
%
Figure C2.1
Some 67% of pre-primary students are enrolled in
public institutions
Percentage of pupils enrolled in public and private institutions in pre-primary education (2014)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Ru
ssia
n F
ede
ratio
n
Lithu
ania
Czech R
ep
ub
lic
Slo
ven
ia
Slo
vak R
epu
blic
Sw
itze
rla
nd
Latv
ia
Cana
da
Fin
land
Hung
ary
Fra
nce
Tu
rke
y
Me
xic
o
Denm
ark
Sw
ede
n
Pola
nd
EU
22 a
vera
ge
Bra
zil
Austr
ia
Italy
Neth
erla
nds
United
Kin
gd
om
Spa
in
OE
CD
ave
rag
e
Isra
el
United
Sta
tes
No
rwa
y
Port
ug
al
Belg
ium
Germ
any
Chile
Ja
pa
n
Austr
alia
Kore
a
New
Ze
ala
nd
%
Private institutions Public institutions
Figure C2.3
In nearly two thirds of the countries, total expenditure on early
childhood education accounts for less than 1% of GDP
Total expenditure on early childhood educational institutions (2013)
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
No
rway
Sw
ede
n
Ice
land
De
nm
ark
Slo
ve
nia
Ch
ile
Fin
land
Ru
ssia
n F
ed
era
tion
Isra
el
Ne
w Z
ea
land
Ge
rman
y
Latv
ia
OE
CD
avera
ge
Sp
ain
Po
land
EU
22 a
vera
ge
Fra
nce
Lith
ua
nia
Me
xic
o
Po
rtu
ga
l
Luxe
mb
ou
rg
Au
str
ia
Bra
zil
Arg
en
tin
a
Cze
ch R
epu
blic
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
Un
ite
d K
ingd
om
Co
lom
bia
Ita
ly
Au
str
alia
Neth
erla
nd
s
Esto
nia
Ja
pa
n
Sw
itzerland
Ire
land
Pre-primary Early childhood educational development
All early childhood education (if no breakdown)
%
Figure C2.5
On average, over USD 8 000 is spent per student in
primary education
Expenditure on pre-primary educational institutions (2013)
0
5 000
10 000
15 000
20 000
25 000
Luxe
mb
ou
rg
No
rwa
y
Austr
alia
Sw
ede
n
Icela
nd
Fin
land
New
Ze
ala
nd
United
Sta
tes
Germ
any
Austr
ia
United
Kin
gd
om
Neth
erla
nds
Slo
ven
ia
OE
CD
ave
rag
e
EU
22 a
vera
ge
Belg
ium
Fra
nce
Port
ug
al
Ire
land
Chile
Ja
pa
n
Italy
Kore
a
Spa
in
Pola
nd
Sw
itze
rla
nd
Hung
ary
Slo
vak R
epu
blic
Latv
ia
Czech R
ep
ub
lic
Isra
el
Tu
rkey
USD
Table C2.3
On average, there are 14 pupils per teacher in pre-
primary education
Ratio of pupils to teaching staff in early childhood education (2014)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Chile
Me
xic
o
Fra
nce
Chin
a
Un
ited
Kin
gd
om
Ind
one
sia
Port
ug
al
Bra
zil
Tu
rkey
Pola
nd
Neth
erla
nds
Sw
itze
rla
nd
Belg
ium
Ja
pa
n
Spa
in
Austr
ia
OE
CD
ave
rag
e
Czech R
ep
ub
lic
Kore
a
EU
22 a
vera
ge
Italy
Hung
ary
Slo
vak R
epu
blic
United
Sta
tes
Gre
ece
Luxe
mb
ou
rg
Latv
ia
Fin
land
Germ
any
Denm
ark
Slo
ven
ia
New
Ze
ala
nd
Sw
ede
n
Austr
alia
Pre-primary education Early childhood educational development
Figure C2.4
Education continues to internalionalise
110
41% of international students pursue master's or doctoral
programmes in the United States or the United Kingdom
Distribution of foreign and international students in OECD countries at the master's and doctoral or equivalent levels,
by country of destination (2014)
United States, 26
United Kingdom, 15
France, 11
Germany, 10
Australia, 8
Canada, 3
Japan, 3
Italy, 3
Austria, 2
Switzerland, 2
Belgium, 2
Netherlands, 2Korea, 2
Others, 12
Figure C4.2
The share of international and foreign students is
highest in doctoral programmes
Student mobility in tertiary education, by ISCED level (2014)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Luxe
mb
ou
rg
Ne
w Z
ea
land
Au
str
alia
Un
ite
d K
ingd
om
Sw
itze
rlan
d
Au
str
ia
Be
lgiu
m
Ne
the
rla
nd
s
De
nm
ark
Fra
nce
Ca
na
da
Fin
land
Ge
rma
ny
Hu
ng
ary
Ire
land
OE
CD
avera
ge
Sw
ede
n
Latv
ia
Unite
d S
tate
s
Po
rtu
ga
l
Esto
nia
No
rway
Ja
pa
n
Lith
ua
nia
Slo
venia
Sp
ain
Po
land
Chile
Cze
ch R
epu
blic
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
Italy
Gre
ece
Isra
el
Ru
ssia
n F
ed
era
tion
Ko
rea
Turk
ey
Ch
ina
Bra
zil
India
Total tertiary education Master’s or equivalent Doctoral or equivalent
Foreign studentsInternational students
%
Figure C4.1
In more than four fifths of the countries, the number of
international and foreign tertiary students has increased
Rate of growth of the number of international or foreign students between 2013 and 2014, total tertiary education
- 15
- 5
5
15
25
35
45
55
Ru
ssia
n F
ed
era
tion
Latv
ia
Po
land
Be
lgiu
m
Esto
nia
Ne
w Z
ea
land
Ch
ina
Hungary
Ca
na
da
Ire
land
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
Ch
ile
Un
ite
d S
tate
s
Ge
rman
y
Au
str
alia
OE
CD
avera
ge
Sw
itze
rlan
d
Fin
land
EU
22 a
vera
ge
Luxe
mb
ou
rg
Un
ite
d K
ingd
om
Fra
nce
Neth
erla
nd
s
Cze
ch R
epu
blic
Po
rtu
ga
l
De
nm
ark
No
rway
Sw
ede
n
Ja
pa
n
Slo
ve
nia
Ko
rea
Au
str
ia
Sp
ain
Turk
ey
%
Table C4.1
There remains a lot to do to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals
114
Two thirds of OECD countries have yet to achieve at least half of
the 10 targets of the education Sustainable Development Goal
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Au
str
alia
Ca
nad
a
Be
lgiu
m
Ne
the
rla
nd
s
No
rwa
y
Ne
w Z
eala
nd
De
nm
ark
Jap
an
Sw
ed
en
Au
str
ia
Fin
land
Ko
rea
Cze
ch
Rep
ublic
EU
22
avera
ge
OE
CD
avera
ge
Ge
rman
y
Po
lan
d
Sp
ain
Ire
lan
d
Un
ited
Kin
gd
om
Esto
nia
Sw
itze
rla
nd
Slo
ve
nia
Luxem
bourg
Latv
ia
Isra
el
Italy
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
lic
Tu
rke
y
Po
rtu
gal
United S
tate
s
Ice
lan
d
Ch
ile
Fra
nce
Me
xic
o
Hu
nga
ry
Gre
ece
Number of targets with available data
4.1 Percentage of 15-year old students performing at level 2 or higher on the PISA math scale (threshold 80%) 4.2 Enrolment rate in pre-primary and primary education at age 5 (threshold 95%)4.3 First-time tertiary entry rates (threshold 60%)4.4 Percentage of adults with a high degree of skills and readiness to use ICT for problem solving (threshold 60%)4.5 PISA inclusion index (threshold 75%)4.6 Percentage of adults with high levels of literacy (threshold 50%)4.7 Percentage of students at level A, B and C in the PISA environmental science performance index (threshold 70%)4.a Computers for educational purposes per student, mean index (threshold 0.7)4.b Difference in scholarships and student costs in donor countries between 2012 and 2014, in millions (threshold USD 0)4.c Percentage of lower secondary teachers having completed teacher education of training programmes (threshold 95%)
