+Rhythm (CONT.) The flow of action within the sequences of Les Miserables (2013)

goes uninterrupted and is smooth and continuous. The pace seems quite fast and this evokes intensity and excitement.

The pace of the ‘Do You Hear the People Sing’ scene is quite rapid. The shots occur at varying lengths from a number of different viewpoints and angles e.g. high angle, low angle. The scene appears to utilize a balance of both rapid pace and slow pace within the shots; the action taking place is shown to be quite slow to begin with e.g. at 0.02, thus creating tension and suspense and increasing the anticipation of the audience. The pace within the shots intensifies as the screen duration of each decreases. This occurs at 1.11 as chaos appears to ensue amongst the crowds in the square. The use of rhythm in this manner is effective because it suggests intensity. This matches with the mood of the scene as things turn increasingly violent. Slow pace: at the beginning

of the scene, the pace is slow. This creates a sense of all-encompassing calmness within the scene. The atmosphere does not seem threatening, however the slow pacing does create tension.

Rapid pace: as the scene progresses, the pace speeds up. Violence begins to ensue and the calm atmosphere turns intense and threatening. The shots are noticeably shorter and the action within them has intensified. This creates a sense of juxtaposition as both the slow pacing and rapid pacing occur close to each other; they happen in the same scene.

Link to Les Miserables (Do You Hear the People Sing) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gMYNfQlf1H8

+TEMPORALEditing is also able to suggest the dimensions of time through manipulation of its perceived flow. Time can be presented in multiple ways within a film or video. It can be expanded; this is an example of slow-motion which is often utilized to increase the length of scenes to create an impression of time slowing down. One of the primary intentions behind the use of this technique would be to create dramatic effect. It is most often used to increase the level of intensity for fight scenes of films, or scenes depicting extremely high levels of danger.

Time can also be compressed. This is a very common aspect of films. Even though films usually last a few hours in length, the narrative can take place over the course of weeks, months and even years. The story most likely takes place over a far longer period of time than can be used in the film, therefore the filmmakers attempt to compress time into an acceptable, and also coherent duration. According to most films in the present day, this trick is always successful as long as the filmmakers are careful and understand what to do during production. It can be stated that all films utilize time compression to fit a series of events occurring over a few days into a few hours. A good example of how this is accomplished is during the opening sequence of the 2009 disaster film 2012. As the film begins, geologists discover that the Earth’s core is heating up; the scene immediately cuts to the geologists representing this information to Washington D.C. thus leaving out the plane journey. The scene then cuts to 2010, in which the U.S. Government and governments around the world take action and begin an operation to ensure humanity’s survival. The scene then cuts to the year 2011 to show valuable items being moved out of museums; after this the title sequence occurs and ‘2012’ is shown on the screen, thus indicating the current year of the film, as well as the year in which everything starts to go wrong. The use of time compression is effective as it creates tension as the years count up to 2012, the year in which the end of the world is predicted to occur. The presence of a new year is indicated on the screen e.g. 2009, 2010…This shows that compression of time is highly effective if events taking place over the course of three years can be fitted into the space of five or ten minutes to create an opening sequence.

Editing can also move forwards in time. This is a good example of flash-forward which suggests a large amount of time passing between two shots. Stanley Kubrick’s 2001: A Space Odyssey utilized flash-forward in its opening scene depicting the dawn of man and the technology we created. The use of flash-forward could be effective in creating juxtaposition due to alternating elements in different shots, and it also suggests that a large amount of time has passed. In that suggested time period, various events may have occurred which resulted in things changing; evidence of this might be shown after the flash-forward. However, we as the audience do not get to witness what actually happened, therefore it is left for us to interpret. This is effective because it allows for the viewer to become an ‘active viewer’ in some way; they actually engage with the story and the use of flash-forward to suggest the passing of time does well to accomplish this. In other words, the audience interacts with the film. In the same way, editing can move backwards in time; an example of flashback. This technique could be used to show a tragedy that took place for a main character which had an impact on the story e.g. in San Andreas (2015), Dwayne Johnson as Ray (the main character) recounts the death of his daughter which strained his marriage and resulted in divorce, long before the events of the film. This is effective as it explains why the main character and his wife are not living together at the start of the film. The event is also highlighted as having significant importance to the events of the story, as well as to the main character’s motivation to save his other daughter from the disaster that is occurring on the West Coast of the U.S. This shows that use of flashback is effective when it comes to explaining an event that happened long before the story, as well as ensuring that the viewer can relate it to what is happening in the film.

Parallel Editing: this technique is utilized to portray multiple scenes of action occurring in different locations simultaneously. This is usually done with the purpose of trying to show some form of connection between the action sequences. For example, it might be that both fight scenes have equal importance and that they are both significant, possessing great importance in regard to the narrative. A good example of parallel editing can be found in Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith during the Obi-Wan VS Anakin/Yoda VS Palpatine sequence in which the characters duel on the volcanic planet and in the throne room respectively. Both scenes are implied to be taking place at the same time and the continued use of the same soundtrack through both sequences supports this strongly. What makes the fact that both scenes are occurring simultaneously more believable is the methods the editors will have used during post-production; they will have taken the scenes into pieces and put them together so that, for example, the first scene could be shown for a few minutes, and then the second one could be shown, followed by the first scene again. The two scenes would also be incorporated across each other, rather than after each other. This also supports the fact that they are occurring at the same time.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9DI8kkR9G0Q

+Space Editing has the potential to create a logical and believable space between characters/objects or both. This can

be accomplished through use of the 180 degree rule or the 30 degree rule, or both. The 180 degree rule states that the camera should not cross the imaginary line drawn perpendicular to the viewpoint of the camera facing two characters or more. Because the cameras have to remain in a certain place (behind the line) logical space is created between camera and characters. The technique also allows for expansion of the frame. This is effective because it enables focus on the characters in relation to the place thy are in; this helps the filmmakers to convey meaning more effectively. The use of this technique is important for the restaurant scene from When Harry Met Sally. The distance of the camera from the characters is great enough so that the viewer can relate the surroundings (people eating at tables) to the characters who are also eating. Also, when the character Sally makes her inappropriate display, she is focused on in relation to her surroundings. This is highly evident due to the fact that the cameras focus on the reactions of other people in response to her behaviour in the middle of the restaurant. This shows that use of the 180 degree line is effective for creating an understanding for the audience of where characters are positioned in relation to their surroundings, other objects etc.

Establishing Shot: this type of shot is effective as it has the ability to situate the audience within a particular environment, or to introduce a character or a series of characters in relation to a setting. Establishing shots tend to occur at the beginning of a film, usually with the primary intention of establishing the location of a film (hence the term ‘establishing shot’). Establishing shots are almost always shown using extreme long shot, which could enable the audience to focus on the aspects of a region e.g. trees and fields.

Eye Line Match: in an eye-line match, a shot of a character focusing on something immediately cuts to another shot which shows exactly what the first character is looking at. An impression is created of the camera being the character’s eyes briefly. The technique is effective because it allows the viewer to become ‘attached’ to the character; for a brief moment, the viewer can see what the character is seeing and it is almost as if the viewer ‘becomes’ that character.

Inglorious B****rds by Quentin Tarantino: A good example of how spatial relationships are used in film can be found in Quentin Tarantino’s Inglorious B****rds, which was released in 2009. The film begins with an extreme long shot of the countryside which does well to establish the primary setting of the film straightaway. This is followed by a medium shot of a farmer; this establishes a character who may or may not dominate the opening scene in the film. This shows that an establishing shot could prove useful in positioning the audience within an environment they may be able to relate to i.e. the audience might be defined by geographical location and they might live in the countryside. Because the establishing shot is the first shot in the film, and usually the first shot of a new sequence, the filmmakers should portray the most important characteristics of a scene effectively and efficiently.

+Continuity Editing: The ‘Hollywood Method’ The ‘classical Hollywood’ method of continuity editing is known as a specific style of editing that ensures

temporal and spatial continuity is created and maintained throughout a series of shots in a sequence. It was originally used as a means of advancing the narrative of a work through utilization of the following techniques:

The 180 degree rule: this relates to carefully filming separate shots in a scene so that viewers don’t become disorientated.

Establishing shots: these are designed to show the audience where the action will take place in a scene. Shot reverse shots: a film technique where one character is shown looking at a second character, and then the

second character is shown looking at the first character. This specific style of film editing was clearly influenced by continuity editing, which is a film term that suggests

how a series of shots in a sequence should be physically continuous i.e. follow a smooth, uninterrupted flow of action that is also coherent to the audience. For instance, if a person is wearing a t-shirt in one shot, he should not be wearing a hoodie in the next shot. If this occurred in a film, most likely due to the clumsiness of an editor during post-production, the physical action taking place in the shots would not match closely like they should, thus interrupting the flow of action.

The ‘Classical Hollywood’ style helps to designate a visual and narrative style within a motion picture. Certain artistic and technical elements would be found in Hollywood Cinema. For example, the silent films An Unseen Enemy and the Birth of a Nation, which were released in 1912 and 1915 respectively, introduced techniques such as panoramic long shots, iris effects, still-shots, night photography, panning shots and crowd shots. The artistic techniques consisted of colour tinting which would have enhanced the quality of a motion picture. All of these techniques are examples of classical Hollywood editing which became prevalent due to the fact that the motion pictures which utilized the techniques and styles ‘made people take the film industry very seriously’, possibly for the first time in history. The Classical Hollywood style of editing was able to initiate a great deal of innovative techniques for films; this made the first two aforementioned films become obsolete as the techniques influenced many filmmakers for the years to come. From this point on, the era of Classical Hollywood cinema began, and the era of silent film had come to an end. The birth of Classical Hollywood Cinema clearly had a significant impact on film history as many films that were released in the years to come, specifically by Warner Bros. became hugely successful. Most Hollywood pictures also adhered to the genres of Western, slapstick comedy, musical etc.

The Birth of a Nation was ground-breaking and became the highest grossing film of all time (until later films were released in the following years), thanks to Classical Hollywood Cinema.

+The180 degree line The 180 degree line was used in the 1989 film ‘When Harry Met Sally’. A particular scene from

this film is the restaurant scene in which Meg Ryan (as Sally) performs an over-the-top display in the middle of a crowded restaurant to prove a point she made, much to the embarrassment of Billy Crystal (as Harry). During this scene, a line perpendicular to the viewpoint of the camera is drawn and the camera remains on one side of the line. The technique creates spatial continuity; as the cameras focus on each character individually, it is implied that they are both focused on each other, just as long as the camera remains on the same side of the line. This is effective because it ensures the audience does not become confused as the characters converse with each other. Also, if the attention of the audience is not diverted in any way, they are more likely to focus on the amusing nature of the scene.

The space in a scene is constructed along what is called a 180-degree-line. The action within the scene of a film is assumed to take place behind an imaginary straight line. The positions of the cameras are not supposed to cross that line. If they do, there is a good chance the audience will become disorientated as the scene taking place is focused on from both sides of the imaginary line. Therefore, two characters are shown to be looking in a different direction rather than at each other.. This confuses the audience, therefore this is an example of spatial discontinuity. For example, the scene from LOTR: The Two Towers in which the character Gollum talks to himself is shot so that it looks as if there are two characters rather than one. However, this was not unintentional for the filmmakers. They wanted to create the impression of two different personalities and they were able to achieve this by violating the 180 degree rule. In other words, they broke the rule to achieve an effect in the scene. This is a good example of spatial discontinuity. However, before the shot-reverse-shot sequence over the 180-degree-line, there was camera movement which took place across the imaginary line; this would be quite different to ‘cutting’ across the line. If this happened, the viewer would not be orientated. The use of camera movement across the line could imply how the filmmakers intended to avoid breaking the rule initially to make the impression of two personalities, as well as their actions, look obvious.

+POV and identification We as, the audience, are invited to experience the events of a film from the viewpoint of a particular

character, most likely the main protagonist or even the antagonist. This is accomplished through use of certain camera angles which record a scene/multiple scenes from the side of a character so that the viewer is given the impression of ‘standing cheek-to-cheek’ with that character. A shot depicting the viewpoint of a character should be indicated as either a point-of-view (POV) shot in which the camera would be positioned so as to suggest that we are seeing the events through the eyes of a character, or as a shot reverse shot in which the camera would be positioned between a shot of a character looking at something, and a shot showing the reaction of the character. For example, the first shot might show a character reacting to something horrifying (he might scream or gasp), and the following shot would confirm the source of terror for the character. This is effective because it would allow the audience to understand the fear of the character. It also allows the viewer t identify the characteristics of a certain character, whether it be his or her emotions, thoughts or attitude through insight as to how they would react to something in a particular scene.

Point-of-view (POV): this technique has existed for a very long time, possibly since the 1900s decade when films were beginning to become popular and individuals were pioneering various techniques that would result in different ways to consume films. Point of view would be effective in ‘taking viewers into the action’ and placing them so they feel as if they are experiencing the events of the story alongside the characters. There was a psychological purpose to give the audience a great deal of insight as to what the characters are experiencing during the course of a story.

Shot Reverse Shot: this editing technique is employed to depict both sides of a conversation taking place between two characters effectively. As shown in various films e.g. Psycho, there are various ways filmmakers could highlight conversation taking place, as well as to maintain continuity; this can be accomplished by following the 180 degree rule. The most common way to establish conversation is through use of the shot-reverse-shot technique, as well as angled shots and left/right alternating shots which are utilized to show each character as they are speaking. This does well to make the conversation look more effective than it would if the whole scene were to be depicted in a single-take long shot which was the case for films in the earliest days of cinema before new techniques were employed by individuals e.g. Edwin S. Porter, the Hollywood style of editing.

The Joker’s Interrogation scene from the Dark Knight invites the audience to identify with both characters as the camera alternates between Batman and the Joker. This is effective as both sides of their conversation are shown, and they are both represented in an equal manner.

+Cross-Cutting

Cross-Cutting is an editing technique utilized to establish a sense of action occurring simultaneously in two different locations. It is most often used in film. This technique involves alternating two or more scenes together which tend to happen at the same time. Sometimes, the scenes can occur in the same location, culminating in relevant parties confronting each other.

It is also known as ‘parallel editing’. The use of this editing technique is effective because it helps to establish the fact that two or more events (sometimes of equal importance or in strong relation to each other) are taking place at the same time in entirely different locations. It does well to provide a strong sense of juxtaposition which could enhance the intensity of the action, as well as to make the film more enjoyable for the viewer. There are also more aspects for the viewer to interact with.

Cross Cutting also has the potential to highlight the fact that the end of the film is in sight; it may be employed with the purpose of showing a final confrontation. The characters involved might be key to the story and will most likely consider of antagonists vs protagonists. A director may also decide to use cross-cutting mid-way through a film to show the evil motivations of an antagonist/antagonist force combined with the impact on the protagonists/innocent people. A good example of use of cross-cutting in this manner is during the destruction of the Home Tree in James Cameron’s 2009 film Avatar (see video here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vt4SrKgHHKA) in which the scene alternates between shots of enemy gunships hovering over the landscape, firing missiles in a certain direction, along with shots of explosions and the inhabitants of the Home Tree getting thrown around, or looking up in horror (reaction shot). The use of cross cutting here identifies what the enemies are firing at, as well as their severe impact on the life forms and the landscape they reside on. This creates a balance between the innocents and the enemy forces; they are both shown in the same lengths and number of shots to each other so that they are represented equally. This is a good example of why this technique is so effective. Cameron likely used this technique to show off the cruelty of humans against alien life forms in his film, as well as for the purpose of suggesting that the antagonists are unaware about the damage they are causing, and also the fact that the victims do not understand why they are being attacked. The use of cross-cutting almost suggests that the two life forms are very similar in some way; if humans were being attacked in real life, we would not understand why either. It can also be implied that both life forms are equally as evil as each other from the use of alternating shots, hence the term ‘parallel editing’.

+Ellipsis Ellipsis is regarded as a narrative device which omits a section/multiple sections of a sequence of events, thus allowing us, as the audience, to fill

in the narrative gaps. The device is utilized with the intention of implying action taking place, simply by showing before and after what is observed. Vast majorities of films tend to use ellipsis to clear sections that have nothing to do with the narrative, as well as to shorten the length of a film and advance the story.

It can also be used for comedic effect. The sections of a film which are omitted are mutually understood and therefore unnecessary, thus necessitating the act of removing certain portions of a film. If there was no use of ellipsis in a film, it would be very long and many areas would be redundant. The main reason for the omission of certain sections of film is because audiences would already understand what a scene is trying to refer to and the producers need not include additional shots which could explain what is actually happening in the film; doing so would be highly pointless and audiences could become bored easily, therefore decreasing the quality of the film. Filmmaking is simply a representation of life, but with all the boring bits left out, thus leaving all the good bits for the viewer to enjoy. Ellipsis clearly possesses a great deal of importance in the world of filmmaking, bearing in mind that most films take place over the course of a few days, weeks or even years, yet viewers only witness the events in the films within a two or three hour timespan.

When it comes to ellipsis, producers will remove all parts of a scene that look ‘too obvious’ and allow for scenes in different locations, as well as periods of time, to unfold side-by-side on-screen. In this way, the need for additional scenes to help explain what is going on is completely pointless, especially when a strong relationship is created between shots through certain techniques. Ellipsis removes these additional scenes from the story. The technique has its benefits because it shortens plot duration to an average level without having a negative impact on the story. It also leaves no evidence whatsoever that anything has been removed from the film, therefore the technique allows the film to maintain an uninterrupted, smooth flow of action.

A good example of how Ellipsis can be used for comedic effect is the ‘Plan Scene’ from Shaun of the Dead (2004). In this scene, the characters Shaun (Simon Pegg) and Ed (Nick Frost) converse and Shaun attempts to think of a plan to gather his loved ones and get to a safe place, as the world around them is being overwhelmed by a zombie apocalypse. The producer(s) of the film take into account the vital aspects of the plan e.g. kill Philip, grab Mom, go to the Winchester and ‘wait for all this to blow over’. Rather than show the long and boring process of each character leaving the house, heading to the Winchester and each pouring themselves a drink, the producers trim each of the scenes down to a small size and arrange them together in a somewhat fast-paced way which is in-sync with Shaun as he discusses his idea. For example, when he says ‘kill Philip’, he and Ed are shown slamming a spade over his head, and when he says ‘Have a cold pint’ a pint of lager is shown being poured. The use of ellipsis is effective because it provides comedic effect and even suggests that, due to the manner of how short each scene really is, the plan is futile and not sure to ultimately succeed. The overall ‘plan sequence’ which is repeated several times as Shaun alternates his ideas slightly, lasts 14 seconds in total. If the film attempted to convey the full process of the plan, the scene could last for 30 minutes or even an hour. Despite the speed and shortness of the ‘plan sequence’, the audience fully understands the nature of the plan and does not really need to know anything else. This is a good example because it shows off just how useful ellipsis can be without causing any apparent problems whatsoever.

+Intensified continuity

Intensified continuity is the general approach to cinematic storytelling (which relies on continuity editing) to attempt to improve the characteristics of camera movement, cutting, angles, and transitions of films so that motion pictures break down their scenes into matched shots with the desire of highlighting the reactions and action of characters effectively, or with the intention of creating a strong relationship between action and reaction. In other words, it enhances the pace, quality, level of action etc. of films through alterations of certain aspects (mostly involving the camera as well as arrangement of shots during post-production) so that certain action sequences in a film look more intense, thus they are intensified, hence the name ‘intensified continuity’. It is also referred to as ‘chaos cinema’ due to the fact that films which utilize intensified continuity possess significantly greater amounts of shots compared to other films, and therefore greater levels of action due to the drastic alteration of camera movement, editing etc.

In intensified continuity, the ‘close-up’ shot is used far more often, possibly with the intention of conveying the emotions of a character e.g. during a fight sequence. This would be effective because it would create more meaning regarding how the participants of the fight feel whilst fighting, rather than just showing the fight taking place from a single take, static locked shot. This was the case in the earliest films. Intensified continuity also utilized closer frames and more drastic focal lengths regarding the camera; this will have meant that the action appeared closer to the viewer rather than quite far away. This change is quite significant because it enhances the overall experience for the viewer and makes it feel as though the intense fight sequence is actually happening right in front of them i.e. it is closer to the camera where it is assumed the viewer will be, especially in a cinema. This would result in a more adrenaline-evoking experience for the audience. To put it simply, intensified continuity is an improvement over continuity editing, which completely changed the way films looked in terms of arrangement of shots. Intensified continuity can easily be considered a milestone in the history of film progression, mostly due to the fact that it again changed the way films looked, especially films with scenes of fast-paced action which looked and felt far more intense. A good example of intensified continuity lies within ‘The Bourne Supremacy Fight Scene’. As the history of film progressed, the utilization of camera movement intensified. This resulted in more moving shots rather than stationary shots; the use of camera movement will have ensured the action felt far more adrenaline-evoking because the camera follows the action constantly. This was a significant difference compared to films that utilized Classic Continuity Editing. The use of editing also intensified, along with the use of close-ups as opposed to long shots which depicted the action from a distance. It clearly became apparent that showing action through a long shot would make the scene increadibly boring for the viewer, as opposed to the level of enjoyment a scene would convey if close-ups and medium shots were used far more often, just like within The Bourne Supremacy. As continuity editing intensified, close-ups became far more common than long shot framing in motion pictures. My own interpretation of the term ‘Intensified Continuity’ is the manner in which the main aspects utilized to enhance the quality of film (especially in regards to the post-production process) were ‘intensified’ themselves. I think that continuity editing developed in this manner due to the presence of new ideas, as well as the progression of technological innovation which still has not stopped, even in the present day. The quality of film is constantly changing, as it was back in the 20th Century. Film started off as single take, static locked shots, before evolving into films with multiple shots rather than just one throughout. Following this, continuity editing changed the way films looked e.g. through use of editing techniques like fades, wipes, dissolves etc. This made the earliest films appear obsolete and boring, therefore it is easy to imagine the significance of the impact continuity editing had as film continued to progress. It is obvious that a lot of filmmakers adopted new ideas regarding the manner in which action was presented to the audience, and this is how I imagine intensified continuity editing was born. Another thing to consider is that people constantly want more; they will soon get bored of repeating elements of films and other products, therefore filmmakers had to make changes to the way their films looked. Intensified continuity is a good example of how films continued to change.

EXAMPLE: The Bourne Supremacy (2004) contains an extensive amount of shots with camera movement e.g. zooms, panning, tracking. This will have done well to increase the level of action and suspense amongst the audience who were also required to pay attention so they could achieve an understanding regarding what as actually happening within the scene. In other words, the action taking place before their eyes will have been so fast-paced, it was quite difficult to ‘keep up’. The use of accelerated motion and slow motion together in a single scene e.g. with Bourne jumping from building to building and going straight through a window which breaks as he flies into it made the scene look very intense and also helped to add to the tension and suspense within the scene. People will have found it difficult to interpret what was actually happening in some of the shots and all the way through the scene, they will have been on the edge of their seats, wondering who will ultimately win the fistfight. This is a good example of intensified continuity because it is a fight scene, which tend to be fast-paced and violent in films, usually accompanied by music to add to the tension. There are a lot of shots, both moving and stationary, which will have been arranged together so that they all play at a fast pace, one after the other, and uninterrupted. Therefore, the film follows a smooth flow of action, even though it is very fast.

Based on all of this, it is easy to imagine that the continuity system, which resulted in the era of silent films coming to an end, went through a large amount of changes. This had an impact on the way films looked and felt for the viewer, as shown within the fight scene from Bourne Ultimatum.

+Ways to create discontinuity

Discontinuity can be created, either intentionally or unintentionally, in many different ways. Filmmakers may desire to create this to add impact and tension in certain parts of a scene e.g. in a horror film to cause confusion among the audience, or to evoke humour within a comedy film. This would be effective because it could ensure that the audience has different aspects to interact with and that the experience they have whilst viewing the film is enhanced due to something they don’t normally see in films. Discontinuity can be achieved through utilization of the following:

Jump cuts: a jump cut is defined as an abrupt transition between two shots that appear to ‘jump’ or ‘jolt’ in a strange and sudden way due to the way shots are framed, mostly in relation to each other. Jump cuts tend to be caused by framing that is quite similar between two shots e.g. between two shots that depict the exact same thing, the framing between them as they change from one shot to the next does not seem sufficiently different enough for both shots to be considered as different to each other. An editing mistake during the post-production process is instead implied, and the effect can be disconcerting, especially if more than one subject is involved. If someone wanted to create a sense of discontinuity, they could take two sequential shots of the same subject from a camera position that would only vary slightly between each shot as the cameraman moved the camera, for example, slightly to the right. The difference between the two shots would not be sufficient at all, and the effect of ‘jumping forwards in time’ is created. If you wanted to avoid creating a jump cut, you could provide a zoom-in between each shot rather than cutting them, or you could completely alternate the framing of the two shots to ensure they are completely different. If one does not desire to create a jump cut and it happens without their knowledge, the effect can be dissatisfying and confusing for the audience, therefore the quality of the film or the excitement of the viewer could be reduced and strained respectively. This shows off the disadvantages of the technique.

Breaking the 180 degree rule: It is vital that the viewer has a clear understanding of where everything and everyone is in a scene. The 180 degree rule encompasses camera position and eye-line, and the cameras should remain on one side of an imaginary line that is perpendicular to the camera’s viewpoint. Following the rule will result in continuity in a film; breaking the rule will result in discontinuity. The only time filmmakers might intentionally break the rule is to provide an effect e.g. to confuse the audience or to evoke comedy. The audience can become disorientated and lose a lot of sense as to what it going on within the film. It can be used in a dramatic scene to add to the tension, or it could be used to evoke humour because it is almost as if the viewer feels like the filmmakers intend to disorientate them. The effect of breaking the rule is that it appears as though two characters are facing in two completely different directions, or that a single character is actually two different people (as shown in LOTR: The Two Towers with Gollum and Smeagol). The cameras are supposed to remain behind an imaginary line so that continuity is maintained; the cameras are facing both subjects and an illusion is created of the characters talking to, as well as facing, each other. A filmmakers could avoid creating discontinuity by not crossing the line, in which case they could create continuity, even unintentionally.

Breaking the 30 degree rule: this is slightly similar to the 180 degree rule because it revolves around creating continuity between alternating shots within a large sequence of shots. Discontinuity within a scene can be achieved by changing the angle of the camera too less i.e. if the cameraman changes it by below 25 degrees, jarring transitions may occur and this has the potential to confuse or frustrate the viewer. There is a good chance that the audience will begin to focus on the editing technique rather than what the film is trying to convey itself; clearly people will not want to watch a film with the purpose of looking at editing techniques. Their main intention would be entertainment. Following the rule generally results in the softening of the effect of alteration of shot distance within scenes. Breaking the rule results in the impression of a jump cut; as the transition does not look like a cut to another shot, but rather an error in the editing process. Filmmakers could create discontinuity in this manner by simply angling the position of the camera by less than 25 degrees.

All three of these have the potential to cause discontinuity in a sequence and can also have a negative impact on narrative context. However, the impact can also be positive e.g. it might be used with the purpose of intentionally causing confusion so that the audience loses sense of what is happening e.g. in a horror film. Ambigious relations between shots could be created, and other complications may arise:

EXAMLPE: Inconsistent eye lines: An eye line match is based on the fact that the audience wants to see what the character on-screen is seeing. Eye line match tends to begin with a character shown looking at something unseen to the viewer, followed be a straight cut to the person or object he/she is focusing on. When the 180 degree rule is followed, each character in a scene is shown to be looking at the right thing, and therefore the audience does not become confused. Breaking the 180 degree rule will result in inconsistent eye-lines; in other words, the location of the person or object in a shot following that of a character looking at something is not where the audience assumes it’ll be. For example, if one person is shown facing left to look at someone else and the next shot shows the person he is looking at actually focusing in the same direction (left) rather than at the other character. The result can cause confusion for the audience, as well as decrease their interest during the film.

In this French short film, a straight transition between two shots occurs; as shown, the framing in Shot 2 is not sufficiently different enough from Shot 1 to give the impression of a cut. Instead, an impression is created of an error during editing, something that can appear jarring to the audience and divert their attention.

+Your Case StudyMy Free Choice Case Study

+A Trip to the Moon (1903) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_ FrdVdKlxUk ‘A Trip to the Moon’ is a good film to discuss because it was the world’s first attempt to create special effects. Legendary

French filmmaker Georges Melies, who was a producer of silent black and white film in the earliest days of motion pictures. The 30 Degree Rule was followed in this film by Melies. Though the unintentional discovery inspired many successful

filmmakers to understand and follow this rule of angling the camera, especially when it came to cutting between clips that were nearly identical so the transition does not look like a cut but a ‘jolt’ which can distract the viewer, Melies was successful when it came to arranging film clips that had the exact same framing and angle together in succession. He accomplished this by changing the scene between each shot without altering the frame; this gave the impression that no cut had occurred at all. This shows that Melies was successful in ensuring the shots within ‘A Trip to the Moon’ were graphically continuous. It is also possible that this film was a milestone in creating continuity in films. No jump cuts occurred because the position of the camera simply did not change, and therefore there was no discontinuity. For example, one of the scenes within ‘A Trip to the Moon’ maintains the same static, locked shot without altering the frame e.g. by zooming in or panning to the left slightly. The fact that the whole film is continuous is effective because it ensures that the audience does not become confused and is able to enjoy the narrative of the film without being interrupted in any way by obvious errors on-screen.

Each scene consists solely of a single take, long and locked shot in which the events taking place within them are shown to the viewer. These sequences are assembled in a rhythmic manner; this manner does not rely on music, but rather on the narrative of the film. There is no dialogue at all; therefore dialogue is suppressed and the audience is made to focus on the rhythmic pattern created as each scene changes to the next, mostly in relation to the slow music playing in the background; this is an example of how diegetic sound will have been used in that time. The shots of the film are very long e.g. the first one lasts 3 minutes, as does the scene that is represented within that shot. A rhythmic relation of some sort is indeed created, however. The length of the shots could almost suggest the large amount of time it would take for the characters within ‘A Trip to the Moon’ to fulfil what they hope to accomplish; hence the name of the film, A Trip to the Moon. However, this obviously wasn’t the intention of the producers. The action taking place within the film e.g. dancing and cheering, seemed to be mirrored strongly by the manner of the soundtrack. It is slow and melancholy, and could almost highlight the concept of so many individuals coming together as one to complete a journey no man has ever done before as an emotional and awe-inspiring event, especially because this was one of the earliest films ever made. The manner of the characters as they appear to cheer with joy ties to the manner of the soundtrack which also sounds happy in a way.

+A Trip to the Moon (CONT.) Each shot in ‘A Trip to the Moon’ maintains a strong sense of spatial continuity. First of all, the constant use

of the establishing shot to represent the characters and other individuals in relation to their surroundings. For example, the second scene shows many individuals constructing a rocket component. The establishing shot situates the viewer within the environment (which is a hanger of some kind) and also introduces an important aspect of the story; a rocket component could tie to the narrative and represent what the people within the film are hoping to ultimately achieve. The shot is effective because it portrays the context of the scene to the viewer who clearly understands what is being represented to them. Because the camera’s position does not change, it remains behind the ‘imaginary line’ which is the principal of the 180 degree rule; cameras must not cross this line because it can create discontinuity and therefore confusion or dissatisfaction among the audience. Because there is only one single-take locked shot, there is no spatial discontinuity because the camera remains stationary behind the perceived 180 degree line. Therefore, the film easily maintains continuity by not crossing the line at all in its small number of long, establishing shots.

The shots within ‘A Trip to the Moon’ are also temporarily continuous. The cameras position does not change, therefore there isn’t any example of parallel editing or match on action. However, a good example of temporal relationships in films is what is known as a superimposition. Superimposition tends to refer to the process by which two different frames overlap to create the impression of a layered transition; and this is exactly what is achieved between each scene in ‘A Trip to the Moon’. For example, between Scenes 3 and 4, a superimposition occurs and the beginning part of Scene 4 is superimposed briefly over the end part of Scene 3 as the film depicts something else entirely; something else that has connection to the narrative. This shows that the shots of ‘A Trip to the Moon’ are temporarily continuous as they include a clear and coherent transition between them; each one successfully indicates the start of a new scene as the previous scene ends. The constant use of superimposition with the transitions is what ensures that the film maintains continuity.

+Clash of the Titans (2010) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8i95sqQS_D0 Editing evolved over time. With the introduction of continuity editing, individuals employed completely different methods

that shaped the way motion pictures would look e.g. fast-paced shots, zooms and camera movement. This is where intensified continuity editing came in as people came up with ideas exploring and expanding on the methods of certain forms of classical editing e.g. cuts and fades. In the age of silent film, movies only consisted of still shots in each scene. However, in the past century, films have completely changed, and by now they are almost able to represent real life. This is highly evident in most films which have come out in recent times which not only reflect real life and are set in full colour with special effects and CGI, but they also explore rhythm, space and time in an entirely different and more effective way.

Clash of the Titans is a good example of how the manner of editing had intensified; shots containing fast-paced action and all kinds of different frames e.g. close-ups and long shots are arranged so that they all occur in an uninterrupted way, and the overall pace of the action within the movie is very fast. The ‘Calibos Fight Scene’ from Clash of the Titans shows that all the shots are graphically continuous in a number of ways. For example, all the shots are completely different, especially when two shots next to each other are compared; when Perseus charges towards Calibos, he is depicted in a long shot. This shot then cuts to a medium shot of Perseus running past the camera, followed by a close-up of him leaping onto a boulder so as to propel himself forwards at his enemy. The next shot shows Calibos kicking Perseus, and yet another shows Perseus being slammed into the rock wall. The pace of this scene is very fast as it unfolds in an unexpected way; previously the character had succeeded in his fight with Medusa, therefore the audience wouldn’t have anticipated the fact that yet another enemy could strike so soon. This scene is a good example of intensified editing because of how many shots are used, as well as the manner of framing which adds to the action within the overall film.

The fast-paced manner of the scene is accompanied by a fast soundtrack that adds to the intensity the audience will experience. This shows that a rhythmic relation is created successfully between the fight taking place on screen and the music heard in the background. The fast-paced nature of the scene could suggest the rage and the desperation of the main character as he charges at his foe in an attempt to kill him. The music also adds to the tension; the audience will be rooting for Perseus; some will even be wondering whether or not he will win. However, it is quite obvious that the main character will accomplish as this is something people can expect in most films depicting a fight between the protagonist and an antagonist. Unlike ‘A Trip to the Moon’ in which the shots were quite long and encompassed the entirety of a scene, the scene from Clash of the Titans features multiple shots that last 1 or 2 seconds each time; they each depict a blow by a sword, a punch or kick etc. The way the shots are all assembled can be considered rhythmic because of how they each represent a strike from a sword equally; they never show two sword blows in the same shot and this same sense of one blow within each shot is maintained throughout the scene until it eventually culminates in Perseus winning the battle.

+Clash of the Titans (CONT.) The shots within the scene are spatially continuous; the audience is clearly situated within the environment the fight

scene is taking place in, and the audience also understands the participants of the fight. As such, an establishing shot of the mountain region outside of Medusa’s Lair (the previous scene) introduces where the fight scene will be taking place and also highlights the differences between the darkness and fire that encompassed the lair within the mountain and the barren and foggy landscape outside; in this way, the shots provide juxtaposition also. The long shots that establish the scene are then closely followed by closer, more tightly framed shots as the action starts to unfold. This does well to situate the audience as close as possible to the fight so that it feels as though it is happening right in front of their eyes.

For example, the filmmakers use shot-reverse-shot in this scene; the camera alternates between Perseus and Calibos as they each try to deliver killing blows and inflict injury upon one another. This shot is effective because it depicts both sides of the fight, therefore making the experience more adrenaline evoking for the viewer and ensuring that each character has an equal representation. Over the shoulder shots, angled shots and left to right alternating shots are utilized. The fact that the cameras stay to one side of Perseus and Calibos ensures that a sense of continuity is maintained throughout the scene; the cameras do not cross the imaginary line perpendicular to the characters against the rock wall. The duel between both characters is not depicted from the other side of the two; in this case, discontinuity could ensue because the characters do not look like they are facing each other and therefore the viewer would become confused or lose interest in the scene. The filmmakers clearly tried to ensure continuity was maintained as each shot was arranged into a timeline of some sort; all the shots did well to represent the characters in relation to the location they were fighting in and the 180 degree line was not crossed by the cameras.

The shots within the scene also maintain a sense of temporal continuity. This is evidenced by the use of the match on action technique which cuts two alternate views of the same form of action taking place together at the same moment without having a severe effect on the flow of action. When Perseus charges towards Calibos, he is at first shown in a long shot, then in a closely framed shot, and then in a close-up. The same piece of action (Perseus charging towards his enemy) is shown from different angles e.g. high-angle and low-angle, and yet the continuous nature of the scene is maintained. The time frame of the action is not jeopardized, even as the filmmakers intended to fill out the action of the scene through use of completely different angles which focused on same thing e.g. Perseus jumping at Calibos (high angle) and Calibos kicking Perseus away as he flies towards him (low-angle shot). Because the scene was shifting in a constant manner for a brief amount of time, the viewer would not be able to assume what would happen next, therefore the tension within the scene is increased. The filmmakers clearly utilized this shot effectively as they ensured the scene was constantly jumping from close-ups to medium-long shots and high angles to low angles etc. The fast-paced action, combined with the alteration of entirely different shots, creates an effect that is quite dizzying for the viewer, but also adrenaline evoking and thrilling. It can be quite hard to keep up with the action.