Mrs E Barnard 2014

GCSE GEOGRAPHY

REVISION – UNIT 1

DYNAMIC PLANET

EDEXCEL B

Exam : Tuesday 13th

May 2014

1 hour 15 minutes

Mrs E Barnard 2014

• The exam will last for 1 hour and 15 minutes

• You need to answer ALL questions in Section A

• The River Processes and Pressures question in

Section B

• The Extreme Climates question in Section C

DO NOT ANSWER QUESTIONS ON COASTAL

CHANGE AND CONFLICT OR OCEANS ON THE

EDGE.

Exam structure

Mrs E Barnard 2014

UNIT 1 : DYNAMIC PLANET

Atmosphere The layers of gases/air around us.

Hydrosphere The layer of water.

Biosphere The very thin layer of living things on the crust.

Geosphere The rocks of the crust and deeper towards the core.

How are we damaging each of the spheres? Atmosphere releasing CO2 into.

Hydrosphere using too much water in some areas

Biosphere deforestation (chopping down the trees) animals extinct.

Geosphere using up fossil fuels

The layers of the earth…

The lithosphere (which is solid) is split into tectonic plates.

These move slowly (2-5cm/yr) on top of a layer called the asthenosphere (which is like porridge)

CONTINENTAL CRUST = land, low density, thick.

OCEANIC CRUST = under the oceans, thin, dense.

Meteorites give us a clue as to what the core is like.

How do we know that the inside of the earth is hot? lava from volcanoes

hot springs, geysers

Geothermal heat… Heat from the inside of the earth. Produced by the radioactive decay of uranium etc in the core

and mantle.

As heat rises from the core it creates convection currents in the liquid outer core and mantle.

These convection currents move the tectonic plates on top of them.

PLUMES = where heat moves to the surface e.g. hotspots like Hawaii.

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The magnetosphere…. The earth is surrounded by an invisible magnetic field –made by the outer core – protects the earth

from harmful radiation from space/the sun.

Pangea… The continents were once all joined together – Pangea. How do we know this? Identical fossils and rocks

have been found in western Africa and Eastern South America for example.

Today the lithosphere is split into 15 tectonic plates. Where 2 plates meet together = plate boundary.

Constructive plate boundary… Where two oceanic plates are moving apart from each other.

New oceanic crust is forming constantly in the gap created.

The magma is injected between the two plates. As it cools it

forms new oceanic crust.

The magma is runny. Shallow sided volcanoes form.

HAZARDS:

Small earthquakes are formed by friction as the plates tear apart.

Volcanoes that are not very explosive/dangerous.

Examples are Iceland – the Mid Atlantic Ridge

Destructive plate boundary… Where an oceanic plate meets a continental plate. They are

moving towards each other.

The denser oceanic plate is subducted beneath the less

dense continental plate.

HAZARDS:

very destructive earthquakes

tsunami

very explosive, destructive volcanoes which cool to be steep

sided.

Examples are Andes mountains, Peru, Chile.

Conservative plate boundary… Formed where two plates are sliding past each other.

HAZARDS:

destructive earthquakes

small earth tremors daily.

no volcanoes

Example is San Andreas Fault, California

Collision Zone A type of destructive boundary where two continental plates

move towards each other. As they meet they push upwards forming

mountain ranges e.g. Himalayas.

Convection currents from the

mantle bring magma towards

the surface. Magma is forced

between the plates, cools and

forms new oceanic crust.

Mrs E Barnard 2014

HAZARDS:

destructive earthquakes

landslides volcanoes are rare

Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) Measures the destructive power of a volcano on a scale from 1 to 8.

Volcanic Hazards: Pyroclastic flows – deadly clouds of hot ash and gas.

Landslides

Lahars – volcanic mudslides

Lava flows

Ash builds up on the roofs of houses buildings collapse.

Acid rain is created.

NAMED EXAMPLE: Sakurajima, Japan

Stratovolcano/ composite volcano (steep sided)

Destructive plate boundary

Can erupt 200 times a year.

ADVANTAGES OF THE VOLCANO DISADVANTAGES OF THE VOLCANO

40% of the land is fertile, volcanic soil

can grow rice and tea.

Hot springs are a tourist attraction.

Sheltered bay is good for the fishing

industry.

7000 people live at the base (are

vulnerable).

There are lots of urban areas around the

base.

The volcano hurls bombs of lava.

Pyroclastic flows and ash erupting.

Managing the threat:

Japan is a developed country so has money…..

MONITORING AND PREDICTION

Aircraft monitor the amount of gas being given off.

Tiltmeter detects swelling of magma in the rocks.

Boreholes measure the temperature of the water.

Hotsprings are monitored

Seismometers monitor earthquake activity.

PROTECTION

Concrete shelters protect people from bombs/ash.

Concrete lahar channels divert dangerous mudflows.

EVACUATION

Evacuation routes clearly sign posted.

Evacuation drills.

Why are people in developing countries at greater risk from tectonic

hazards than people in developed countries? More live in risky conditions – no where else for them to live.

Mrs E Barnard 2014

Can’t afford safe, well built houses they collapse easily

Don’t have insurance

Governments don’t have the money to provide aid.

Poor communications – no warning or evacuation.

NAMED EXAMPLE: MOUNT NYIRAGONGO,

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO, AFRICA

African rift valley

Constructive boundary

2002 hot and runny lava poured out. A river of lava 1000m wide flowed 20km into the city of

Goma.

14 villages destroyed

100 died – due to poisonous gas and trapped in the lava flow.

12 500 homes destroyed

Was predicted – 400 000 were evacuated

Refugees created (people forced to move due to natural hazards or war)

AID AND RELIEF EFFORT ( help given by organisations/countries to help those facing an

emergency).

United Nations sent 260 tonnes of food.

UK TV appeal

Governments around the world gave $35 million

Emergency measles vaccinations by the World Health Organisation.

most fled with nothing

it was months before they could start rebuilding.

EARTHQUAKES can’t be predicted.

Underground plates try to push past each other– builds up pressure – suddenly released along faults

(cracks in the crust). Energy is sent out in all directions.

Magnitude = power of the earthquake

Seismometer measures the power on the richter scale

NAMED EXAMPLE:Niigata, 2007 AND Kobe

1995, both japan, how different?

Both earthquakes were the same magnitude but…

Niigata, 2007, Japan Kobe, 1995, Japan

City of 90 000 – low population density

11 died

1000 injured

Epicentre was offshore (out to sea) so less

shaking of the land.

6pm. People were alert and remembered

their drills.

City of 1.1 million ( high population density)

5000 died

26 000 injured

Soft ground made the shaking worse

6am so people asleep and confused.

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Long term planning… There is a 70% chance of a huge earthquake hitting Tokyo. No way to predict it so….

Earthquake drills

Emergency services practice rescuing people

People keep emergency kits at home – water, torch, radio, food.

BUILDINGS…

Strong, double glazed windows – stop the glass from shattering. Shock absorbers

Strong steel frame Cross bracing Very deep foundation

Earthquakes in the developing world… Very high death tolls

NAMED EXAMPLE: Port – au- PRince,

Haiti 2010

Less developed city in a less developed country.

Epicentre very close to the capital Port – Au - Prince which has a population of 2.5 million.

No warning

7.0 on Richter scale.

Little earthquake education.

PRIMARY EFFECTS (Caused instantly by the earthquake)

316,000 people died

300,000 were injured

Many houses were poorly built and collapsed instantly. 1 million people were made homeless

The port, communication links and major roads were damaged beyond repair. Rubble from

collapsed buildings blocked road and rail links.

SECONDARY EFFECTS (in the days and weeks following the earthquake)

The water supply system was destroyed – a cholera outbreak killed over 8000 people

The port was destroyed making it hard to get aid to the area

Haiti’s important clothing factories were damaged. These provided 80% of Haiti’s exports and 1 in

5 jobs were lost.

1 year after the earthquake over 1 million people remained displaced, most in refugee camps.

Responses • US took control of Port-au-Prince airport

• 150 planes landed daily

• US and UN worked together

• UN World Food Programme increased food aid to survivors, e.g. 2 million meals delivered

on one day

• US military deployed (sent) in large numbers to help with aid effort and maintain law and

order.

• US carried out air drops

• Hospital ships deployed, e.g. USS Comfort.

• USS Carl Vinson moored near Port-au-Prince. Used as floating airport.

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NAMED EXAMPLE: SICHUAN, Central

china 2008

8.0 on the Richter scale

Collision zone where the Indian and Eurasian plates are colliding.

No warning

PRIMARY EFFECTS (Caused instantly by the earthquake)

70 000 died

400 000 injured

5 million made homeless

$75 billion damage

SECONDARY EFFECTS (in the days and weeks following the earthquake)

Lots of aftershocks buildings collapse

LOCAL RESPONSES:

Prime minister flew in

50 000 soldiers helped dig for survivors

Helicopters used to reach the isolated

$1.5 billion aid from the Chinese people

INTERNATIONAL RESPONSES:

Some countries sent money – UK $2 million

Finland sent 8000 tents

Indonesia sent medicines

Rescue teams from Russia and Hong Kong

Tsunami

Earthquakes that happen beneath the sea bed can generate a tsunami. Water is forced upwards where

the sea bed is displaced and tsunami waves spread out in all directions. The tsunami waves slow down as

they approach land but increase in height dramatically. A tsunami is a big wave up to 30m high that hits

land. They cause powerful flooding which pushes several kilometres inland destroying homes, bridges and

infrastructure. There are warning systems which set off alarms but they are only useful if the epicentre

is some distance from the coast.

Mrs E Barnard 2014

UNIT 2: CLIMATE AND CHANGE

WEATHER = short term, day to day changes in the atmosphere.

CLIMATE = the average weather conditions over 30 years.

How do we know climate was different in the past? Fossils of animals and plants that no longer live in the UK.

Landforms left by glaciers

Samples from ice sheets in Antarctica. Ice sheets are made up of layers of ice, a layer for each

year. Trapped in the ice sheets are air bubbles. Climatologists study the CO2 levels to

reconstruct past climates.

INTERGLACIALS = warm periods

GLACIALS = cold periods ice ages ice sheets 400-3000m thick extended across the northern

hemisphere.

How do we know climate has changed in the more recent past? Old photos, paintings

Diaries

Newspapers

Recorded dates of blossom and migration of birds.

Theories used to explain why climate has changed in the past (Natural

events).... 1. ERUPTION THEORY – very large and explosive volcanic eruptions change earth’s climate. Ash

and gas spread around the stratosphere and stop sunlight reaching the earth’s surface

cools the earth. Example is Mt Pinatubo, 1991, Philippines – reduced global sunlight by 10% and

cooled the earth 0.5 degrees for a year.

2. SUNSPOT THEORY – black areas on the sun’s surface. Some times there are more then they

disappear. Spots mean greater activity and more solar energy being sent towards the earth

warmer. 3. ORBITAL THEORY/MILANKOVITH CYCLES – Changes in the way the earth orbits the sun

from circular to ellipse alters the amount of sunlight the earth receives.

NAMED EXAMPLE: the little ice age

Greenland Vikings ran out of food and died as temperatures fell.

In England there were ‘frost fairs’ on the river Thames when it froze.

Crops failed

‘Great famine’

Farmers died of hunger

Mrs E Barnard 2014

Glaciers in the Alps grew and destroyed villages

They had to change their crops from wheat to potatoes

Ecosystems – where plants and animals interact with each other and their environment in order to

survive. Can be small e.g. pond or large e.g. Tropical Rainforest.

How were ecosystems affected by climate change in the past? The dinosaur extinction was possibly caused by a massive asteroid hitting Mexico and a huge

volcano in India combining dust, ash, gas into the stratosphere blocks the sun cools the

climate plants don’t grow dinosaurs have no food……..knock on effect through the food chain.

Megafauna extinction – big animals like the woolly mammoth. The climate was warming so they

had to find new areas to live where the climate suited them. This disrupted food chains. Humans

also hunted them to extinction.

How is our atmosphere being changed by human activity?

Greenhouse gases (CO2 from the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, Methane from paddy

fields and cattle, Nitrous oxide from aircraft engines and fertilisers) trap heat from leaving the

atmosphere and re-radiate that heat back down to earth. The greater the concentration of

greenhouse gases, the more heat is trapped and the warmer earth becomes.

We need the NATURAL greenhouse effect – it makes the planet 16 degrees warmer. Without it

the earth would be too cold for us to survive.

The extra greenhouse gases produces by humans burning fossil fuels power stations,

transport, industry, homes.

Most greenhouse gases are produced by developed countries – the EU, USA, Japan.

The average person in the developing world The average person in the developed world

produces 1 tonne of CO2. produces 10-25 tonnes of CO2.

Mrs E Barnard 2014

We are worried about increasing emissions. Issues we need to think

about: how can we decrease emissions in the developed world.

how can we persuade developing countries e.g. China, India to slow their CO2 emissions.

how do we protect vulnerable people from the impacts of climate change?

GLOBAL WARMING = a warming of the earth’s temperatures caused by the ENHANCED

greenhouse effect (human’s have polluted the atmosphere so it is working more strongly).

Global temperatures increase.

sea levels rise THERMAL EXPANSION (water droplets expand as warm) and glaciers and ice

sheets melt.

What evidence is there of Global Warming happening? 19 out of 20 warmest years on record since 1980.

Sea ice in the Arctic shrank.

90% glaciers shrinking.

Scientists disagree – are human actions the main cause of global warming OR is it mostly natural??

Predicting future Global Warming is hard….as we don’t know: What the future population will be.

If we will continue to use fossil fuels or change to cleaner fuels e.g. solar, wind power…

If we will change our lifestyles recycle use public transport etc.

The UK Climate Ocean Influence

Temperate maritime climate, experiencing mild temperatures relative to latitude, with rainfall in

all months of the year.

Difference between seasons are relatively small

UK’s climate is strongly influenced by a warm ocean current called the North Atlantic Drift

Air Masses and seasons

Effect of tilt of earth’s axis is to produce seasons. In the UK seasons are also influenced by the

position of the polar front which is the boundary between cold polar air to the north and warm

tropical air to the south.

The position of the polar front determines whether a cold or warm air mass sits over the UK. The

air masses have a strong influence on precipitation and temperature, wind and cloud cover.

In winter the colder polar front sits over the UK and in summer it moves North allowing the

warmer tropical air to sit over the UK.

One reason it rains so much in the UK is because rain forms when cold and warm air meet a the

polar front which usually occurs over or close to the UK.

Average Conditions

Although the climate is similar across the whole of the UK, there are small differences:

Western and northern locations such as Glasgow are the wettest due to the wet air coming in

from the Atlantic Ocean.

Mrs E Barnard 2014

Southern and eastern location like Cambridge are the warmest and driest and tend to have more

sunshine hours.

Big Shifts

Most scientists expect the UK’s climate to change in the future as a result of global warming. Some big

changes could take place;

Polar front may shift north, so the UK experiences tropical air masses more often. This would

mean our climate would be warmer and drier in the summer, but wetter in the winter.

The North Atlantic drift could change position or weaken producing a much more variable climate.

How might the UK be affected by Global Warming?

1. Likely to be WARMER:

COSTS BENEFITS

Summer drought and water shortages,

especially in the south.

More illnesses e.g. sunstroke, skin cancer.

Roads melt, railway lines buckle.

Farmers change crops to those that need

less water and more sun.

Extinctions of some plants and animals as it

gets too hot.

Winter heating costs and the costs of

gritting the roads fall.

Tourism increases – good for the economy.

Fewer deaths in winter especially the

elderly from the cold.

More land can be farmed at higher

altitudes.

2. SEA LEVEL rise

Low lying coasts could flood

Greater erosion e.g. Holderness

Sea defences and flood barriers would cost £millions.

3. More EXTREME WEATHER

Heatwaves

Floods

Storms

Extreme weather is hard to predict and costly.

The Stern Review 2005 We should spend 2% our GDP now, reducing pollution OR the effects of global warming could decrease

our GDP by 20%. ‘Spend now or pay later’.

What can we do? Decrease fossil fuel use.

Switch to ‘green energy’ – wind, solar, tidal.

Recycle more

Use cars less and public transport more.

1997 Kyoto Protocol = international agreement to cut CO2 emissions.

Some countries e.g. UK have cut emissions, others e.g. China haven’t. We need ALL countries to sign up.

Mrs E Barnard 2014

NAMED EXAMPLE: Egypt – the possible

impacts of Global Warming

A developing country

Low greenhouse gas emissions – 2.6 tonnes per person per year (world average = 6.8)

Produce less than 1% all green house gases.

99% of Egypt’s people live in 5% land area as so much is desert.

Average rainfall = less than 10mm/yr

The River Nile is an important water supply.

With Global Warming…

If sea levels rise 50cm, 1/3 of the city of Alexandria would be under water.

10% Nile Delta would flood 7 million people would have to leave their homes. farming would

be hit. there would be less food famine.

Less and more unreliable rainfall water shortages.

Desertification

Heatwaves illness and death.

Malaria increase.

Water Wars??

86% of the Nile’s water starts it’s journey in Ethiopia.

Uganda, Sudan and Ethiopia are all building huge dams for Hydro Electric Power (HEP).

This could have a serious impact on the amount of water reaching Egypt.

This could lead to conflict and war.

Egypt has a debt of $30 billion. It may not be able to cope with the impacts of global warming.

Mrs E Barnard 2014

UNIT 3: BATTLE FOR THE BIOSPHERE

BIOME = WORLD SCALE ECOSYSTEM

The world has 9 major biomes – determined by climate:

Temperature – length of the growing season

Precipitation

Sunshine hours – precipitation

Humidity

Why does climate vary around the world?

LATITUDE:

At the equator the sun’s rays hit the earth at right angles, therefore

concentrating the insolation and making it very hot. At the poles the rays hit at a

greater angle, so the insolation is spread out over a greater area and is much less

concentrated.

At the equator the air is always rising = LOW pressure = clouds and rain =

rainforests.

At 30 degrees north and south of the equator the air is always sinking = HIGH

pressure = no clouds and no rain = deserts.

ALTITUDE: (height of the land) – as height increases so the climate gets increasingly cold and wet.

Temperature decreases 1 degree for every 100m of height.

THE SEA: keeps places near the coast cooler in summer and warmer in winter (as water heats up and

cools down more slowly than the land) this is called continentality.

PREVAILING WINDS: If the most common winds come from across the land, the climate = dry. If

across the sea, the climate – wet. From the poles = cold, from the equator = warm.

A climate graph…

The RED line graph = average temperature for each month.

The BLUE bar graph = average rainfall for each month.

TEMPERAURE RANGE = difference between min and max

temperatures.

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Goods and services GOODS = things of value to us

SERVICES = things that satisfy our needs

BIOSPHERE GOODS BIOSPHERE SERVICES

Fruit, nuts

Food crops

Meat, fish, wood

Biomass for energy

Drinking water, water for farming

Gene pool

Pollination for food webs

Climate regulation

Atmosphere gas balance (trees remove co2 and

give out oxygen)

Jobs

Recreation – tourism

Homes for humans and wildlife

Biodiversity

NAMED EXAMPLE: THE TROPICAL

RAINFORESTS

TRF indigenous people (lived their for many generations) - almost everything provided by the rainforest:

Wood for cooking and building

herbs for medicine

food – nuts, fruit, meat, fish

grow crops – shifting cultivation (sustainable process)

BUT…

TNC’s exploit the TRF

logging for timber/paper

farming – palm oil for example

cattle ranches

mining for oil

governments building dams for HEP

roads

This means…

The soil is eroded and washed away floods.

Wildlife loses habitats

Rivers become dirty and polluted

PLAYERS… Different people and organisations who use the biosphere in different ways.

NAMED EXAMPLE: The Guyana

Mountains Rainforest

The Guyanan government is short of money and in debt.

They wanted to develop the rainforest for timber and mining.

Environmentalists and local people opposed this

How is the biosphere being degraded by human actions?

Every year the ‘red list’ of endangered animals is produced.

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Increasingly, habitats are being damaged and destroyed this leads to increased threat of species

survival.

Immediate causes = logging, overfishing, pollution

Root causes = increasing populations, economic development e.g. China, India now = more money and

therefore consuming more food and fuel etc.

Certain species and places are particularly under threat.

There are 25 ‘hotspots’ where there is greatest concentration of biodiversity (number of plants and

animals).

How have ecosystems changed over time? MASS EXTINCTION = extinction of a large number of species in a short time.

Are we heading towards another mass extinction? We are threatening the ability of the biosphere to

provide goods and services due to:

Population growth

Using more food, oil, water, minerals

Human induced change (global warming)

Impacts of climate change on the biosphere: Habitats broken up

Habitats change due to increasing temperatures, changing rainfall, rising sea levels

Extreme weather = more common

Oceans = more acidic as more freshwater is added. Kills coral reefs.

Increased pests and diseases.

Species face extinction

Krill numbers falling

Glaciers melting

Emperor penguins decreased 50%

How can we conserve the biosphere? Should we save the hotspots or a representation of all of the biomes?

Should we restore devastated areas?

Threats to the biosphere…

OVERHARVESTING/OVERHUNT

ING/OVERFISHING

e.g. Krill

DEFORESTATION: Logging

increased flooding and increased soil

erosion e.g. Amazon Rainforest.

CHANGING LANDUSE

to farmland/urban –

changes the ecosystem

TOURISM AND RECREATION

disturbs wildlife.

INTRODUCING ALIEN

SPECIES POLLUTION

air/water

MINING

Oil e.g. Alaska

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Should we conserve high profile animals or keystone species (have a large effect on other living

things e.g. bees)

GLOBAL ACTIONS… (countries working together) (Pg 53)

RAMSAR conserving wetlands

CITES stop ivory trade/crocodile skins

NATIONAL ACTIONS… (a particular country)

National Parks England and Wales – protected areas e.g. The Peak District

Community Forests – new areas of trees near cities

Paying farmers to replace hedgerows

LOCAL ACTIONS… (local area)

Biodversity action plans protect natural vegetation in Great Britain.

SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT – meeting the needs of the present without compromising the needs

of future generations.

Tropical Rainforests – make sure it isn’t used faster than it is renewed.

Ways to do this…

Zoning

Educating local people

Ecotourism

Protected areas

Only cut large trees

NAMED EXAMPLE: KIlum, Cameroon

Republic: Sustainable Forest

Reserve

an area of selective logging

tree nurseries to replace trees cut down (afforestation)

ecotourism

protected areas

crops grown beneath the trees instead of cutting them down.

Direct and indirect degradation

Direct Threats

Deforestation is a problem for a biome such as the Tropical Rainforest. However the rate of

deforestation in Amazonia has slowed since 2004. This is good news and has happened because

Large area has been protected since 2006

Recession since 2008 has reduced the demand for resources

Government has cracked down on illegal logging and cattle ranching by seizing land and freezing

bank accounts

Brazilians themselves have become more ‘green’.

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Indirect Threats

Indirect threats are much harder to manage. The main indirect threat is global warming. Brazil only

emits about 1.5% of global carbon dioxide so it cannot tackle this problem on its own. Some effects are

Plants are flowering earlier

Bird migration patterns are changing

Arctic tundra is warming rapidly

Species cannot adapt quickly enough to climate change

Temp rise of 1 degrees = 10% of land species face extinction

Temp rise of 2 degrees = 15-40% of land species face extinction

Scientists believe that a rise of 3 degrees could happen by 2060.

Climate Stress

Amazon rainforest suffered two extreme droughts in 2005 and 2010. During the drought the Amazon

switched from absorbing carbon dioxide to emitting it. This can accelerate global warming even more,

making the problem worse.

Mrs E Barnard 2014

UNIT 4: WATER WORLD

THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

The hydrological cycle is a CLOSED SYSTEM – A finite amount of water going round and round. None is

added or lost.

STORES: rocks (can be stored for 100’s yrs), soil, lakes, oceans (97% water stored BUT too salty to use)

glaciers.

The soil, lakes and rocks hold relatively small amounts of fresh water – but are in high demand as

sources of water..

TRANSFERS/FLOWS: Surface runoff, throughflow, groundwater flow, infiltration, precipitation.

Intercepts precipitation

½ is evapotranspiration without ever reaching the

ground = GREEN WATER

Drips from leaves and infiltrates the soil

Mrs E Barnard 2014

Water Crisis Demand increases as population increases.

Increased demand from agriculture – irrigating their crops uses huge amounts of water.

Supplies are increasingly unpredictable

Possibility of water wars – Middle East – fighting over water.

Economic development – China, India – increased demand for water

Rising living standards = use more water e.g. showers, washing machines etc.

Only ½ freshwater runoff (BLUE WATER) is used.

Most is inaccessible.

WATER STRESS = when demand is greater than supply or when it is not of good enough quality to use.

Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan are the most water stressed countries in the world they use huge

quantities for irrigating cotton crops.

SW USA, Central Asia = PHYSICAL WATER SCARCITY – Demand > availability

Sub Saharan Africa = ECONOMIC WATER SCARCITY – supply available but people can’t afford to

exploit them. Lack of money to build storage facilities or distribute water.

NAMED EXAMPLE: SAHEL

Belt of semi-arid land south of the Sahara, Africa.

Rains usually 1 or 2 months a year. Total 250-450mm/yr.

Since 1970 rainfall has been below average. Some years 25% less than average.

Sometimes rainfall is so heavy when it does fall that most is lost as surface runoff leading to

flooding.

Other years there is no rain at all rivers dry up water table falls farmers crops fail

animals die desertification decreased food supplies famine.

Global warming means… Less rain for some areas

Increased rate of glacier melt

More extreme weather events floods and storms and droughts.

Richer countries e.g. Kuwait, Saudi Arabia (profit from oil) can buy their way out of trouble e.g.

desalination turning sea water into fresh water (very expensive).

Decline in water availability and quality

Population growth Agricultural demand urbanisation

Industrial development

Climate change = rain less reliable in some places

Tourism – hotels, golf

courses = huge amounts

of water

Energy – reservoir

storage for HEP = +lost

through evaporation

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Developing countries rely on rainfall for their crops + unstable food insecurity and famine.

Water quality… People can suffer economic water stress if water isn’t safe. Pollution can be: domestic, industrial,

agricultural, transport related.

Developing countries…

The highest levels of pollution are found in rapidly developing countries like India and China – they

put economic growth before environmental protection.

Rapidly growing cities means slums streams = badly polluted as no sewage systems in place.

Chemicals added to crops = runoff….

Developed countries…

E.g. UK, Japan – have taken big steps to control pollution.

Tertiary and quaternary industries cause less pollution than primary and secondary.

NAMED EXAMPLE: – Japan – ‘60’s = heavily polluted rivers and lakes. 70’s

government introduced standards to improve water quality. Now much better.

Impacts of pollution… Diseases e.g. cholera

Eutrophication – fertilisers make algae grow really fast – takes all O2 out of water – all living

things in river/lake die.

Cancer (Erin Brokovitch)

Interfering in the hydrological cycle… We use water for: farming, drinking, washing, industry, habitats for plants and animals, power

generation (HEP), waste disposal.

How people intervene in the water cycle:

1. CLOUD SEEDING: making it rain

2. DEFORESTATION: Decreased interception increased flooding

3. URBANISATION: Increased impermeable surfaces

4. OVERABSTRACTION: taking too much water from rivers and lakes

5. BUILDING DAMS AND RESERVOIRS

6. GLOBAL WARMING: melting glaciers

Sources of water pollution

Salt runoff from roads

sewage Runoff from building sites

Industrial discharge

Chemicals applied to golf courses Crop spraying Fertilisers washed in

Cattle waste (slurry)

Disposal of hazardous waste

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OVERABSTRACTION: Too much water is being taken from the river/lake/water source.

NAMED EXAMPLE: Thames Valley, S. Eng.

Dramatic decrease in river flow

Tributaries dried up

Ecosystem damaged

Droughts and increased demand from more homes increased use of groundwater supplies falling

water table so the store of water is not used sustainably.

most water companies now have strict policies CAMS for managing water levels.

RESERVOIR BUILDING: Adds a new store to the hydrological cycle. But….brings

PROBLEMS:

loss of land – drowns villages, farmland

disease – stagnant water mosquitoes

vegetation drowned releases methane = greenhouse gas

BENEFITS:

Water supply

Recreation – fishing, sailing, walking, wildlife

DEFORESTATION Fewer trees = less evapotranspiration. Less green water recycled = less rain.

Soil left exposed to the sun and rain

Less nutrients in the soil

Raindrops wash out the finer soil, leaving coarse, heavy surface.

Less interception greater flood risk

Solutions to the water crisis… If we use water faster than it can be replenished this is not sustainable

Large scale water management projects: Big dams

BENEFITS DISADVANTAGES

Increased water supply

Recreational use

HEP – Industry

Habitat for water birds

Fishing

loss of farmland/villages

less navigation

people have to be relocated

disease – stagnant water

loss of cultural sites

interferes with fish migration

Mrs E Barnard 2014

NAMED EXAMPLE: china: south to

north water diversion project

To transfer water from the south to the dry north.

Complete 2050

Loss of ancient sites, displaced people

NAMED EXAMPLE: three gorges dam

To provide HEP (Hydro Electric Power) and prevent flooding

Impacted biodiversity

1.4 million people had to be relocated

Small scale solutions…

NGO’s (Non Governmental Organisations) e.g. WaterAid develop small scale solutions.

APPROPRIATE/INTERMEDIATE SOLUTIONS: Schemes that meet the needs of local people and the

environment in which they live. Within their technical ability – they can operate and maintain the scheme

themselves. They can continue to run it when the NGO has left e.g RAINWATER HARVESTING – using

guttering to collect rainwater and divert it into a tank. TUBE WELLS – to pump up water. LOW COST

PIT/COMPOSTING TOILETS.

NAMED EXAMPLE: The Hoover Dam,

Colorado river, usa

Opened in 1936 and cost $49 million.

The reservoir created provides water for 8 million people including the city of Las Vegas which is

an arid region and relies on the water for farming, homes and recreation.

To provide HEP (Hydro Electric Power) and prevent flooding so none reaches the sea.

Nearly all of the Colorado River’s water is used so virtually none reaches the sea

.Impacted biodiversity with bird and fish species declining.

1.4 million people had to be relocated

Due to drought reducing inputs, the reservoir (Lake Mead) currently is only around 40% full and it

is predicted that it could fall below useable levels as early as 2020.

Small scale solutions… CHEAP TO BUILD AND CHEAP TO

MAINTAIN (SUSTAINABLE!)

NGO’s (Non Governmental Organisations) e.g. WaterAid develop small scale solutions.

APPROPRIATE/INTERMEDIATE SOLUTIONS: Schemes that meet the needs of local people and the

environment in which they live. Within their technical ability – they can operate and maintain the scheme

themselves. They can continue to run it when the NGO has left e.g RAINWATER HARVESTING – using

guttering to collect rainwater and divert it into a tank. TUBE WELLS – to pump up water. LOW COST

PIT/COMPOSTING TOILETS.

Mrs E Barnard 2014

NAMED EXAMPLE: SAND DAMS, Kenya

Aim to transform millions of lives.

A sand dam is a reinforced-concrete wall built across seasonal river beds, 2-4m high and up to

90m across.

To support farmers in developing countries to gain access to clean water and grow enough food to

eat and sell.

people no longer have to walk miles or spend time collecting water so children can attend school and

adults can work.

Provides water for people, livestock and plants

they can run facilities themselves

moving out of poverty

In the past women had to walk long distances to get water. Now they have safe water for drinking,

cooking, washing and personal hygiene.

Problems of small scale schemes…

Need help form outside organisations and charities (NGOs such as

water aid) to initially fund the project. In general, Intermediate technology is more sustainable than large scale schemes.

NAMED EXAMPLE: DHAKA, BANGLADESH

Old Zhimkhana – slum on disused railway station. No safe water or toilets.

WaterAid constructed 6 tube wells and 2 new sanitation blocks

people are no longer continually ill

they can run facilities themselves

moving out of poverty

In the past women had to walk long distances to get water. Now they have safe water for drinking,

cooking, washing and personal hygiene.

Problems of small scale schemes… A huge number of people suffer from HIV/AIDS too ill to operate.

In general, Intermediate technology is more sustainable than large scale schemes.

Mrs E Barnard 2014

TOPIC 6: RIVER PROCESSES AND PRESSURES How do landforms change downstream?

Can you name, describe and explain the formation of landforms in the

Upper course (v-shaped valleys, waterfalls and interlocking spurs)

Middle course (meanders)

Lower course (ox-bow lakes, flood plain, deltas)

How does the channel shape change downstream?

How do the channel shape and load (e.g. size and angularity) of a river change from lower

course to upper course?

Why does the load of a river change downstream? (Link to weathering, e.g., angular load

in the upper course due to weathering on upper slopes of valley)

Do you know what the long-profile of a river is?

How does weathering affect slope processes?

E.g., do you know how angular rock material can get into the river channel due to weathering on

upper slopes of a river valley?

What are the causes of flooding?

Do you know how?

Human (e.g., urbanisation, deforestation) and

Physical factors (soils/rock type, temperature, type and amount of rainfall)cause flooding

How will climate change increase the flood risk?

What could climate change mean? More intense rainfall, harder and drier ground

What are the effects of flooding?

You need to know:

Effects on people – death, crops& animals, insurance, disease, damage…

Effects on environment – landslides, soil erosion, loss of habitat, soil contaminated by

sewage

Case study/example – you need to know the causes and effects of flooding

Your case study is York

You need to know the causes (natural and human) of flooding

Effects of flooding (social – on people, economics – cost and environmental)

Response – what was done to try to reduce the impacts of flooding

Prediction and prevention of the effects of flooding

How can forecasting, building design and planning reduce the impact of flooding?

Forecasting - evacuation, mapping and computer simulation models

Mrs E Barnard 2014

Building design – ceramic tiles, raise height of electrical sockets, stainless steel/plastic

kitchens, replace wooden window frames with synthetic ones.

Planning – do not build on flood plains

Education – leaflets, adverts

Hydrographs

Can you describe the shape of a hydrograph?

Rising limb, ascending (falling limb), peak discharge, peak rainfall, lag time, base flow)

Do you know what will affect the shape of the hydrograph?

Flood management

Do you know the advantages and disadvantages of hard and soft engineering?

Hard engineering – Embankments, Channelisation, Dams, Flood relief channels

For example, the Colorado and 3 Gorges Dam, flood control in York

Soft engineering – Washlands, Afforestation, land-use zoning, flood warning

For example, planting 20 000 trees and shrubs and creating meanders on the River Skerne near

Darlington.

How do landforms change downstream?

Can you name, describe and explain the formation of landforms in the

Upper course (v-shaped valleys, waterfalls and interlocking spurs)

When a river in the upper course does

not have a lot of energy, they tend to

flow around the valley side slopes.

When you look at them head on they

look like they fit together.

Mrs E Barnard 2014

Middle course (meanders)

Lower course (ox-bow lakes, flood plain, deltas)

As the river flow downstream the

gradient decreases. The river has

less energy to erode downwards,

instead the river erodes laterally

(sideways).

The river has more energy on the

outside of the meander.

Hydraulic pressure and corrosion

undercut the river bank to form a

river cliff.

On the inside of the meander the

river has less energy to transport

its load. It therefore deposits

material forming a slip off

slope/river beach.

Mrs E Barnard 2014

Formation of levees

STAGE 1

Continual erosion

of the outer

banks of a

meander by

processes such as

hydraulic action

causes the neck

of the meander to

become narrower

and narrower.

STAGE 2

Eventually as the neck becomes

increasingly narrow, the two

outer bends meet and the river

cuts through the neck of the

meander. The water now takes

the shortest route rather than

flowing round the bend. The

fastest current is in the centre

and deposition is likely at the

sides. This deposition begins to

seal off the old meander from

the rivers new channel.

STAGE 3

Eventually deposition

completely seals off the old

meander and the old meander

bend is left isolated as an ox-

bow lake. Over time this

feature is likely to fill with

sediment and dry up (except

for periods of heavy rain). The

feature left behind when the

water dries up is known as a

meander scar.

Lateral erosion causes

the meanders to migrate

outwards = wide / flat

valley floor

Mrs E Barnard 2014

Flood plain

How does the channel shape change downstream?

How do the channel shape and load (e.g. size and angularity) of a river change from lower

course to upper course?

Why does the load of a river change downstream? (Link to weathering, e.g., angular load

in the upper course due to weathering on upper slopes of valley)

Do you know what the long-profile of a river is?

A flood plain is a wide flat area of land either side

of a river in its lower

course. It is caused by

both erosional and

depositional processes….

The largest sediment is

dropped at the side of

the banks. This is

repeated and it builds up

to form levees

When the river floods, it runs out of

energy and deposits the sediment

that it was carrying

You should be able to describe what

this shows. In the upper course the river

channel (upstream) is narrower, shallower

and has a smaller discharge. The load of

the river is larger and more angular as

materials falls into the river due to

weathering on the upper slopes of the

river valley

As the river moves downstream the

gradient decreases, as does the size of

the load as attrition reduces its size and

makes it smoother.

Average velocity also increases as the

river channel becomes wider and deeper.

There is less friction between the water

and the river banks and bed. The river

therefore flows faster (is more efficient)

Mrs E Barnard 2014

What are the causes of flooding?

Human factors

Deforestation – vegetation collects, stores and uses water from a drainage basin. The less

vegetation there is the more can reach the river channel

Urbanisation – In towns and cities rainwater will not infiltrate the hard, man-made impermeable

surfaces like concrete and tarmac so runs directly into the river channel.

How will climate change affect flood risk? – increasing global temperatures, partly due to

human activities such as burning fossil-fuels, can cause more melting of ice in glaciers and more

rainfall and frequent storms. Ground may be harder, so less infiltration.

Physical factors

soils/rock type – impermeable rocks such as clay and granite do not let water into the ground,

so rainwater runs across the surface into the channel.

type and amount of rainfall – intense rainfall will not allow rain to infiltrate into the soil, it

flows quickly across the surface and into the channel

A long period of steady rain will saturate the soil and, not allowing infiltration. Surface run-off

therefore occurs.

Snow melt – when temperatures rise above zero rapid snow melt causes flooding, especially if

underlying soil remains frozen, preventing infiltration.

Mrs E Barnard 2014

What are the effects of flooding?

You need to know the causes and effects of flooding in YORK

Causes of flooding Effects Response

Human Physical

Removal of Peat from

the moors has allowed

water to reach the

river more quickly

Growth of York and

surrounding villages

has covered land with

tarmac and concrete.

These impermeable

surfaces do not allow

infiltration and

increase surface run-

off.

Drainage basins

already

saturated by

heavy rainfall

The confluence

of the rivers

Ouse and Fosse

is in York

Over 300 homes

flooded

Business

suffered –

floods upto 1m

deep in

buildings- loss of

income not all

covered by

insurance

Damaged roads

need repairing

Natural Flood Plain upstream

(Clifton Ings) that stores 2.3

million cubic litres of water and

lowers flood water in centre by 15

cm.

Earth and concrete Embankments

supported by steel sheeting.

New ‘Aquabarriers’ can

temporarily holdback flood water

and can be moved

Banks around Ings raised and

sluice gates let water in and out.

Prediction and prevention of the effects of flooding

How can forecasting, building design and planning reduce the impact of flooding?

Forecasting - evacuation, mapping and computer simulation models

Effects on people

Death

Contamination of water

supply & loss of services

e.g., gas

Disease and

illness

Damage to

property

Crops and

animals lost Disruption to transport

Landslides

Loss of

belongings

Effects on environment

Soil contamination

by sewage

Vegetation

destroyed

Animals drowned

Insurance claims

Loss of wildlife and habitat

Soil erosion

Insurance claims

Mrs E Barnard 2014

If a river has a history of flooding it can monitored by the environment agency. If rivers rise to

dangerous levels they can warn people in areas of risk and if necessary evacuate people to a

safer place. Maps identify different levels of risk.

Computer simulation models are used to predict flooding.

Building design

ceramic tiles on ground floor – damage can be cleaned up easily

raise height of electrical sockets, to 1.5 metres above ground

stainless steel/plastic kitchens instead of wood/chip board

replace wooden window frames with synthetic ones

Boilers positioned upstairs

Planning

Do not build houses on flood plains

Landuse zoning – recreation areas (parks and playing fields) on floodplain

Education

Leaflets through post

Adverts on TV , newspapers and radio

Information on websites

Helpline telephone numbers

Training drills and exercises

Hydrographs

Can you describe the shape of a hydrograph?

Rising limb – water reaches the river by surface run-off

Peak discharge – maximum discharge (at a given tine) of a river

Falling limb – water still reaching the river by through-flow

Base flow- in times of drought rivers still flow. Water reaches river by groundwater flow

Do you know what will affect the shape

of the hydrograph?

Heavy rain, long period of rain saturated

soil) impermeable rock/soil, steep slopes,

urbanisation & snow melt will cause rapid

surface run-off and a steep rising limb –

FLASHY hydrograph – rapid rising limb,

steep falling limb, small lag time.

Permeable rocks, forested catchment,

gentle slopes, will reduce surface run off

and reduce flood risk. LOWER peak

discharge and longer lag time

Mrs E Barnard 2014

How can flood risk be reduced? – Hard Engineering

For example, the Colorado and 3 Gorges Dam, flood control in York

Hard engineering Description Advantages Disadvanatges

Dams control and

regulate flow of a

river.

E.g. 3 Gorges and

Hoover Dam

Generate HEP

Recreation –

sailing, fishing

Constant flow of

river, less flood

risk

Flood farmland and

forest

Get silted up

Less silt downsteam,

land becomes less

fertile

Expensive

Straightening a

meander allows water

to flow faster,

scours and deepens

the channel.

This was used in

river Mississippi

Takes flood risk

elsewhere

Expensive

In times of flood

rivers return to

original state

Reduced habitat value

Channelisation –

concrete the river

banks.

This happens in USA

(think if Terminator

and Grease!)

River flows faster

– scours and

depend river bed

so river holds

greater volume of

water

Ugly

No habitat value

Dredging still needed

expensive

Mrs E Barnard 2014

Soft engineering

For example, planting 20 000 trees and shrubs and creating meanders on the River Skerne near

Darlington.

Soft Engineering Description Advantages Disadvantages

Willow stakes stabilise

river bank

Uses

sustainable

materials

Encourages

habitat

diversity –

voles in river

banks

Looks

attractive

May not work in

heavy flooding

Cost – labour

intensive to

build

Riparian zoning – planting and natural landuse along river

reduces flood risk

High habitat

value

Is natural

Time taken for

vegetation to

grow

Not suitable if

valuable land

next to river

Mrs E Barnard 2014

UNIT 8: EXTREME ENVIRONMENTS

Living in the Australian Outback... Summertime temperatures +40 degrees

Rain rare

Soil thin and infertile

Isolated

After Antarctica, Australia is the world’s driest continent

NAMED EXAMPLE: Bourke, new south

wales, Australia

Barren

Sparsely populated

Desert/semi desert

Scattered cattle farms

A few dirt tracks

Why is most of Australia desert?

PACIFIC Great Dividing Range

The mountains that border the coast = a rain shadow effect.

The further west the winds blow the drier they become. Western Australia = the driest.

How do plants and animals survive?

PLANTS…

SUCCULENCE plants store water in fleshy leaves, stems and roots.

Water is captured and stored

They quickly absorb water through their long roots and store it for long periods.

Waxy stems and leaves make them waterproof.

Metabolism slows during times of drought. Growth stops.

Spikes/toxic/camouflage protect them against animals wanting to eat them.

DROUGHT TOLERANCE

During drought they shed their leaves

Become dormant (asleep)

Deep roots to get to underground water

DROUGHT AVOIDANCE

Mrs E Barnard 2014

Most of these survive one season, rapid life cycle and die after seeding.

Seeds last years and only germinate when soil moisture is high.

AMIMALS… THE BILBY – small mammal with a pouch.

Nocturnal shelters from the heat to avoid dehydration

Burrows for moister, cooler conditions

Obtains enough moisture from food bulbs, insects etc

THE PERENTE – Lizard

Digs burrows

Hibernates May-Aug to avoid cold

Low moisture needs

RED KANGAROO

Hops (fast, energy efficient travel)

Feeds at dawn and dusk – air is cooler

Sleeps during the heat of the day

Dew = water intake

Rain triggers hormones so breeding only occurs during rains

How do people cope? The problem is making a living. The soil is poor. There is little grazing. In the Outback the farms

are therefore very large.

Recent droughts = pressure on the landscape. The grass soon starts to die. With no roots to bind

the soil together it erodes.

Underground water stores are overused and the water tables are falling

Managing Water Supplies… Farmers have dams and reservoirs to store water for cattle and sheep to drink.

Boreholes used to tap underground water (aquifers beneath the ground are rocks that store

water).

Most people don’t farm, they work in the mines.

They need a lot of energy to run air conditioning needed to make life more bearable.

NAMED EXAMPLE: PRAIRIE HOTEL,

PARACHILNA

1 Metre below the ground – cooled by the surrounding rocks.

Solar panels for electricity lights and fans

Kitchen and bathroom water is recycled and used to water the gardens

THE ABORIGINES… Life expectancy of 52 instead of 78 for white Australians

Worst drug and alcohol abuse

Homelessness = a problem

Traditional lifestyle disappearing

FOOD:

FRUIT = Bush tomatoes, desrt limes, native peaches, bush bananas.

SEEDS: Wattle seeds, sandalwood nuts

Mrs E Barnard 2014

GRUBS: witchetty grubs

MEAT: Wild animals e.g. crocodile, kangaroo

BELIEFS AND LIFESTYLE – The land is sacred and to be protected.

Hunting and gathering

Create conditions for grubs

Dam rivers to catch fish

Use fire to drive animals out so they can be hunted

Craft based on hunting (boomerangs) or music (digeridoos)

Customs and stories never written down

THREATS TO ABORIGINAL CULTURE

Ayers rock is a sacred site for the Aborigines. It is also the most visited spot in Australia.

NAMED EXAMPLE: Uluru

World Heritage Site

Aboriginal paintings etc

The number of visitors increases rapidly. 60% are from overseas.

What problems do tourists bring?

Aboriginal culture exploited for entertainment

People come for the experience – climb the rock etc rather than to learn about the Aborigines.

Aborigines have no part in management of the tourist resort

Tour guides ignore ‘awkward’ aboriginal history e.g. children taken forcibly from their parents

until the ‘70s.

a new Aboriginal culture centre educates people about aboriginal peoples

charges an admission fee which then goes to the community

creates jobs

tourists do not climb Ayers rock (as it is sacred)

The threat of Climate Change…

Global temperatures are rising. If outback temperatures rise it would make it very difficult to live in.

more frequent droughts

more evaporation

more bushfires

It is estimated that rainfall will fall in Southern Australia, especially the southwest. The southern

desert boundary will move 100-200km.

Most of central Australia has less than 25 ‘rain days’ a year.

The threat of El Nino (the reversal of normal air currents across Australia which brings

drought to Australia every 5-7 years)

Every 5-7 years instead of winds bringing rain from the Pacific, El Nino reverses everything. The

winds blow WE and by the time the winds reach the east = dry = drought. Most severe droughts

are linked to El Nino.

The impacts of 2006/7 drought (short term):

Mrs E Barnard 2014

Severe water shortages Queensland

More dust storms and bush fires for New South Wales

Farmers New South Wales lose 80% income

Melbourne and Sydney = water restrictions

Crops failed in Western Australia

The impacts of climate change (long term): Farms abandoned and rural communities destroyed

Landscape change – native plants e.g. eucalyptus die

Rainfall decresed20-40% by 2070

In 2002 drought reduces exports $1 billion (Australian dollars)

14% bird species and 25% mammals could be extinct by 2100.

How LOCAL ACTIONS can help protect people against climate change

NAMED EXAMPLE: the sahel

One of the poorest regions of the world

50 years of rapid population growth, deforestation, overgrazing and drought barren land.

Soil is poor and water scarce

Trees usually protect the soil from wind. They are disappearing as they are cut for fuelwood.

Grassland is under pressure – grazing too many cattle. Farmers have to grow food for more people

so = +intensive squeeze all they can out of the soil.

Rainfall varies greatly year to year = major cause of poverty in the Sahel

If the rains don’t come, the grass dies and exposes the soil to be blown away by the wind.

When the rains do come, heavy rain erodes and washes away the soil.

NAMED EXAMPLE: siguin vousse,

Burkina faso, Africa, sahel

Badly affected by drought

Deforestation and over use of the land unable to grow enough food to feed themselves. No

trees to bind the soil together so when it rained the soil was washed away.

in 1979 Oxfam project prevent further soil erosion, preserve as much rainfall as possible.

farmers encouraged to build diguettes – a line of stones across the land. Slows rainwater and lets

it soak in. trap soil and decrease soil erosion.

The diguettes were a success. Almost everyone in the village had improved

crop yields.

Families now feed themselves

1 bag of groundnuts has become 2 bags

It’s an example of intermediate technology – little know how needed.

Materials found locally. Labour free. Cheap solution.

How GLOBAL ACTION can protect Africa’s dry lands from climate

change Africa is most vulnerable, even though only 4% CO2 is from there.

Many parts are becoming drier. Africa depends on rain for farming.

Food emergencies x3 in 20 years

Climate change could decrease African crop yields by 10%

In Africa 70% population are farmers

Mrs E Barnard 2014

Farming = 40% GDP

How should Africa deal with this? Global agreements to mitigate (decrease) climate change by decreasing emissions of CO2.

Charities e.g. Oxfam help Africa to adapt to climate change.

Adapting to drought…

Charities and Non Governmental Organisations (NGO’s) are working with communities in Africa.

NAMED EXAMPLE: Oxfam working in

zambia- the evangelical

fellowship of zambia (efz)

To help people adapt to drought

Trains them to use conservation farming traps moisture, improves soil quality, minimises soil

erosion and resists drought.

Crop yields increase x10

Multi-cropping plant several species instead of just one. – only requires moderate but constant

farm work. Suits HIV+ as otherwise too weak.

Conservation farming… Plough only where you plant instead of all of the land less soil erosion and moisture only

evaporates from the parts that have been dug.

Spread the planting over a year instead of all at once.

Several crops mixed together. All land used – none wasted between rows of crops. If one crop

fails there are others so no one starves.

Work spread over the year

Prices remain stable

The Kyoto Summit In 1997 to cut greenhouse gases by 5.2% by 2012

141 countries signed up. 181 by 2008.

GROUP 1 = signed and meeting targets e.g. UK, France

GROUP 2 = siged but not meeting – Canada, Denmark

GROUP 3 = Signed but not set targets – China, India and other LEDC’s. MEDC’s produce most emissions

and LEDC’s ought to be given time to develop targets.

GROUP 4 = didn’t sign e.g. USA (the world’s biggest polluter) and Australia (later signed when they had a

change of Prime Minister)

Mrs E Barnard 2014

Polar Climates.

What are the Physical characteristics of a polar climate?

How have fauna and flora adapted to life in the arctic?

http://www.bbc.co.uk/learningzone/clips/plant-adaptations-extreme-cold/5506.html

Can you name and

locate countries

with a polar climate?

Northern Canada

Alaska

Greenland

Siberia (Northern

Russia)

Temperature –

warmest and colder

temperature?

Temperature

range?

How long are

temperatures above

6oC (below this

plants cannot grow).

How do animals adapt to life in the Arctic?

The Caribou adapts by having ….

2 layers of fur which keep heat in

Large hooves do not sink into soggy ground

Snowy owls and snowshoe rabbits adapt by…

Having white feathers/fur to be camouflaged in

snow

Mrs E Barnard 2014

If temperatures increase other species will be much better suited – they will outcompete and

species will die out

How do people adapt to extreme climates?

How do plants adapt?

Willow grows horizontally to

avoid desiccation (drying out)

from strong polar winds

Poppy tracks sun to make

most of limited sunshine

Shallow roots

Algae can survive inside rocks

– survive the winds

Lichen grow only 2 days/year

HOUSING

High steep roofs – snow slides off and does

not break the roof

Triple glazed windows – keep warmth in

Raised on stilts – heat from house does not

melt surface soil – house would sink!

TRANSPORT

Sledges with blades/skis – avoid

sinking into powder snow

Roads built on thick gravel pads –

heat from vehicles will not melt

the permafrost

CLOTHING

Hunt local animals

double lining of fur to keep

warm

Coats made of caribou skin

Sealskin boots

Mrs E Barnard 2014

The uniqueness and Value of culture of peoples living in the chosen climate

Threats to people living in the Arctic circle. For example, ALASKA

Impacts in Alaska

Pollution Alaska has suffered badly from extraction of oil in the North

Slope area.

In 1989 Oil Tanker Exxon Valdez ran aground on Alaskan Coast.

5000 sea otters, 1000’s of seals and eagles killed.

In 2006 broken pipeline spilled 200 000 gallons of oil in the North

Slope Region. Oil takes a long time to naturally biodegrade.

Land degradation Million KM2 permafrost damaged

Melting in urban areas such as Fairbanks – houses sinking, ,pipelines

breaking

Global warming causing landslides

Cultural Dilution In the past +20 Native languages spoken in Alaska

Now English adapted as the main language

Native names replaced

1970’s American schooling insisted on speaking in English

Threats caused by climate change

Changes in Ice cover Arctic sea ice is melting.

This threatens decline of polar bears who hunt and mate on the

sea ice. They cannot fatten up and die during the winter

The melting of ice and snow on land which has a high albedo

Iceland’ rotten shark

People in Iceland used to catch shark in

order to eat. Sharks contain poisonous

toxins in the blood which allow it to live

in freezing water. To make the meat

safe, Icelanders buried to meat for

half a year at a time so that the

poisonous fluids drain away and the

meat is safe to eat. The decomposed

meat has a very strong smell of

ammonia

Inupiat whaling ceremony

The Alaskan Inupiat are still allowed to

hunt and kill the bowhead whale. When

the whaling season starts the Inupiat

go out to hunt whales. Any whales

caught are brought back to the village

where the rest of the Community cutup

the whale as an important ceremony

The Inupiat believe this binds the

community together

Mrs E Barnard 2014

(reflects >95% of suns energy), means more heat absorbed by

the land which accelerates rate of melting

Dogs no longer safe to go out on sea ice to hunt fish

Land glacier retreat World’s glaciers shrinking in size – less tourists

Permafrost melting

Permafrost melting triggers flooding and landslides

Pipelines cracking – cost of repairing and damage caused by

leaking oil

Houses sinking into melting ground – buildings now need tohave

4m deep foundations

Species Migration Treeline could move further north, greater species diversity

Sustainable management of Polar regions

Energy – Iceland uses geothermal energy to heat water which can be pressurised to form steam

to drive turbines to generate electricity.

The hot water can be used to heat buildings, and warm greenhouses to grow fresh fruit and

vegetables all year round

Hot springs and Geysers are tourist attractions

Global actions to protect Arctic and Antarctic regions

2008 USA placed polar bears on endangered species list

Series of global protocols to reduce emissions of Greenhouse Gases. These might be too late to

save many arctic regions.

The Antarctic is protected by 1961 Antarctic Treaty. This restricts commercial exploitation

of the regions, tourist boats are limited, and the potential impacts on the environment have to

be thoroughly assessed.

Mrs E Barnard 2014

Restless Earth

1. Using examples, describe some of the hazards of living on a destructive plate margin (4)

Foundation

2. Using an example, outline the impact of a major earthquake on people and property in the

developing world (4) Higher

3. Describe 2 ways in which buildings in developing countries can be made more resistant to

earthquakes (2)

4. Explain how preparation and mitigation could reduce tectonic hazards (4)

5. Explain why some areas are more vulnerable than others (4)

6. Explain the role magma plays in shaping shield volcanoes (2)

7. How do tectonic plates move? (2)

Climate and change

1. Describe two human activities which are increasing the amount of greenhouse gases in the

atmosphere (4) Foundation

2. Describe two challenges the UK might face in the future due to global warming (4) higher

3. Explain one possible good and bad effect of global warming (4)

4. What is the enhanced greenhouse effect? (3)

5. Describe one natural cause of climate change in the past (2)

6. What are megafauna? (2)

Battle for the biosphere

1. Describe some of the goods and services the biosphere provides humans with (4) Foundation

2. Describe two services the biosphere provides and explain why they are important (4) Higher

3. Describe 2 ways the forests are important to human life (4)

4. Explain how one biome is being threatened by human interference (4)

5. Explain the value of one biome you have studied (4)

6. Using examples, explain some ways of conserving threatened species (4)

7. Explain how one biome is being threatened by human interference (2)

Water world

1. Describe how deforestation could affect water-cycle processes (4) Foundation

2. Explain how human activity could change the amount of infiltration (3) Higher

3. Name the two largest water stores on earth (2)

4. Explain why Australia’s water is considered unreliable (4)

5. Describe two ways in which climate change could impact on water supplies (4)

6. Explain why the biosphere and lithosphere are important to the hydrological cycle (4)

7. Using a named example, describe how water schemes in LEDC’s improve quality of life. (4)

8. Describe the causes of river pollution and explain how people dealt with it (5)

River processes and pressures

1. Explain the processes that lead to the formation of a waterfall. You may want to use a diagram (6

marks).

2. Explain how mass movement and weathering affect the shape of river valleys (6 marks).

3. Explain the processes that lead to the formation of an ox-bow lake. You may use a diagram (6 marks).

4. Describe the difference between velocity and discharge (2 marks).

5. Explain how river channel shape and characteristics change along a river profile (6 marks).

6. Describe what is meant by ‘lag time’ on a hydrograph (1 mark).

7. Using examples explain how human activity can increase flood risk (6 marks).

8. Using an example, explain the factors that contributed to a flood event on a named river (8 marks).

9. Using named examples, examine the impacts of flooding on people and the environment (8 marks).

10. Describe what is meant by hard engineering techniques (2 marks).

11. Explain the costs and benefits of using hard engineering to reduce flood risk (6 marks).

12. What is meant by soft engineering solutions (2 marks).

Mrs E Barnard 2014

13. Using examples from named rivers, explain why soft engineering solutions are increasingly used to

manage flooding (8 marks).

Extreme Environments

1. Explain how polar flora and fauna have adapted to the extreme climate (4 marks).

2. Using named examples, explain how people have adapted to life in extreme polar environments (6

marks)

3. Describe the climate of a hot arid area you have studied (4 marks).

4. Using examples from hot and arid areas, explain how flora and fauna have adapted to the extreme

climate (6 marks).

5. Using examples from hot arid areas, explain how people have adapted to extreme environments (6

marks).

6. Using examples from polar and hot arid areas, explain why traditional cultures are unique and valuable

(8 marks).

7. Using examples, examine the threats facing culture and the environment in extreme environments (8

marks).

8. Using named examples, examine how climate change threatens people who live in extreme

environments (8 marks).

9.Using a named example, explain how intermediate technology can help people to adapt to the changing

climate (4 marks).

10. Using named examples, explain why local and global actions against climate change are needed in

extreme environments (8 marks).