DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 326 619 CE 056 322

TITLE Delta Pi Epsilon National Research ConferenceProceedings (Columbus, Ohio, November 15-17,1990).

INSTITUTION Delta Pi Epsilon Society, Little Rock, AR.PUB DATE Nov 90NOTE 176p.

PUB TYPE Collected Works - Conference Proceedings (021)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC08 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Accounting; *Business Communication; *Business

Education; *Business Skills; Computer AssistedInstruction; Desktop Publishing; *EducationalResearch; Elementary Secondary Education; EmployedWomen; Females; Graduate Study; Higher Education;Keyboarding (Data Entry); *Office OccupationsEducation; Research hethodology; ResearchUtilization; Student Attitudes; *Teaching Methods;Undergraduate Study;. Work Experience

ABSTRACTThese conference proceedings consist of 25

presentations: "Conducting Experimental Research" (Miller)"Ctlducting Research Overseas: Some Thoughts Based upon Experiencesin the United Kingdom" (Scott), "Applying Research to the Classroom"(Wayne); "DACUM: A Competency-Based Curriculum Tool" (Norton); "ADoctoral Research Model" (Bronner)- "The ERIC Database: Informationfor the Asking!" (Wagner); "Research: A Process for Everyone"(Miller); "An Analysis of Business Documents: Negative NewsApplications" (Bayless); "An Analysis of Communication Effectivenessin Public Acconnting" (Cable, Frydman); "An Analysis of the DictationPractices and Preferences of Today's Busihess Executives" (Andera);"Assessing the Preparation for Teaching Office Reading Skills"(Schmidt); "A Comparison of Errors Detected: Softcopy vs. Hardcopy"(Joyner et al.); "Development of a Rating Scale for DeterminingImportance of Ethical Issues in Business" (DuFrene et al.); "Effectsof Previous Keyboarding Experience on Student Performance in HighSchool Beginnifig Keyboarding/Typewriting" (Price, Cra71k); "How andWhy Organizations Are-Utilizing Desktop Publishing and theImplications for Business Education" (Perreault, Wasson);"Integrating Academic Content into Business Education: Results fromResearch in Illinois" (Haynes et al.); "International BusinessCommunication: Perceptions of Importance from Association forBusiness Communication (ABC) Experts and Nonexperts" (Scott, Green);"Integration of the Computer into the Elementary School Curriculum: ACollaborative Case Study" (Ubelacker); "A Kethodology Study Utilizingthe Top 40 MisusaC Similar Words Based on a Ranking of f-he Top 75Misused Similar Words Often Confused by Business CommunicationStudents" (Scriven et al.); " A Proposed Analysis of the InteractiveEffects between Selected Learner Characteristics and the Method ofInstruction--Lecture or Experiential Learning--on Student Cognitive,Communicative and Interpersonal Achievement in Elementary Accountingat the Undergradua%e and Graduate College Level" (Seda); "PuttingWriting Errors in Context" (Merrier, Duff); "The Quality of Students'Work Experience in Office and Marketing Occupations: school3upervised and Non-School Supervised" (Hopkins)1 '"Student Attitudestoward Male and Female Work Roles" (Prigge); "Study of the Career

Development and Aspirations of Women in Middle Level ManagementPositions in Business Firms" (Wentling); and "Using ComputerSpreadsheets for Instruction in Cost Control Curriculum at theUndergraduate Level" (Buergermeister). (YLB)

WA**************************************************************2******Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made

from the original document.***********************************************************************

HI

DELTA PI EPSILONNational Honorary Professional Graduate Society in Business Education

Proceedings

1990 National Research Conference

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONOff el Educational Researchand Improvement

vfE CATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIrWCENTER (ERIC)

This dOCumenl has been reProduCed asreceived from the person or organizationoriginating it.0 Minor changes have

been made tO improvereproduction Quality

Points of view°, opinionsstated in this doOtrmeat do not necessarily represent official

OERI Position or policy

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL HAS SEEN GRANTED BY

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."

Delta Pi EpsilonNational OfficeP.O. Box 4340Little Rock, Arkansas 72214Phone: 501-562-1233Fax: 501-562-1293

3

Conference Chairperson:

DELTA PI EPSILON

1990NATIONALRESEARCH

CONFERENCE

November 15-17, 1990Columbus, Ohio

Gail Mod lin Committee Members:Glencoe Division James BennettMacMillan/McGraw-Hill Kevin Mulcahy

Ginger RoseJon Shank

WELCOME TO COLUMBUS AND TO THE 1990 DELTA PI EPSILON NATIONAL RESEARCH CONFERENCE. YourPlanning Committee is very excited about the wide variety of research topics included in the program as well as the outstandingindividuals who are featured speakers. Our primary goal was to meet your individual research needs.

We wish each of you a most successful conference and hope that you take home with you new ideas to use on Monday. Wewish to express our appreciation to everyone who helped us put this conference together. We hope you will agree that it isexciting and that it continues the rich research tradition of Delta Pi Epsilon.

Gail Modlin

4

Greetings from DPE National President

Dear Friends:

The National Delta Pi Epsilon Research Conference has a long tradition in the history of our Society. It has been a key elementin assisting the Society to carry out its research mission. The outstanding program of this conference reflects the strength andcommitment of cur research efforts, the diversity and breadth of our ,aearch interests, and the professional expertise of ourmembership.

This year a new research training phase has been added to our prosramPROJECT COLUMBUS. I believe this will prove tobe extremely beneficial to those who participate.

Spcial appreciation is expressed to the Research Conference Committee, under the capable leadership of Gail Modlin, and thecooreuator of PROJECT COLUMBUS, Scot Ober, for planning =a carrying out the arrangements for this year's conference.

On behalf of the National Executive Board of Delta Pi Epsilon, I extend to you a warm welcome to the 1990 National ResearchConference. I am c3nfident you will have a professionally rewarding experience.

Charles J. Inacker

Delta Pi Erdlon Nadonal Executive Board

NatMnal President curies J. Inacker (BetaCalifornia State University, L.A.

Los Angeles, CA 90032

Nstional Vice President Betty J. Brown (Pi)Ball State University

Muncie, IN 47306-0335

National Secretary Marian C. Crawford (Upsilon)University of Arkansas at Little Rock

Little Rock, AR 72204.1099

National Treasurer David J. Hyslop (Beta Eta)Bowling Green State University

Bowling Green, OH 43403-0264

National Historian Iris W. Johnson (Gamma Gawena)Virginia Commonwealth University

Richmond, VA 2.1284-4000

National Past President Scot Ober (Pi)Ball State University

Muncie, IN 47306-0335

National Research Conference Committee

GaU Modlin, Cncir (Alpha Lambda) MacMillan/McGraw-HillWesterville, OH 43081

James C. Bennett (Alpha Omicron) California State University, NorthridgeNoChridge, CA 91330

Kevin F. Mulcahy (A4,hd ardcron) California State University, NorthridgeNorthridge, CA 91330

Ginger A. Rose (Ao) The Ohio State UniversityColumbus, OH 43210

Jon A. Shank (Gamma Upsilon) Robert Morris CollegeCoraopolis, PA 151080 0 2

National Executive DifeCtOr Robert B. Mitchell (Beta Omega)Delta Pi Epsilv: Fational Office

P.O. Box 4340Little Rock, AR 72714

II 5

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Research Conference Program vii

Project Columbus xix

contributing Chapters xxi

Part I: GENERAL RESEARCH TOPICS

Conducting Erperimental Research 3Larry E. MillerThe Ohio State University; Columbus, OH

Conducting Research Overseas: Some Thoughts Bared Upon Experiences in the United Kingdom 9James Calvert Scott

"Utah State University; Ogden, UT

Part II. RESEARCH TPAINING

Applying Research to the Classroom 19F. Stanford WayneSouthwest Missouri State University; Springfield, MO

DACUM: A Ccmpetency-Based Curriculum Tool 21Robert E. NortonCenter on Education and Training for Employment; The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH

A Doctoral Research Model 23Michael BremnerNew York University; New York, NY

The ERIC Database: Information for the Asking! 27Judith 0. WagnerERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Carecr, and Vocational Education; The Ohio State University; Columbus, OH

Research: A Process for Everyone 29Larry E. MillerThe Ohio State University; Columbus, OH

Part III: RESEARCH REPORTS

An Analysis of Business Documents: Negative News Applications 35Marsha L. BaylessStephen F. Austin State University; Nacogdoches, TX

An Analysis of Commtudcation Effectiveness in Public Accounting 39Roberta J. CablePace University; Pleasantville, NYNancy S. FrydmanSacred Heart University; Fairfield, CT

An Analysis of the Dictation Practices and Preferences of Today's Business Executives 43Frank Ander&Central Michigan University; Mt. Pleasant, MI

in

Assessing the Preparation for 7:aching Office Reading Skills 49B. June SchmidtVirginia Polytechnic Institute and State University; Blacksburg, VA

A Comparison of Errors Detected: Softcopy vs. Hardcopy 53Randy L. JoynerEast Cgrolina University; Greenville, NCB. June Schmidt'effrey R. Stewart, Jr.Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University; Blacksburg, VA

Development of a Rating Scale for Determining lmpirtance of Ethical Issues in Business 57Debbie D. DuFreneFlorence E. Elliott-HowardStephen F. Austin State University; Nacogdoches, TXLarry G. DanielUniversity of Southern Mississippi; Hattiesburg, MS

Effects of Prevfous Keyboarding Etperience on Student Performance in High School BeginningKeyboarding/Typewriting 63

Martha K. PriceWaubonsee Community College; Sugar Grove, ILFloyd L. CrankNorthern Illinois University; DeKalb, IL

How and Why Organizations Are Utilizini Desktop Publishing and the Implications for Business Education 71

Heidi R. PerreaukLynn E. WassonSouthwest Missouri State University; Springfield, MO

Integrating Academic Content in:o Business Education: Results from Research in IllinoisThomas S. HaynesIllinois State University; Normal, ILDale Lev:,University of Illinois; Urbana, ILJerry PeppleUniversity of Illinois; Champaign, ILConstanza ValdezUniversity of Illinois

77

Integrating Business Communication: Perceptions of Importance from Association forBusiness Communication (ABC) Everts and Nonexperts 91

James Calvert ScottUtah State University; Logan, UTDiana J. GreenWeber State College; Centerville, UT

Integration of t;ie Computer into the Elementary School Curriculum: A Collaborative Case Study 109Sandra UbelackerUniversity of Alberta; Edmonton, Alberta, Canada

A Methodology Study Utilizing the Top 40 Misused Similar Words Based on a Ranking of theTop 75 Misused Similar Words Often Coqused by Business Communication Students 113

Jolene D. ScrivenPaula C. WilliamsNorthern Illinois University; DeKalb, ILF. Stanford WayneSouthwest Missouri State University; Springfield, MO

7iv

A Proposed Analysis of the Interactive Effects between Selected Learner Characteristics and theMethod of InstructionLecture or Experiential Learningon Student Cognitive, Communicative andInterpersonal Achievement at the Undergraduate and Graduate College Level 117

Michael'A. SedaFairleigh Dickison University; Madison, NJ

Putting Writing Errors in Context 121Patricia A. MerrkrThomas B. DuffUniversity of Minnesota; Duluth, MN

The Quality of Students Work Experiences in Office and Marketing Occupations: School Supervisedand Non-school Supervised 125

Charles R. HopkinsUniversity of Minnesota, Twin Cities; St. Paul, MN

Student Attitudes Toward Male and Female Work Roles 139Llia PciggeUniversity of North Dakota; Grand Forks, ND

Study of the Career Development and Aspirations ojr Women in Middle Level Management Positions inBusiness Firms 147

Rose Miry WendingIllinois State University; Normal, IL

Using Computer Spreadsheets for Instruction in Cost Control Curriculum at the Undergraduate Level 153

James J. BuergermeisterUniversity ot Wisconsin, Stout; Stout, WI

Index to Conference Participants 161

8

CONFERENCE PROGRAM

THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 15

7:00 p.m. NATIONAL PUSIDENT'S RECEMON (Legislative Foyer)

8:00 p.m.- 9:30 p.m. GENERAL SESSION I (Governor's Ballroom ,31

Chairperson: Gail G. Mod lin, Glencoe Division ofMacmillan/McGraw-Hill, Columbus, Ohio

WELCOME AND INTRODUCTIONS

GREETINGS FROM DELTA PI EPSILONCharles J. Inacker, DPE National PresidentCalifornia State University, Los Angeles

ROLL CALL OF STATESMarian C. Crawford, DPE National SecrttzryUniversity of Arkansas at Little Rock

INTRODUCTIDN OF SPEAKERBetty J. Brown, DPE National Vice PresidentBall State University

Speaker: Judith Hoyt Pettigrew, President of Creative Consortium, Inc.

MARKET DETERMINATION: DATA, DEMOGRAPHICS,AND DEMONS

"Hark the herald angels cry, telling us to buy, buy, buy."For all the sophisticated analytical data and advanced technological

tools in the science of marketing research, marketing decisions aro manytimes based on "intuition," "gut reaction," and, yes, even the voices ofangels!

What role should marketing research play in market (=termination?Aro there "rights" and "wrongs" in marketing , ;march? Can it be donowithout retaining the servkes of marketing research firms? What is theCS factor?

OVERVIEW OF CONFERENCE

ANNOUNCEMENTS

vil

FRIDAY, NOVEMBER 16

8:30 a.m.-10:00 a.m. GENERAL SESSION II !Governor's Ballroom B)Chairperson: Ginger A. Rose, The Ohio State University

WELCOME AND INTRODUCTIONS

INTKODUCTION OF SPEAKERCharles J, Inacker, DPE National NesidentCaliforniL State University, Los Angeles

Speaker: Elizabeth A. Regan, Ph.D., Massachusetts MutualLife Insuraire Co.

PEOPLI3 AND TECHNOLOGY: A RESEARCH PERSPECTIVE

Despite the growth of information systems technologies in thoworkplace, exezutives am deluged with information, and workersstruggle to keep pace with increasing work loads. Apparently,organizations need to do more to assimilate technology into businessoperations. This means addressing the people issues and restructur-ing the way work is done. Dr. Regan will commem on researchrelated to interfacing human resources and technology and discussneeded research.

ANNOUNCWENTS

10:00 a.m.-10:30 a.m. REFRESILMENTS (LegislaBve Foyer)

10:30 a.m.-12:00 neon RESEARCH REPORTS (Senate A and B)Chairperson: Vivian Arnold, East Carolina University

AN ANALYSIS OF BUSINESS DOCUMENTS: NEGATIVE NEWSAPPLICATIONS

The study involved collecting and analyzing negative-news letters andACM03 used in business. A panel of th-eo business communication

instructors examined several elements in each of the documents. The typoof correspondence, the approach of the docur-ent toward negative news,the use of negative words, the inclusion of altenutives, and ale focus onthe reader were deters..ined for each document. The results indicated thatnegative-news documents in business include a variety of direct andindirect approaches.

Marsha Bayless, Stephen F. Austin State University

INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS COMMUNICATIONS: PERCEPTIONS OFIMPORTANCE FROM ASSOCIATION FOR BUSINESS COMMUNICATION(ABC) EXPERTS AND NONEXPERTS

A list of actions influencing international husiness communication wasdevelopei through the use of the Delphi process. Both a Delphi panel ofexperts and a geographically stratified random sampb of nonexperts whomaintained membership in the ABC and who resided in the U.S.A.evaluated the importance of the action statements using a five-pointLiken - type scale. WAG the experts perceived 50 of the action statementsto be important ones, the nonexperts perceived all 57 of the action

yiiiiii

statements to be important ones. Factor analyses revealed that the 0international ousiness communication action statemems can be groupedinto 14 fauna for the expetu and 12 factors for the nonexperts. One-way analysis of variance tests revealed that perceptions o f the imporunceof the action-statement factors are influenced by four demographicvariables.

James Calvert Scott, Utah State UniversityDiana J. Green, Weber State College

AN ANALYSIS OF THE DICTATION PRACTICES AND PREFERENCES OFTODAY'S BUSINESS EXECUTIVES

Tho su:dy examined the dictatbn practices and preferences of today'stxtalness executives. A majority of the respondents stated that dictationequipmets was available to them for the preparation of their written,..,3mmunication and that over three-fourths of them have used dictationequipment. The results indicated that the development of dictation skillswas critical for tomorrow's business executives, that a college-levelbusineu sommunization course should teach the technique of machinedictation, and that future businen communicetion students should masterthe skill of speaking their wordu onto paper, rather than always writingthem.

Frank Andera, Central Michigan University

10:30 a.m.-12:00 noon GENERAL RESEARCH TOPICS (Legislative A)Chairperson: Shirley Barton, Kent State University

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS: AN ALTERNATIVE APPROACH

The content of this session includes' (i) a brief consideration of socialtheory and methods of msearch; (2) alternative ways of gathering data- -quantitative versus qualitative methods; (3) methods of gathering quali-tative data; and (4) specific mamples of studies utilizing qualitatiw.methodology.

Eldon Snyder, Bowling Green State University

10:30 a.m.-12:00 noon RESEARCH ASSISTANCE wousc A and B)Chairperson: Jon Shank, Robert Morris College

ERIC: MAKING IT EASY FOR YOU!

ERIC, the Educational Resources Information Center, is the world'slargest educational database and an important source of information onbusiness education. This session is designed to pnovide an overview andan awareners of the ERIC system and its relevance to business educationresearchers.

Judy Wagner, Center on Education and Training for Employment

DACUM: A COMPETENCY-BASED CURRICULUM TOOL

DACUM is proving to be a vety effective aml vety efficient process forconducting job analysis as a basis for reality-based curriculum develop-mer4. DACUM produces not only& rigorously idr. I fled list of thetr..sit:that successful workers must perform but also pro. les for substantiveinput from industry experts in a way that builds strong and lastinglinkages. A further analysis of each identified task can pro eide all of thedetailed information needed to produce learning guides or other instruc-tion& materials.

Robert Norton, Center on Education and Training for Employment

ix -

FUNDING RESEARCH

How can you obtain fmancial assisetnce from Delta Pi Epsilon for yourresearch/ How do you qualify/ Where do you apply? This sessionaddresses these questions as well as other important issues related to theDelta Pi Epsilon Research Foundation.

Delta Pi Epsilon Research FoundationArmen L. Simcoe, Foundation PresidentRutgers University

12:00 p.m.- 1:30 p.m. LUNCHEON (Governor's Ballroom C, D, E)

Greetings from Office of Mayor, Columbus, Ohio

1:30 p.m.- 3:00 p.m. RESEARCH REPORTS (Howe A Alid B)Chairperson: Robert LA mdberg, Lelunan College of CUNY

EFFECTS OF PREVIOUS KEYBOARDING EXPERIENCE ON STUDENTPERFORMANCE IN HIGH SCHOOL BEGINNING KEYBOARDING/TYPEWRITING COURSES

This study investigated the following factors: amount and q N otkeyboarding experiences of high school beginning keyboardies47po-writing students before they enrolled in their present class; %.+Itee.ert... sofactors affected speed and errors as achievl in their present hit. schoolclass; and whether the factors affected the extent to which students kepteyes off fingers and used correct fingers in their present class.

Martha Price, Waubonsee Community CollegeFloyd Crank, De Kalb, Illinois

INTEGRATION OF THE COMPII2ER IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLCURRICULUM: A COLLABORATIVE CASE STUDY

In 1987 Apple Canada Education Foomdation funded a projezt entitled"Elementary School Integration of the Microcomputer into the Cunicu-lum" for grades 2/3. A collaborative research project between theelementary school and the ut.,, .ors:ty busir=s education professor wasdesigned. Phase I focused on d tveloping a kevnoarding curriculum;Phase II, computer-integrated I: nrage arts curnculum; and Phase HI,worldwide communications thaw... the "Apple Global Education Net-work." This presentation will outline the collaborative project, docu-mented by slides and examples of students' work.

Sandra Ubelacker, University of Alberta, Canada

HOW AND WHY ORGANIZATIONS ARE UTILIZING DESKTOP PUBLISHING

The purpose of the study was to provide current information on the statusof desktop publishing (DTP). The following information will be shared:types of organizations utilizing DTP technology, most popular DTPhardware and so ftwe re products, types ofdocuments being produced withDTP, factors which most influenced organizations to adopt DTP, desktoppublishing training methods, and entry-level skills perceived to be mostnponant for workers util:ting DTP.

Lynn Wasson and Heidi Perreault, Southwest Missouri State University

. 1 2

1:30 p.m.- 3:00 p.m. GENERAL RESEtRCH TOPICS (Senate A and 13)Chairperson: Ann Remp, Eastern Michigan University

CONDUCTING IMPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

Experimental resestch may not be the most common method e.nployed ineducational research, but it has ita place among our tools for accumulatingknowledge. This sessioq will address controlling moss, appropriatelydesigning the strdy, and external validity concerns-- issues which must hsaddressed in producing valid experimental results.

Larry E. Miller, The Ohio State University

1:30 p.m.- 2:45 p.m. RESFARCII TRAINING (Legislative A)Cnairperson: Wanda Stitt-Gehdes, University of Georgia

TAPERIMENTAL DESIGNS: RECOGNIZING AND REDUCING THREATS TOVALIDITY

The session will focus on the factors thataffect the validity of the resultsof an experimental study. Methodology to reduce these threats will bediscussed with particular focus on random selection, variable identifica-tion, and statistical tens and interpretation.

Daniel R. Wunsch, Northern Illinois Univers', 0,

3:00 p.m.- 3:30 p.m. REFRESHMENTS (Legislative Foyer)

3:30 p.m.- 5:00 p.m. RESEARCH REPORTS (House A and B)Chairperson: Kenneth Martin, University of Cincinnati

A PROPOSED ANALYSIS OF THE INTERACTIVE Et-ktCTS BETWEENSELECTED LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS AND THE METHOD OF INSTRUC-TIONLECTURE OR EXPERIENTIAL LEARNINGON STUDENT COGNI-TIVE, COMMUNICATIVE, AND INTERPERSONAL ACHIEVEMENT INELEMENTARY ACCOUNTING AT THE UNDERGRADUATE ANDGRADUATE COLLEGE LEVEL

This study will investigate a nontraditional instnutional strategy inaccounting education that may prove to be a positive response to wide-spread complaints that accounting graduates do not know how to commu-nicate, do not reason logically, are deficient in interpersonal skills, andcannot think creatively. Recently, Baker, Simon, and Bazelli (1987)stated that the optimal teaching mods fur accounting courses is theExperiential Learning Model (ELM), since the approach accommodatesthe various learning styles of studems while developing their communi-cation, interpersonal, reasoning, and creativity skills. This study willassess the progress of ELM students in the areas of communication andinterpersonal skills, as well as compare the cognitive achievement of theELM students with those suojected to the traditional lecture approach.

Michael A. Seda, Fairleigh Dickinson University

.11 ts)

xi

EFFECTS ON ACHIEVEMENT OF USING COMPUTER SPREADSHEETS FORINSTRUCTION IN COST-CONTROL CURRICULUM AT THE UNDER-GRADUATE LEVEL

This paper discusses how the ingructional use of spreadsheets can helpfocus student attention on the influen..4 of cost-contro1 variables andprovide increased practice opportunities for =dents learning cog-control concepts. Discussion addresses the question of whether anyinstructional improvements would justify increased use of computerspreadsheets for teaching content in undergraduate cost-control courses.Key words: spreadsheets, cost control, achievement, application soft-ware, instruction.

James Buergermeister, University of Wisconsin

AN ANALYSIS OF COMMUNICATION EFFECTIVENESS IN PUBLICACCOUNTING

CPAs at local, regional, and "Big Six" firms were surveyed to obtaintheir opinions of the capabilities needed for success in public accounting.These capabilities included strong communication and interpersonalskills. Staff accountants are the output of our undergraduates accountingeducation. Therefore, the CPAs also evaluated their staff accountants'verbal and written communication skills.

Roberta J. Cable, Pace UniversityNancy Frydman, Sacred Heart University

3:30 p.m.- 5:00 p.m. GENERAL RESEARCH TOPICS (Senate A and B)Chairperson: Torn Cunningham, MacMillan/McGraw-Hill

CONDUCTING RESEARCH OVERSEAS: SOME THOUGHTS BASED UPONEXPERIENCES IN THE UNITED KINGDOM

This session wit! address some c: the important factors that a researchermust consider wton planning for and engaging in various types ofresearch activities in a foreign country. Drawing upon his recentsabbatical leave experiences in the United Kingdom of Great Britain andNorthern Ireland, the presenter (1) will offer practical guidance that willassist researchers who are contemplating research-related activities in aforeign country and (2) will respond to related questions from theaudience.

James Calvert Scott, Utah State University

3:30 p.m. - 5:00 p.m. RESEARCH TRAENING (Legislative A)

Chairperson: Dr. Wanda Stitt-Oohdes, University of Georgia

LOW RESPONSE RATES: THE ACHILLES HEEL OF SURVEY RESEARCH

Low response rates are not nectuarily 'sad, but they do indicate thepossibility that data is not representative of the population. Discussionwill focus on determining appropriate sample sizes and response rates.Discussion will also cover appropriate statistical analyses and interpre-tations of survey data.

Daniel R. Wunsch, Northern Illinois University

1 4

xii

SATURDAY, NOVEMBER 17

8:30 a.m.-10:00 a.m. GENERAL SESSION 111 (Gore :or's Ballroom B)Chairperson: James Bennett, California State Univcrsity, Northridge

Speaker: Marty Saperstein, Saperstein Associates Inc.

BUSINESS RESEARCH: A CASE STUDY

As in-Imams Wc ate familiar with a variety of research techniques andtheir use in improving insuuction, but how do we provide students with anoverview of how research will impact their lives both as a consumer andas a worker in the world of business? This session will focus on theprocess of business research and will include such techniques as FOCUSgroups for concept testing, telephone surveys, analyses of internaldocumentation, FOCUS groups for testing advertising, the measuring ofperceptions and attitudes-- and, finally, an evaluation of the impact onthe

bottom line!

10:00 a.m.-10:30 a.m. REFRESHMENTS (Legislative Foyer)

10:30 a.m.-12:00 noon RESEARCH REPORTS (liot.le A and B)Chairperson: Mary V. Lundberg, Westland High School

A RANKING OF THE TOP 75 MISUSED SIMILAR WORDS THAT BUSINESSCOMMUNICATION STUDENTS CONFUSE MOST OFTEN AND A METHOD-OLOGY STUDY UTILIZING THE TOP 40 MISUSED SIMILAR WORDS

This research sought to establish a valid rank listing of misused similarwords (MSW) and to determi ne the most effective method for teaching the40 most misused words. The rank listing was determined using 16 testsof sentences containing MS MSW combinations. The three teachingmethods analyzed were in-depth instruction with accompanying handoutonly, providing handout only, and no inuruction.

Jolene Scriven and Paula Williams, Northern Illinois UniversityF. Stanford Wayne, Southwest Missouri State University

PUTTING WRITING ERRORS IN CONTEXT

This session will be the presentation of results of a study to determinereader reaction to 20 writing errors presented in three different contexts:a business letter, an electronic-mail message, and a business report.Subjects were members of the Association for Business Ccmmunication.Responses fmm members classified u business/government affiliateswill be c omparsd with responses from members classified as junic:/senl.: college affiliates. Implications for education will also bldiscussed.

1 homas B. Duff and Patricia A. Merrier, University of Minnesota, Duluth

A COlvirARISON OF ERRORS DETECTED IN SOFTCOPY VS. HARDCC-

t""

Rapidly advancing technolozy has altered the structure of the office withthe majority of office employees using miere romputers and related soft-ware to produce business documents, with CVO(' correction occurring atthe softcopy stage- -on th; monitor. This study was designed to identifyif the ability tc. accurately detect errors ir. :reyboardul text is affected bythe medium used to detect errors.

Randy L. Joyner, East Carolina UniversityB. June Schmidt and Jeffrey R. Stewart, Jr., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and

State University

10:30 a.m. - 12:00 neon RESEARCH REPORTS (senate A and 13)

Cbairmrson: James Calvert Scott, Utah State University

DEVELOPMENT OF A RATING SCALE FGR DETERMINING THE IMPOR-TANCE OF ETrUCAL ISSUES IN BUSINESS

The purpose of this study was to determine the important ethical issuesfacing business as viewed by business academicians and business practi-tioners i n two Southern university communities. Respond ants were aske4to rate the importance of each of 52 potentist moral/ethical issusspreser.ted in the survey. Comparisons of academician responses withbusinus practitioner responses were made. The rankings of issues willlead to the development of a Kohlberg-type instrument for assessieubusiness ethical orientation.

Debbie DuFrene and Florence E. Elliott-Howail, Stephen F. Austin UniversityLarry G. Daniel, University of southern Mississippi

STUDENT ATTITUDES TOWARD MALE AND FEMALE WORK ROLES

Do secondary students hold traditional ettitudes toward male andfemale work roles; and, if so, can educational equity matetials providelearning experiences to change students' traditional attitudes to contem-porary attitudea?

To answer these questions, an attitude-assessment instrument wasadministered to 346 students. Three class petiods were then devoted toteaching educational equity materials, and a post-attitude assessment wasadministered.

The pre-assessment indicated that 42 percent of the students heldtraditional attitudes. The pre- to post-assessments indicated that thee lucational equity materials helped students develop more contemporaryattitudes.

Lila Prigge, University of North Dakota

A STUDY OF THE CAREER DEVELOPMENT AND ASPIRATIONS OF WOMENIN MIDDLE-LEVEL MANAGEMENT POSITIONS IN BUSINESS FIRMS

This study was conducted to determine tha career development andaspirations of women in middle-level management positions in businessrums. The major method of this research study was the individual casestudy. Case studies relied on face-to-face interviews with a sample of 30women in middle-level management positions in 15 Fortune 500 compa-nies. The information obtained from this study can be used by businesseducators at the high school and college levels who work with the careerplanning and development processes for women.

Rose Mary Wentling, Illinois State University

1 6xiv

10:30 a.m. -12:00 noon GENERAL RESEARCH TOPICS (Legislative A)Chairperson: Inge Klopping, Bowling Green State University

IS IT REALLY A JUNGLE OUT THERE? SOME SUGGESTIONS FOREMPIRICAL RESEARCH IN BUSINESS ETHICS

Most business ethicists am philosophers. Their methodology is that ofconceptual analysis and the application of traditional moral theory tobusiness. Yet, business ethics grows out of human actio n and interaction.How poople actually do behave in ethically ambiguous situations is atleast as important as how they should behave. This calls for empiricalresearch. Indeed, philosophers have a good idea of what questions theywould like empirical researchers to study. I shall try to formulate someof those suggestions.

Jim Child, Bowling Green State University

12:00 noon - 1:30 p.m. Lunch (unscheduled'

1:30 p.m. - 3:00 p.m. RESEARCH REPORTS (senate A and B)Chairperson: Randy Joyner, East Carolina University

INTEGRATING ACADEMIC CONTENT INTO BUSINESS EDUCATION:RESULTS FROM RESEARCH IN ILLINOIS

Faculty at Illinois State University and University of Illinois collabo-rated to pilot test and evaluate Applied Academics curricula in Illinois.The researchers collected data on the impact of Applied Communicationand Applied Mathematics curricula on students and programs. Inaddition, they assessed, through case studies, procedures and guidelinesthat educators can follow to cause academic and vocational educationteachers to work cooperatively.

Data revealed several positive aspects of the Applied Academicscurricula that wculd support the use of these materials in businesseducation classes. Data also indicated drawbacks, concerns, and keypmcesses to consider when using these materials, as well as how tofacilitate collaboration between academic and vocational teachers.

Thomas Haynes, Illinois State UniversityDale Law, Jerry Pepple, and Constanza Valdez, University of Illinois

ASSESSING THE PREPARATION FOR TEACHING OFFICE READINGSKILLS

This research examined the extent that prospective business teachersdevelop the office reading skills of proofreading, verifying, and compre-hending detail. On a 60-item test they had a mean score of 51.4, or 86percent of the items correct. Their performance was considerably betterthan high school business students on the same items, but not at a leveldesirable for setting an example in a teaching situation. They wereespecially weak in proofreading, scoring only 80 percent, or 16 out of 20items, correct.

B. June Schmidt, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

XV

THE QUALITY OF STUDENTS' WORK EXPERIENCES IN OFFICE ANDMARKETING OCCUPATIONS: SCHOOL SUPERVISED AND NON-SCHOOLSUPERVISED

This study was designed to compare the quality of work experiences ofstudents who participate in secondary-school marketing and office edu-cation cooperative education programs with studenti who work in similartypes of jobs but who are not enrolled in such programs. For purposes ofthe study, indicators of a quality work experience were identified as useof basic academic skills on the job (reading, writing, mathematics), workcomplexity, work autonomy, work variety, opportunity to think andproblem solve on the job, work-related learning, amount of training, andamount ofcontact with adult role models. Findings and related issues willbe diwoomd

Charles R. Hopkins, University of Minnesota

1:30 p.m.- 3:00 p.m. RESEARCH TRAINING (Legislative A)Chairperson: David Hyslop, Bowling Green State University

RESEARCH: A PROCESS FOR EVERYONE

The conduct of research to conuibute to knowledge in a profession is theresponsibility of each member of the group. The conduct of research isnot as difficult as some perceive it, particularly if ono examines thopurposes of the investigation and controls the potential errors. Thissession will address how research can be made to be "fun" and enthusi-astic as it is passed on to the next generation or scholars.

Larry E. Miller, The Ohio State University

1:30 p.m.- 3:00 p.m. GENERAL RESEARCH TRAINING (House A and inChairperson: Wanda Blockhus, San Jose State University

A DOCTORAL RESEARCH MODEL: SOME GUIDELINES

While guidelinez for doctoral research vary widely wMin and betweeninstitutions, helpful models do exist to assist in this demanding researchprocess. One such doctoral model is presented- -along with a discussionof its major components-- in order to help guide CIe beginning researcherthrough the doctoral maze. These components are segmented by disser-tation chapters and range from the theoretical rationale and methodthrough the sumnrry, conclusions, and recommendations. Time fordiscussion will be provided.

Michael Bronner, New York University

3:00 p.m.- 3:30 p.m. REFRESHMENTS (Legislative Foyer)

3:30 p.m. - 4:30 p.m. GENERAL SESSION IV (Governor's Ballroom B)Chairperson: Kevin Mulcahy, California State University, Northridge

PRESENTATION FROM PROJECT COLUMBUS

Scot Ober, Ball State UniversitySharon Lund-O'Neil, University of Houston

xvi

1 8

PANEL WRAP-UP

APPLY RESEARCH TO THE CLASSROOM

You have read the research. You understand the implications. Hovshook; they aff .3 your instructional stries? This panel of expen- Allshare their W.43 with youideas you can use in your classroom onMonday!

Betty J. Brown, ModeratorBall State University

David P. DauwalderCalifornia State University, Los Angeles

B. June SchmidtVirginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

F. Stanford WayneSouthwest Missouri State University

PRESENTATION OF BEST PAPER AWARD

Gail Modlin, Chairperson, National Research Conference Committee

RESEARCH CONFERENCE BANQUET

6:00 p.m.- 7:00 p.m. SOCIAL HOUR (Governor's Foyer)

7:00 p.m.- 9:00 p.m. BANQUET (Governor's Ballroom)Host Chapters: Delta Chapter, University of Cincinnati

Cincinnati, Ohio

Rho Chapter, The Ohio State UniversityColumbus, Ohio

Beta Eta Chapter, Bowling Green State Uri:versityBowling Green, Ohio

Music: Danny and April Bunnelle

Speaker: Phil Sorentino, Human Consultants, Inc.

HUMOR- -YOUR KEY TO ENJOYING YOUR WORK, YOUR FAMILY,AND YOURSELF

Concluding Remarks: Charles J. Inacker, DPE National PresidentCalifornia State University, Los Angeles

xvii

PROJECT COLUMBUS

Exploring the World of Research

Scot Ober, Coordinator, Ball State UniversitySharon Lund O'Neil, Assistant Coordinator, University of Houston

Judith J. Lambrecia, Team A Leader, Universiiy ofifinnesotaB. Jura Schmidt, Team B Leader, Virginia Tech

David P. Dauwalder, Team C Leader, California State University, L.A.

THURSDAY - NOVEMBER 15, 1990

3:00 p.m. - 5:00 p.m. Project Columbus Session 1Welcome and introductionsConference overview and organizationDeveloping a proposal

FRIDAY - NOVEMBER 16, 1990

8:00 a.m. - 10:00 a.m. Project Columbus Session 2Developing and administering a questionnaireConducting interviewsCollecting secondary dataOn-line searching

10:00 a.m. - 10:30 a.m. Refreshment Break

Scot OberSharon O'NeilScot Ober

Judy LambrechtJune SchmidtDave DauwaiderSharon O'Neil

10:30 a.m. - 12:00 noon Project Columbus Session 3Team meetings; Planning the data collection; making work assignments

1:30 p.m. - 3:00 p.m.

Team APlanning the questionnaireTeam BPlanning the interviewsTeam CPlanning the literature review

Project Columbus Session 4Team meetings

Team AAdmmister the questionnaireand key the data into the computer

Team B Conduct the interviewsTeam CCollect and review the secondary data

Judy LambrechtJune SchmidtDave Dauwaider

Judy LambrechtJune SchmidtDave Dauwalder

3:00 p.m. - 3:30 p.m. Refreshment Break

3:30 p.m. - 5:00 p.m. Preject Columbus Session 4 (continued)

5:00 p.m. - 5:30 p.m. Project Columbus Session 5Data-collection reports from the three team leaders Judy Lambrecht

June SchmidtDave Dauwaider

7:00 p.m. - 8:30 p.m. Project Columbus Session 6Analyzing data Scot OberUsing statistical-analysis software Judy Lambrecht

xix0 ',)14..,

8:30 p.m. - 8:45 p.m. Refreshment Break

8:45 p.m. - 10:00 p.m. Project Columbus Session 7Team meetings:

Each group analyzing and writing up itspart of the procedures and the fmdings foreach subquestion or for the literature review

SATURDAY - NOVEMBER 17, 1990

8:00 a.m. - 8:30 a.m. Project Columbus Session 8Data-analysis reports from three team leaders

Judy LambrechtJune SchmidtDave Dauwalder

judy LambrechtJune SchmidtDave Dauwalder

3:30 p.m. - 4:30 p.m. DPE Research Conference General Session InProject ColumbusOverview 'Scot OberProject ColumbusResearch report Sharon O'NeilWrap-up Scot Ober

2 _t

it

Co-Hosts for Refreshment Breaks

1990 DPE National Research Conference

Alpha (New York University)Gamma (University of Pittsburgh)Delta (University of Cincinnati)

Eta (University of Denver)Nu (University of Kentucky)Omicron (University of Iowa)

Pi (Ball StaZe University)Rho (Ohio State University)

Upsilon (University of Mississippi)Phi (University of Minnesota)

Omega (George Peabody Co/lege for Teachers)

Alpha Gamma (University of Houston)Alpha Delta (Emporia State University)

Alpha Epsilon (University of North Texas)Alpha Zeta (Temple University)

Alpha Eta (University of WisconsinMadison)Alpha Iota (University of Colorado)

Alpha Kappa (San Francisco State University)Alpha Lambda (Michigan State University)

Alpha Nu (University of North Dakota)Alpha Xi (Hunter College of CUNY)

Alpha Omicron (University of California, L.A.)Alpha Tau (Univercity of Northern Iovja)Alpha Upsilon (University of Nebraska)Alpha Phi (Northern Illinois U'Aversity)

Alpha Chi (Rider College)Alpha Psi (Mankato State University)

continued

xxi

171 7s,,

Co-Hosts Continued

Beta Delta (University of Georgia)Beta Epsilon (San Jose State University)

Beta Zeta (Indiana State University)Beta Eta (Bow liag Green State University)

11.4a Theta (University of Wisconsin--Whitewater)Beta Lambda (Shippeasburg University of Penal' Atha)

Beta Mu (Central Connecticut State Univen y)Beta Nu (Utah State University)

Beta Omicron (Southern Illinois University-Carbondale)Beta Pi (California State University)

Beta Sigma (University of WisconsinEau Claire)Beta Phi (Montclair State College)

Gamma Alpha (Eastern Michigan University)Gamma Beta (Trenton State Co Ilsse)

Gamma Gamma (Virginia Commonwealth University)Ceimma Zeta (University of Southern Mississippi)Gamma Eta (Middle Tennmsee State University)

Gamma Theta (Arkansas State University)Gamma Iota ,,iJniversity of the District of Columbia)Gamma Xi (Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania)

Gamma Omicron (Oregon State University)Gamma Pi (University of Arkansas)

Gamma Tau (University of Central Arkansas)Gamma Upsilon (Robert Morris College)

Gamma Phi (Central Wachington University)

xli 1

PART IGENERAL RESEARCH TOPICS

-

Conducting Experimental Research

Larry E. MillerThe Ohio State University

Abstract

Experimental research may not be the most common method employed in educationt research, but it has its p...zeamong our tools for accumulating konwledge. Controlling errors, appropriately designing the study, and externalvalidity concerns are all issues which must be addressed in producing valid experimental results.

Introduction

This presentation will examine research whose purpose is tocontrol, which tests hypotheses of causal relationshipsbetween variables. We will not enter the ongLing philo-sophical debate about what constitutes cause, causality,whether or not cause ever exists, or the various existingpositions on positivism. Therefore, suffice it to say, fordefinitional purposes, 1:4 our purpose is to 'test hypothe-ses of causal relationships between variables.'

Variables

let us begin with a quick review ort term variable. Avariable is:

* a characteristic y which persons or objects can bedescribed

* a characteristic that does vary and can be put on acontinuum or spectrum

* a characteristic that can change from time to timefor given persons or object's, or change (vary) fromperson to persoh or object to object

* a characteristic with more than one level

(Contrasted with a 'Constant which does not vary.)

Many words arc used to modify the word variable. Acommon defmition of some of these may be helpful andprovide continuity to today's presentation.

hidependent Variable

The thing one thinles will produce a difference and the thingthe experimenter changes somehow. Similar terms are:

Presumed causeAD tecedcntVariable predicted from'Denoted as X"

3-

TreatmentsFactors

The independent variable can be subdivided into varioustypes. The types are attribute, potentially manipulable butnot manipulated, and active. The latter is the primary focusof experimental research as ar least one acti variable mustexist if a study is to be classified as experimental. The studycan have any number of the other wo ryix, but it trust haveat least one active varktble. Some experimental studks,obviously, may have more than one active variable, too.

Further, one needs to be able to distinguish between theindependent variable and the levels of the independentvariable. Remember that the independent variable musthay.: more than one ievel to even be called a variable. Thelanguage used with the levels of the independent variablessometimes becomes confusing. Some writers will talkabout the treatment, which usually constitutes a new level ofthe independent variable which they are going to comparewith another level. For example, they may be comparingComputer Assisted Instruction (CAI) with the conventionalway of teaching math. The independent variable is 'methodof teaching. The levels of the independent variable arc(1) rAl method and (2) conventional method. One shouldnote that some researchers will refer to the independentvariable as the treatmtnt, and others will call the 'new'method, CAI, the treatment or the experimental group andthe other level a control group. To further complicatematters, the second group will sometimes he called acomparison group instead of a control group.

When one then reads, or designs, rcsearch with placebogroups, and bliad and wuble blind studies; the whole thingcan get semantically confusing. So, I would prefer to defmethese terms and use them consistently in one manner for thesake of clarity, particularly in using them for teaching aboutresearch. Further, I believe it is helpful to our dissemina-tion efforts if we are rather consistent across our profession.

I use treatwant and experimental group to interchangeablydescribe a group who receives a 'new level' of the inde-pendent variable. The tern "control group' is reserved for

0

a group who receives 'no amount of (absence of) theindependent variable. A 'comparison group" is used todescribe a group who receives the "old/usual/conventional*level, or another level of the independent variable. A"placebo" group is one who receives a 'fake' level of theindependent variable.

Dependent Variable

The dependent variable is the thing that is supposed tochange and the thing that should be affected. Similar termsare:

Presumed effectConsequenceVariable predicted to'Denoted as Y"CriterionObservation

One should note that the term 'levels" is not applied whenreferring to dependent vat iables, but is relerved exclusivelyfor reference of the independent variable.

Extraneous Variables

Any alternative explanation (variable) for the effect of Xupon Y. A study is dehigned to control all extraneousvariables in order that the researcher can say that the resultsobtained are because of the administration of the independ-ent variable and not because of some "other' variable.Similar terms are:

InterveningConfoundingContaminating

Whenever a ciitic of your research notes that you have anyof these, they are 'socking you right in the nose." Inessence, they are saying that your work is probably invalidsince an extraneous variable could account for the resultsthat you got and not the independent variable which youcontrolled. A researcher must work to design a study so thatas many "alternative explanations,' extraneous variables,are controlled as possible if they want to produce valid re-search. To fail to do so produces sloppy, poor research.

In the experimental case, Campbell and Stanley (1963) didus all a great service when they classified the potentialextraneous variables and labeled then "treats to internalvalidity." Remember the question they posed relative tointernal validity? The question was: "Was it really thetreatment which produced the difference in this particularexperimental instance?" Obviously, if 'history " or one ofthe other threats to validity can explain why the results wereproduced, then the effect of the treatment is unknown andthe study is not valid.

4

Design for Control

Control, in scientific research, means several things....scientist tries systematically to rule out variables that are

possible 'causes' of the effects he (sic) is studying other thanthe variables that he (sic) has hypothesized to be the 'calms' '(Kerlinger, 1964, p. 9).

The two purposes of research design are to (1) provideanswers to the research questions, and (2) control variance.Kerlinger (1964, pp. 307-313) describes the "MaxminconPrinciple' as a way to conceptualize the integration ofcontrol and design.

MAXimize the systematic variance (levels of the independ-ent variables) under study. Make the levels as different aspractical if you wish to produce variability in the dependentvariable. For example, to study the effect of room tempera-ture upon learning with one level of the independent vari-able (temperature) being 68 degrees Fahrenheit and theother level 69 del. ::es would probably not produce differ-ence in student learning. However, what if the experi-menter made the levels to be 34 and 68 degrees?

MINimize error variance (errors in the measurement of thedependent variable). Surely, each of us now knows theimportance of using measurement instruments of appropri-ate validity and reliability_ One could have the mosteffective treatment ever conceived, but if the instrumenta-tion is not sensitive enough to feather-out the effect (or wasinvalid or unreliable), then the study may not be able toshow the effect of the independent variable.

CONtrol extraneous variables; unwanted variables thatmight affect the outcome (as previously described). Thereare four ways to control such variables:

(1) eliminate the variable as a variable hold it constant,i.e., study only one level (homogeneous grouping) ofthat variable; e.g., if gender were a potential threat tothe method of teaching mathematics, then study onlywomen (or men). This would ultimately have an affectupon the external validity, generalizability, of thestudy, but at least the researcher would have someconfidence that the results are true for the group thatwas studied. To have valid results for a limited groupis better than having invalid results for a large group.

(2) randomization best way, most powerful tool to assureinitial equality of the groups. Groups are theoreticallyequivalent on all dimensions (characteristics) if ran-domization is used.

(3) build the variable into the design as an independentvariable so you can extract from the total variance(in Y) the variance due to the potentially extraneousvariable. Once it is built into the study then the variable

2 6

is no longer extraneous, but controlled and/or meas-ured. Its effect can then be analyzed statisticallythrough interaction, analysis of covariance or some ofthe other techniques.

(4) as noted with/3, the use of statistics can be interpretedas another means of controlling extraneous variables.Such control would assume that the researcher canquantify the effects in order to analyze forany contami-nating effects.

Control also implies ruling out threats to valid inference:

(1) control over the research environment no environ-ment offers total control

(2) control implies the ability to determine which unitsreceive a particular treatment (level of the independentvariable) at a particular time

(3) control ofa particular threat to valid inference (such asthreats to external validity, either population or eco-logical validity)

Threats to Validity

The results of a study can be invalid if the researcher doesnot exercise pmper control to assure that the treatmentcaused the effect, and not something else, and to assure theresults are valid for the group to whom he/she wishes togeneralize. Campbell and Staniey (1963) saved researchersa lot of grief when they made sense out of the threats andclassified them as threats to internal and external vality.

Internal Validity

The question addressed by internal validity is 'Did theexperimental treatmeats make a difference in this study?'(or result from some intervening variable?) The essentialelement is that the researcher must be able to say that thetreatments did cause the effect and not something else. Thethreats are briefly presented here; but, if one is unfamiliarwith them, a thorough review of Campbell and Stanleyshould be made.

I. HISTORY "Things occurring between first and sec-ond measurement beside the treatment variable. Thiswas the initial definition of Campbell and Stanley, butwhn if you have a design without a first measurement?Weil, obviously, it would still be a threat in a designsuch as: X 0.

How does one control the threat? Experimental isola-tion is one alternative. Design selection is the bestcontrol. Select an experimental design. One shouldalso carefully monitor the study to see if "history " isoccurring and keep a log book or diary. (Also be aware

5

of "Unique Intrasession History" as a potential threat;e.g., fire alarm going off in the middle of the posttest.)

2. MATURATION Processes operating within the sub-jects as a function of the passage of time: growingolder, stronger, more tired, etc. Control would bethrough randomization with a control group, then anymaturatica should manifest itself equally in both groupsat the same rate. Secondly, use relatively maturepeople to start with; and thirdly, minimize the length ofthe experiment.

3. TESTINGThe effect that taking one test has upon theperformance of subjects upon a second test. Some callthis 'pretest sensitization" or just -sensitizatica." Peoplelearn what is to be on the test or in the instruction and,thus, do better on the next test. People .zould do better,perhaps, even without the treatment.

Control would be randomization with a control group;or, better yet, just do not give a pretest at all!

4. INSTRUMENTATION Scorers, observers or thecalibration of instruments could change during a studyand produce a change in the data which is not dde to thetreatment. Imagine a pretest that is a real "bear" (pro-ducing low scores) and a posttest which is a "pud"easy(producing high scores); therefore, very highgain scores would be produced which would confoundthe measurement of the effects of the treatment, orperhaps make the measurement invalid.

Use a fixed, printed rest of high vrlidity and reliability.If observers are usc, keep them ignorant of whichgroup is which (blind) and randomly select tapes,students, etc. Show inter-rater and intra-rater

ty. .

5 STATISTICAL REGRESSION Groups which areselected on the basis of an extreme score tend to regresstoward the mean of the group on the next measurement.Such a subtle threat has shown remarkable gains for"disadvantaged, special needs, etc." struizarts; and hasmade it extremely difficult for a program for the'gifted" to show any gains or improvement.

Control can be exercised by randomiy assigning fromthe same pool so that the control group (comparisongroup) should regress at the same rate as the experi-mental group. One should also identify the "outridersor "artifacts" and take appropriate statistical steps toanalyze data.

6 SELECTION BIAS Comparison groups are notchosen in the same manner; or, said another way, theexperimental and control (comparisca) grcaps are choxndifferently. One might use volunteers for a new way of

rm

teaching swimming in Physical Education and com-pare them to students in a required physical educationclass in swimming

Control is developed by randomization. Above re-searcher would be better off to randomly assign fromthe volunteers, and have an internaily valid study, fora limited sample size than to have a study both inter-nally and externally invalid with larger numbers.

7. EXPERIMENTAL MORTALITY Loss of respon-dents! Subjects drop out of the study, leave, move orjust do not show up for the components of the study.

To control, try to get measurement data on all subjects,i.e., go after them! If one cannot get pretest or posttestdata, 11S5 appropriate procedures for accommodating"missing data." If someone missed the treatment, butthe researcher has pretest and posttest data; Campbelland S tanley say to use the data. One needs to determineif the absence is due to the treatment (boring, too dif-ficult, too easy) which may speak to the nature of thestudy; so, if subjects drop out, fmd out why. Dif-ferential mortality is more of a problem than just losinga few from each level of the treatment as it may saysomething about the nature of the treatment.

8. SELECTION-MATURATION INTERACTION Ef-fects of complex multi-group quasi-experimental de-signs being confused with the effect of the experimen-tal variable.

One can control this threat by design selection.

External Validity

The questions addressed by these threats have to do with"To whom can the results be generalized?" and "To whatother environments (settings/ecology) can the results begeneralized?" The first question would be labeled "Popu-lation Validity" and the second "Ecological Validity' byBracht and Glass (1968). The threats to external validitycan be called "interaction effects" (Note the wording of thecategories of the threats by Campbell and Stanley). In otherwords, the threats to external 'validity involve the interac-tion of the treatment and some rther variable, for example,the interaction of selection with the treatment. Theseinteractions then represent cases where the results of theexperiment are applicable only to a specific situation orgroup. Thus, the results unuot be generalized to othersettings or groups. External validity has to do largely withfactors working through the treatment rather than factorsdirectly affecting the dependent variable as in the case ofinternal validity.

6

Population Validity

For what groups of subjects are the results true?

One should note that a distinction is made uetween theexperimentally accessible population and the target populr.tion. The target population is the total group of subjectsabout whom the experimenter is attempting to learn some-thing, and to whom one wishes to generalize. The experi-mentally accessible population is the population of subjectsthat is available to the experimenter.

If a researcher randomly selects subjects from an experi-mentally accessible population, he/she can generalize re-sults to that population within the limits of the samplingerror. Note that this is not generalizing to the targetpopulation. Even if one uses the entire accessible popula-tion, as we sometimes do in vocational education, one limitsgeneralizations to the population from whom the samplewas drawn.

Interaction of personological variables and treatment

Reference is made here to the interaction between thetreatment and the characteristics of the subjects. Forexample, method of teaching "A" may work differently onstudents o f low ability than on students of high ability.. If wedo not know this, we could be making false generalizationsto the population. Interaction is best understood graphi-cally. When one is calculating ANOVA, for example,watch for significant interactions and then graph them tomake sense out of what they are telling you. One should plotthe dependent variable on the ordinztP and the characteristicon the abscissa with the levels of treatment plotted on theface of the graph. One should learn about "ordinal" and"disordinal" interaction. Such interactions might tell usthat the 'new" treatment should only be recommenced forthe low ability students.

The implications of this section are clear. When possibleand we think appropriate, we should build characteristics ofsubjects (personological variables) into the design so thatresults can be assessed sliarately for each variable.

Ecological Validity

For what situations are the results true? This question formsthe major concern in the area.

1. Describe the independent variable explicitly so that theresults can be replicated. All operations performedmust be sufficiently described to permit others toreproduce the set of operations. One often sees thisdetail for the "new" level of a treatment and without the

detail for the 'old, " "traditional, "conventional," or"usual" level.

2. Multiple-treatment interference. Sometimes treatmentsare administered consecutively to the same subjects.The effects of the initial treatment is possible to meas-ure, but problems arise when estimating the effect ofsubsequent treatments. It is a bit like "pretest sensiti-zation" and can happen when subjects are in mote thanone experiment. The researcher cannot separate theeffects of later treatments without the initial treatment(s).One could only generalize to populations which hadhad the prior treatmems.

3. Hawthorne effect. Subjects knowing they are partici-pating in an experiment may cause them to behave dif-ferently than they would otherwise and the results maynot be due just to the treatment and, thus, not general-izable to non-experimental settings. Some recent re-search has indicated that the effect is not as great as itused to be or as great as thought, particularly asstudents have been experimented-on much more thanin the past. The motivation to "do well, "do the rightthing," or "to work harder than ever to help out therese lrcher" may not be as great as once perceived.Medical researchers use "placebo" level of treatment tohelp defray the extent of tiz Hawthorne effect.

4. Novelty and Cusruptive effects. These are closelyrelated to the Hawthorne effect. New and unusual ex-perimental treatments (say, the first time microcompu-ters are used in a school) may prove superior to conven-tional methods because it is new and novel. ThePostelwaite results with the audio-tutorial method atPurdue University is a case in point as the professors ina Soils course in Agronomy could not get resuks asgood. When the 'newness" wears off, the positive out-comes may disappear.

5. Experimenter effect. The researcher may unintention-ally, and to some indeterminate extent, affect thebehavior of the subjects. One particular type of re-searcher may elicit a given effect. Raters are a::example. One may want to make raters an independentvariable in the study. Generalizability (G-study) modelshave some prospects for examining the results(0-study) of this effect.

6. Pretest sensitization. Pretest may sensitize the subjectsas to what will happen in Cie treatment. Without apretest, others could not replicate the results. Self-report (affective) pretests may be particularly problem-atic. Effect on academic achievement is thought to beless severe. One can use a design without a pretest.

7. Posttest sensitization. Treatment effect might onlyarise if a posttest is administered, i.e., the posttest

7

helps the student finally 'put it all together" whichmight not have happened without the posttest. A well-designed posttest may actually teach the concept re-lated to the treatment.

8. Interaction of history and treatment effects. Eventhough randomi7ation with a control group will controlthe internal validity threat of history; the researchermay only be able to generalize the results to situationswhere the treatment is administered and the historythreat occurs. Replication, over time, would be oneway of estimating the existence of interaction betweenhistory and the experimental treatment.

9. Measurement of the dependent variable. Like the Minportion of the "Maxmincon Principle," the dependentvariable must be valid and reliable. One must considerthe reactive effects of measurement if more than onetest is used, and may wish to consider unobtrusivemeasures.

10. Interaction of time of measurement and treatment ef-fects. The effect of the treatment which is measuredright after the treatment may not be maintained at somelater time. One should be careful not to generalize toother periods of time. A design which includes meas-urement of the dependent variable at several points intime will increase the external validity of the results.

References

Bracht, G., & Glass, G. V. (1968). The external validityof experiments. Americar. EducationalResearchJour-nal, November, 437-474.

Campbell, D. T. , & Stanley, J. C. (1963). Experimentaland quasi-experimental designs for research. Chi-cago: Rand McNally.

Kerlinger, F. N. (1964). Foundations of behavioralresearch (2nd ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart andWinston, Inc.

Conducting Research Overseas: Some Thoughts BasedUpon Experiences in the United Kingdom

James Calvert ScottUtah State University

Abstract

Before an otherwise competent business educadon researcher engages in an overseas research activity, he or sheshould carefully consider a number of special factors. Among them are the cultural environment of the foreignlocality, the business education researcher's cultural and linguistic fluency in the foreign locality, the attitudes towardaccess to information in the foreign locality, the business community in the foreign locality, the business educationcommunity in the foreign locality, the research-related resource constraints in the foreign locality, and he effects ofconducting overseas research on the business education researcher.

Introduction

Conducting research in an exotic overseas location is adream shared by many business educators, including membersof Delta Pi Epsilon. Is such a dream a fantasy or a reality?Is researching overseas an impossibility or a possibility foran American business educator? How can that businesseducator who has a defmite interest in and a suitablebackground for research determine if he or she shouldconduct a foreign-basxl research activity? What are someof the special factors beyond basic competence as a businesseducation researcher that he or she needs to consider?

The purpose of this article is to share some thoughtsregarding some of the special factors that an otherwisecompetent business education researcher ought to considerbefore he or she makes a commitment to or actually engagesin an overseas research activity. Among these considera-tions are the cultural environment of the foreign locality,the business education researcher's cultural and linguisticfluency in the foreign yncality, the attitudes toward access toinformation in the foreign locality,, the business communityin the foreign locality, the business education community inthe foreign locality, the research-related resource eon-straints in the foreign locality, and the effects of conductingoverseas research on the business education researcher. Byconsidering the ramifications of such important factors asthese, the would-be overseas business education researchercan intelligently decide whether or not conducting a for-eign-based research activity is wise for him or her.

Understand the Cultural Environmentof Cle Foreign Locality

To be successful in any type of research activity, a businesseducation researcher must understand the local culturalenvironment in which the investigation occurs. This isespecially important when that environment is foreign and

the business education researcher is an outsider, not a nativeof that cultural environment.

Any group of natives reflects the culture of its locality, thelearned, shared, unifying, and interrelated values and as-sumptious that influence its behaviors. Furthermore, everylocality has iis own unique and distinctive culture thatdifferentiates it from that of other places (Scott, 1989). Abusiness education researcher must clearly understand thepeculiar but important cultural factors that influence humanbehavior. Some of these factors may be similar to those ofthe American business education researcher's own nativeculture; others may be different.

For example, to understand the United Kingdom of GreatBritain and Northern Ireland (U.K.), its people, and itsinstitutions, it is necessary to realize that since the Normaninvasion of 1066, no one has invaded what is now the U.K.and vanquished :ts people. As a result, the British peoplehave developed a protective insularity that is difficult topenetrate even today. They scrupulously guard their ownprivacy, minding their own business and wishing otherswould do likewise. In general, the British people tend to behonorable, loyal, considerate, and trustworthy. While intheory they fmd ambition to be too virtuous not to praise, inpractice they frown upon it as tawdry (Gelb, 1982). TheBritish people have an easy capability for contentment andare united in tbe belief that most change is neither desirablenor possible, which rules oat improvement (Walmsley,1986). Consequendy, they are resigned to "muddle through"as ihey are so fond of saying.

Unlike their European neighbors, the British people did notexperience a revolution during the 19th century. Vestigesof historic and largely wealth-based social distinctionsamong landowners, tradesmen, and laborers have survivedlong after they had real economic significance. The result-ing class system has been perpetuated by the conservative

9 . -30

nature of the British people and by their willingness toaccept their allotted stations in life. While constraints donot allow a discussion of the upper classes including thehereditary monarchy, the middle classes, and the lowrclasses, it should be pointed out that there is little resent-ment of members of higher classes by members of lowerclasses, who seem reconciled to their lots in life. Somecritics have charged that this complacency and limitedambition have contributed to the economic decline of thecountry, but international competition has increasing brcughtabout more aggressive and flexible attitudes, especiallyamong British businesspersons (The EconomistBusiness , 1987).

In spite of the facts that the U.K. and the United States ofAmerica (U.S.A.) have a common language, many historiclinkages, and a variety of similarities, they do not share thesame cultural environment. They each have their owndistinct, peculiar cultural environments.

In fact, the cultural environment in which business educa-tion research zaices place overseas will be differentproba-bly profoundly differentfrom that of the U.S.A. Thebusiness education researcher who works overseas mustacknowledge the many differences between his or her nativecultural environment and the foreign cultural environmentif his or her research activity is to be appropriate for andsuccessful in that foreign cultural environment.

;se Culturally and Linguistically Fluentin the Foreign Locality

The overseas business education researther must be cultur-ally and linguistically fluent if he or she is to be successful.In other words, the business education researcher must besufficiently knowledgeable about .the foreign living andworking environment and its language patterns so that he orshe can function in a manner similar to that of an informednative. He or she ought to react consistently in a mannerthat is sensitive tr.; and appropriate for the foreign culturalenvironment in which the research activity takes place.

It is challenging for a business education ratarcher todevelop sufficient knowledge about a foreign cultural envi-ronment so that he or she can finction in that environmentlike a native. Becoming fully zxulturated and attaining thishigh standard of consistent performance is necessary sinceeven relatively minor insensitivities to the expected sun -dards of conduct can alienate natives of other cultures antijeopardize the research activity. Such faux pas may beinterpreted by natives of foreign localities as 'ugly Ameri-can" Whaviors that denigrate local customs, even if that wasnot the intent of the American business education re-searcher. Ignorance of local customs is not a satisfactoryexcuse for unacceptable behavior in any setting.

When contemplating overseas research, a business educa-tion researcher must ny to learn as much as is possible aboutthe foreign locality where the research might be conducted.Some of this necessary information can come from booksthat are written about the locality and its culture. Some ofthe information should come directly from natives of thatforeign locality. If possible, a businms -education re-searcher should talk with several natives of the foreignlocality after he or she has completed some backgroundreading; then the business education researther is betterprepared to ask intelligent questions that elicit the specifictypes of information most useful at that time. Ideally, thebusiness education researcher has also had recent travelexperiences in the foreign locality where the research activ-ity rnight be undertaken so that he or she is aware of currentconditions that might impact the success of the researchactivity.

Even after the business education reseatther has a thoroughunderstanding of the foreign locality and has determinedthat it offers a suitable research opportunity, he or sheshould continue to refme his or her understanding of thatlocality and its culture. It is almost impossible to know toomuch about the foreign cultural environment in which aresearch activity takes place and to function too extensivelyon that knowledge. Not to know enough about a foreigncultutal environment is to risk not only selection of aninappropriateresearch activity but also misinterpretation ofits outcomes, to see the situation only through the eyes of anAmerican when another perspective is more relevant.

A business education researcher who engages in foreign-based research must also be linguistically fluent. He or shemust use the language of the foreign locality with a highdegree of accuracy. Language proficiency in the Americanversion of the English language will not be sufficient inmost foreign localities, including, for instance, the U.K.Perhaps George Bernard Shaw summed up the situationbest when he observed that Britain and America are twonations separated by a common language (Terpstra & David,1985). Since natives of both countries use the Englishlanguage in their own peculiar ways, the language is inactuality not shared to the degree that some assume.

For example, while the abbreviation M.D. listed after aname commonly represents medical doctor in the U.S.A.,it commonly represents managing director in the U.K.From the American perspective addressing the individual as'Doctor" would be very appropriate for the business educa-tion researcher, but from the British perspective addressingthe individual as "Doctor' would be very inappropriateunless the listing also includes an abbreviation for a doc-toral degree. The misinterpretation of the common abbre-viation M.D. could easily result in an embarrassing situ-ation for a U.K.-based American business education re-seatther, one that breaches the rules of British etiquette and

that demonstrates that the American is not so linguisticallyfluent in the British cultural environment as he or shcshould be.

A business education researcher working in a foreign local-ity must attain near-native cultural and linguistic fluency.He or she must consistently respond in a manner character-istic of a prudent native, sensitive to the nuances of thesituation and of the culture. He or she must also readilyunderstand and use the written and oral language typical ofwell-educated natives of the foreign locality. The adage'When in Rome, do as the Romans do provides pertinentguidance for the would-be foreign-based business educa-tion researcher.

Investigate the Attitudes Toward Accessto Information in the Foreign Locality

Before making a commitment to conduct research in aforeign locality, a business education researcher shouldknow the prevailing attitudes toward access to informationin the foreign locality. Only then can he or she make anintelligent assessment of the likelihood that the researchactivity will yield sufficient information with substantialvalue to justify the costs associated with collecting it.

The need of Americans to know cou?led with their rela-tively easy access to most types of relevant information isunparalleled. Having grown up in an opeu culture withrelatively few limits on access to information, many Ameri-cans have difficulty accepting the fact that similar access toinformation is not available in most foreign localities. Infact, attitudes toward and prohibitions against access toinformation sometimes make it difficult or impossible forthe American business education researcher to conduct thetype of foreign-basai research activity that he or she wouldlike to conduct.

For example, in the U.K. the local culture places a very highvalue on privacy, in part because of the island-fortressmentality that developed by beng isolated from the Euro-pean continent and because of a large population living ona small land mass. Over time ingrained attitudes averse toknowing about things that did not personally impact themdeveloped in the British people. In this type of culturalenvironment where privacy for oneself and privacy forothers are of paramount importance, there is little need tobow about others and many barriers exist to finding outabout others.

Becausct more than a casual interest in others i perceived bythe British people as an invasion of privacy, they typicallyare not eager to share much information with others,including foreigners. For example, typical research stud-ies of British businesspersons achieve survey instnimentcompletion rates of about 20 percent after several follow-upactivities have been completed (Management Challenges

for the 1990s, 1989). While American-based researchmethodology books suggest that this low rate is unsatisfac-tory, the fact of the matter is Mit cultural inhibitions in theU.K. regarding access to information make it nearly impos-sible to get completion rates that would satisfy an Americanresearch methodology expert.

Although the privacy factor is apt to be the most importantfactor causing low completion rates on surveys involvingmembers of the British business community, other factorssuch as the revelation of potentially embarrassing informa-tion may negatively impact completion rates. The probingof such sensitive matters as training and developmentpractices as well as possible comparisons with domestic andforeign competitors may further inhibit respondents fromthe British business community (M. P. Broussine, personalcommunication, January 16, 1990).

All of this does not mean that a business education re-searcher must avoid conducting su-vey research in theBritish business community. Instead it means that if in thebest professional judgment of a business education re-searcher the survey method is the most appropriate one,then he or she must be willing to accept the resulting modestcompletion rate, to document that the gathered data are thebest that can be obtained given the cultural and otherconstraints, to acknowledge the limitations in the gathereddata, and to interpret the data conservatively.

In cases where the foreign-based business education re-searcher knows the size of the population and expects a lowresponse rate, he or she can adjust the size of the sample toget thc desired number of returns fora particular errorlimit.The business education researcher should also provideevidence that reduces concern for respondent and nonre-spondent bias if the response rate is inadequate (Wunsch,1986).

In the U.K. a business education researcher will quicklydiscover that he or shc can not readily obtain the weaith ofspecific information, especially of a fmancial nature, thathe or she has come to expect for and from major buzinessesin the U.S.A. The reasons are simple: (1) Public access tocompany-related information is not mandated by govern-mental regulation and law in the U.K. to the extent that it ismandated in the U.S.A.. and (2) British companies andtheir representatives are very hesitant to disclose private orprivileged information to any outsidcr for any reason,including a legitimate business educatien researcher withvalid reasons for having access to that information. In

personal interview situations reprmentatives of both theBritish business and business educat:on communities tendto provide general, non-specific information, which is notelucidating. They typically respond rath- -cautiously, evenavoiding frank comments on topics where concerns orproblems are well known. Thus, obtaining sufficientdetailed information about or frm the British business and

1 1 ntt4

business education communities Aad their representativescan test the patience and persisteze of an American busi-ness education researcher.

A prudent business education researcher will investigatelocal attitudes towaid access to information before he or shedetermines if it is feasible to conduct a research activity iiia foreign cultural environment. If a business educationresearcher does not consider attitudes toward access toinformation, then his or her research activity may yield amodest amount of useful information and disappointingresults overall.

Understand the Business Communityin the Foreign Locality

The business education researcher must understand thebusiness community in the foreign locality since it willdirectly or indirectly have a bearing on the research activity.He or she needs to find out how that business community issimilar to and different from the business community in theU.S.A. and assess how those similarities and differenceswill influence the reseamh activity. A personal exampleillustrates this point.

I realized before I conducted a survey of the internationalbusiness correspondence practices of the 100 largest Britishcompanies that I would have to approach the businesscommunity very carefully. Since the British businesscommunity is preoccupied with survival in challengingeconomic times, I knew that completing the survey ques-tionnaires would be low priority for the targeted compa-nies. In addition, I knew that the potential British respon-dents would be very skeptical of a request from an unknownoutsidera foreignerfor private, potentially sensitive, andpossibly embarrassing information of perhaps some valueto both domestic and foreign competitors. Thus, I had topersuLde them to provide the requested information. Fur-ther, I had to counter as many of their concerns as possiblein ways that would be acceptable in their culture.

To establish my personal credibility and that of the accom-panying survey qu=ionnaires, I sent the cover letters withmy official designation as Visiting Fellow on the stationeryof the prestigious educational institution with which I wasaffiliated and enclosed its business-reply envelopes forretrrning the completed questionnaires. Doing this al-lowed me to piggyback myself and the research project onthe outstanding reputation of the business school before astatus-conscious audience.

Since the British business community operates primarily onthe basis of downward communication and is very sensitiveto the wishes of superiors, I addressed the cover letters tothe managing directors of the targeted companies, the chiefexecutive officers, and politely requested that they forwardthe accompanying questionnaires to their respective most-

12

knowledgeable employees for completion. Doing thisallowed me to piggyback not only on the broad, globalorientations of the managing directors but also on theirpewer from above to encourage the designated individualsto respond. If the nonrespondents received the follow-upcommunications and replacement questionnaires via theirrespective managing directors, then it would be obvious toboth that the nonrespor.dents had not fulfilled the wishes oftheir respective managing directors.

To counter objections from the British business communityto complete the questionnaires, I emphasized the impor-tance of and value to the company from providing therequested information, the strict confidentiality of the indi-vidual company responses, the availability of a summary ofthe research study findings to participadng companies, andthe small amount of time that would be necessary .o com-plete the questior,naires.

To make the completion of the questionnaires a palatabletask, I designed the questionnaires for quick, efficient com-pletion and careffilly constructed them with such features asBritish wordings, spellings, grammativ,I constructions,punctuation, and format. To increase further the likelihoodof questionnaire completion, I conducted the initial mailingand two follow-ups during a time period that was free of thedisruptions to work that would be caused by major Britishholidays, when business employees often take additionaltime off from work. The timing of the follow-ups was alsoinfluenced by how many days were required for the researchmaterials to travel by post from me to the managing direc-tors and from the respondents to me.

Thus, I extensively used my detailed knowledge of theBritish business community to help me make the bestpossible research-related decisions at many points in theresearch activity. These decisions resulted in the achieve-ment of a higher than typical response rate frn members ofthe British business community.

Understand the Business Educat!:n Communityin the Foreign Locality

The business education researcher must also understand thebusiness education community in the foreign locality sinceit will directly or indirectly have a bearing on the rmarchactivity. The business education researcher should try todiscover the ways in which that community is like andunlike the business education community in the U.S.A. Heor she will then need to consider how these factors impactthe research activity.

For example, a business education researcher who wishes toconduct an experiment to determine the most effectivemethod of teaching the design and technology component ofthe newly implemented National Curriculum in the state-maintained secondary schools in the U.K. needs to know

r1ti

that both attitudes toward learning and actual student learn-ing may be influenced by the perceptions that the Britishpeople have toward education for business. Through nofault of its own, education for business is handicapped by itsrelatively low status in a British society where everythinghas its assigned place. The historic disdain that the Britishpeople have for both practical and vocational education plustheir class-system hierarchy that gives most business-re-lated occupations low to moderate status make it difficultfor education for business to be highly valued. Neverthe-less, the British people are beginning to realize that theeconomic security of their country rests on the foundationof a business community tha is competitive at home andabroad. Increasingly the Bri ish people are ackncwledgingthat their hi storic preference for gifted amateurs rather thanhighly educated and trained businesspersons is at the root ofthe problem. Slowly but surely they are realizing that theremust be a substantial number o f highly educated and trainedBritish businesspersons who can compete against the highlyeducated and trained professionals from other counuies(Scott, in press).

Given knowledge of the status of education for business, aU.K.-based business education researcher should ensuretbat the students in the control and experimental groupshave similar distributions of attitudes toward education forbusiness. In some instances this could be accomplished byrandomly assigning students to the control ar experimen-tal groups. If this does not happen, then the results of theexperiment may be biased by the differences in attitudestoward education for business that are manifest in actualstudent learning in the various studied groups. If thebusiness education researcher must use intact classes thatdo not have similar distributions of attitudes toward educa-tion for business, then he or she should use statistical ma-nipulation to adjust the gathered data so that the experimentyields an internally valid outcome. Thus, the businesseducation researcher's detailed knowledge about the busi-ness education community and its place in society may be acritical factor that influences the selection of an appropriateresearch design.

Consider the Research-Related Resource ConstraintsIn the Foreign Locality

A wisc business education researcher will consider theresearch-related resource constraints in the foreign localitybefore making a commitment to engage in overseas re-search. Th :se resource constraints include a wide variety offactors. Among them are such factors as manpower,working space, supply and equipment, time, and cost con-straints.

An American business education researcher may .Ank thathe or sne will have no manpower-related constraints whileresearching oveiseas since he or she will do all thc work.That assumption may not be realistic for several reasons. It

13

may not be as easy as the business education researcherinitially thinks to obtain the necessary documents andclearances to stay in a foreign locality for as long as may berequired to complete a =arch ntivity, especially if itinvolves empirical research. According to the Bureau ofConsular Affairs, Department of State, having only atourist classification for immigration purposes typicallygives a business education researcher a legal right to residein a foreign locality for from 30 days to 90 days (NydaNovidvoisky, personal communication, September 10, 1990).Cormequeruly, a business education rmearcher might wantto: . esider an affiliation with a foreign ecimational institu-tit a or an approved exchange program that may entitle himor her to a longer period of foreign residency.

After the business education researcher arrives in a foreignlocality, he or she may realize that the research activity cannot be completed alone. Since work is not necessarilyaccomplished as quickly or as efficiently in a foreignlocality as it is in the U.S.A., du business educationresearcher may fmd that he or she has seriously underesti-mated the manpower requiremmus for the research activity.The business education researcher may then be forced toscale back the mearch activity or to seek assistance fromsomeone who resides in the foreign locality. It is possiblethat the business education researcher may not be able tofmd anyone in the foreign locality who has the idealresearch-rnlated background and skills and, out of neces-sity, may have to use the services of someone who is eithermarginally qualified or inadequately qualified, which hasthe potential to jeopardize the success of the researchactivity.

In order to conduct any type of research-related activity,working space is required. Unless the oversm busincsseducation researcher exclusively uses the facilities of othersas he or she might do if engaging exclusively in library-based research or in some types of interview-based re-search, he or she will need to arrange for a working spacesomewhere. Where will that working space be? Is itrealistic for the business education researcher to think thatthe rcsearch activity can b undertaken in his or her resi-dence? Since living quarters abroad often are small andcramped at best, working at home may not be feasible.Where, th .1, can the overseas business education researcherheadquarter the research activity? Since working space isfrequently one of the concomitants of an overseas ahiliationor exchange arrangement, a business education researchershould explure thzse options.

Since all research activities consume supplies of one type oranother and sometimes require equipment, too, a would-beoverseas business education researcher needs to considerthis factor as well. Are the essential and desirable suppliesand equipment available.in the foreign locality, or must theybe imported from the U.S.A. or elsewhere? Will theavailable supplies and equipment really meet the essential

')t L.4

and desirable requirements of the American business educa-tion researcher? For example, while researching in theU.K., I had to prepare on vely short notice an importantmultiple-page document and six copies that absolutely hadto be on 8 l/2- x 1-inch paper. On the surface it appearedto be an easy task, but it was not. Virtually all British paperand paper-processing equipment conform to metric specifi-cations. The available A4 paper was both too narrow inwidth and too long in length, and the available wordprocessing printers and photocopiers were not designed toaccommodate non-metric-sized stationery even if it wereavailable. In some but not necessarily all cases, a businesseducation researcher working overseas may fmd that part orall of his or her research-related supply and equipmentneeds can be met through an affiliation with an educationalinstitution in the foreign locality.

Time may be a consuaint facing an overseas businesseducation researcher in several senses. For a variety ofreasons, including the time reqnired for cultural assimila-tion and ;or developing familiarity with such local re-sources as libraries, which are not organized by the samecataloging systems as they are in the U.S.A., the businesseducation researcher overseas will not be able to accomplishas much as he or she typically does at home in the U.S.A.The overseas cultural environment may have a differentperspective of time and may not view it in the Americanmanner as a scarce commodity that must be carefullyallocated. Efficiency in the American sense of the wordmay be uncommon or unknown. Those who assist thebusiness education researcher in implementing his or herresearch activity may function on the basis of a differenttime orientation than the business education researcherdesires or requires. Natives of the loulity may not desireto take the time or may not have the dint, to participate in aresearch activity even if it is a worthwhile one.

Cost consteaints usually impact the overseas businees edu-cation researcher since his or her research-reated funds arelimited. In order to conduct research overseas, the busine sseducation researcher must bear the substantial costs asseei-ated with going to and returning from the overseas locationor locations. He or she must also bear the costs associatedwith living overseas. Costs for such absolute neceni ties asshelter and food may be considerably higher in a foreignlocality but may provide a substantially lower standard ofliving than the American business education researchertakes for granted. Similarly, those things that the businesseducation researcher must have in the foreign locality teconduct the research activity nuly cost more but may be oflower standard than they would be in the U.S.A.

A prudent business education researcher will carefullyweigh the various types of research-related resource con-straints that impact his or her ability to conduct a foreign-based research activity. Among these are manpower,

14

working space, supply and equipment, time, and costconstraints.

Consider the Effects of Conduaing Overseas Researchon the 3usiness Education Researcher

A business edee -.tion researcher mu. mrefully consider thevarious impacts that conducting ant, seas research activ-ity will have on himself or herself. Prior to, during, andafter the overseas research activity, the business educationresearcher's peisonal life will be disrupted significantly.Can the would-be overseas business education researchercope with the continuing upheaval and related stress in hisor her personal life?

It is unrealistic for the would-be overseas business educa-tion researcher to think that all he or she must do is to lockthe front door and to depart for the foreign locality. If thebusiness education researcher will be overseas it'oi anysignificant period of timemost will need to bethen he orshe must wind down his or her professional and personalbusiness affairs; make arrangements for someone to act onhis or her behalf while away, peihaps through a power ofattorney; update his or her will; up-late his or her insurancecoverage; dispose of his or her housing; throw away,consolidate, and store his or her personal possessions; saygoodbye to his or her friends and family; and the like. Thensundenly reality sets in; the would-be overseas businesseducation researcher experiences an uncomfortable feeling,a sense of detachment, a loss of security. He or she reedizez:that the only things now under his or her direct personalcontrol are the few possessions that will be taken overseasand him,:elf or herself, which is liberating but frightening.

The business education researcher quickly learns that ad-justing to life in a foreign locality is filled with many highsand lows. At first the enthusiastic business educationresearcher fmds nearly everything about his or her newoverseas life to be wonderful and appealing. Soon realitybegins to set in, and the businms education researcher fmdsthat many aspects of overseas life are strange and lessappealing. As more of the negative side of life overseas isexperienced firsthand, the business education res=cerfinds overseas life difficult and unappealing. He or she triesto reject the foreign culture and to reintegrate with his or hernative culture, which is virtually impossible to do overseas.If the business education researchei endures long enough inthe foreign locality, he or she may learn to accept life in thatlocality as it is, different from life back home in the U.S.A.but nevertheless legitimate and interesting. Given enoughtime in the foreign locality, a business education researchermay learn to value the similarities and differences betweenthat culture and his or her native culture and to functionindependmitly in that foreign culture. However, businessed-ucatiou researchers with relatively inflexible perspec-tives on life as well as business education researchers who

remain overseas for only a fcw months m..y never reach thepoint of accepting life as it is in the foreign locality and offunctioning independently in the foreign locality (Hams &Moran, 1979).

After the overseas business education researchercompletes the research activity and returns to the U.S.A.,he or she experiences further culture shock, the intensity ofwhich is related to the length of time spent overseas and tothe degree of isolation from the culture of the U.S.A. Lifein the U.S.A. is not exactly as the busiyiess educationresearcher remembered it was at the time of his or hcrdeparture for the foreign locality. During the time spentoverseas, countless changes, many of which are unknownand inconceivable to the business education researther,have occurred. Initially the returning business educationresearcher may feel like a 'fish out of water, ' almost as Wileor she were a 1,mtigner in his or her own native land.However, slowly but surely the returning business educa-tion researcher feels more secure in his or her native cultureand is able to fill in the major gaps in his i.Nr her understand-ings; in time he or she is reassimilated into the culture of theU.S.A. (Harris & Moran, 1979).

It should be pointed out that the business education re-searcher who successfully functions overseas for a period oftime may never be the person he or she was before thatexperience. The reason is simple: The overseas businesseducation researcher has grown and matured in response tothe multitudinous challenges abroad; he or she is a changedperson in countless ways. That busincss education re-searcher is now a cosmopolitan, a transnational, a citizen ofthe world community who is able to understand, to accept,and to live life successfully in a variety of lifestyles that aresensitive to the local culture (Harris & Moran, 1979).

Summary and Conclusions

The decision to conduct a research activity overseas is notan easy one; it is influenced by many complex factors.Conducting a worthwhile research activity in an exemplarymanner is challenging in the U.S.A., and it is doublychallenging in a foreign locality. Nevertheless, a businesseducation researcher can make an informed, intelligentdecision regarding the feasibility of conducting an overseasresearch activity if he or she will consider the ramificationsof such factors as the cultural environment of the foreign

15

locality, his or her cultural and linguistic fluency in theforeign locality, the attitudes toward access to informationin the foreign locality, the business community in theforeign locality, the business education community in theforeign locality, the resource-related constraints in theforeign locality, and the effects of conducting overseasresearch on the business education researcher. Conductinga research activity overseas is not for all business educators;but for those business educators who rise to the challengesand succeed, the foreign-based research experience is richlyrewarding.

References

The Economist business rraveller's guides: Britain. (1987).New York: Prentice-Hall Press.

Gelb, N. (1982). The British: A ponrait of an islandpeople. New York: Everest House.

Harris, P. R., & Moran, R. T. (1979). Managing culturaldifferences. Houston: Gulf Publishing Company.

Management challenges for the 1990s. (1989). Sheffield,England: Department of EmploymentTraining itgency.

Scott, J. C. (1989) Values and assumptions of businesssubcultures: r, neglected aspect of business communi-cation instruction. Journal of Education for Business,64, 352-356.

Scott, J. C. (in press). Business education programs in theUnited Kingdom. In L. Echternacht (Ed.), A globallook at business iducation, 1991 National BusinessEdu:ation Association yearbook.

Terpstra, V., & David, K. (1985). The cultural environ-ment of international business (2nd ed.). Cincinnati:South-Western Publishing Company.

Walmsley, J. (1936). Brit-think, Ameri-think. New York:Viking Penguin Inc.

Wunsch, D. R. (1986). Survey research: Determiningsample size and representative response. ,?dsinessEducai;on Forum, 40(5), 31-34.

Ile en HI SO On In se in eat S. PO as an ow S. ow S. es gum i

Applying Research to the ClassroomInstructional Strategies: An Applied Research Scries

F. Stanford WayneSouthwest Missouri State University

Research should provide suppon for professional educa-tional experiences in the classroom in order that teacherscan effectively plan and make teaching decisions. Rescaithoften helps to substantiate common sense machingficarningmethodologies teachers use in the classroum on a daily basisas they relate to such areas of coasem as course rigor,collegiality, discipline, classroom climate, assessment, andquantity and quality of homework. On the other hand,research often helps disprove the effectiveness of method-ologies that teachers use ir the classroom on a daily basisbased on what conventional wisdom dictatcs is correct.

Research presented in the Instructional Strategies: An Awlied

Research Series publication of Delta Pi Epsilon provides animportant link between two groups of individuals: thosewho are researchers and publish their research in refereedpublications such as Instructional Strategies: An AppliedResearch Series ; those who arc users of research and whoapply the results of research to more effectively plan andteach their coursm. Both groups can benefit from writingfor this publication and from reading it.

Very important for publishing in this particular vehick isthe fact that individuals do not have to conduct complexresearch that requires a large theory base followed bycomplex procedures for collecting data with the amom-pany ing statistical analyses. Quite the contrary, many class-room teachers who arc not producers of research blow theirsubject areas well and what works in terms of teachingsubject area information to students. Combining their "on-the-job' lalowledge of what works with a number of re-sources that support classroom experience can be easilytranslated into the Instructional Strategies: An AppliedResearch Series publication.

Pubncation in Instructional Strategies: An Applied Re-search Series can help teachers attain recognition for theircreative teaching ideas and help other teachers to becomeeven more effective in their classroom planning andinstruction.

Some examples of previous topics of Instructional Strate-gies: An Applied Research Series arc:

*A Framework for Teaching Computer Ethics*Business/Criminal/Civil Law is for Everyone*Enhancing Communication with Effective Page Design

and 73pography

19

*Gtddelines for Helping Business Education Mach= awarea Desktop Publishing System (Part I)

*Guidelines for Choosing and Using Desktop PublishingSoftware (Part 2)

*Ideas and Resourcesfor Implementing Peer Evaluation ofWriting in the Classroom

*Incorporating Oral Presentations in the BusinessClassroom

*Infusing Reading Instruction Throughout the BusinessCurriculwn

*Keyboarding: Classroom Problems and Solutions*Microcomputer Technoloyy in Business Education: Con-

tent and Instructional Strategies*Practical Guidelines for Teaching the Adult Learner*Strategies for Teaching Records Management in Business

Education Courses*Teaching Entrepreneurship: Instructional Resources and

Strategies*Teaching Stu lents to Use Word Processing Software

Documentation Manuals (Parts 1 and 2)*Tecching Work Ethics in the Classroom: Instructional

Resources and Ideas*To Revitalize Shorthand: Change the Image

Annual subscriptions to this publication are $5; singleissues are $1.50; over five copies arc 50 cents each. Orderthem directly from the Delta Pi Epsilon National Office;P.O. Box 4340; Little Rock, AR 72214.

If you choose to submit a prepared manuscript for review,please follow these guidelines:

1. Submit a manuscript at any time, as we review manu-scripts on a continual basis.

2. Design the completed manuscript to provide informa-tion for business education on current topics in thebusiness field. Be sure that the manuscOpt providesplenty of 'teaching tips' and resources for el Isroomteachers.

3. Write the manuscript in a sufficiently well-writtenmanner which will require a minimum amount ofediting and revision.

4. Maintain a manuscript length of approximately 12-14pages, double-spaced, including references/resources.

5. Usc one-inch margins. Please d3 not use a dot-matrixprinter; a letter-quality printer is essential forlegibility.

6. S. vi six copies of the manuscript, including a title pagethat indicates all authors, their position ti tics, and theirplaces of emp!oyment. Also, include a 3 112-inch or5 1/4-inch floppy disk containing the manuscript inWordperfect or ASCII format so tht:- manuscript willnot hnxe to be rekeyed for uploading to desktoppublishing.

7. Follow the Publicatim Manua! of the American Psy-chological Association for preparing manusuipts andreferences/resources.

20

Send your manuscripts or address your mogires about thepublication to:

Dr. F. Stanford Wayne, EditorInstructional Strategies: An Applied Research Series

Southwest Missouri State UniversityAdministrative Office Systems Department

901 South Nagonal AvenueSpringfield, MO 65808-0089

(417) 836-6318

,:.1 r0 %;

DACUM: A Competency-Based Curriculum Tool

Robert E. NortonCenter on Education and Training for Employment

In state after state, DACUM Cl2eveloping A Curriculusja isproving a very effective and very efficient process forconducting an occupational analysis of any job in two daysor less. The DACUM analysis produces a rigorously iden-tified list of the tasks (competencies) that form a basis fordeveloping high quality education and training programs.Additionally, it also provides for substantive bput fromindusuy in a way that builds strong and lasting linkages.

At the Center on Education and Training for Employment(CETE) the DACUM job al. Aysis workshop and the recom-mended subsequent DACUM task analysis workshop areintegral parts of an overall Systematic Curriculum and In-structional Development (SCID) model. The model con-sists of 22 components that comprise the five phases ofdevelopment: (1) analysis, (2) design, (3) development,(4) implementation, and (5) evaluation.

The DACUM job analysis workshop operates on three basicand fundamental premises: (1) expert workers are betterable to describe/define their jobs than anyone else, (2) anyjob can be effectively described in terms of the tasks thatsuccessful workers in that occupation perform, and(3) workers need certain, specific attitudes and knowledgein order to perform each task correctly.

How does thiE process work? A carefully chosen group ofabout 10-12 experts from the occupational area form aDACUM committee. Committee members are recruiteddirectly from business, industry, or the professions. Thecommittee works under the guidance of a trained facilitatorfor two days to develop a DACUM chart, which is a detailedand graphic portrayal of the tasks involved in the occupa-tion being studied.

Guided by the facilitator, the DACUM committee identi-fies general areas of job res tsibility called duties, pin-points specific tasks perionnol in connecticalwith eachduty, reviews and refme3 the task and itity statements,sequences them, and identifies entry-level tasks. Modified

21

and structured small-group brainstorming techniques areused to obtain the collective expertise and consensus of thecommittee. High-quality task and duty statements usuallyresult from this interaction. The DACUM analysis alsoresults in (1) lists of tools, equipment, aipplies, and materials

pertinent to the occupation; (2) traits and attitudes impor-tant to workers in that occupation; and (3) general knowl-edge and skill areas that are prerequisites to job perform-ance. Since March of 1990 we have also begun to routinelyidentify terminology and acronyms that are unique to theoccupation being analyzed.

The DACUM job analysis process is particularly usefulwhen a new secondary or post-secondary occupationalprogram is to be offered. When conducted at the user'sinstitution, the process results in two benefits: the institu-tion obtains a solid, locally relevant job analysis as a basisfor curriculum development and receives immediate, strongsupport for the new program from the business and indus-trial community. This support results from the substantiveinvolvement of industry people, who tell their supervnorsabout the relevant programs that the institution is imple-menting. Often several, if no all, DACUM panel memberslater serve on an advisory committee for the new program.Institutions that have used the DACUM process oftenreceive donations of equipment and supplies from localemployers. Some facilitators even report active recruit-ment of students for the new iirogram by the panelmembers.

For more information contact:

Dr. Robert E. NortonSenior Research and Development Specialist

Center on Education and Training for EmploymentThe Ohio State University

1900 Kenny RoadColumbus, OH 43210

(800) 848-4815 or 614-292-4353

A Doctoral Researth Model

Michael BronnerNew York University

Pursuing a doctorate is a unique experience unlike anyyou've ever had before (or likely to have again!) Undertak-ing doctoral study demands a special commitment aboveand beyond most of your previous experiences and brirgsinto play resources and talents one rarely uses. In short,'once is enoughbut if you do it right once is all you'll everneed!'

This document may prove helpful as you wend your waythrough the doctoral maze, and it is designed to provide anoverview of some of the major hurdles you'll face, espe-cially during the development of what is generally the mostdifficult hurdlethe research project.

The illustration provided at the end of this article describesthe nature of a major (read doctoral) research project tradi-tionally used in the surrey/empirical realm. It is notnecessarily reflective of ethnographic or case study re-search; however, it may be useful within these related areas.In fact, experimental and historical research paradigms mayalso fmd this model useful.

Use the following to guide your review of the model:

1. A strong theoretical framework or conceptual rationaleis usually the staring point for most doctoral research.A point here is that the stronger the theory base, thebetter. A conceptual rationale, on the other hand, needsmore support to buttress the 'first domino theory.McGregor's Theory-X and Theory-Y vs 'consumerbehavior' is one such illustration of a theory and aconceptional rationale.

2. The problem statement should flow from the theoryframework and be developed in an inverse pyramidmanner, ending with the specific purpose of the study.In the problem statementgenerally 3-6 pages inlengththe context of the problem is discussed alongwith the significance of the study with the introductionof the theory base or cc.iceptual rationale supportingthe study. A subhead such as 'Introduction and Back-ground (or Context) of the Problem' may prove helpful.The inverse pyramki moves the reader from the globalto the specific and 'sets the scene' for the study. ThePurpose statement should then reflect the precise titleyou want coa the cover of your dissertation. TheProblem Statement and the Purpose are not the same.

3. While some dissertations contain 'sub-problems,' it ismy contention that 'research questions' are easier to

23

deal with. Sub-problems infer that each such 'sub-problem' has an identity all of its own with specificmethods involved for its solution. Since this is gener-ally not the case, research questions allow for a simpleraddressing of the issues AND provide the researcherwith a beginning for hypothesis development and test-ing. As such, the latter is to be desired in most cases.

4. Hypotheses, if used, can be inserted at this point. I

personally prefer the null form IF supported by the lit-erature. You place yourself in a precarious position ifyou hypothesize a directional bent to your results and itturns out 180-degrees the other way! Also keep in mindthat it is YOUR responsibility to establish the level ofsigniFnce desired. While .05 and .01 are traditional,studio:, using .10 are also acceptable where justified, aswith special populations.

Hypotheses, of course, may also be derived as a resultof the related literature supporting their development.As such, they may appear at the end of this sectionrather than following the research qnestions.

5. Limitations and Delimitationswhere usefulshouldbe included to provide parameters to confme the study.Limitations am those elements outside of the rexarcher'scontrol and delimitations are constraints placed on thestudy by the researcher.

6. Defmitions often generate some confusion. Generallyspeaking, only definitions absolutely necessary to theearly reading should be provided. Methodologicaldefmitions should be included in the method sectionand not take up space in the early portion of theproposal. Definitions should also appear in two dimen-siomthe first defmed academically from the litera-ture; the second, defmed operationally. . . .as used inthis study. . . .' Obviously, tenrs such as 'achieve-ment, "success, ' and the like should be defmed earlyon.

7. The Related Literature section generally follows begin-ning with a detailed review of the supporting theoreticalframework. The literature related to the studydisser-tations and solid research studies--is then discussedwith one segment usually dealing with those studieswithin the subject area under investigation (accounting,management, marketing, office systems); one segmentdealing with the populadon and like investigations(methods, of instruction, survey of information proc-

4i

essing professionals, community college students); and-.segment dealing with the methodology (case study,

survey, experimental, historical). This section can besubsumed under the former if the literature suggests it.

Remember that this section is call Related Literature somake sure to follow the R-C-R theme: review theliterature (summarize it) critique the literature (praiseand/or criticize it)and relate the literature to yourstudy (how it 'fits' or 'relates' to your study). If youcan't do this, then the 'literature' you've selected maynot be appropriate. Finally, provide a summary to thissection!

8. The Method section (frequently termed 'methodol-ogy') establishes 'how' you will go about your re-search. Here is where you determine your researchdesign, detail your population and sample, establishacceptable response rate(s), provide details for yourjury or panel of experts, and indicate the validation ofyour data-gathering instrument(s), among other de-tails. In short, ask yourself the following questions:

a. Data needed? The 'what'b. Data sources? The 'where'c. Data acquisition? The 'how'd. Data treatment? The 'what then'e. Data analysis? The 'what does it all mean'

You should be able to identify all of the foregoing withinyour proposal; if not, keep working!

Pilot testing, field trials, and feasibility study results canalso be placed in this section.

If you are pressed for space (NYU places a maximum 40-page limit exclusive of bibliography and appendices), placesome of the validation details and sample instruments intothe appendix.

This concludes the pronosal segment of a typical doctoralstudy; however, keep in mind that the proposal can belikened to a blueprint for building a house. Given anadequate blueprint, a contractor can build the house accord-ing to the plans. Your proposal is the blueprint and it shouldbe written so that any researcher with similar qualificationscan cany out the study. If this cannot be accomplished,something 's amiss!

The proposal generally does not have 'chapters' per se;however, the foregoing sections become the basis for thefirst three chapters of your dissertation, expanded greatly,of course, since you now have no page limitations imposed.Problem statement elements may be clarified and expanded,research questions possibly modified, hypothetm refmed,

24

new literature added, method clarificatim introduced, andboth bibliography and appendices updated. Rememberyour proposal is in 'future' tensea proposi:d studyandthe final product is an 'historical' documentonecompleted!

Let's now look at the final chapters of the study:

9. Findings and Discussion. This chaptersometimesdivided into two separate chapz-rstreats what you'vefound and what it means. Tables, illustrations, andfigures that help the reader understand the results areusually provided here. Et; careful not to 'overfill' yourchapter by inserting all forms of minute detail, whichtend to obscure the important findings. Also rememberthat an illustration or table should be able to standalene; however, supporting narrative IS required to.7.;pplement the graphics used. Either at the end of thischapter or included in the next, you MUST make sureto relate what your findings mean to your theory basefrom whence your study sprung. While the 'conclu-sions' section of your next chapter is a logical place forthis, some dissertations provide a bridge section at theend of this chapter to serve as a transition to the finalchapter.

10. Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations. Thischapter provides the summary of the entire researchproject (not just the summary of the fmdings) as well asthe conclusions you've derived from the ...esearch, thefmdings, and your discussion. What do they all add upto? And, more importantly, how do they 'fit' with thetheoretical foundation you began with? How do yourconclusions modify, expand, negate, sLI'stanuate, oraffect your theory base? This is why your initial stageis so very important, as your research can be seen as acircle and NOT a tunnel.

Your rernaimendations should be in two parts: One partdealim., v.,. .1 your recommendations for the profession orfield and e..2 part dealiug with your recommendations forfuture research. In the first part, what r.ould professionalsDO with your results? What can they learn from yourefforts and how can what you've found make a difference tothem?

In the second part, what needs to be done next on the basisof what you' ve found? Good research should always begetmore research! Can you recommend an application of yourfmdings to another population and discipline, or to anothertime frame? This section is where the 'smart' researchers goto !of* for their next research activity after all, you've laidthe groundwork for them!

The entire project, of course, is written in solid scholarlystyle, with accurate and effective English, and with me-chanical and technical precision. While the style guide I

42

fecommend is the Publication Manual of the AmericanPsychologicalAssociation, 31e, almost any guide is accept-able as long as you're consistent! Of course, your owninstitution may have preferences of which you should beaware. Obviously, word processing skills are to be greatlydcsired!

Please do not take these guides offered as etched in stone foreveryone. Your own situation and setting will probably

CHAPTER 5

Summary, Conclusions.and Recommendations

a) Fieldb) Future R

CHAPTER 4

Findings andDiscussion

Ph.D.

differ, and other requirements will take precedence depend-ing on your institutional environment However, thesesuggesdons and ideas are offered in the hDpes that they willprove useful to you as 'ou wend your way through tbedoctoral research maze. Good luck!

A Research Model

Theoretical Framework/Conceptual Rationale

KEY: Tie backto theory base!

SECTION 1

SECTION 3 SECTION 2

Method

Data NeededData SourcesData AcquisitionData TreatmentData Analysis

Strong theory baseWide generalizabikyStatistics are inferential

4. 325

Ed. D.

The Research Question

The Problem Statement

Research Quesdons

Hypotheses

Limitations/Delimintions

Definitions

Related Literature

Theory Presentation

Discipline

Population/Setting

Method

(Review, Critique,and Relate)

equate conceptualrationale

I ',cal generalizabilityStatistics are descr:ptive

The ERIC Database: Information for the Asking!

Judith O. WagnerERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education

Abstract

ERIC, the Educational Resources Nformation Center, is a nItional information system sponsored by the Office ofEducational Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education. The goal of ERIC is to identify, select,process, and disseminate information Mall areas of education. ERIC has a network of 16 clearinghouses, each servinga specialized field of education. The ERIC system offers a number of information services including monthly abstractjournals, microfiche and paper copies of materials, review and synthesis papers, and computer searches.

Description

ERIC, The Educational Resources Information Center, isthe world's largest education database and an importantsource of information and materials of interest to thevocaional and technical education community. S ince 1966,ERIC has been collecting and making available all types ofmaterials in all areas of education.

ERIC i sponsored by the Office of Educational Researchand Improvement, U.S. Departmait of Education. Itconsists of 16 subject-oriented clearinghouses, 3 adjunctclearinghouses, and support services. Of particular interestto vocational and technical educatom is the ERIC Clearing-house on Adult, Career, and Vocarkonal Education (ERIC/

ACVE) located at The Center ou 'Education and Trainingfor Employment at The Ohio State University. ERICidentifies, solicits, abstracts and indexes, and makes avail-able 7ugituve* materials. Generally speaking, fugitivematerials are those that have been developed with publicfunds by an agency for its own use. This includes curricu-lum developed by a school district, reports of research doneby an R&D center, conference proceedings, descriptions ofclassroom practices, program evaluations, conference pres-

entations, and "how we made it work* papers.

User Services

After the materials have been accepted for inclusion in thedatabase (see Submitting Documents below), it is importantthat those working in the field can access them. ERIC hasan extensive user services program that makes the processan easyone. Services at ERIC/ACVE include publications,

question answering, computer searchers, outreach, andreferrals.

User Services Products

Better known as no-cost resources, these products includeERIC Digests. Practice Application Briefs, Trends andIssues Alerts, Employment and Training Notes, and re-

source lists. Some recent titles of interest are: VocationalEducation Pofonnance Standards, Evaluation Strategiesfor Vocational Program Redesign, and WorkplaceLiteracy.

Question Answering and Referral

The user services coordinator at the ERIC Clearinghouse onAdult, Career, and Vocational Education will providematerials and information to suit your neet. If appropri-ate, a compu:er search of the ERIC database might be run.It is also possible that the clearinghouse would have sour:ready-made materials that would answer your request. Ifthe 'nformation you need is not available from ERIC/ACVE, you will be referred to the appropriate source.

Publications

With the help of our advisory committee, our ERIC Part-ners, and our other constituents, we select topics for majorpublications. We contract with an expert in that area towrite the paper which we then edit and publish. Some recenttitles in the series are: Learning and Reality: Reflections onTrends in Adult Learning by Robert Felleuz and Gary Conti(IN336); School to Work Transition for At-Risk Youth bySheila H. Feichtner (IN339); and The Role of VocationalEducation in the Development of Students ' Academic Skillsby Sandra Pritz (IN340).

Haw Can I Use ERIC.?

Access to ERIC is provided at most university libraries,state departments of education, state libraries, and teachercenters. It is even available to you through your homecomputer! Typically you can do your own search, with orwithout assistance, or you can have someone do it for you.ERIC is available in print (Resources in Education (RIE)and Current Index to Jou rnals in Education (CUE)), throughcraline searching, and on C )-ROM. This article will dealprimarily with online and CD-ROM access.

4

If you are a novice, it would be best to fmd someone in thearea who provides ERIC services and have them conduct asearch for you. Call the ERIC Clearinghouse on AdWt,Career, and Vocational Education or your local public oruniversity library for the location of a search service in yourarea.

Each agency will have its own procedures regarding search-ing. Two variables are cost and mm-around time. Someagencies are funded to perform searches at no cost for theirconstituencies. For example, universities and state librar-ies might do free or low cost searches for faculty, staff, andstudent. Other agencies operate a fee-based search serviceand will charge accordingl-.

If you have the time and expertise , you can access ERIC andother databases through your home or. office computer.Two of the database vendors, DIALOG and BRS, offerlow-cost searching opportunities. In addition to yourcomputer, you will need a modem and the correspondingtelecommunications software and a contract with one of thevendors. For a very reasonable charge, you can then accessthe databases "after hours, usually between 6 pm and 7 am.If you do a lot of searching and are comfortable with thecomputer, this method has many athantages.

ERIC and CD-RUM

In addition to being available online, ERIC can also beaccessed through CD-ROM. ERIC on CD-ROM is pres-ently available in some university libraries and researchcenters. The system is vety 'user friendly and continuousdirections make the process painless.

How Do I Prepare for a Search and Mat Will I Get?

If you are having an intermediaty do your searching,usually you need to do nothing more than have a clear ideaof what you are looking for. The searcher will question youto clarify your topic and demmine any limitations on it.Some searchers will request that you note some key worksto help them develop the search strategy. Others will just

28

ask what you are looking for and develop the strategy fromtheir own notes. Either way, knowing exactly what youwant is the best preparation for a search.

The result of the search will be an annotated bibliography ofjournal and document literature on your topic. After youhave received and screened your search, you can readilyobtain the full text of most of the materials. ERIC is adocument delivery database. Microfiche or paper copies ofmaterials are available from many ERIC service providersor from the ERIC Document Reproduction Service. Jour-nal articles can be found in many libraries or reprints can beordered from the UMI Article Clearinghouse.

What MI I End in ERIC?

flm ERIC database has information on every topic relatedto education in the broadest sense. As indicated above, youwill find curriculum, research reports, state-of-the-art papers,literature reviews, bibliographies, practice applications,and program evaluations What you will not find in ERICare nonprint materials, many dissertations, and comprehen-sive statistics.

Submitting Documents to ERIC

In order to maintain thr; ERIC database, it is necessary forthose in the field to provide us with materials! ERIC iseducation's database, and education has a responsibility tosee that it is as current as possible. Please submit yourmaterials o ERIC/ACVE for possible enuy into the data-base. Again, mom complete information is available.

To receive general information about the ERIC system andthe ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Carver, and VocationalEducation, please write to User Services Coordinator,ERIC/ACVE, 1900 Kenny Road, Columbus, OH 43210-1090. You will receive a packet that includes the ERIC/ACVE information brochure, a list of major publications,the No-Cost Resources list, and a brochure on submittingdocuments to ERIC.

9A r

Research: A Process for Everyone

Larry E. MillerThe Ohio State University

Abstract

The conduct of research to contribute to knowledge in a profession is the responsibility of each member of the group.The conduct of research is not as difficult as some perceive it, particularly if one examines the purposes of the in-vestigation and controls the potential errors. Research should be made to be "fund and an enthusiasm passed on tothe next generation of scholars.

Introduction

How often have you attended a session where the presenterwas from the field of agriculture? Not often, I bet! Theheritage of research and statistics would certainly indicatethat I am not out of place because much of modem researchdesign and statistics have their roots in agriculture.

Putting that aside, please be assured that I am accustomed toattempting to mold the minds of persons who are learningabout research from a varied number of disciplines. I teacha graduate level course in my department; AgriculturalEducation 885, Research Methods; which has grown froman early beginning of trying to make sure our graduatestudents werecompetent, to currently being a service courseat the graduate level for the whole of Ohio State University.I have taught over 3000 graduate studcnts from over 68different departments and academic areas during the pasteleven years. The students are about 60 % doctoral and40 % Masters. Several of the studentsare out of the Collegeof Education and Business and Office Education.

Therefore, do not feel out of place if you are not well versedin research. I will assume you know nothing about it. Fortiiose of you who have had some experience, you areIA elcome, too. But remember: 'If you are green, then youare growing; but if you are ripe, then you are ready to rot.Those of us who have conducted scme research need to bereceptive to new ideas green `ust as those who beginwith no knowledge. If we consider ourselves well versed,then we may be 'ripe" and ready to 'rot.'

Further, to have someone from the agricultural field (ex-cuse the pun) just highlights the title of this presentation:'Research: A Process for Everyone. All of us needresearch in some form.

Some of us work for universities or other agencies where ilis a 'publish or perish' environment, and, thus, we. mustconduct research which is publishable. Others of us needthe results of research as we design new programs or make

29

policy decisions, and we ard consumers of research. We allneed it, however.

Research is a process and a product. I want to talk todayabout bot. We will not have the time to teach you all of theprocess, obviously. However, we can give you a templatewhich will help you make sense out of research. Thetemplate is easy to understand in terms of the product ofresearch.

The ultimate goal of research is the creation of new knowl-edge. The term you may have once used of doing a'research paper" for a course must now be, forever more,erased from your mind and usage. Those we will now call'term papers". Research, as a word, we will now reservefor those investigations whose purpose it is to gather newknowledge.

Most research studies, in and of themselves, do not develop'truth," develop another "Boyle's Law, or another Salkvaccine. More likely,, they just add another brick to the wallof knowledge required to really add to knowledge in a field.Hamlin defmes research as an 'unusual and persistent effortto get our thinking straight." I believe this is a good way tothink of research. We do one study to add just a bit toknowledge, perhaps. The next person plugs-away withanother bit. But, little by little, we learn. It is more aprocess of 'knowing than to Inow." The most frustrat-ing problem for most neophyte researchers, like graduatestudents, is that they want to knock down that whole wall inone fell-swoop, and illuminate the whole "black hole ofignorance." Finding a cure for AIDS or cancer is not likelyto be the result of one small study.

For example, many of the studies upon which Salk built histheory and did his thinking might have won Proxmire's"Golden Fleece Awards. Quite often the naive sec much ofresearch as being of "no real benefit to anyone," 'con-ducted by some egghead in an ivory tower, or of "no realuse to me. This may be particularly true of basic research,as compared with applied research. Many laypersons,

46

practitioners, and uninformed individuals perceive that allresearch should show immediate benefit. This, however, isjust not going to be tha case. It may help us along theprocess of 'knowing," but it may not let us 'know.'

The researcher who spends a lifetime and huge amounts ofmoney studying the eye color of mosquitoes might beperceived by many to be wasting his/her time and "just lotsof money. " However, when that eye color is linked with theanopheles mosquito, found to be sex linked genetically, andone can now identify male mosquitoes, sterilize them, andthus wipe out those 'dudes,' and eliminate malaria in theworld; society wonld be pleased.

Research is a process we go through to discover newknowledge, discover general principles, and/or determinenew relationships with the end sought to create a theory. Bydoing research, we want to be able to understand, predict orcontrol outcomes. It involves formal, systematic andcareful processes so that outcomes are valid and reliable.The purposes of research can be categorized into studieswhich attempt to:

I. Explore/Describe2. Explain/Predict3. Control

Please note that each of these purposes of research isimportant. You may be led to believe, by some, thatexperimental research,. that which controls, is the only'real' research. I am here to advocate a position that thatis just not so. Again, all research moves us toward 'know-ing, " and to do a study which surveys (explores/describes)may make just as important a contribution to knowing asdoes an experiment (control).

Much may also be made of the "hard" versus the 'soft'(implying easy) sciences with the latter usually bein, thelabel for the social and behavioral sciences. From years ofexperience, let me tell you that if there is a hard science toconduct and produce valid results, then it is in the behav-ioral sciences. 'Benchtop" researchers do not even knowwhat "contaminating" variables are until they try to inves-tigate discipline problems in the public schools. The pointis: No matter what type of research you conduct, keep yourhead held high. What you do is probably just as importantL: what anyone else is doing.

Exploring and Describing

When we do research to become more familiar with phe-nomena, to gain new insights, to formulatl more specificobjectives, to portray accurately the incidence, distribu-tion, and characteristics of a group or situat; 4.1* purpose

is to explore/describe. We may wish to look at the associa-tion between these characteristics. Some questions mightbe: Should the A VA establish a PAC? What is the average

30

age of teacher educators? Wbat is the opinion of employerswho hire your graduates?

Types of research which fall into this purpose includesurveys, developmental studies (longitudinal and follow-up studies: studies which include data collected at severalpoints in time), and case studies (including naturalisticinqdry, phenomenology, ethnography, qualitative researchand triangulation: studies which attempt to obtain moredepth of understanding). I do not propose to enter into thedialogue about the 'paradigm war' of which makes thegreater contribution to knowledge: quantitative or qualita-tive research.

Explaining and Predicting

Relational research, which attempts to explain and predict.relationshins among characteristiat or variables, comprisesthis purpose. The research can be subdivided into correla-tional research or ex post facto research.

Correlational research is conducted when the objectivesare to explain/predict the relationship between characteris-tics or variables on one group of subjects. For example, aresearch question might be: "What is the relationship be-tween the income and the years of experience of businesseducators in Georgia? One group of business educatorswould be studied, data gathered on their income and yearsof experience and appropriate statistics used (correlationsand regression) to see if years of experience explains orpredicts the variability in income of the business educators.

Ex post facto research has the same purpose, but is concep-tualized differently. The researcher observes some vari-ability in a dependent variable and looks for other variables(independent variables) which might explain/predict it.One might start to 'look" in the literature to see what othershave found out about the phenomena (dependent variable).The literature indicates that about six (6) variables havebeen thought to relate. However, some others may also.Therefore, the researcher calls the 6 primary ones the MainIndependent Variables, and, since the others must also bestudied, labels the others the Rival Independent Variables.All of the Independent Variables and the dependent variableare studied (measured) and the relationship between themanalyzed with the appropriate statistical tools (correlationsand regression) to see if the independent help explain orpredict the variability in the dependent variable.

For example, one may notice that a large number of busi-ness educators are resigning and leaving the profession (thedependent variable). Being concerned about die professional implications of this, the researcher examines whatthe literature shows might explain why professionally qualifiedpeople would opt to exit. The literature suggests that themain reasons appear to be (1) family obligations,(2) unsatistactory working conditions, and (3) other per-

4 7

sonnel were substituted to perform the specific job func-tion. These become the Main Independent Variables.Further reading and thinking also leads the researcher tobelieve tbat (1) job satisfaction, (2) professional advance-ment opportunities, and (3) continuing one's education arealso good predictors (Rival Independent Variables). Thus,data are collected on all these variables and analyzed todetermine the relationship between the independent anddependent variables.

Control

The types of research which attempt to control are experi-mental and quasi-experimental. The researcher attempts tocontrol:

1. the independent variable the treatment, the cause,who gets which level of a treatment (often byrandomization)

2. contaminating (confounding, intervening, moderat-ing, or extraneous) variables those which wouldmake the study invalid if not controlled, those whichwould be alternative explanations for the results.

3. the dependent variable obviously, one would want tohave a certain effect: decrease heart rates, increaselearning, improve efficiency. The experimental re-searcher hopes to cause this effect, hopes to be able toimply causality.

True or pure experimental research is different than quasi-experimental research but tat discussion is beyond thescope of this presentation.

One can easily leani about /2, as the threats to the validityof a snidy (contaminating variables) have been classified byCampbell and Stanley (1966). Further, they describe the;lifferent ways to design a study and set up to independentvariables (#1) to test for the effect upon the dependent (13)variable(s). There are professors, like me, who would justlove to 'massage your mind for awhile and teach you thisc 'tent. These professors exist in lots of programs withinlois of different colleges and universities. Select carefully,though, because the intent of a good professor is to clarifyand not confuse. I believe too many people in research andstatistics have an 'ego' problem which leads them to wantto take simple concepts and make them complex in order toimpress you with their knowledge. BEWARE of personswho seem to fit this mold.

The bottom line is that everyort can learn about researchand do it successfully. What may appear to be 'a big fog'can really be compartmentalized and learned systematicallyso that it is not at all complex. It is logical! It is systematic!It is careful! It is formal! It is described in such detail thatothers can redo (replicate) it! It is possible for you to do it

well or to rcad and understand it. You can cut away that fog.You can do research to help your profession. You canconsume (read aud understand) the research of others. Youcan learn how to get funding for that research from founda-tions and other agencies. You can be on the 'cutting-edge"of the leadeiship in your profeision because you read the-latest stuff" in the journals and do not wait for it to becomecommon pracrice. You can be the leader.

Professional Implications

Let us :aIk just a few minutes about the professionalimplications of doing research. First of all, have you everthought about 'What is a profession?" A profession ischaracterized by requiring a relatively long period of spe-cific training, having specialized knowledge and skill pre-served in technical language, life membership, effectiveorganization, and practice based on ethical principles andideals of service which leads to self-policing of the ranks.Many professions have 'Code of Ethics" which describethese in some detail. The idea of having a specializedknowledge implies that there is a community of scholarswho contribute to that body of knowledge. That means thatresearchers are nrxded to constitute that body of knowl-edge, that theoretical framework, for the profession. If aprofession is going to advance, it must have that communityof scholars. Each member of the group shares in thertsponsibility of adding to that body of knowledge whenthey accept membership into the organization.

A professional cannot leave all the research up to someoneelse. They have the responsibility to azid to the knowledgebase of the profession which granted tizem membership,gave them license, or permitted them to practice with thegroup. A community within a profession cannot be segre-gated into the 'researchers' and the "others. All must dotheir part to advance the profession, or it fails to exist as aprofession.

Those who conduct the research also have a responsibilityto share the results with others. Whether results are'significant" or not, it must be shared. There is a differencebetween statistical and practical significance. By sharingresults which did not reach statistical significance one mighthelp the profession by (1) showing that one way is just asgood as another, (2) showing what did not work, and/or(3) helping others eliminate a variable they were consider-ing. Professionals have the responsibility of disseminatingthe resuits of the research through reports, papers, journalanicles, etc. When a atudy is done, quite often the writtenwork is one-half done, because much sharing has yet tooccur. It is your responsibility to prepare those articles and

PaPers.

The professional also has a responsibility to continue thattraining to stay up-to-date on developments in the field.Not all training (education) needs to be formal. Each of us

4 Li

must continually learn and remain in a dynamic staterelative to our body of knowledge. Therefore, research isfor you even if it is just as a consumer.

Research is Fun

When one perceives the researcher to be that "egghead in anivory tower, crunching numbers in a little cubicle, day-after-day, with few human relations skills, or interests in*real world" problems; then research does appear to be ex-ceedingly boring. In fact, =arch is exciting. When oneselects research problems of importance to the profession,problems that when resolved will really help people or helpthe profession advance; then one can receive a lot ofintrinsic and extrinsic motivation and satisfaction fromconducting research.

-- - _

32

I dearly love to teach. I look forward to each class which Iteach, because I suspect that all teachers are a bit of anegotist and love to hear themselves talk. So, I am delightedto hop out of bed each moraing what I get to teach and lookforward with great anticipation to getting into the classroomthat day. I can also say that on the days wh= I an not tC.teach, iiut am to do research, I can have the same fervor andexcitement. I can oft..n hardly wait to get to the nffke toretrieve that printout from the computer and m wnat I havefound,

Yes, Research is a Process for Everyone. You may :inductit, assist with it, reply to the mailed queztic-anaire, be asubject in it or consume it. However you fmd yourselfinvolved, it is a process and a product with which you mustbe involved if you are to be a professional among a commu-nity of professionzls.

4 r

11Mr"-..1417111RIMIMMINf

IIIIII:III1

I:IIIIII

ii

PART HIRESEARCH REPORTS

50

An Analysis of Business Documents:Negative News Applications

Marsha L. BaylessStephen F. Austin State University

Abstract

The study involved collecting and analyzing negative news letters and memos used in business. A panel of threebusiness communication instructors examined several elements in each of the documents. The type of correspondence,the approach of the document toward negative news, the use of negative words, the inclusion of alternatives, and thefocus on the readerwere determined for each document. The results indicated that negative news documents in businessinluded direct and indirect approaches and that the documents foam both the writer and the reader.

Introduction

Business communications textbooks propose that the bestway to convey negative news is by using an indirectapproach when creating a document (Adelstein and Spar-row, 1990; Boyce and Thill, 1989; Hirnstreet and Baty,1990; Locker, 1989; Murphy and Hildebrandt, 19 ; Qui Ile,Johnson, and Mott, 1988). Further, a number of the textsdo not indicate th'..t a direct approach for negative news is anoption.

Do business individuals use the indirect plan when actuallywriting negative news letters? Research studies have indi-cated that business communications instructors and busi-nesspersons have different perspectives -3ncerning busi-ness writing (Adldns, 1982; Lem ley, IS .). By analyzingbusiness documents, an understanding of actual applica-tions can be developed.

Another area of interest in business communication is theyou-attitude or reader focus. A letter or memo which usesthe you-attitude focuses the writing on benefits that thereader will receive (Gibson and Hodgetts, 1990; Harcourt,Krizan, and Merrier, 1991; Himstreet and Baty, 1990;Locker, 1989). By using a focus on the reader, the docu-ment can convey tact and pesitive tone as well as encouragegoodwill toward the reader.

Adkins (1982) found that businesspersons and businesscommunication instructors differed significantly in theirviews toward the you-attitude. Actual business letterscould be analyzed to determine if the you-viewpoint is usedin letters and memos conveying negative news.

An analysis of business documents could also include other-ancepts discuss3d in business communication textbooksstet as the use oi negative words, the inclusion of alterna-tives, the length of the document, and grammatical errors.

35

The purpose of the research study was to analyze actualbusiness letters and memos which were used to conveynegative news. Several aspects of the letters and memoswere evaluated. The kcy issues were the type of document(letter or memo), the choice of writing approach (indirect ordirect), the focus of the documcnt (you-viewpoint), the useof negative words, the use of alternatives, the length of thecommunication, and the use of grammar.

Method

The 1400 students who graduated from the School ofBusiness at Stephen F. Austin State University during thefive-year period from 1974 to 1979 served as the populationfor the study. Graduates from thoseyears have the potentialfor 10 to 15 ycars of business experience. At that pointtheir careers they should have had opportunities to writedocuments conveying negadve news.

As the size of the population was 1400, a sample size of 225was chosen to accurately ,,eflect the population within 6%(Wunsch, 1986).

The departments and percentage of graduates during 1974-1979 include Accounting, 39.3 %; General Business, 17.7%;Management and Marketing, 25.8 %; Economics andFinance, 8.0%; and Computer ScieL Q 2 %. The prepor-tional suatified random sample compose,. of 225 graduatesconsisted of a random selection from each of the depart-ments in the School of Business. A list of graduates withcurrent addresses was obtained from the Alumni Office.After the address lists were numbered, the computer pro-gram SYSTAT (Willdnson, 1987) was used to generaterandom lists to select the participants from eachdepartment.

Participants in the study were asked to answer severaldemographic questions and were then asked to provide a

51.

copy dm actual letter or memo that their business used toconvey negative news.

Mailing Procdure

In February 1990, a mailing using first-class postage as wellas a postage-paid envelope was sent to the 225 individualsin the sample. A second first-class mailing with postage-paid envelope was sent to nonrespondents in May 1990.

Four letters were returned with inconut addresses. Afterthe two mailings, thirty-four response s. were received for areturn rate of 15.4%. Of the respondents, 15 indicatart thatthey did not use negative news dc;cuments. The nineteenindividuals who indicated use of negative news documentsreturned a total of 28 documents which were used in thestudy.

Participants in the study submitted copies of actual docu-ments used to convey negative news. Participants indicatedwhether or not they wrote the docummt as well as their levelof satisfaction with the aocument. Additional demographicinformation (age, gender, employment status, prcscnt posi-tion, location of company, size of company) was al.socollected.

Any information which would identify the writer or thecompany was removed prior to the document analysis.

Evaluation by Panel

A panel of three business communication faculty memberswere asked to independently analyze the 28 documents andmake seven decisions about ea..ch document. The decisionsmade included the following:

I. type of document (letter, memo, other)2. approach (direct or indirect - 5 categotits)2. negative words (5 categories)4. alternatives (3 categories)5. reader focus (a categorieu)6. length of document (5 categories)7. grammatical errors (focusing only on subject/

verb agreement and/or incomplete sentences -5 categories)

Of the possible 196 decisions on the 28 docunients, the threepanelists all agreed on 107 items (54.6%). On 70 items atleast two panelists agreed (35.7 %) on the decision whichwas used. No panelists agreed on the remaining 19 items(9.7 %); therefore, a median answer was selected.

Results

The negative news documents included in the study con-sisted of letters (75 %) and memos (25%). When asked to

36

determine how satisfied they were w:th the documents,32.1 % of the contributors indicated they were very satisfiedwhile the majority of 57.1% said that they were somewhatsatisfied.

When the participants werc asked about the authorship ofthe document, 42.9% said 'I wrote it" while 35.7% indi-cated that "Someone else in the company wrote it'.

Fifty percent of the respondealts worked for companies withmore than 225 employees. The genders of the respondentswere 78.6% male-and 21.4% female. All the contributorswere employed full-time in business.. Of the respondents46.5 % were from the greater Houston or greater Dallas/Ft.Tvorth areas.

Approach of Doctunents

The negative news documents included approaches rangingfrom indirect to dircct. The most frequent approach (25 %)was the indirect 2' pproach with rcasons explained, followedby the bad news, The approach receiving the next largestresponse was one with a one-line buffer with the bad newsin the second line (21.4%). An approach with the bad newsin the first sentence, an approach with a one paragraphbuffer and the b^d news at the beginning of the secoudparagraph, and an approach with the bad news implied butnot stated all received the same frequency of 17.9 %.

The following paragraphs were selected from the openingsof three of the business documents:

Indirect approach with rcasons explained

The most serious problem facing America today isdrug abuse. It is an epidemic that has permeatedevery corner of our society. It is a problem childrenface in the school and a problem we must address onthe job. We have all seen and heard how drug abusecan disrupt families, ruin careers, and in some casesliterally snuff out lives. Numerous studies reportthat drug abuse costs American indusuy billions ofdollars per year in lost productivity, theft, accidents,absenteeism, violence, unacceptable products, andpoor customer service.

We as the leader in our indusuy and being COM-PANY NAME must also exhibit the commitment ofsaying 'no to drugs" within our workplace. Wehave an obligation to our employees to do whateveris possible to keep our company drug free.

Thetefore, COMPANY NAME is developing, andin the future, will implement, a policy to insure thatall of our employees have a working environmentthat is free of the illegal use and abuse of drugs.

r

Shortly, drug testing will be implemented for bothemployees and applicants. In addition, . . .

Negative news in iirst paragraph

Throughout the past year and a half, ()sir companyhas undergone many changes. Currently, reorgani-zations are beiv3 implenrnted which necessitateour downsizing hi staff We regret to tell you thatas a result of this, your position is being eliminated.

Negative news in first sentence

Youraccount has been placed on C.O.D. until yourpast due balance has been paid.

Reader Focus

While the largest percentage of documents (57.1%) in-cluded one or two references to the reader of the document,17.9% had no focus on the reader of the document. Threeor four references to the reader were used in 21.4% of thedocuments.

The following paragraphs were selected from a memo:

. .

Limited use of rcader focus

At this time I feel it is necessary to give you thisformal written warning regarding certain areas ofyour performance as a Sales Consultant. I haveoutlined my areas of concern below. I have also setsome goals for you to tiork toward.

Diane, you seem to have developed a non-resii;,asiveattitude toward instructions which I give to you.Diane, when I request something of you I expect youto either tell me that you are unable to complete tixassignment or have it completed by the date agreedupon. . . .

Use of Negative Words

Although business writers were careful when choosingnegative words, some negative words were used. Of thedocuments analyzed, 28.6% coutained no negative wordswhile 35.7% contained only one or two negative words.

Examples of excessive use of negative words included thefollowing passages:

Negative words in first and last paragraphs of a letter

This is in answer to your inquiry of May 31 concern-ing claim for damages to your vehicle which youcontended resulted from 'bad diesel fuel'. . .

37

hope this outlines to you our position now, andin the future, regarding your contention. It L.unfortun-ite that the circumstance developed; how-ever, your problem wa3 not calmed by our operation.

Negative words in closing sentence of memo

I am sorry for any inconvenience this havecaused you.

Alternctives

Nearly two-thirds of the documents (64.3 %) did not in-clude an alternative to the bad news. One-fourth of thedocuments included one alterwive to the bad news.

Length of 1.icuments

The length of the documents varied. The highest percentageof 32.1 % were of documents less than 100 words in length.The documents in the 101-150 word range and the 151-200word range each encompassed 25% of the total Theremaining 17.8% of the documents were longer than 201words.

Grammadad Errors

Only two kinds of grammatical errors weie evaluated in thestudy. Those errors were subject/verb agreement amincomplete sentences. None of the documents in the studyincludeu either of those errors.

Conclust:ns

The following conclusions can be drawn from the study:

1. Five different indirect and direct approaches were ex-amined for the negative news documcnts. While theindirect approach was used most frequently, no singapproach received a large majority of the responsk..Writers of these business documents used several directand indirect approaches toward negative news.

2. Most of the negative news documents focused on thewriter of the document rather than the reader of thedocument.

3. Basic grammatical errors such as the agreement of sub-ject and verb and the use of incomplete sentences werenot found in the documents.

4. A larger number of negative documents wouldhave permitted more sophisticated statistical analysisas well as broader interpretations.

5 3

References

Adelstein, M. E., & Sparrow, W. K. (1990). Businesscommunications (2nd ed.) San Diego, CA: HarcourtBrace Jovanovich.

Adkins, B. (1982). Analysis of business communicationskills and knowledges as perceived by selected busi-nesspersons, teachers, and students in Kentucky. DeltaPi Epsilon Journal, 41(8), 12-17.

Bovee, C. L., & Thin, J. V. (1989). Business comnumi-cation today (2nd ed.) Ncw York: Random House.

Gibson, J. W., & Hodgetts, R. M. (1990). Businesscommunication New York: Harper & Row Publish-ers.

Harcourt, J., Krizan, A. C., & Merrier, P. (1991).Business convnunication (2nd ed.) Cincinnati, OH:South-Western Publishing Co.

Himstreet, W. C., & Baty, W. M. (1990). Businesscommunications (9th ed.) Boston, MA: PWS-KentPublishing Co.

38

Lemley, B. (1983). The relationship among perceptionsof business communications needs held by under-graduate students, their supervisors, and faculty at theUniversity of the District of Columbia. Delta PiEpsilon J ournal, 25(1), 9-22.

Locker, K. 0. (1989). Business and administrative com-munication. Homewood, IL: Irwin.

Murphy, H. A., & Hildebrandt, H. W. (1988). Effectivebusiness communications (5th ed.). New York:McGraw-Hill Book Company.

Quible, Z. K., Johnson, M. H., & Mott, D. L. (1988).Imroduction to business .c.,,nmunication (2nd ed.).Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Wilkinson, L. (1987). SYSTAT: The system for statistics.Evanston, IL: SYSTAT, Inc.

Wunsch, D. R. (1986). Survey research: Determiningsample size and representative response. BusinessEducation Forum, 40(5), 31-34.

An Analysis of Communication Effectiveness inPublic Accounting

Roberta J. CablePace University

Nancy S. FrydmanSacred Heart University

Abstract

The purpose of this research was to contribute to future accounting education by determining the needs of theprofession. C.P.A.'s at local, regional and 'Big Six' firms were surveyed to obtain their opinions of the capabili-ties needed for success in public accounting. The responses indicated that these capabilities included strong commu-nication and interpersonal skills. Staff accountants are the output of our undergraduate accounting education. There-fore, the C.P.A.'s also evaluated their staff accountants' verbal and written skills and considered them weak. SinceC.P.A.'s regard effective commtmication skills as important for success in their profession, more attention shouldbe Oven to improve these skills in the accounting curriculum.

An Analysis sin Conununicalion Effectivenessin Public Accounting

'Today, eniployees with poor communication skills cannotprogress far in public accounting' is the response given bya sampled majority of C.P.A.'s. However, when asked toevaluate their staff accountants' written and verbal commu-nication skills, the C.P.A.'s considered these skills weak.

This information was obtained from a recent survey ofpracticing C.P.A.'s. Prior to designing this survey, per-sonal interviews were conducted over a six-month period oftime. These interviews involved accountants at variouslevels employed in local, regional, and "Big Six' firms.Ultimately, a survey instrument was developed which in -eluded questions with regard to undergrad6ate courses inthe accounting curriculum, statements on the value ofcommunication skills in public accounting, and evaluationsof technical knowledge and communication skills.

This survey was mailed to 1,000 randomly selected practic-ing accountants who represented a cross-section of C.P.A.'s.There was approximately a forty-five percent response ratewhich r.ontributed to the validity and reliability of thisstudy. A program using SPSS-X was designed to performthe relevant statistical analysis.

A frequent,y distribution (refer to Exhibit I) was used todetermine the characteristics of our sample. Of the numberof C.P.A.'s who responded, the vast majority were male(89.2%) and partners (67.5 %). The functional area ofexpertise was mixed, in that, 38.4% worked in audit,

44.6% worked in taxes, 5.4% in MAS and 11.6% in other.Most respondents, 67.5 %, worked ten or more years inpublic accounting and 61.4% were employed at local firms.The greatest number of C.P.A.'s, 71.7% said their highestle7e1 of education was a B.S. or B.A. in accounting. Theother percentages were B.S. or B. A. in other majors,2.4%; M.S. in accounting, 5.4%; M.B.A. 12.0 %; andother degree, 8.4%. Importantly, it should be noted that thecharacteristics of this sample may not represent all account-ants employed in public accounting. Although the responserate was excellent at 45 %, the survey was restricted toC .P. A. 's.

Respondents were asked a variety of questions which wereorganized into three separate groups. The first grouprelated to the C.P.A.'s professional experience to his or herdesire to have taken additional undergraduate courses incertain academic areas. Most C.P.A. 's strongly agreed thatthey should have taken more courses in computer scienceand oral/written communication. They felt less stronglyabout taking more accounting courses, and were quitemixed about the value of additional liberal arts courses intheir undergraduate accounting curriculum. Interestingly,a few commented on the survey that computer courses werenot available to them at the time they attended college.

The second part of the survey consisted of a series ofstatements relating to public accounting and communica-tion skills. These statements were formulated as a result ofconducting personal interviews with practicing C.P.A.'s.Respondents expressed their opinions on these statementsusing a five point scale ranging from strongly agree tostrongly disagree.

39 r ,:-.OL)

The majority of C.P.A.'s agreed that accounting majorsmake the best accountants. The results were somewhatnuxed when asked if liberal arts majors would be unsuccess-ful at war firms. Most strongly agreed that good commu-nication skills were important for success in public account-ing. Relating to thir., opinions were mixed about technicalskills being the most important factor for promotion at theirfirms. Most C.P.A. - lesired a segment on communicationskills in the initial orientation program for staff account-ants. The amount of time which would be allocated to thiswas not specified in the survey. There was general dis-agreement that communication skills were more importantin audit than taxes. This can be interpreted that C.P.A.'sfind communication skills more imponant in taxes than inaudit. However, given the responses to the above state-ments, we think it is more likely that C.P.A.'s viewcommunication skills as important, regardless of one'sfunctional area of expertise. There was strong agreementthat employees with poor communication skills cannotprogress far in public accounting. Last, them was moderatedisagreement that written skills will become more impor-tant than verbal skills as one moves up the organizationalladder. One can interpret this as meaning that verbal skillswill become more important than written. Yet, given theabove responses, we think it is more likely that respondentsconsidered written and verbal communication skills equallyimportant.

In the third group of questions, C.P.A.'s were asked for anevaluation of their technical and communication skills aswelt as those of their staff accountuts. Respondents wereasked their opinions using a seven point scale ranging fromextremely strong to extremely weak. When evaluatingpresent skills, the majority of C.P.A.'s evaluated theirtechnical knowledge, written and verbal communicationskills as moderately strong to strong. On the other hand, themajority of C.P.A.'s evaluated their staff accountants'technical lolowledge and verbal communication skills withmixed feelings. Moreover, an overwhelming 84.5 % evalu-ated their staff accountants written skills with mixed feel-ings or considered them weak. When taking the *ideal* into

40

consideration, most C.P.A.'s agreed that their technicaland communication skills should eithur be strong or ex-tremely strong. Respondents desired all of these skills to bestrong for staff accountants.

Ultimately, a needs assessment was performed. This wasaccomplished by comparing the responses of present toideal skills. The needs ranged on a five-point scale from noneeds to maximum needs. Data was collapsed into a five-point scale as a result of the response evaluating the presentand ideal skills mentioned above. Most respondents hadminimum needs in technical knowledge and minimum tomoderate needs in verbal and written communication. Theyperceived minimum to moderate needs for staff accountantsin technical knowledge sOls and largely moderate needsfor verbal communication skills. Most importantly, in thewritten area, C.P.A. 's viewed their staff accountants' needsto be strong.

In this research, C.P.A.'s were asked to specify tneiropinions on some of the capabilities needed for success inpublic accounting. It is evident from their responses thatthese capabilities include strong communication and irger-personal skills. We consider most staff accountants o bethe output of our current undergraduate accounting pro-grams. C.P.A. 's were asked to evaluate their staff account-ants' verbal and written communication skills. As previ-ously stated, these skills were considered olatively weakwith strong needs particularly in the area of writtencommunication

Accounting undergraduate education should be relevant tothe accounting profession. The purpose of this research wasto contribute to figure accounting education by COMMIlili-cating the needs of the profession. By the year 2000, therewill be extensive changes in undergraduate accountingprograms. While controversy exists regarding the contentof the curriculum, our opinion is that consideration be givento includc Nnnumication courses that will develop verbaland written skills.

"s.

Exhibit ISurvey - Frequency Disributions

Some background information about yourself is requested. Please circ/e the answer which corresponds to your choice.

1. Your gender is10.8%

Female89.2%Male

2. Your accounting position in the firm is at the level of5.4% 23.5% 67.5% 3.9%Senior Manager Partner Other

3. Your functional arta of e7.pzrtise is38.4% 44.6%Audit Taxes

5.4%MAS

11.6%Other

4. Your length of time in public accounting is1.8% 16.9% 13.9% 67.5%0-4 years 5-7 years 8-9 years 10 or more

5. You would classify your firm as61.4% 7.8% 30.8%Local Regional Big Six

6. Your highest lev4 of education is71.7% 2.4% 5.4%BSIBA in BS/BA in MS inAccounting Other Accounring

12.0%MBA

8.4%OtherDegree

Please circle one number that best indicates your opiaion.

Knowing what I know today, I would have selected more undergraduate courses in the following academic areas:

StronglyAgree Agree

MixedFeelings Disagree

StronglyDisagree

7. Accounting 13.7% 31.3% 26.9% 22.5% 5.6%

8. Liberal Arts 9.5% 23.4% 29.7% 27.8% 9.5%

9. Computer Science 48.8% 38.3% 6.8% 4.3% 1.9%

10. Oral/WrittenCommunications 45.5% 40.6% 7.3% 4.8% 1.8%

Please respond by indicating your opinions on each of the following statements.

Strongly Mixed StronglyAgree Agree Feelings Disagree Disagree

11. Accounting majors make the best accountants.43.4% 37.3% 15.7% 3.0% .6%

12. Due to a lack of tecbnical knowledge, liberal art majors will not be successful in our firm.24.8% 27.9% 23.0% 21.2% 3.0%

13. The ability (o get one's ideas across through verbal and written communications is very important for success in public accounting.71.1% 27.1% 0.0% 1.2% .6%

41

S trongly Mixed 7 .12glY

Agree Agree Feelings Disagree Dtsagret

14. Technical accotmting skills are the most important factor in evaluating an employee for promotion.5.4% 27.1% 45.2% 19.2% 2.4%

15. An initial orientation program for staff level accountants should include a segment on communications skills.31.3% 54.2% 9.% % 5.4% 0.0%

16. An accountant who works in the audit area needs better communication skills than one who works in taxes.6.0% 12.7% 15.7% 4 5.2% 20.5%

17. Today, employees with poor communication skills cannot progress far in public accounting.23.5% 51.2% 18.7% 6.0% .6%

18. Written skills become more important than vetbal skills as one moves up the organizational ladder.7.8% 15.1% 32.5% 38.0% 6.6%

Directions: For each of the following factors, (1) place an "X* on the continuum from "extrenely weak" to "extremely strong" that bestrepresents where you presently see that factor; and (7) place an *0" on the continuum that best repre.,- eats where you would ideally liketo see that factor.

Example: My technical knowlege and skills4-

ExtremelyWeak

FACTORS RELATIVE TO MEFacL.: 1: My technical knowledge and skills

+-ExtremelyWeak

X

Factor 2: My abift to get ideas across through wrbal communication-I

ExtremelyWeak

Factor 3: My abilir to get ideas across through written communicationI-- -+

ExtremelyWeak

FACTORS RELATIVE TO STAFF ACCOUNTANTS IN MY FIRMFactor 4: Staff accountants' technical knowledge and skills

ExtremelyWeak

Factor 5: Staff accountants' ability to get ideas across through verbal commum'oadonI- --I 4-ExtremelyWcak

Factor 6: Staff accountants' ability to get ideas across through written communicationI- -4 -4- I- 4ExtremelyWeak

42

eJ

-ExtremelyStrong

ExtremelyStrong

1- --I

- - -ExtremelyStrong

ExtremelyStrong

ExtremelyStrong

4-ExtremelyStrong

ExtremelyStrong

An Analysis of the Dictation Practices and Preferencesof Today's Business Executives

Frank AnderaCentral Michigan University

Abstract

The study examined the dictation practices and preferences of today 's business executives. A majority of the respon-dents stated that dictation equipment was available to them for the preparation of their w:itten communication and thatover three-fourths of them have used dictation equipment.

The results indicated that the development of dictation skills was important for tomorrow's businws executives, thata college-level business communication course should teach the technique of machine dictation, and that futurebusiness commimication students should master the skill of speaking their words onto paper rather than always writingthem.

Introduction

Today's uusiness enviionment is in a constant state oftechnological change. Most bu*sses have incorpordtedthe technological advancements of word processing whichattempts to improve written communication and the pro-ductivity of managers and secretaries. Flatley concludedthat managers expect a marked increase in the use of moderntechnology to create their written communication (Flatley,1982). This advanced technology requires new skills andknowledge for both executives and secretaries.

A skill the executive has always relied upon for effectivecommunication requires the ability to compose and dictateeffective documents. But, research conducted by Mayershows that few word origination studies have addressed theimportance of dictation skills 2nd the formal training -lated to these skills (Mayer, 1980).

Satterwhite's research examined how today's technologyaffects basic communication skills. The research discussedwhat communication skills including dictation skills wereneeded by tcday 's graduates (Satterwhite, 19C6).

Halpern pointed out that college writing teachers can pre-pare students to address dictation problems by helping themadapt the familiar process of writing to the ,nifamiliarrequirements of speaking writing (Halpern, 1980).

In today's management of information systems, word proc-essing has brought about a change in the way communica-tion is completed. Word processing requires extensive useof machine dictation. The executive's ability to dictateeffective documents from an outline other than writing outthe entire document is an important cost saving measure.

-

One of the most frequent complaints from word processingsupervisors is that managers and executives lack the abilityto dictate properly. In some businesses, word processingcenters receive up to 80 percent of the documents in longhand form which reduces the efficiency of both the dictatorand the transcriber.

The need for speed, accuracy, and economy in communica-tion procedures has never been greater. Many believe theanswer to most correspondence problems is in the use ofdictation equipment. On the basis of years of experiencethrough countless studies conducted by Dictaphone Corpo-ration and its customers, the following average of varbusmethods of dictating and transcribing have been determined(Dictaphone, L-5I4).

Table 1Words Per Minute *

Method Authoring Taking Transcribing Net Production Rate

Long Hand 10 0 10 10 words per min.Short Hand 20 20 15 17.5 words per min.Machine

Dictation 40 0 15 27.5 words per min.

jource: "Electronic Dictation," Dk ae-Pimey Bowes,L-514.

According to the Dartnell Insti wte Target Survey, A Poll onTopics of Significant Interest To Business Executives, thecost of dictating and tranndbing the average business letterIws reached $10.26 for 1989 (Darmell, 1989). This lettercost was based on a letter that was dictated by a "boss" orcorrespondent to a secretary on a face-to-face basis. Ac-cording to Darnell, if one wants to fmd a business letter that

43

costs less, one will have to turn to machine dictated letters.Dartnell began reporting the cost of a letter which wasdictated through the use of a marhine in 1977. Today,Darmell's research demonstrates the cost-saving usingdictation to machine is approximately 22 percent iess or$7.97 when a letter is produced through the use of dictationequipment rather than face-to-face dictation (Dam :ell, 1989).

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to examine thc dictationpractices and preerences of business executives. A nation-wide random sample of 1000 business executives werequestioned about their specific dictation practices and pro-cedures. The executives were also asked to rate the impor-tance of various criteria in the development of a dictationskill.

The significance of this study was reflected in the advance-ment of wordprocessing systems. This new technology hascaused major changes in the way written communication iscreated. Organizatioas that have implemented word proc-essing systems now provide executives with the opportu-nity to create their written communication utilizing ma-chine dictation rather than the traditional handwritten draft.Thus, many executives have developed effective di.tationskills, and this study sought to exar.iine the opinions ofexecutives regarding what dictation skills are needed bytoday's executives.

Need for the Study

If businesses are to have the type of employees it needs andif today's graduates are to have the necessary skills to besuccessful, the content of all undergraduate courses thesestudents study must be appropriate. The relevancy of thecontent of a business communication course is just asimportant as any other course in the college curriculum. Inorder to maintain an up-to-date business communicationcourse, business communication researchers must regularlyassess the practices and procedures of those who work in thebusiness environment with the goal of continually refmingthe content of this valuable course.

Problem Investigated

The problem investigated in this study was to determine thedictation practices and preferences of business executives.specific questions asked included:

I. Is dictation equipment available to the execute ...sin their current position for the preparation oftheir written communication?

44

1. How often have the executives used dictation tocreate written communication?

3. How important is the development of dictationskills for tomorrow's business executives?

4. How important is it for a business communicationcourse at the college level to teach the technique ofmachine dictation?

5. Untie: what cut instances did the executives developthe skill of dictation, i.e. self taught, collegecourse instruction, or on-the-job instruction?

6. According to the executives, how important is thefollowing criteria in developing a dictation skill?a. Establishing a dictation routineb. Planning before one dictatesc. Using a brief outlined. Spelling difficult and confusing wordse. Providing the transcriber with all the

necessary instructions or detailsf. Mastering the art of speaking their words

onto paper rather than writing themg. Checking the quality of the transcriptionh. Checking the quality of the dictation

Methodology

A request was sent to members of Professional SecretariesInternational asking them to submit a detailed questionnaireto a business executive in their organization. Two hundredtwenty questionnaires were returned representing over twohundred companies in thirty-two states.

Characteristics of Respondents

The demographic characteristics of the business executivesis presented in Table 2.

Approximately two-thirds of the 220 respondents weremale and nearly three-fourths were 40 or older. Over three-fourths of the respondents were college graduates and overthree-fourths were either mid or top management. Therespondents represented a broad cross-section of businessand industry.

Findings

A majority of the respondents stated that dictation equip-ment was available to them for the preparation of theirwritten communication and that over three-fourths of tberahave used dictation equipment to create their written com-munication as shown in Table 3.

Go

Table 2Demographic Characteristiet of Business Executives

Characteristics Frequency Percent

GenderMale 144 66Female 76 34

Age20-29 12 530-39 56 2540-49 71 3250-59 63 2960 & Over 18 9

Education LevelHigh School 6 2Trade School 2 1

Some College 38 18

College Graduate 95 44Post Graduate 79 35

Position in Company

Top Management 106 49Mid Management 60 28First-Line Mgt 21 9Su_ avisory 15 6Other 18 8

Type of BusinessBank/Finance 20 9Manuf/Utility 57 26Sales/Service 23 10Govt/Education 54 25Other 66 30

Table 3Availability and Usage of Dictation Equipment

Questions

Is dictatdon equipment availableto you for the preparation ofyour written communication?

Have you used dictation equipmentto create your writtencommunicaZion?

Response Percent

Yes 72

Yes 76

When the business executives were asked how they devel-oped their skills at machine dictation, an astounding num-ber of them learned by trail and error. Nearly 80 percent ofthe respondents developed their dictation skill by teachingthemselves as reported in Table 4. Astonishingly, only sixpercent of the business encutives received college courseinstruction on the proper procedures for developing adictation skill.

45

Table 4Under Wzsat Circumstances Did You Derelop the Skill ofDictation?

Method Percentage

Self Taught 78

College Course Instruction 6On-The-Job lastruction 14

Other 2

When the business executives were asked how importantwas the development of dictation skills for tomorrow'sbusiness executive, a majority of them responded that it wasvery important if aot essential for them to have this skill. Asindicated in Table 5, the development of machine dictationskills was considered important or higher by 83 perccnt ofthe respondents. One-thinl of the business executivesstated that it was essential for future executives to developdictation skills.

Table 5How Imp.rtant is the Development of Dictation Skills forTomorrow's BusinIts Executives?

Level of Importanet. Percentage

Not Important 8

Some Importance 8

havortant 28

Very Important 22

Essential 33

When the responses from the business executives werecomparedin reference to their position in the company, thefmdings showed that the higher the business executive'spositionthe greater the importance of dictation skill devel-opment. Thirty-nine perceat of the top managers andtwenty-eight percent of the mid managers reported that thedegree of importance in dictation skill development wasessential as can be seen in Table 6.

Teble 6Degree of Importance in Dictation Skill Developntentas Defmedby Position in the Company

Position Not Some Veryin Compy Important Importance important Important Essential

Top Mgt 7 % 9 % 21 % 24 % 39 %Mid Mgt 12 % 7 % 33 % 20 % 28 %Frst/Lint 14 % 10 % 33 % 24 % 19 %Suprvisry 0 8 % 46 % 31 % 15 %Other 0 % 12 % 44 % 13 % 31 %

As shown in Table 7, when tke business executives wereasked how important is it for a business communicationcourse at the college level to teach the technique of machinedictation, over half of the respondents stated it was veryimportant or critical. It is also important to aote that nearlyone-third of the respondents stated it was critical for acollege-level business communication course to teach thetechnique of machine dictation.

Table 7How Important is it for a Business CommunkationCourse at the College Level to Teach the Techniqueof Machine Dicaian?

Level of Importance

Not Important

Some ImportanceImportantVery ImportantEssential

Percentage

9

12

2821

30

When comparisons were made between the business execu-tive's posi don in the company and degree of importance fora college business communication course to teach machinedictation, a majority from each clmification of positionstated it was either very important or essential for a collegebusiness communication course to teach machine dictationas can be seen in Table 8.

Table 8Degree of Importance for a College BusinessConununkation's Course to Teach Machine Diets.tionas Defined by Position in the Company

Position Not Some Veryin Compy Important Importance Important Important Essential

Top Mgt 11 % 11 % 29 % 20 % 29 %Mid Mgt 7 % 10 % 30 % 18 % 35 %Frst/Line 14 % 10 % 24 % 38 % 14 %Suprvisry 0 % 8 % 46 % 31 % 15 %Other 0% 24 % 13 % 19 % 44%

Regarding the fmdings of what specific machine dictationskills were deemed important to the development of gooddictation practices, the business executives rated planningin advance and providing all the necessary instructions asseveral of the most important skills to be devek_ xi. Table9 shows the level of importance for each machine dictationskill as rated by the respondents.

Fifty-six percent of the business executives stated thatcreating a routine as a machine dictation skill as veryimportant or essential. Eighty-six percent of the respon-dents stated that planning before one dictates is very impor-tant or essential. Over half stated that using a brief outlinewas very important to essential. Nearly three-fourths of thebusiness executives stated it was very important or essentialfor dictators to provide the transcribers with all the neces-

46

sary instrucnons and details. Mastering the art of speakingone's words onto paper rather than writing them was ratedvery i -portant or essential by seventy-seven percent of theparticipants. Two-thirds of the business exeritives statedthat it was very important to essenual to check the quality ofthe transcription and more than half of the business execu-tives stated it was important oi essential to check the qualityof the dictation.

Table 9Value of Dictation Skills

Not Some VerySkills Important Importance Important Important Essential

Creatingroutine

7 12 25 30 26*

Planningdictation

2 1 11 29 57

Using anoutline

10 12 24 31 23

Spellingwords

13 13 20 24 30

Providingdetails

5 5 16 20 54

Masteringspeaking

4 3 16 33 44

Checkbgtranscrip

6 7 22 28 37

Chockingdictation

7 8 26 32 27

*Percentage of response.

Conclusions

The results of the evaluation of findings led the researcherto the fundamental conclusion that dictation skill develop-ment is important to business executives. In addition, thedata provided by the study supported the following relatedconclusions:

1. Dictation equipment is available to a majority ofthe business executives in their current positionfor the preparation of their written communica-tion.

2. A majority of the business executives have useddictation machines to create written communica-tion.

3. Nearly three-fourths cf the business executivesStated that the development of dictation skills wasimportant for tomorrow's business executives.

4. Nearly eighty percent of the business executivesstated that a college-level business communicationcourse should teach the technique of machinedictation.

6.2

S. Seventy-eight percent of the business executiveshad to teach themselves the skill of machinedictation.

6. Only six perccnt of the business executives devel-oped the skill of machine dictation through collegecourse instruction.

7. The majority of the business executives rated asimportant or higher the various '...ri teria in develop-ing a dictation skill such as est ablishing a dictationroutine, planning before onc dictates, using anoutline, spelling difficult words, providing in-structions, mastering the art of speaking, andchecking Me quality of dictation and transcription.

Recommendations

Based on the findings and conclusions of this study, thefollowing recommendations are uttered:

1. A college-level business communication courseshould contain a unit on machine dictation.

2. Business communication students should masterthe skill of speaking their words onto paper ratherthan always writing them.

3. Business communication students should becomeproficient in the usage of some form of electronicdictation equipment.

References

Altobello, Dan (1986). Dictation system for an executiveon the wing. The Office, 80.

Brindza, Stephen (1987). DictationCompressing dis-tanceexpanding productivity. Modern Office Technol-ogy, 84-91.

Dartnell Target SurveyA poll on the topics of significantinterest to business executives (1989). The Dartnell In-stitute of Business Research.

47

Electronic dictation. DictaphonePitney Bowes Com-pany. L-514.

Evans, Sherli (1984). Stop writing start dictating. OfficeAdministration and Automation, July, 57-61.

Flatley, Marie (1982). A comparative analysis of thewritten communication of managers at various organ-izational levels in the private business sector. Journalof Business Communication, 19 (3), Summer, 35-49.

Goodwin, Edward H. and Skip Swerdlow (1987). Thecurrent quality of written correspondence: A stat isticalanalysis of the performance of 13 industry and orgart -izational categories. Bulletin of the Associatiov, forBusiness Communication, 50 (1), March 12-16.

Halpern, Jeanne (1980). Paper voices: How dictation andword processing are changing the way college gradu-ates write. Research prepared at Purdue University,43.

Harrison, Teresa M (1987). Frameworks for the study ofwriting in organizational contexts. Written Comrnuni-catio, 24(1), Winter, 23-25.

Lewis, Stephen (1975). The effect of word processing onbusiness letter writing. Doctoral dissertation, Univer-sity of North Dakota, Grand Forks.

Mayer, Kenneth (1980). Synthesis of word origination re-search and application for business communicationcurricula. Research prepared at Cleveland State Uni-versity, Ohio, James Nance College of Business Ad-ministration, 26.

Satterwhite, Marilyn (1986). Communication skills in theelectronic office. Business Education World 66(2),Spring, 25-26.

Assessing the Preparation for TeachingOffice Readirg Skills

B. June SchmidtVirginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

Abstract

This research examined the extent that prospecdve business teachers develop the office reading skills of rroofread-ing, verifying, and comprehending detail. On a 60-item test, based on actual office documents, they had a mean scoreof51.4, or 86%, of the items correct. Juniors, seniors, and post-baccalaureate students from 8 of 10 institutions thatprepare busiciess teachers in Virginia participated in the study. Previous research established levels of performancefor high school sturiefit: on the test items. The performance of the prospective teachers was considerably better thanhigh school business students, but not at a level desirable for sctting an example in a teaching situation. They wereespecially weak in proofreading, scoring only 81.5%, or roughly 16 out of 20 items correct.

Introduction

The National Center on Education and the Economy (*HighSkills.. ., 1990) reports that worker productivity ising only one-third as fast as it was in 1973. One of the majorcauses of this decline is a lack of workplace basics, orliterncy, (Carnevale, Gainer, & Meltzer, 1988) amongyoung people coming to the job. Employers continue toexpress concern about the preparation of workers, noting analarming disparity between skills needed for our emergingtechnological society and those prospective employees have.For example, a poll of human resoura ':ficers of thenation's 1,200 largest corporadons rev. Jed that theseorganizations interview 7 to 8 applicants to find one accept-able employee (*Bosses Are Unhappy. . ., 1990).

The devel.opment of technical, job-related reading skills hasbeen and continues to be of coirern to educators. In 1979,Seifert noted that rmling on the job is often quite differentfrom reading in the classroom, while H ill estad (1979) notedthe existence of a need to determine how well studentsprepared for office work can cope with reading demands onthe job. Further, Martin and Tolson (1985), reporting oia survey of employers sponsored by the Virginia Occupa-tional Information Coordinating Committee to determinethe impact of technological change on the workforce,identified four new targets for educational emphases thatwill help employees meet changing skill requirements. Thefirst of these includes expansion of basic skills instruction toencompass reading and understanding technical materials.

Research conducted by the Educational Testing Service(From School. . ., 1990, pp. 13-14) provides specificinformation regarding differences in workplace reading andschool-based reading. In examining 17-year olds perform-auce, they found that even for those rated as adept readerson school-based literacy assessment, 23 % could not per-

49

form satisfactorily on workplace literacy reading tests.This type literacy, called *Document Literacy, is

described as

The knowledge and skills required to locate anduse information contained in job application orpayroll forms, bus schedules, maps, tables, in-dexes, and so forth. (p. 13)

Thus a need exists to develop a closer match betweenreading taught in schools and reading skills needed in theworkplace, which is the major focts of adult rcading. Foroffice work, Ross (1979) and Salyrnan (1979) identifiedthree unique, job-related reading skills: proofreading, veri-fying, and comprehending detail. Building on their work,Schmidt (1982) examined the performance of high schoolbusiness students on the three skills and learned that stu-dents preparing for office occupations did have betterproofreading skills than business students not in occupa-tional offerings. Schmidt (1986) further examined whetherprospective office workers can be helped to attain verifyingand comprehending detail skills through use of exercisematerial based on actual office documents. Outcomes ofthis research indicate that even limited use of the materialincreased students ability to read it. Thus these skills can betaught.

Research Questions

No research, however, has addressed whether prospectivebusiness teachers have developed the skilk themselves andare, in turn, likely to teach them. This study was, therefore,completed to answer two research queLdons.

1. To what extent have prospective business teachersdeveloped the office reading skills of proofreading,verifying, and comprehending detail?

0tx'

2. How does the performance of prospective businessteachers on each of the three reading skills compare tothat of high school busiliess students?

Procedures

Procedures for the study required identifying subjects,preparing and administering tests, and analyzing test out-COMICS.

Subjects

Subjects for the study were juniors, seniors, and post-baccalaureate students enrolled in business teacher prepa-ration programs in Virginia. Approximately 50 studentscomplete business teat-hex preparation programs in Vir-ginia each year; thus, about 100-110 such stud= wereenrolled at 10 institutions of higher education locatedthroughout the Conmonwealth. The business educationprogram leaders at the institutions were contacted andasked to have their students participate. All 10 respondedaffirmatively.

Preparing and Administering the Tests

A 60-item test was prepared. It contained 50 items used inprevious rexaith and 10 new items. The Kuder-Richanisoninternal consistency reliability estimates (KR-20) valuesfor the 20 v.rifying and 20 compreLending detail itemspreviously used were .71 and .77, respectively (Schmidt,1986). For the 10 proofreading items, the KR-20 valuewas .63 (Schmidt, 1982). These items were, thus, suffi-ciently reliable for further research use and they can beconsidered valid in that they were constructed from actualoffice documents with the reading levels of their contentcontrolled to match those of similar documents. Ten addi-tional proofreading items, also based on an actual officedocument, were added to provide 20 items for each of thethree reading skills.

The 60-item test and directions for completing it wereduplicated and copies were distributed to the businessteacher educators at each of the 10 institutims. Theyassumed rponsibility for administering the tests and forreturning them. The prospective business teachers re-corded their answers on op-scans to simplify scoring of thetests.

Analyses of Test Outcomes

Descriptive statistics computed for the total rest and foreach of the three 20-item parts included means, standarddeviation.s, and minimum and maximum values for thenumber of items correct. Further, KR-20 values werecomputed for the total test and for each of the three parts.

50

Findings

Seventy-one students from 8 of the 10 institutions partici-pated in the study. One institution did not respond after theinitial contact even though encouraged to do so throughnumerous phone calls. Another institution had no studentsin the business teacher ptcparation program above thesophomore level. Determining the exact number of stu-dents preparing to become business teachers is difficult.However, assuming a total of 100 to 110 students at thejunior level or above in Virginia, the 71 students representa response rate of 65 te 71%.

In answer to the first research question, the prospectivebusiness teachers had an average score of 51.4 items correcton the 60-item test with a KR-20 internal consistencyreliability estimate of .69 as shown in Table 1. The numbercorrect represents 86%.

For the second research question, the prospective teachershad a mean score of 16.3 for proofreading, missing 4 itemsout of 20 on the average. For the 10 proofreading it.mspreviously used with high school students (n = 1,209),Schmidt (1982) reported a mean score of 7.8. Thus the highschool students missed approximately 2 out of 10 items.However, bad they completed all 20 items, the number theymissed would most likely be more than double the numbermissed on the 10 items. Comparing results between theprospective teachers and high school students for the 20verifying and 20 comprehending detail items is more clearcut as each group cc..,mpleted the same 20 items for eachskill. The prospective teachers bad mean scores of 17.1 znd18.0 for the two skills. Schmidt (1986) reported that after10 days of irstruction, 15 minutes per day, thAat high schoolstudents (n = 305) scored 14.1 on verifying and 14.8 oncomprehending detail. Thus for verifying, the prospectiveteachers missed 3 items out of 20 on the average; whiie highschool students missed 6 out of 20. For comprehendingdetail, the prospective teachers missed 2 items out of 20;while the high school students missed 5 out of ' 0.

For the 20 proofreading items, the KR-20 value for theprospective teachers .63. For the 10 proofreading itemspreviously completed by high school business students (n =1,209), Schmidt (1982) reported a KR-20 value of .54.Twenty items versus 10 most likely increased the reliabilityestimate value. The KR-20 values for the prospectiveteachers for the 20 verifying and 20 comprehending detailitems were .44 and .55. For the high school students on thesame items, Schmidt (1986) reported values of .71 and .77.The number of high school students completing the itemswas 305 versus 71 prospective teachers, thus the itemszppeared to be more reliable for the high school students.Further, the distribution of the scores for the prospectiveteachers probably affected the reliability estimates as their

Table 1Descriptive Statistics for the 60-lune Total Test and for Each of the 204tern Pans

Item*Mean No.Correct

StandardDeviation

MinimumCorrect

MaximumCorrcct KR-20

60 Items( Total Test) 71 51.4 1.7 39 60 .69

20 ProofreadingItems 71 16.3 .2 9 20 .63

20 VerifyingItems 71 17.1 1.2 8 20 .44

20 ComprehendingDetail Items 71 18.0 1.8 8 20 .55

scores were not distributed over as broad a range as thescores for the high school studems.

Discussion

The overall performance of the prospective business teach-ers on the 60-item office reading skills test, 86% of theitems correct, could be considered adequate. They did,however, miss more than 1 item out of 10, hardly a leveldesirable for grading students' papa

For proofreading, they displayed a skill level comparable tothat of high school students, The prospective teachersidentified 81.5% of 20 lines of typed material as matchingor not matching rough-draft copy. High school students ona similar test of 10 lines scored 78%. Both groups inaccu-rately proofread approximately 2 lines out of 10. Consid-ering the brevity of the tests, misreading from rough draftto fmal copy at this level mdicates a definite need forimprovemeu on this skill.

For verifying and comprehending detai% the prospectiveteachers' performance on the 20-item parts of the test wasconsiderably better than that of the high school students.For verifying, 85.5% versus 70.5% for the high scholstudents; for comprehending deal!, 90 % versus 74%. Theperformance of the prospective teachers on these two skillscould, however, stand improvement. Expecting scores of100% on a test as detailed as the one used in this study, a testbased on actual office documents, would be unrealistic.Exriecting prospective teachers to score on all the skills atthe 95% level does not seem unreasonable.

51

Business teacher educators can take &weral steps to 11,.,)prospective teachers improve ther job-related reading skillsof proofreading, verifying, and comprehending derail. First,they can make the prospective teachers aware that theuniquo skills exist and exactly what each entails (Schmidt,1988). Second, they can provide the prospective teacherswith practice in the use of the skills- on actual officedocuments. Third, they can have the prospective teachersbe responsible for grading performance of the skills bystudents in introckatory level courses including keyboard-ing/typewriting, computer applications, and officesysttms.

A serious discrepancy cxists between development of tech-nical reading skills (From School. . ., 1990; Martin to .olson,1985) and Nuirements of the workplace. Business educa-tors can help eliminate the discrepancy m two ways: (a) bydeveloping an awareness of it and (b) by providing instruc-tion aimed at helping their students develop technical read-ill skills used in office settings. The prospective businessteachers from the 8 institutions included hi this study are,no doubt, typical of those at other institutions. Their per-formance on job- related reading skills substantiates the ex..istence of the discrepancy and ina:zzcs a definite need foraction.

References

Bosses are unhappy with new workers. (1990). VocationalEducation Jour-awl, 65(5), 21.

6 6

Carnevale, A. P. , Gainer, L. J &Meltzer, A. S. (1988).Workplace basics: The skills imployers want. Alexan-dria, VA: American &clay for naining and Develop-ment.

From school to work. (1990). Princeton, NJ: EducationalTesting Service

High skills. ..or low wages. (1990). Vocational FdurcuionJournal, 65(5), 19.

Hillestad, M. (1979). Reading tasks in thc office. Journalof Business Education, 54, 182-184.

Martin,3. H. &Tolson, D. 3. (1985). Changingjob skillsin Virginia: What employers say. Charlottesville:Report of the Tayloe Murphy Institute, University ofVirginia.

Ross, N. (1979). An analysis of the nature and dcultyof reading tasks associated with &ginning office work.Doctoral dissertation, The Ohio vate University, Co-lumbus.

52

Salrnian, M. (1! -9). A descrtpave study of the reading,v...iting, and mathematics tasks of beginning officeworkers. Doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State Uni-versity, Columbus.

Schmidt, B. J. (1988). ProspecthPe business teachen'preparation for teaching technical reading skills usedby office workers. Paper presented at the meetings ofthe American Educational Research Association, NewOrleans.

Schmidt, B. J. (1986). Developing job-1elatcd readingskills ofbusiness students. Paper prmented at the DeltaPi Epsilon Business Education Research Conference,Chicago.

Schmid:, B. J. (1982). Job-related reauing skills .!evel-oped by business students. The Journal of Vocational&Jura:ion Research, 7(4), 29-3S.

Seifert, M. (1979). Reading on the job. Journal ofReading, 22, 360-362.

6 7'

A Comparison of Errors Detected:Softcopy vs. Hardcopy

Randy L. JoynerEast Carolina University

B. June SchmidtJeff'rey R. Stewart, Jr.

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

Abstract

Office producdvity depends on workers being able to accurately detect and correct errors in any format or medium.Rapidly advancing technology has altered the structure of the office with the majority of office employees usingmicrocomputers and related software to p roduce business documents, with erro r correction occurring at the softcopystageon the monitor. This study was designed to determine if the ability to accurately detect errors in keyboardedtext is affected by the medium used to detect errors.

Introduction

Office employees are the key link in providing accurateinformation needed by management to make decisions.Office productivity depends on workers being able toaccurately detect and correct errors in any format ormedium. Today, the tendency is to depend on the spellingverification feature of word processing software to detecterrors. However, not all errors are detected as many appearin final copies of documents (Rubin, 1981).

Research Objective

Increased usage of microcomputers and word processingsoftware has been linked to decreased proficiency indetecting errors and in turn to decreased office productivity(Waters, 1983). Thus, a number of quegions ariseincluding: (a) Is it 'etter to proofread from hardcopy orsoftcopy docummts1 or (b) 1. s the color or contrastconfiguration of a monitor affect an office worker's abilityto proofread? An office worker's ability to accuratelydetect errors in keyboarded text from different media hasnot been previously investigated. This article, based on adissertation by Joyner (1989), rerorts outcomes for fournull hypotheses.

Fournull hypotheses, based on the research objective, weretested.

I. A significant difference will not exist in the number oferrors detected when proofreading hardcopy versussoftcopy documents.

2. A significant difference will not exist in the type oftypographical errors detected wIlen proofreadinghardcopy versus softcopy documents.

3. A significant difference will not exist in the number oferrors detected when proofreading text on differentmonitorsa color monitor, a gmen on black monitor,or a b'ack on white monitor.

4. A significant difference will not exist in the type oftypographical errors detected when proofreading texton different monitors.

Procedure

Individuals enrolled in four community college word proc-essing courses during the sixth week of the 1988 FallQuarter represented the individuals participating in thisstudy. A pretest was administered, and participants readand detected errors in one of four errcr detection instru-ments presented in either a hardcopy or softcopy format.Three different magyar caifiguradms were used for softcopyerror detection. Participants were directed to detect andmark or indicate errors; they were told not to correct anyerrors.

The pretest and the error detection instruments containedsix error categories: extra letter, incorrect letter, incorrectpunctuation, incorrect spacing, omitted letter, and transpo-sition. The incorrect letter type of error was divided intofour subcategories: shift, phonetic, word choice, and

53 Ft C

nusstroke. Participants reading from a hardcopy documentcircled with a pencil any errors detected. When readingfrom a softcopy document, participants used the overstrikefeature of the word process software. Errors marked by theparticipants were organized on a score sheet developed bythe researcher.

Participants were not allowed to use a computerized spell-ing verifier during the error detection process. However,errors that could have been found by the spelling verifierwere eliminated from the analyses of data. Omitted fromanalyses were the extra letter, transposition, and mistroketypes of errors.

The data collected were analyzed through an Analysis ofCovariance (ANCOVA) using a counterbalanced designwith pretest scores serving as the covariates. The numberand the types of errors detected were compared to determineif significant differences existed when the four hypotheseswere tested at an a priori alpha level of .05. If significantdifferences we:J identified, the source of the di ffe renco wasdetermined by the larger of the two means or by theDuncan's New Multiple Range Test when more than twomeans were compared.

Analysis of Data

The first hypothesis was used to compare the total numberof errors detected by environment-hardcopy or softcopy.As indicated in Table 1, anANCOVA procedure identifieda significant difference between the two means. The meannumber of errors detected for hardcopy was 9 versus 6 forsoftcopy. Therefore, the hypothesis was rejected; more er-rors were detected when participants read from hardcopydocuments.

Table 1ANCOVA Outcome for Total Errors Detected by ErrorDetection Environment

Source dfSum ofSquares

Meat:Square

FValue P>F

fretest 1 76.07 76.07 7.16 .009

Error DetectionEnvironment 1 93.55 93.55 8.81 .004*

Error 69 732.90 10.62

Total 71 928.98

*2 < .05.

The second hypothesis addressed the types of errors cor-rectly detected when using different error detectionmedia-hardcopy or softcopy. As indicated in Table 2, anANCOVA identified significant differences for three types

54

of errors: incorrect letter, incorrect punctuation, and incor-rect spacing. A significant difference was also identifiedthrotghANCOVA procedures as reported in Table 3 for theshift type of incorrect letter error. More incorre-- letter,incorrect punctuation, and incorrect spacing typ errorsand shift type of incorrect letter errors were h...au whenparticipants read from hardcopy documents.

Table 2ANCOVA Outcomes for 7)pes of Errors Detected

Typeof a

Error dfFValue P>F N Mean

StandardDeviation

Total IncorrectLetters 1 5.74 .0193*

Hardcopy 18 9.28 4.87

Soilcopy 54 5.92 4.40

IncorrectPunctuation 1 6.73 .0116*

Hardcopy 18 1.78 .64

Softcopy 54 1.15 .95

IncorrectSpacing 1 8.42 .0050*

Hardcopy 18 .67 .48

Softcopy 54 .29 .46

OmittedLetters 1 .00 .9828

Hardcopy 18 .56 .78

Softcopy 54 .63 1.01

adegrees of freedom for pretest = 1, for error =-69,

for total = 71

SP < .05.

Table 3ANCOVA Outcomes for Incorrect Letter Type of ErrorSubcategories

Typeof aError df

FValue P>F N Mean

StandardDeviation

Shift 1 702 .010*

Hardcopy 18 4.94 2.38

Soflcopy 54 3.19 2.21

Phonetic 1 2.90 .093

Hardcopy 18 2.17 2.25

Soficopy 54 1.33 1.74

Word Choice 1 2.21 .141

Hardcopy 18 2.16 1.42

Softcoov 54 1.39 1.19

adegrees of freedom for pretest = 1, for error = 69,

for total = 71

*2 < .05.

The third hypothesis =mina' the relationship among thethree softcopy error detection environment configurationsand the number of errors correctly detected. The ANCOVAresults, as reported in Table 4, did not identify any signifi-cant differences. Therefore, the color configuration of themonitor was not related to the number of errors found byparticipants.

Table 4ANCOVA Owcone for Tctl Softopy Errors Derectd by SoftcopyError Detection Enrironntent

Source dfSum of

SquaresMean

SquareF

Value P>F

Pretest 1 62.23 62.93 5.37 .025

Softcopy ErrorDetectionEnvironment 2 o.5:, 3.26 .28 .755

Error 40 579.60 11.59

Total 53 650.98

The fourth hypothes addressed the relationship between thecolor configuration of the monitor and the types of errorsdetected. 1`.. s indicated in Table 5, the ANCOVA results did

not reveal any significant differences for any of the types oterrors. Therefore, the monitor's color configurvion wasnot related to the types of errors found by parfcipants.

Conclusions and Implications

Overall. more errors were detected when participants readfrom hardcopy. Even though the number or errors detectedon hardcopy documents was greater than on softcopy docu-ments, the number of errors detected for both types ofdocuments was unacceptable for usable copy. The errordei;ction accuracy by participants was 56%. The numberof errors found by participants when reading from hardcopyranged from 4 to 14 out of a possible 14; when reading fi omsoftcopy, the number of errors found ranged from 0 to 14out of a possible 14.

Error detection is easy with modern technology (Runt,1981), but a computerized error detection and correctionprocess is not sufficient to fmd and correct all errors (Camp,!983). Only a minimal number of errors were found byparticipants in this study that could not be loczted by aspelling verifier. Keyboard operator; should visually re-view text on the monitor for errors that cannot be identifiedby a spelling verifier.

When detecting errors, office workers are not timed. Thetime limitatior :1 ten minutes imposed in this study mayexplain why c A. the four error detection environments

55

Table 5ANCOVA Otacomes for Types of Errors Detected

TypeofError

adf

FValue P>F N Mean

StandardDeviation

Total IncorrectLetters 2 .12 .883

Dark Blue/Light Blue 18 6.11 5.20

Black/White 18 5.55 3.47Green/Black 18 6.11 4.64

IncorrectPunctuation 2 1.26 .293

Dark Blue/Light Blue 18 1.00 .s4

BlaLt/White 18 1.00 .s4

Green/Black 18 1.44 1.15

IncorrectSpacing 2 .47 .477

Dr.:k Blue/Light Blue , 18 .22 .43

Black/White 18 .39 .50Green/Black 18 .28 .46

Omitted Letters 2 .73 .485Dark Blue/

Light Blue 18 .78 1.06Black/White 18 .39 .78

Greem/Black 18 .72 1.17

adegrees of freedom for pretest = 1, for error = 50,for total = 53

was not identified as mote ccnducive for fmding errors thananother. A study, simalating an office environment, isrecommended to determine the effect of increased time ofthe error detection process.

Today's information-oriented society is dependent upontimely and accurate informadon (Howard, 1984). Businesseducators face a tremendous challenge in preparing officeemployees with needed error detection skills. The extent ofundetected errors in this study indicates that error detectioninstruction should be emphasized in all phases of education.

References

Camp. S. C. (1983). Accuracy and proofreading: Skills indemand. Business Education World, 63(4), 16.

Howard, B. B. (1984). Varithles c ntributing to the vari-ance in the production rate ofword processing special-ists. Unpublished doctcral dissertation, Georgia StateUniversity at Atlanta.

Joyner, R. L. (1989). A comparison of errors detected:Video display terminals vs. hardcopy. Unpublisheddoctoral dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Instituteand State University, Blacksburg.

Rubin, A. S. (1981). Typing and the automated officeIsaccuracy still important? Business Education World,62(2), 12, 31.

Waters, C. R. (1983). Just when you thought it was safe togo back into the office.. Inc., 5(1), 69-74.

56

71

Development of a Rating Scale for DeterminingImportance of Ethical Issues in Business

Debbie D. DuFreneFlorence E. Elliott-Howard

Stephen F. Austin State University

Larry G. DanielUniversity of Southern Mississippi

Abstract

Public attention has focused on the neeu for heightened emplmis on ethical behavior in business. The goal of thisresearch was to identify those ethical issues that are viewed as most important by business practitioners and businessfaculty. Business faculty from two southern universidm and business nersons from the two university communitieswere surveyed to gain their responses to a list of 52 potential ethical issues in terms of their ,importance or lack ofimportance to the busine s community. Based on their responses, an overall ranking of issues was obtained which willserve as the basis for the design of a KohIberg-type episodic instrument for assessing business ethical orientation.

Background

Because of a growing interest in the subject of businessethics, much discussion is occurring as to whether ethicscan be taught, assessed, or improved pmong college stu-dents. If it is assumed that ethical development can beassessed or measured, then an appropriate means of meas-urement must be selected. Argument exists to support theuse of numerous techniques for measurement of ethicaldevelopment, including interview (Baxter-Magolda, 1987),analysis of written statements (Taylor, 1983), and responsete objective items (Thomas, 191,9).

The basic andoverriding question of this research is whethera paper and pencil insmument can be developed to assessethical orientation of students in regard to business dilem-mas. Such instruments have been developed to look atuniversal ethical concerns (e.g., Kohlberg, 1969). Inaddition, some professional groups have developed instru-ments for business settings (e.g., Budnar, 1987). A prac-tical approach has typically been taken in the developmentof many instruments. It appears, however, than a needexists to develop instrumentation that is based on theoreti-cal considerations about moral/ethical reasoning. Further-more, any such it lument should accurately reflect ethicalconcerns as viewea by the business community. Appropri-ate research techniques must then be employed to assurecredibility of results.

The typical evaluation technique used in the study of moral-reasoning processes has been that of observing how peoplerespond when confronted with a number of moral-decision

situations, also referred to cs incidents or episodes (Tho-mas, 1989). The responses are " In used as the basis forderiving generalizations about tui, individuals' moral/ethi-cal development. This practice of using a few moralepisodes as the foundation for broad-range conclusions hasbeen widely adapted, but it is not without difficulties; it hasevoked quesdons about the validity of the techniques,particularly concerning social class (Thomas, 1989) and sexbiases (Cortese, 1984), Unless the moral/ethical episodesincluded in the instrument are carefully structured, resultsmay be distorted by such biases. Another identified weak-ness of such instruments is their lack of predictive validity;that is moral/ethical development scores do not necessarilyaccurately predict ethical behavior (Cortese, 1984).

An overarching framework has bmn proposed for theprocess of developing instrumentation for ethical reasoningthat addresses some of these issues (Thomas, 1989). Sev-eral stIps are suggested as ar Iropriate for creating instru-ments: 1) Genervi, a pool of potential moral/ethical eorcerns, 2) select knowledgeable judges to identify from melist of potential moral/ethical concerns those that they judgeto be ethical issues, 3) establish a hiera:chy of incidentsbased on the responses received from judges, 4) prepare testepisodes. Various studies, (e.g., Budnar, 1987) haveutilized this procedure or some form fif it.

The present study r's concerned with the compleron of thefirst three steps just described. A secord and separate phaseof this re; :arch will involve the development of an instru-ment designed to measure ethical response to business-based episodes identified in this study. The imal instrument

will follow the Kohlberg model of moral development(Kohlberg, Colby, Gibbs, Speicher-Dubin, & Powers,1978).

PurPose

This study identifies and ranks a set of ethical issues thatbusiness faculty and business practitioners feel are impor-tant to the business community and therefore to the businessclassroom.

Procedures

A list of 52 potential moral/ethical concerns related tobusiness and business practices was devised, based onexamination of business ethics textbooks (e.g., DeGe ,e,1990; Frederick, Davis, & Post, 1988; Hay, Gray, &Smith, 1989), discussions with business faculty, currentevents, etc. These 52 items formed the ba ....fe. for thedevelopment of the Issues Rating Scale. Several facultymembers and business persons were asked to pilot test theinstrument in preparation for the final version and toascertain the approximate time necessary for completing thequestionnaire A panel of judges was then selected to ratethe importance of each of the issues; the panel was com-prised of mo sectors: business faculty and businesspractitioners.

The pool of judges consisted of judges from the businessfaculty cztegoty and from the business practitioner cue-gory. The business faculty cohoie consisted of the businessfaculties employed at Stephen F. Austin State .sity,Nacogdoches, Texas, and at the University of SouthernMississippi, Hattiesburg, Mississippi. Both campuses arelocated in rural southern settings and have approximatelythe same student enrollment. All faculty members (Li =174) in these schools of business were sent a survey consist-ing of the Issues Rating section described previously as wellas several items designed to obtain background informationfrom participants (such as teaching area, years in teaching,and percepdons about ethics of business students). Ninety-two questionnaires were distributed at Stephen F. AustinState University; 82 were. distributed at the University ofSouthern Mississippi. Usable data were returned by 52 ofthe respondents (29.9 %) in this cohort.

The business practitioner cohort (n = 203) was created bysurveying businesses in the communities immediately sur-rounding the two universities. Manufacturers lists wereobtained from the area chambers of commerce. Correspon-dence was addressed to the president or other execudve/managerial officer. The business version of the survey formcontained the same Issues Rating section sent to faculty, butthe background informatioa requested was different.Questions in this section referred to type of business,characteristics of the business, and jc:. title, uf the respon-

58

dent. Th e. manufactureis list for the Hattiesburg areaincluded 105 company names, all of which were sent asurvey form. Similarly, 98 surveys were mailed out to theNacogdoches-Lufkin nanufacmrers. Usable data werereceived by 61 respondents (30.0%) in this pool.

Data Collectiv.. and Analysis

The Issues Rating Scale listed 52 items as explained previ-ously and requested that judges rate each issue as to itsimportance as an ethical concern for businm. The two endsof the unnumbered graphic scale were labeled "Unimpor-tant" and 'Extremely Important, with a continuous lineshown connecting them. Respondents were asked to makea pencil/pen mark at the point on the line that conveyed theirown assessment of the importance of each issue. This ratingmethod was selected because it increases response varianceby allowing the scorer to divide the scale into more intervalsthan a typical numeric Likert scale, thus leading to higheritem reliability (Thompson, 1981).

While the respondent is freed from hair-splitting delibera-tion in catings, this format allows for respondents' graphicratings to be transformed into numeric ratings for purposesof analysis. Markings indicated by respondents on theunnumbered scale were transformed into numeric data byimposing a scale that divided thc unnumbered line into 15equal intervals. The items were scored by placing asegmented transparent overlay over the graphic scale andmarking the number 1 through 15 nearest the respondent'smarking. In cases where the respondent's mark fell directlybetween two segments, the score nearest the center of thescale was selected. ,

Findings

L mographic Characteristics

Usable data were returned by 113 respondents, including 52respondents in the faculty cohort and 61 respondents in thebusiness practitioner cohort. The business faculty cohortincluded individuals from 10 different teaching areas withinbusiness. The mean length of teaching experience of therespondents was 14.25 years. Of the 52 respondents, 46(88.5 %) indicated tIrt they regularly include some teach-ing of ethics in their business con.ses, with the mostprevalent method being inclusion of thscussions of ethicsalong with regular course content.

The business practitioner cohort represented a wide rangeof business types as indicated in Table 1. Forty-nine(80.3 %) of the questionnaires for this cohort were com-pleted by a president, vice president, or division managerfor the given company. The remaining 12 (19.7 %) werecompleted by a supervisor or other lower managerialemployee.

'7 3

Table 1

Breakdown of Business Cohort by Business Type

Business Type Frequency Percent(n=61)

Agricultural/Animal/Food ProductsChemical ProductsConstruction MaterialsIndustrial SuppliesOil/Gas/Energy ProducingPrintinT/PublishingTextile/Cioling/Furnimre ProductsTransportation ProductsWood/Paper ProductsOtherNo Response

12 19.74 6.68 13.1

3 4.92 3.36 9.81 1.61 1.6

10 16.412 19.72 3.3

As judged by the number of persons employed by thesebusinesses, over half would be considered smaller compa-nies, with 24 (39.3 %) ieported as employiag fewer than 50persons and an additional 11 (18.0%) reported as employ-ing 50 to 100 persocs. Interestingly,however, eight (2'1.6%)of the respondents reported that their businesses employover 1000 persons.

Since some of the items in the insu-ument deal with interna-tional business issues, respondents in the business cohortwere also asked to indicate the degree to which theirbusinesses have foreign ties. Approximately one-third (20)of the respondents indicated that their businesses haveforeign customers. Similarly, 36.1% (22) indicated thatthey utilized foreign suppliers. In addition, seven (11.5 %)of the respondents indicated that their companies haveforeign branches.

Analyses of Importance Ratings

Analyses of the importance ratings were run using the entiresample (a = 113), the faculty cohort (n = 52), and thebusiness practitioner cohort (g = 61). At least two ways ofanalyzing these ratings is possible. First, the measurementscale could somewhat arbitrarily be divided into varioussegments indicating the strength of the respondents' meanratings for each item. For instance the 15 point scale usedin the present study could be divided into "low" (1 to 5),*medium' (6 to 10), and "high" (11 to 15) ratings. Thismethod is problematic, particularly in cases in which thereis not an even distribution of ratings across all the possiblelevels. For iriance, in the current analysis using responsesfor the eatire sample, no responses were indicated in the"low" (1 to 5 range).

A second method of analyzing the ratings is to determinemean ratings for each of the items and then to rank order theitems by these mean ratings. This method is more promis-

59

MIN!,

ing as it allows the items to be relatively compartxl againsteach other rather than against some arbitrarily determinedstandard. In addition, it allows for ratings of items with onesubsample cohort to be compared against the ratings ofanother cohort. Considering the strengths of this secondmethod, it was the one used in the present study.

Mean ratings for each item were calculated and items werethen rank ordered by the magnitude of the mean ratings.The 20 items receiving the highest ratings across the entiresample are presented in Table 2, along with their respectiveranks. As a point of comparison, the ratings and ranks forthese items across the two subsample cohorts are also given.

These data indicate that there is a high degree of consistencyagainst the two subsample cohorts as to which items are themost important ethical issues among the 52 presented.Fourtmn of the 20 items receiving the highest ratings whenrated across the entire sample were also included in the top20 issues across both cohorts of the sample These itemsseem to cluster around three major topics, namely environ-mental issues (Items 35, 41, 10, 1, and 13), employmentissues (Items 8, 32, 12, 9, 47, and 19), and corporate/individual integrity (Items 51, 29, 46, and 22).

The 10 items receiving the lowest ratings across the entiresample are presented in Table 3, along with their respectiverankings. As a point of comparison, the ratings and ranksfor these items across the two subsample cohorts are alsogiven. As was true of the most highly rated items, the 10lowest rated items were also consistently rated low acrossboth subsample cohorts. Interestingly, five of these 10items (Items 11, 14, 40, 7, and 27) involve internationalbusiness issues, indicating that the respondents do notregard these issues as important as ethical issues in otherareas. This is particularly noteworthy considering that anumber of the companies rely upon foreign customers and/or suppliers in their business operations.

Conclusions and Recommendations

The relative ranking derived frOm the Issues Rating Scalewill be utilized in the development of ethical episodesdeemed most important to a business audience. Theseepisodes will comprise a future instrument which willmeasure individuals' business ethics orientation. Possibleapplications for such an instrument would include admini-stration to groups of 5usiness students and faculty, as wellas business personnel and job applicants. The presentanalyses indicate that issues relating to the environment,employment, and corporate/individual integrity are consid-ered important by the business community, and wouldconsequently serve as appropriate content for ethical epi-sodes. By contrast, international business issues, deemedto be of less importance, would not serve as adequately asthe focus of ethical episodes.

Table 2Mean Ratings and Ranks for 20 Highest Rated Items

Item1 Full2 Faculty3 Bueness4

Disposal of hazardous waste (35) 13.018(1) 12.942(2) 13.082(3)Honesty advertise/label product3 (51) 13.009(2) 13.157(1) 12.885(5)Theft by employees of co. property (8) 12.973(3) 12.706(5.5) 13.197(2)Oblig. employees give full efforts (32) 12.876(4' 12.385(10) 13.295()Pollution of air and water (41) 12.423(5. 12.808(4) 12.852(6)Acceptance of bribes by employees (12) 12.625(6) 12.588(7) 12.656(9)Removal product health/safety risk (29) 12.583(7) 12.863(3) 12.344(11)Protection of natural resources (10) 12.531(8) 12.173(12) 12.836(7.5)Disposal of solid waste (1) 12.487(9) ? 2.077(14) 12.836(7.5)Communication of sensitive info. (25) 12.389(10) 12.404(8) 10.377(36)Filing false insurance claims (46) 12.286(11) 12.706(5.5) 11.394(16)Disclosure info./trade secrets (22) 12.115(12) 11.788(16) 12.393(10)Sexual harassment on the job (9) 11.965(13) 11.904(15) 12.016(14)Employee abuse of company benefits (47) 11.955(14) 12.157(13) 11.787(19)Drug/disease test for employment (19) 11.814(15) 10.462(31) 12.967(4)Concern aztivs. contrib. acid rain (13) 11.741(16.5) 11.510(18) 1 L934(16)Use insider info, personal profit (37) 11.741(16.5) 12.314(9) 11.262(25.5)Use computers for illegal purposes (34) 11.705(18) 12.235(11) 11.262(25.5)Use capital from unknown sources (50) 11.688(19) 11.392(23) 11.934(16)Balance responsib. org./stkholders (6) 11.550(20) 10.327(35) 11.656(21)

'Text of item truncated to 34 or fewer characters followed by the item number. The complete text of the items is presented inAppendix A.

2Ratings and rank order of items for the full sample (g = 113).3Ratings and rank order of items for faculty cohort (g = 52).°Ratings and rank order of items for business practitioner cohort (g = 61).

Table 3Mean Ratings and Ranks for 10 Lowest Rated Items

Item' Fu112 Faculty3 Business'

Use hormones enhance food product (36) 9.482(43) 9.308(45) 9.410(44)Use genetic engin. increase yield (45) 9.333(44) 8.154(51) 10.373(37)Govt. sanctions foreign countries (11) 9.161(45) 8.529(50) 9.689(42)Exploit talent internal interest(14) 9.147(46) 9.469(43) 8.883(47)Standards lower in foreign country (40) 9.107(47) 9.269(46) 8.967(46)Use advert's. illegal home countty (7) 8.768(48) 10.500(30) 7.267(50)Use of low paid foreign labor (27) 8.495(49) 8.647(48) 8.367(48)Protect groups equal employ. laws (3) 7.894(50) 8.558(49) 7.328(49)Genetic testing employ= purposes (28) 7.860(51) 9.980(39) 6.914(51)Right employ= include child care (4) 6.255(52) 7.420(52) 5.238(52)

'Text of item truncated to 34 or fewer chancters followed by the item number. The complete text of the items is presented inAppendix A.

2Ratings and rank order of items for the full sample (g = 113).3Ratings and rank order of items for faculty cohort (g = 52).'Ratings and rank order of items for business practitioner cohort (n = 61).

60

References

Baxter-Magolda, M. B. (1987). Gender differences incognitive development. Paper presmted at the aanualmeeting of the American Educational Research A s -sociation, Washington, D.C. (ERIC Document Repro-(luction Service No. ED 284 908)

Bud,aar, H. R. (1987). Ethical orientation of marketingstudents. Delta Pi Epsilon Journal, 29(3), 91-98.

Cortese, A. J. (1984). Standard issues scoring of moralreasoning: A critique. Merrill-Palmer Quar erly, 30,227-246.

DeGeorge, R. T. (1990). Business ethics (3rd ed.). NewYork: Macmillan.

frederick, W. C., Davis, K., & Post, J. E. (1988). Busi-ness and society: Corporate strategy, public policy,ethics (6th ed.). New York: McGraw- Hill.

Hay, R. D., Gray, E. R., & Smith, P. H. (1989). Business

and society: Perspectives on ethics andsocial respon-sibility (3rd ed.). Cincinnati: Southwestern Publish-ing Co.

Kohlberg, L. (1969). Stage and sequence: The cognitivedevelopmental approach to socialization. In D. A.Goslin (Ed.), Handbook of socialkation theory andresearch (pp. 347-480). Chicago: Rand McNally.

Kohlberg, L., Colby, A., Gibbs, J. C., Speicher-Dubin,B., & Powers, C. (1978). Assessing moral devel-opment stages: A manual. Cambridge, MA: Centerfor Moral Education.

Taylor, M. (1983). New concepts in instrumentationdevelopment to measure the Perry scheme. Nperpretsented at the annual meeting of the American Col-lege Personnel Association, Houston, Texas. (ERICDocument Reproduction Service MI. ED 235 438)

Thomas, M. (1989). A proposed taxonomy of moralvalues. Journal of Moral Education, 18(1), 60-75.

Thompson, B. (1981). Factor stability as a function ofitem variance. Paper presented at the annual meetingof the Southwest Educational Research Association,Dallas, TX. (ERIC Document Reproduction ServiceNO. ED 205 553)

VanHoose, W. H., & Paradise, L. V. (1979). The EthicalJudgmnt Scale. Charlottesville, VA: AutLor.

Appendix A

Full Text of Items on the Iss-4 s Rating Scale

I. Disposal of solid waste.2. Generation of nuclear energy.3. Protection of specified groups by equal employment laws.4. Rights of employees to include funded childcare, parental leave, elder care leave.5. Equal pay for com:)arable jobs-comparable worth.6. Balance of management's responsibility to both the business organization and to its stockholders.7. Use in foreign countries of advertising and promotional techniques that are illegal 41s the home

country.8. Theft by employees of company property.9. Sexual harassment on the job.

10. Protection of natural resources.11. Government imposed trade sanctions against foreign countries.12. Acceptance of bribes or gifts by employees.13. Concern for industrial activities that contribute to acid-rain.14. Short-term exploitation of local talent by an international interest fol long-term company beaefits.15. Disregard of home country trade sanctions in the sale of goods, s rvices, and technology to foreign countries.16. Possible reverse discriminatory effects of employment quotas.17. Gathering by businesses of excessive information about clients, customers, or employees.18. Depletion of the ozone layer.19. Drug and disease testL for employment purposes.20. Conflict between customary business behavior of other cultures and limitations of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act.21. Illegal copying of registered software-software piracy.22. Disclosure by employees of corporate information or trade secrets.23. Use of electronic devices such as hidden microphones and cameras to monitor employee activity on the job.24. Export of products that do not meet home country safety and/or quality standards.

12,

61

25. Communication to the public of sensitive information, such as bomb threats made to airlines, possible productcontamination, possible health risks resulting from product consumption.

26. Communication by bu.siness to the media of true and complete information.27. Use oHow-paid foreign labor.28. Genetic testing for employmmt purposes.29. Removal or withholding of a prt)kliv..-t from the market due to potential health or safety risks.30. Failproof quality of products and services provided by business.31. Restrictions on legal actions against businesses by damaged or dissatisfied consumers.32. Obligation of employees to give full efforts t3 jobfair day'swork for fair day's pay.33. 'Creative use' of the legal system by businesses; for example, filing bankruptcy.34. Use of computns for illegal purp vs, i.e. sabotage, unauthorized access, etc.35. Disposal of hazardous waste.36. Use of hormmes .0 erlance food production.37. Use of insider business information for personal profit.38. effects of mergers on stockholders, employees, and the public.39. Effects of organized labor activities on the worker, the business organization, and the public.40. Operational standards of an interrational business that are lower in a foreign country than stand* is required in home

country.41. Pollution of air and water.42. Fair and complete media coverage L. `nisiness issues.43. Use of electronic tracking techniques to monitor computer use by employees (examples: files that were accessed, usage

time, number of keystrokes typed, etc.).44. Influence by businesses on the content of television programs which they sponsor.45. Use of genetic engineering to increase agricultural crop yield or improve animal production.46. Filing of overstated or false inrurance claims by businesses ir their customers.47. Employee abuse of company benefits, privileges, facilities, etc.48. Making available to the market products or services that have the potential to save lives or reduce suffering but which

will likely be unprofitable from a business standpoint.49. Rate settino, rate increases and cancellation of coverage by insurance companies.50. Use of investment capital from unknown or questionable sourceslaundering.51. Honesty in the advertising and labeling of products and services.52. The issue of company loyalty versus public responsibilitywhistle blowing.

fr-/ I"I

62

Effects of Previous Keyboarding Experience onStudent Performance in Iligh School

Beginning Keyboarding/Typewriting

Martha K. PriceWaubonsee Community College

Floyd L. CrankDeKalb, Illinois

Abstract

Virtually all students who enroll in a beginnhig keyboarding class in high school will have used typewriter or com-puter keyboards in the past. However, in the present study, 65 percent of these students had used keyboards either'none at all' or 'not more tnan once a month.' Experience with keyboards in the past did not affect either gross wordsa minute or errors on straight-copy timed tests during the last two weeks of the semester. Keyboard use in the pastalso did not affect the extent to which students kept eyes off fingers and used correct fingers while they were keyboard-ing. In this study, 55.9 percent of the students 'always or almost always kept eyes off fingers, " and another 28.9percent 'kept eyes off fingers about half the time" during the last two weeks of the semester. And 81.4 percent of thestudents 'always or almost always" used correct fingers, while another 15.3 percent used correct fmgers "al)out halfthe time.'

Purpose and Procedures

This study sought to determine whether the nature and typeof keyboarding experiences prior to enrolling in a highschool beginning keyboarding class had any effect on grosswords a minute and errors on straight-copy timed tests andon the extent to which students kept eyes off fingers andused correct fingers while keyboarding.

To facilitate the analysis and interpretation of the dataobtained in the study, the subjects were grouped intovarious classifications reflecting the nature and type of theirprevious keyboarding enperiences. Thme classificaeunswere obtained by means of a student infomiatic-L formwhich each student completed for the study., Specific datawere collected at the end of Lesson 20 and during the lasttwo weeks of the semester. However, in the interest ofsaving space, most of the data collected at the end of Lesson20 and some of the data related to specific student character-istics have been omitted from this paper. The full report ofthis research study is available for purchase from Dr. BettySchroeder, Department of Management, Northern IllinoisUniversity, DeKalb, Illinois 60115, for a purchase price of$:2.

A total of 1,438 high school students participated ia thestud/. These students were from 22 high schcols inNorthern Illinois; and the teachers in these high schoolsvolunteered tn help obtain the data. The schools repre-sented, however, are both large and smalland both subur-ban and rural. No attempt was made to include 'inner city"

63

schools. It is believed that the data obtained are represen-tative of most high schools.

Of tht. 1,438 students, 711 (49.4 percent) were female and727 (50.6 percent) were male. Classifications for year inschool showed that 608 (42.3 percent) were freshmen, 456(31.7 percent) were sophomores, 200 (13.9 percent) werejuniors, and 174 (12.1 percent) were seniors. If these dataare representative of high school beginning keyboardingclasses, one can expect that abnut 75 percent of the studentswill be freshmen and sophomores.

Type and Nature of PreviousKeyboarding Experiences

This section shows the frequencies and percent for studentswhen they were classified by the type and amount ofkey sding experiences they had before enrolling in theirpre 'u '. high schoo! class.

Students with Previous Instruction crd Amount of theInstruction

Student responses inctizated tliat 456 students (31.8 percent)had received keyboarding/typewriting instruction prior toenrolling in the beginning class in high school, and 979students (68.2 percent) did not have previous instruction.Of those student with previous instruction, 58.6 percentwere female and only 41.4 percent were male. For studentswithout previous instruction, only 45.3 percent were fe-male and 54.7 percent were male.

7 8

,

,

1

As one nni : expect, the amount of previous instructionvaried wide, S.

Amount of previous instruction Number Percent

Less than 3 weeks 115 25.13, 4, 5, or 6 week:: 127 27.77, 8, or 9 weeks 77 16.8One semester 101 22.1One year 21 5.0More than one year 16 3.3

From these data, it can be seta that more than half of thestudents (52.8 percent) had six weeks or less of instruction.However, 22 percent had one semester. The percentage ofstudents with one year or more of instruction probably is toosmall to be used for interpretation.

Students also indicated the grade levels at which they hadreceived their previous instruction. Seventy-seven percenthad their prior instruction in grades 6, 7, and 8 (14.0%,36.4% and 26.6% respectively). Whether this same situ-ation will hold in the future is questionable, since keyboard-ing instruction appears to be incrtacing in elementaryschools.

Most students had their prior instruction at grades 6, 7, and8, no matter what type of equipment they used for theirinstruction-except that 20 percent of the students whoseprior instruction was on typewriters received that instruc-tion in grade 9. It should be noted, also, that in this study60.7 percent of the students with previous instruction hadreceived their inst ruction on computers and only 26 percenthad used typewriters for me instruction.

Anwunt of Keyboani Use iv the Past for Students withand without Previous Instruction

The amount of keyboard use in the past differed onlyslightly for students with and without prior instruction.

Amount of keyboarduse in the past

None at allVery little (not more

than once a month)About once or twice

a weekSeveral times a weekAlmost every day

Total

Students with Students withoutprevious

instructionprevious

instructionNo. % No. %

64 14.1 96 9.3

245 54.1 532 54.8

72 15.9 194 19.947 10.4 96 9.925 5.5 59 6.1

453 100.0 971 100.0

64

It should be noted that only 90 students indicated that theyhad never used typewriter or computer keyboards at allprior to enrolling in their present high school beginningclass. This number is aboat 6 percent of all students in thestudy. It should be noted also that a total of 931 studmitssaid they had used keytkards 'none at all or " very little (nomore than once a month)* in the past, representing 65.3percent of all students (both with and without prior instruc-tion). The percentage of students in each category ofkeyboard use was about the same for students with andwithout previous instruction.

A check was made on whether the amount of keyboard usesince previous ingruction (for students with prior instruc-tion) was influenced by the type of equipment which stu-dents used for their previous instruction. The results were:

Amount of keyboarduse since instruction

TypewriterNo. %

Computer Both TypesNo. % No. %

None at all 11 9.5 49 17.9 4 6.7Very little

(not moreonce a month) 73 62.9 137 50.2 345 6.7

About once or twicea week 18 15.6 45 16.5 9 15.0

Several times a week 7 6.0 29 10.6 10 16.6Almost every day 7 6.0 13 4.8 3 6.0

Total 116 100.0 273 100.0 60 100.0

More students used keyboards after their earlier instructionwhen they had their instruction on both types of equipment;and students who used typewriters for their previous in-struction used keyboards (after that first instruction) lessthan students who had their first instruction on computers orca both types of equipment.

On the information form, students were asked to indicatethe type of keyboard equipment they had used in the past-students with previous instruction indicated the equipmentused since that instruction, and students without priorinstruction indicated the equipment used in the past. Thefrequencies and percents were:

Typewriters only . 114- 8.7%Computers only 454- 34.8%Both types of equipment 736 - 56.5 %

Keyboard use appears to be greater when students use bothcomputers and typewriters and much less when students usetypewriters alone.

When students with and without previous instruction wereclassified also by the types of keyboard equipment they hadused in the past, the results were:

Students withpreviousinstruction

Students withoutpi-eviousinstruction

Types of equipment used No. % No. %

Typewriters only 32 7.6 81 9.2Computers only 136 32.4 316 35.9Both types of equipment 252 60.0 483 54.9

Total 420 100.0 880 100.0

The types of keyboards used in the past did not differ muchfor students with and without prior instruction.

Extent to Which Students Kept Eyes Off' Finrrs

The high school teachers who helped with the study evalu-ated their students to determine the extent to which theykept their eyes off fingers while keyboarding. This factorwas included because the use (f keyboards (especiallywithout instruction) might affect the degree to which stu-dents become fingers watchers. The fallowing data wereobtairA by teachers at the end, of Lesson 20 and during thelast two weeks of the semester.

End ofExtent to which students L.son 20kept eyes off fingers No. _I

Always or almo: alwayskept eyes off fingers

Kept eyes off fmgersabout half the time

Never or almost neverkept eyes off fingers

Last two weeksof semester

No. %

796 55.8 791 55.9

437 30.6 408 28.9

194 13.6 215 15.2

The percent of students in each finger-watching ,..tegorydid not change much during the semester, but this phenome-non is not surprising to keyboarding teachers. A furthercheck was made to determine whether having had priorinstruction affected the percentages in the three finger-watching categories. The data reported by the teachersduring the last two weeks of the semester were:

Extent to which studentskept eyes off finmrs

Always or almost alwayskept eyes off fingers

Kept eyes off fingersabout half the time

Never or almost neverkept eyes off fingers

Total

Students with Students withoutprevious previous

instniction instructionNo. I No,

261 57 6 533 55.1

134 29.6 300 31.0

58 12.8 135 13 9

453 100.0 968 100.0

65

Students with and without previous instruction kep; eyes offfmgers in about the same proportions during the last twoweeks of the semester.

The analysis of data included a check to determine whetherthe use of kcyboards prio: to airollment in the presentbeginning class affected tho extent to wiech students kepteyes (-ft' their fingers. The following data are for studentswith and without previous instruction, and the data weregathered during the last two weeks of the semester.

For students with previous instruction:

Extent to which studentskept eyes off fingers

Amount of key- Always or About half Never orboard use since almost always the time almost neverprior instnictiou No. % No.

None at all 33 52.4 * 22 34.9* 8 12.7 *

Very little cnotmorethan oncea month) 146 60.1 65 26.7 32 13.2

About once ortwicc a week 50 69.9 16 22.2 6 8.4

Several times aweek 20 42.6 20 42.6 7 14.8

Almost evar, day 9 36.0 12 48.0 4 16.0

*Read across rows to obtain 100 percent.

For students without previous instruction:

Extent to which studentskept eyes off fingers

Amount of key- Always or About half Never orboard use since almost always the time almost neverprior insvruction

None at allVery little (not

more than oncea month)

About once ortwice a week

Several timesa week

Almost every day

No. % No. % No. %

43 49.4* 24 27.6*20 23.0*

285 54.9 162 31.2 72 13.9

J 58.4 52 28.1 25 13.5

50 52.1 32 33.3 14 14.631 54.4 14 24.6 12 21.0

*Read across rows to obtain 100 percent.

The highest percentage of nonfmger watchers was forstudents who had used keyboards about onco or twice aweek-both for students with and without prior instruction.It should be noted, however, that 23 percent of the studentswithout previous !nstruction and who had not used key-boards at all in the past 'never or alwost never kept eyes off

0

fingers. This percentage was considerably higher than anyother elpssification ex .ept for students (inthout previous:ustruction) who had used keybcards "ahnost every dayand these students probably had used 'hunt and peck on thekeyboard.

From the data presented up to this point, it appe2rs that theuse of keyboard equipment prior to =tering a beginningkeyboarding class in high schoolno matter how much orhow little the amount of keyboard usehad little effect onthe extent to which students kept eyes off ringers.

The data obtained from high school students were used todetermine the extent to which these snidents remained ineach finger-watching category during the semester of in-struction.

Finger-watchingcategories

Always or almostalways kept eyesoff fingers

Kept eyes off fingersabout half the time

Never or almostnever kept eyesoff fingers

Cases atend of 20 Same cases cases

class at end of ;Eyingsessions semester through

796 662 83.2

437 266 60.9

194 123 63.4

It is encouraging to notc that slightly more than eight out oftcn students rcmained in the 'almost always kept eyes offfingers' category throughout the semester. However, itmust be noted that a bit more than six out of ten alsoremained in the 'never or almost never kept eyes offfingers' category.

To complete the analysis of data regarding the extent towhich students kept eyes off fingers, the investigators uscdthe data to determine the extent to which students changedfinger-watchirg categories during the semester.

At the end of twenty class sessions, 796 students 'always oralmost always kept their eyes off fingers. During the lasttwo weeks of the semester, 662 of these students (83.Jpercent) were in the same category; g2 of them (10.3percent) had changed to 'kept eyes off fingers about half thetime"; and 37 (4.6 percent) had changed to 'never or almostnever kcpt eyes off finper.

At the end of twenty class sms:?ns, 437 students *kept eyesoff fmgers about half the time. During the last two weeksof the semester, 266 of them (60.9 percent) -.fere in the samecategory; 112 of them (25.6 percent) had changed to 'always

66

or almost always kept eyes off finge,f ; and 55 (12.6percent) had changed to 'never or almost never kept eyes offfingers.*

At the end of twenty class sessions, 11.7: Etudents 'aever oralmost never kept eyes off fmgers." During the last twoweeks of the semester, 123 of thscstudcnts (63.4 percent)were in the same categwy; 13 of them (6.7 percent) hadchanged to 'always or almost always kept eyes off fingers";and 56 (28.9 percent) had changed to 'kept eyes off fingersabct half the time.

The evidence in this study indicates that students chsigeTmgers watching' categories during a semester of instruction, and some of them realize a substantial improvement.

Ettnt to Which Students Used Correct Fingers

One additional factor that was in. tstigated in this study wasthe extent to which students used coreect fingers whilekeyoarding during the last two weeks of the semester.This factor was included because the use of keyboards(especially without instruction) might cause students todevelop habits of usin3 incorrect fingers on the keys. Thedata for students with and without prior instruction aregiven below.

Studcnts

Extent to which studentsprevious

instruction

with Studentsprevious

instruction

without

used correct fingers No. % No. %

Always or almost alwaysused correct fingers 367 81.5 783 82.5

Used correct fingersabout half the time 66 14.7 136 14 3

N'ever or almost neverused correct fingers 17 3.8 30 3.2

Total 450 100.0 94;1 100.0

Itt. percentage of students who always or almost alwaysused correct fingers was so high that further analysis or ';atacono:ming this factor seems unnecessary. The use oftypewriter or computer kcyboards, whether students hadprior Instruc tion or not, did not prevent them from learningcorrect fingg usage when they entered a high s:hoolbeginning keyboarding/typewriting class.

Gross Words a Minute and Errors on Three-MinuteTimed Test, During the Last Two Weeks of the

Semester

For the three-minute timed tcsts given during the last twoweeks of the semever, students used either typewriters or

computers. The gross words a minute and errors forstudents using each type of equipment were:

Typewriters with no

N GWAM Errors

cortection features 385 31.6 8.5Typewriters with correction

features but the featuresnot used during timed tests 661 30.0 8.8

Computers 285 27.2 5.3

The difference of three or four gross words a minute forudents using typewriters and those using computers was

statistically significant. This difference is large enough tobe of some pracdcal significance also. Will grading scalesfor keyboarding speeds need to be changed from the onesthat have been used for studeuts using typewriters?It shouldbe noted, also, that the number of errors is lower forstudents who used computers, probably because studentscorrected their errors as they realized le errors occurrexl.The difference in errors for students using typewriters andthose using computers was statistically significant. Ifstudents correct errors on straight-copy tests when they usecomputers, assuming that the computer software does notteport the errors even though corrected, is it possible tohave a grading =and for ac:uracy on such tests?

In the following paragraphs, the gross words a minute anderrors are given for students classified in various ways.

Students Classified by Gender

In the Present study, girls keyeda bit faster than boys duringthe last two weeks of the semester by zbout three grosswords a minute (31.1 gwam vs. 28.4 gwam). This differ-ence was statistically significant, although it is not of muchpractical significance. The errors for females and maleswere 8.2 and 8.1, and the difference was not statisticallysignificant.

Students Classified by Year in School

Sophomores, juniors, and seniors keyed a bit faster duringthe last two weeks of the semester than freshmen (seniors,30.9 gwam; juniors, 30.3 gwam; sophomores, 30.5 gwam;and freshmnn, 28.7 gwam). The difference in gross wordsa minute for freshmen and sophomores was statisticallysignificant but, again, of little practical Fignificance.

The errors for students in the different years in school were:seniors, 8.1; juniors, 8.2; sophomores, 9.2; and freshmen,

67

7.4 The difference in errors for freshmen and sophomoreswas statistically significant.

Students Cfassifted by Whether They Had PreviousInstruction

Students with previous instruction keyed a bit faster duringthe last two weeks of the semester than those without-aboutthree gross words a minute (31.7 vs. 28.8). This differencewas statistically significant. Errors were 8.3 for studentswith previous instruction and 8.1 for those without, and thisdifference was not statistically significant.

Students Classified by Amount of Previous Instruction

When students with previous instruction were classified bythe amount of their prior instruction, the gross words aminute and errors during the !ast two weeks of the semesterwere:

Amount of Previous Instruction N GWAM -Errors

Less than 3 weeks 109 31.7 8.93, 4, 5, or 6 weeks 122 32.1 8.07, 8, or 9 we..ics 73 32.9 7.3One semester 96 30.5 8.5One year 20 26.2 6.3More than one ycar 15 35.7 11.6

The "one year' and 'more than one year' groups containsuch low frequencies that they probably should not beincluded in any interpretation of data. When the data wereanalyzed statistically, Analysis of Variance indicated asignificant difference between at least one pair of grosswords a minute scores. However, application of the Scheffetest failed to identify the pair or pairs. For practicalptuposes, the amount of keyboarding instrucdon for studentswith previous instruction had no effect on either grosswords a minute or errors typed on three-minute timed testsduring the last two weeks of the semester. It is worth notingthat students who had less than three weeks of previousinstruction typed as rapidly as other studtnts by the timethey took a three-minute timed test at the end of a semesterof instruction in high school.

Students Classified by Amount of Keyboard Use

Students also were classified by the amount of keyboard usesince their previous instruction (for students with instruc-tion) and by amount of keyboard use in the past for studentswithout previous instruction. Gross words a minutc anderrors were recorded for students in each keyboard-useclassification during the last two weeks of the semester.

Amount of Students with Students withoutkeyboard previous instruction previous instructionuse in the past N GWAM Errors N GWAM Errors

None at all 62Very little (not

more thanonce amonth) 233

About once ortwice a week 68

Several timesa week 45

Almost everyday 24

29.6 8.2 81 26.8 7.6

32.3 8.4 491 28.7 7.9

33.2 8.2 180 30.0 9.0

29.4 7.6 96 29.0 8.3

29.9 6.5 56 29.1 7.9

Using keyboards about once or twice a week prior toenrolling in a high school beginning keyboarding class maygive students a slight advantage, but the difference is toosmall o be. of practical significance. The differences inerrors tor the various clasAifications were not statistically

Students Classified by Equipment Used for PreviousInstruction

Students with previous instruction were classified by thetypes of equipment they used for their prior instruction tosee whether the type of equipment used affected their grosswords a minute and errors during the last two weeks of thesemester.

Types of equipment usedfor previous instruction N GWI Errors

Typewriter only 106 33.4 7.4Computer only 268 31.2 8.7Both types equipment 55 30.4 7.0

Whether students with previous instruction received thatinstruction on typewriters or on computes made littledifference in the speed and errors that they were able toachieve at the end of one semester of instruction in highschool. None of the differences were statistically signifi-cant.

Students Classified by Types of Equipment Used in thePast

All of the students (both thooe with and without previcusinstruction) indicated the types of equipment they had usedin the past. Gross words a minute and errors during the last

two weeks of the semester for students classified by thetypes of equipment they had used were:

Type of equipment used in thepast bv all students N GWAM Errors

Typewriters only 111 29.1 7.0Computers only 433 29.2 8.6Both types of equipment 682 30.1 8.2

Gross words minute and number of errors were essentiallythe same at the end of a semester of instruction for studentsno matter what type of keyboard equipment they had usedin the past.

Students Classified by the Extent to Which They KeptEyes Off Fingers and Used Correct Rngers

The gross words a minute and number of errors for allstudents at the end of one semester of instruction when thestudents were classified by the extent to which they kepteyes off I rs were:

Extent to which students kepteyes off fingers N GWAM Errors

Always or almost always kepteyes off fingers 746 32.2 8.0

Kept eyes off fingers about halfthe time 410 27.9 8.6

Never or almost never kept eyesoff fingers 188 24.2 7.7

At the end of one semester .if high school instruction,students who "always or almost always kept eyes offfmgers" keyed 8.0 gross words a minme more than studentswho "never or almost never kept eyes off fmgers. Thisdifference was, of course, statistically significant. Thedifference also was statistically significant for studevts who"kept eyes off fmgers about half the time" (27.9 gwam) andstudents who "never or aimost never kept eyes off fingers"(24.2 gwam). Obviously, finger watchers are markedlyslower than those who do not watch, and the accuracy ratesare essentially the same. None of the differences in errorswas statistically significant.

Students Classified by the Extent to Which They UsedCorrect Fingers

When students were classified by the extent to which theyused correct f ners during c.he last two weeks of thesemester, the gross words a minute and number of errorswere:

68

Extent to which students usedcorrect fhwers on keyboard N. GWAM Errors

Always or almost alwaysused correct fingers 1,086 30.7 8.5

Used correct fingers abouthalf the dme 1S9 25.7 6.7

Never or almost never usedcorrect fmgers 47 22.6 6.1

Students who 'always or almost always used correct fin-gers" keyed about 8 gross words a minute more than thosewho 'never or almost never used correct fingers."Thisdifference was statisncally significant. Also, the differencewas statistically significant for students who 'used correctfingers about half the time' and those who 'never or almostnever used correct fingers" (25.7 gwam and 22.6 gwarnrespextively). Likewise, the. iifference was statisticallysignificant for students who 'always or almost always usedcorrect fingers and those who 'used correct fmgers abouthalf the time.

The difference in errors was Fiatistically significant forstudents who 'always or almost always used correct fm-gem" and those who 'used coney ringers about half thetime,' as welI as for students who 'always or almost alwaysurea correct finger' and those who "never or almost never.sed correct fingers.

Use of correct fingers is important in developing speed ofstroking on computer and typewriter keyboards; and cor-rect fingering needs to be stressed in a keyboarding class,even though students may be more accurate when they failto use correct fingers. The handicap in sneed for those whodo not use correct fmgers will be a serious obstacle to properskill development.

It sbould be-remembered, however, that a percent of thestudents in this study 'always or almost always used correctfingers,' and another 14.5 percent "used correct fingersabout half the time.' Evidently, most students recognizethe need to use correct fingers on computer or typevr :terkeyboards, and mast of them succeed in doing so.

111

Implications for Keyboarding/Typewriting Instruction

Iabout two-thirds of these students probably will have used

class). Thus, the keyboard will not be entirely new to most

beginning class will have past experience with !;eyboards,

students in lids study had used computer or typewriterkeyboards before enrolling in a :,igh scnool teginning

beginning keyboarding students.

However, in spite of the fact that most students in a

keyboarding/typewriting classes will have Lad some expe-rience in using keyboards in the past (about 94 perce of the

Virtually all students who enroll in high school beginning

69

these keyboards "very? little." In the present study, 65.3percem of the students said they had used keyboards 'noneat all' or 'very little' in the past.

The results of this study indicate that the amount and type ofexperiences with computer and/or typewriter keyboardsprior to enrolling in a high school beginning keyboarding/typewriting elm will not affect the gross words a minute atwhich students use the keyboard, the number of errors thatstudents yill make on straight-copy timed test, the extent towhich students keep eyes off fmgers, and the extent towhich students use correct fingers on the key d.

Even though prior experience with keyuoards did not affectthe fmger-watching habits in this study, helping studentsmaster the technique of keeping eyes off fingers as they usekeyboards appears to be extremely important throughoutthe first semester of inrruction. Students actually changefinger-watching categoi es between the end of twenty classsessions and the end of the semmer. In this study, 25percent of the students changed from 'kept eyes off fmgerszbout half the time" to 'always or almost always kept eyesoff fingers. Also, 29 percent who 'never or almost neverkept eyes off fingers" at the en i of twenty class sessions hadchanged to 'kept eyes off fingers about half the time' by theend of the semester; and about 7 percent of the students who"never or almost ne, er kept eyes off fingers" at the end oftwenty elass sessions had changed to 'always or almostalways kept eyes off fingers' by the end of the semester.

Students who almost always keep eyes off fingers will havehigher gross words a minute than students who keep eyes offfingers about half the timeand those who almost never keepeyes off fingers. Also, students who almost always keepe.) zs off fingers can be expected to have a much higher "gamscore" in gross words a minute in a semester of instructionthan students who watch their fingers either part or all thetime.In addition, there seems to be a long-term accuracyadvantage for students who always or almost always keepeyes off fingers. In this study, the students who "always oralmost always kept eyes off fmgers" made more errors onone-minute timed tests than students who watched theirfmgers; but, by the end of the semester, students whoalmost always kept cyes off fingers had reduced their errorsmarkedly and other students had not.

Since virtually al; students in this study, regardless of pnorkey board expetienee :.mear instruction, used correctfingers at the end of the semester, teachers need not begreatly concerned about prior experience or prior instruc-tion in regard to using correct fi,gcri.. al fact, students whohave had keyboard exp -aence 1D the past (especially thcsewho use keyboards about once or twice a week) may dosomewhat better in a beginning keyboard/typewriting classthan students who never use a keyboard. However, helpingstudents master the technique of using correct fingers isimportant, since students who use correct fingers type at a

11..

higher rate and have 4 higher gain score than those who donot.

Teachers d3 not need to be concerned about the type ofequipment on which previous keyboarding/N lewritinginstruction is given, since keyboarding speeds and errors,eyes off fingers, and use of correct fingers aprear to beunrelated to the type of equipment used for priorinstruction.

How and Why Organizations Are Utilizing Desktop Publishingand the Implications for Business Education

Heidi R. Perreault and Lynn E. WassonSouthwest Missouri State University

Abstract

Ir -owing numbers, organizations are adopting desktop publishing applications. Market Intelligence Research Co.expects desktop publishing features to be 9ntegrated into most desktop computers and standard application software'(Desktop , 1989, p. 12) by 1992. The researchers conducted a survey of organizationg in die Kansas City and St. Louisareas to determine the extent to which ''.ey were currently utilizing deshop publishing. The findings would enableeducators to make curriculum decisions regarding the types and the extent of desktop publishing skills to pre= tobusiness students and to assist with hardware and software purchasing decisions.

The survey found that all types of organintions are currently utilizing d skbnp publishing to produce both externaland internal documents. Although a number of software packages are being used, Pagemaker is the most popular.Macintosh and IBM and IBM compatibles are the hardware most often used for desktop publishing applications. Themost common training method employed to train workers is either self-taught with manuals or co-worker instruction.The skills perceived to be most important are design/layout, typography/proofreamag , and software ex -rise. It 'asalso found that desktop publishing is used in all functional areas. The conclusion is that students in all bustess-relatedmajors would benefit from a knowledge o. desktop publishing. Ir designing a desktop publishing unit or course,design, layout, typography, and proofreading instruction should receive more emphasis than keyboarding and textcomposition instruction.

Introduction

A sur of organizations in the Kansas City and St. Louisarea was conducted to answer a series of questions relatingto the use of desktop publishing technology. A question-naire was used to gather data. The purpose of the researchwas to determine how and why organizations are usingdesktop publishing (DTP) and to study the implications forbusiness education.

Review of Selected Research

As desktop publishing, the Ii top.! of the 1980s, entersa new, mature phase (Henry, 1989), organizations of alltypes are including this technology in their operations.Diverse appiications in occupational areas such as account-ing, law, and public relations seem representative of thecontinued growth being experienced. Predictions are thatorganizations will have spent $4.6 billion by 1992 ondesktop publishing (Desktop, 1989)

Stutely (1939) advises axounting professicoals of the benefitsof using a desktop publishing approach to prepare presenta-tion materials. He also points out that Price Waterhousepublications department has been working with Pagemakt.around three years producing a multitude of documentsfrom in-house reports to corporate literature.

71

A recent article in PC Publishing ("Desktop PublishingHelps," 1990), reports that Chandler, Arizona, justicecourt judge David Pbares uses desktop publishing to makeit easier to undersmndand convey court information. Pharesuses PFS: First Publisher to create various court-relateddocuments such as public information pamphlets, state-ments of court policy, press releases, and court manuals. Amember of the computer faculty at the National JudicialCollege, Phares holds seminars for the American Bar Asso-ciation and teaches at the Institute of Court Management. Inthis capacity, he uses a desktop publisher and a scanner tocreate court and public education documents as well ashandouts and overhead transparencies. The scanning capa-bility enables the judge to create and store a variety of legalforms, including conviction notices with thumbprints asgraphics.

A public relations firm in St. Louis reports that it got intothe production of publications and materials with DTPbecause of client demand and lower costs (Gordon, 1989).The projects created in-house tend to be middle-level proj-ects while more sophisticated projects requiring four-colorart or graphic design am; still produced in the more tradi-tional approach.

Banks are also d covering that desktop publishing systemsare effective in producing materials for such areas as mar-

C

keting, training and development, economics, and manage-ment information (Wending, 1989). The cost savingsrealized by producing these materials in-house are signifi-cant enough to attract the attention of organizations likt theFirst National Bank of Chicago, which creates and ploducesreports, proposals, and other materials for "half of whatoutside vendors charge and also in a shorter period of time"(p. 143).

Building supply home centers are also expanding theircomputer usage beyond financial activities by using desk-top publishing programs to create ads ("Desktop Ads Save,1989).

Complies including desktop publishing systems in theiroperations tend to view DTP 'as a highly-leveraged, value-added applica6on with a significant iLipact on the bottomline of businas" (Angelo, 1990 p. 35). To be successful inproducing docunrnts in-house in the most cost-effectiveand efficient way, companies must develop strategicguidelines.

A frequently implemented strategy includes the creation ofdesktop publishing departments. These departments allowcompanies to work quickly and cost-effectively to achieveconsistency in formatting and to perform extensive editing(Holft, 1989). One example can be found in CompaqComputers desktop publishing devilment, Training Pro-duction Services. This carnnent was established tocentralize the preparation of training materials for threecorporate-naining departments. Submitting departmentsforward materiels in a word processor format with edited,red-lined inmructions for the inclusion of photos and/orother graphics. The desktop publishing department thencompletes the project using Ventura and Harvard Graphics.

PurPose

The purpose of the study was to determine the factors whichinfhienced an organization to switch to desktop publishingand the types of Jocuments being produced using desktoppublishing. An additional purpose was to prr. ;.de currentinformation on the status of desktop publishing to assist incurriculum development.

Researrh Questions

The research questions were:

What types of organizaticns are currently utifizing desktop

publishing applications?What hardware and software are being used for dktop

ing activities?

es

publishing technology?

What functional akeas are responsible for desktop publish-

What types of documents/publications are being producedwith desktop publishing technology?

What factors influenced organizations to adopt desktoppublishing?

What training methods are being used and which are per-ceived to be most effective in preparing workers for utiliz-ing desktop publishing technology?

What entry-level skills are deemed' be most important forworkers who will be utiliz. desktop publishingtechnology?

Procedures and Data Collection

A fitesature search was first conducted to establish a needfor tne study . Based on theliterature search , a questionnairewueeveloped and pilot-tested on a select group of compa-nies known to utilize desktop publishing. The revisedquestionnaire was sent to 520 organizations in the KznrsCity and St. Louis metropolitan areas. One hundred andseventeen questionnaires were returned and deemed usable.

A computerized statistical package (SPSS) was used toanalyze the data. A comparison of the differences inresponses across demographic categories was conducted.Cross tabulation among relyed categories was also con-ducted.

Findings

The r,reanizations participating in the stvdy ranged in sizefrom ,mder 100 eriployees to over 5,000 employees. Themajority of the respondents (69 percent) indicated thenumber of employees to be under 500. No substantial dif-ferences were noted for any of the research questions inregard to the size of the organization.

Types of 2rganizotions Using Desktop Publishing

Of the 117 respondents, 66 were currently using desktoppublishing, and 11 expect to add desktop publishing capa-bilities to their organization in the near future.

Table 1 gives a breakdown of the types of organizationswhich indicated they utilized deslaop publishing and thelength of time they have utilized th techc.dogy.

Akin Jgh six organizations indicated they have had desktoppublishing capabilities over three years, the majority haveused desktop publishing betwesen one to three years. Six-teen respondents indicatea they have had desktop publish-ing capabilities less thze one year.

72

Tg.hle 1Length of Time DTP Haz Been Utilized

Less Than One to More ThanOrganization Type One Year Three Years Three Years

ManufacturingGovernment/UtilityHealth/Medical/

PharmaceuticalInsurance

34

3

11

4

6Wholesale/Retail Trade 1

Communicatiou/Publishing 3 2 2

Financial/Investment/Banking 2 1

Transportation 3Agriculture/Mining/

Construction 2Services (i.e., accounting,

legal) 1 1

Engineering 2Education/

Consulting 2Other 2

Note: Some respondents indicated more tbm one organizationtype, and r:at an organizations indicated the amot ,..i. of time DTPhas been uti&-ed in th* organization.

These findings are consistent with the literature whichindicates the sales of desktop publishing units have beengrowing steadily over the past three years. Hobuss (1989)noted that the number of organizations with desktop pub-lishing syszems is expected to grow from the 200,000 unitsbeing used in 1989 to 400,000 by 1991 (p. 95).

Functional Areas Using and Responrible for DesktopPublishing Activities

Marketing and graphics were indicated by all organiza-tional types except services as a functional area wheredesktop publishing is utilized. All types except engineeringand education/consulting indicated they used desktop pub-lishing for public relations applications.

The other functional ereas indicated as having used or beenresponsible for desktop publishing activities were person-nel, training, information centers, office systems, and datapromssing.

This diversification of functional areas responsible fordesktop publishing activities indicates that students in anybusiness program will benefit from exposure to DTP in-struction. While individuals within these functional areasmay not be DTP operators, their knowledge of DTP capa-bilities will enable them to make appropriate decisionswhen generating written materials within their specificareas.

73

How Desktop Publishing Is Organized

Respondents were asked to indicate how desktop publishingactivities were organized. They were given the choices ofcentralized, decentralized, or a combination ofcentrlizedand decentralized. Although a centralized organk adonformat was used MU often, decentralized or a combinationof centralized and decentralized was almost as popular.

'The orgaa autional format was more likely to be centralizedif the functional area in charge of desktop publishing wasone of the following: graphics, public relations, marLet-ing, or sales. A decentralized format was more likely tooccur if the functional area in charge of desktop publishingwas data processing, office systems, information center, orpersonnel. This breakdown is logical in that those areas thatare more likely to utilize a decentralized format are areaswhich provide services across functional areas. Thoseusing the centralized organization format are more special-ized.

Types of Hardware Most Often rIsed for Desktop Pub-lishing Applications

The Macintosh was the most popular hardware used by theorganizations utilizing desttop publishing. IBM and IBMcompatibles ranked second and third. Table 2 indicates theitrcentage of organizations using specific hardware.

Table 2lype of Hardware Used Wi'h Desktop Publishing Applications

Type of Hardware Percentage of Users

MacintosuIBMIBM CompatibleDedicated SystemApple Hc or HgOther

35%28%23%12%8%

11%

Many of the organizations utilizing desktop publishingindicated they used more than one type of hardware. Somewith dedicaed systems statal that PCs were linked withtheir dedicated systems.

Software Choice for Desktop Publishing Activities

Pagemaker was the software most often indicated by therespondents as the package used for desktop publishingapplications. All organizational types except engineeringindicated they use Pagemaker. Both engineering organiza-tions listed Vatura as the software package used for desk-top publishing. The five most popular packages werePagemaker, WordPerfect, Microsoft Word, Ventura, andAdobe Illustrator. Others listed by at least two respondentsincluded Excel, Quark XPress, Full Paint, and AldusFreehand.

Types of Documents Produced Using DesktopPublishing

Both external (those materials prepared primarily for anexternal audience) aun internal (materials prepared primar-ily for an internal auciience) documents were producedusing desktop publishing. The most common documentsproduced with DTP included brochures, newsletters, in-house reports, public relations materlals, promotionalmaterials, external reports, and training materials. The re-spondents indicated that many of the documents now cre-ated in-house through desktop publishing had previouslybeen produced in another fashion such as with word proc-essing equipment or by a professional printer. Newsletters,in-house reports, and external reports were the documentsmost frequently listed as those which were previouslycreated using a method other than desktop publishing andwere now produced in-house with DTP.

Factors Influencing the Use of Desktop Publishing

Respondents, who were now using DTP, indicated that 52percent of their external materials and 60 percent of theirinternal materials had been created previously using meth-ods other than desktop publishing. Table 3 summanzes thereasons for switching to dmktop publishing.

Table 3Ranking of wors for Using In-House Desktop Publtshing byDegree of Importance

Ranking

A MinorFactor Important Consideration Importance

Reduced TurnaroundTime 55 11 01

Increased ControlOver Document 48 10 08

Improval Quality 44 18 04Lowered Cost 46 10 10Protection of

Cznsitive Material 20 14 32

Note: Not all respondents addressed each factor.

Once the organizations had desktop publishing capabilities,they began creating additional documents. Thirty-ninepercent of the respondents indicated that they were creatingnew external documents while 33 pe:cent indicated theywere creating new internal documents.

Actual Training Methods Used and Those Perceived asMost Effective

Respondents were asked to indicate how their desktoppublishing operator/user receivek; training and what train-ing methods they perceived as most effective. Multiple

74

answers were permitted. Because desktop publishing is arelatively new phenomenon and the number of individualstrained to work with desktop publishing is relatively small,it was not surprising to learn that the top two on-site trainingmethods used were the self-taught method (using manualsor texts) and co-worker/supervisor-supplied instruction.

Other on-site training methods included formal trainbigsessions conducted by vendors or other trainers. Onece.spondent indicated that a video tutor program was avail-able.

Off-site training methods used (in order of preference) wereattendance at i.rofessional seminars; vendor-supplied train-ing sessions; college courses; and educational classes of-fered at local computer stores, vocational centers, or highschool adult education programs.

When asked about the training methods perceived as mosteffective, respondents answers changed very little, exceptin two categories. On-site training acquired by the self-taught method using texts or manuals was perceived as mosteffective by 30 respondents as compared with 54 whoactually used this method. In addition, off-site trainingacquired through professional seminars was perceived asmost effective by 19 respondents as compared with 26iespondrnts who actually used this method. Off-site train-ing supplied by users groups was also mentioned as aneffective training mthod. Table 4 presents: comparison oftraining methods actually used and thow perceived as mosteffective.

Table 4A Comparison of Training Methods Actually Used With ThosePerceived as Most Effective

On-Site Training MethodActual

Method UsedMethod PerceivedAs Most Effective

Self-taught using manualsor texts 54 30

Co-worker or superviidr-supplied instruction 33 31

Vendor-supplied training 22 20Formal in-house training 5

Other 8

Off-Site Training Method

Professional seminars 26 19

Vendor training sessions 19 23

College courses 17 15

Ccmputer store educationalclasses 11 8

High school achtlt educationand vocational courses 5 5

Note: Respondents were encouraged to check all answers thatapplied. In some organaations, mr . than one method of trainingis h actual use.

Most Important Skills for Employees

Respondents were asked to rank the skills they perceived tobe most important for employees working with desktoppublishing technology.

Table 5 shows that 55 respondents considered design/layout and typography/proofreading skills as crucial/im-portant for employees utilizing desktop publishing. Fol-lowing closely behind was software expertise which wasranked by 52 respondents as crucial/important.

While only i4 respondents perceived keyboarding skills ascrucial, 47 listed it as important/useful. Interestingly,while two skill categories (editorial ability and text compo-sition) were perceived as not very useful by five respon-den s, keyboarding was the only skill that received a ratingof unnecessary.

The importance attached to design/layout and typography/proofreading skills could be explained i1i part by the factthat components (elements) of a DTP document can beentered electronically through scanning devices. In addi-tion, text is often imported from word processing packagesand arranged by the DTP operator. Further, many of theoperations required for fmal output can be manipulatedusing point-and-clicl: selection with the mouse.

Summar. y and Conclusion

Desktop publishing is being used in all types of organiza-tions. The functional areas responsible for desktc, pub-lishing activities include marketing, graphics, public rela-dais, persomiel, training, infomation centers, office sygems,and data processing. This indicates that a kmowledge ofdesktop publishing is not limited to any one academic area.The most popular hardware is Macintosh followed closelyby IBM and IBM compatibles. Pagemaker is the mostwidely used desktop publishing software package althougha number of other packages are being utilized.

Table 5Desktop Publishing Skills Perceived as Important

Both internal and external documents are prepared usingdesktop publishing The most important factors regardingthe use of desktop publishing for document production arereduced turnaround time, increased control over document,improved quality, and lower cost.

Regarding desktop publishing training, the most populartraining methods are self-taught with manuals followed byco-worker instruction. Business students would benefitfrom some instruction in desktop publishing while in col-lege as they are likely to encounter desktop publishing on thejob but will find limited in-house training Those employeesdirectly involv...1 in desktop publishing will fmd the follow-ing skills to be most important: design/layout, typography/proofreading, software - peruse, editorial ability, key-boarding, and text composition. Those skills are listed inorder of importance which indicates that instruction indesignIlayout and typography/proofreading will be morebeneficial than keyboarding or composition.

References

Angelo, Michael (1990). Developing a corporate publish-ing strategy. PC Publishing, 5(2), p. 35.

Desktop ads save O'Malley money (1939). BuildingSupply Home Centers, 1'7(8), pp. 54-55.

Desktop publishing helps bring order in the court for Ari-zona judge (1990). PC Publishing, 5(2), p. 2.

Desic,op Publishing: Its growth as a technology (1989). TheOffice, 110(2), pp. 12, 32.

Gorden, Judy A. (1989). Desktop publishing: Separatingdreams from reality. Public Relations Journal, 45(1),pp. 24-30.

Henry, P. (1989) Lasers & languages are a perfect blend.Office Systems '89, 6(6), pp. 16, 25, 28.

Skill Crucial Important UsefulNot Very

Useful Unnecessary

Design/layout 27 28 9 1 0Typography/proofreading 25 30 6 4 0Software expertise 22 30 12 1 0Editorial ability 19 22 19 5 0Keyboarding 14 25 22 1 2Text composition 13 30 17 5 0

Other factors cited as important were initiative, interpersonal skills, cooperau (sic), ability and willingness to learn, ,nd hardwareexpertise.

75 nt

Hobuss, J. (1989). What desktop publishing can do foryuir company. 7he Office, 110(5), 95.

Holtz, Matthew (1989). Collaborative desktop publishing.PC Publishing, 4(12), pp. 32-35.

Stutely, Richard (1989). Book quality publishing at yourfingereps. Accountancy, 104(1152), pp. 118-120.

Wending, Rose Mary (1989). Getting into desktop publishing.ABA Banking Journal, 81,(10), pp. 138-144.

91

IIiI

,

Integrating Academic Content into Business Education:Results from Research in Illinois

Thomas S. HaynesIllinois State University

Dale LawJerry Pepple

Constanza ValdezUniversity of Illinois

Abstract

Faculty at Illinois State University and University of Illinois collaborated to pilot test and evaluate Applied Academ-ics curricula in Illinois. The researchers collected data on the impact of Applied Communications and AppliedMathematics curricuola on students and programs. In addition, they assessed, through case studies, procedures, andguidelines thzt educators can follow to cause academik and vocational education teachers to work cooperatively.

Data revealed several positive aspects of the Applied Academics curricula that would support the use of these mate-rials in business education classes. Data also indicated drawbacks, concerns, and key processes to consider whenusing these materials, as well as how to facilitate collaboration between academic and vocational teachers.

Introduction

Demands for school reform have bee:r based on th- popularview that schools should be held accountable for theLrfailure in teaching students the basics as noted by Bennettand McLaughlin (1988), Harris (1988), Lockhead (1988)and others. In response to this challenge, state and loc-1school boards have initiated a number of reform measures,such as raising teacher certification standards, increasingthe number of traditional academic courses for graduation,modifying tenbook adoption procedures, and lengtheningthe school day or school year. These measures are allconcerned primarily with educational organization or pol-icy matters.

Clune, Waite and Patterson, (1989) perceived from theirresearch of the reform efforts that high school graduationcourse requirements were the most likely to achieve thegeneral objective of developing a more rigorous academiceducation. The results of their study found that the mathand science courses which were added in response to statehigh school graduation requirements were mostly at thebasic, general, or remedial levels. They also concludedthat, because of these increased course requirements, thenumber of vocational courses that were offered declined.However, consistent with the principle of seeking integra-tion of academic and vocational instruction, a more logicaland promising approach to reform is to consider thepolisticnature and possibilities within secondary schools:lir-4Y

77

The Carl D. Perkins Vocational Education Act of 1984, andthe Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied TechnologyAct of 1990 h?. ie emphasized the need for strengthening theacademic foundations of vocational education. These Actsare but one initiative among many representing a movementto bridge the existing gap between acadenr:c and vocationalprograms. Recent literature is rich with suggested ap-proaches to improving the basic sldlls of individuals as theyprepare to enter the work force. Weir (1987), Parkhurst(1986), Barton (1986), Hnch and Crunkilton (1985), theNational Center on Education and the Economy (1990)have concluded that the modern economy requires a differ-ent labor rarce than is currently being prepared. The newlabor force will be required to adapt to varied patterns ofwork, to take initiative and make decisions, to possiblyhave a part in running their companies, and to heip establishmanagement policies.

An zrticle appnring in the New York Times (1988), notedthat, 'Concerns of the business community for a skilledwork force have never been grater than in the 1980s. ' Thearticle also pointed out that the problem is twofold. Thejobs theri . ves require greater reading, writing, and nnthe-matical skills, but the process of retraining requires a higherlevel of these basic skills. Schmidt (1988) concluAed fromher rezearch on the use of database software documentationmanuals that vocational students would have a difficult timeusing and understanding technical manuals which are usedin many of today 's occupations. A recent joint publication

of the U.S. Department of Education and the U.S. Deprt-inent of Labor (1988) reprts research findings whichindicate that the kinds of reading, writing, and analyticaltasks that workers routinely per form on the job are differentfrom those which students are taught in schools or in gen, :aladultliteracy programs. Additionally, U.S. News & WorldReport (June 16, 1989) stated that in 1965, a car mechanicneeded to understand 5,000 pages of service manuals torepair any automobile on the road; today, that same me-chanic must be able to synthesize 465,000 pages of techni-cal text. Since the application of basic skills on the job isembedded in real job tasks, education and training pro-grams must move toward using traditional school-basedapproaches. Further, the report argues that such programsalso hold out promise for helping employees and futureemployees in developing their analytical reasoning abili-ties, thus enabling them to more readily transfer theirexperience from one job to another. ResnIck (1987) dis-cussed this disconnection between in-school and out-of-school learning during her 1987 AERA Presidential Ad-dress when she stated that, *there is growing evid.mce thatnot only may schooling not contribute in a direct andobvious way to performance outside school, but also thatknowledge acquired outside school is not always used tosupport in-school learning.'

To assure that students can adapt to the ever-changingnature of sojety and the work plz ,a, curriculum revitaliza-tion efforts in vocational education must address theseneeds. It is imperative that secondary and postsecondaryvocational programs and services share in meeting thefundamentll responsibilities of public education to(a) assure that all students, Rhether youth or adult, attainappropriate levels of achievement in areas fimdamental totheir continuing development; and to (b) assure that allstudents attain a satisfactory levlof achievement appropri-ate to either immediate employm.:Itt or advanced educationin preparation for later employment.

Model for Integrating Academic and VocatiotuaEducation

Barton (1986) and Lotto (1988) in their review of theresearch on vocational education both dltermined thatvocational education needs to ao much more in integratingits curricula with general education. In the past, vocationaleducation has developed its programs in isolation fromgeneral education and has tended to concentrate on teachingoccupational specific tasks. Lotto (1988) concluded fromher research that students generally enrolled in vocationaleducation because they liked it and they rated it near thebottom in difficulty. Vocational education was not empha-sizing basic academic skills as noted by Lotto:

Employers are generally positive toward voca-tional education as a provider of specific occupa-tional skills. They are not well satisfied with the

78

basic skill proficiencies and general trainability ofyoung workers in occupations not requiring a four-year degree. (p. 17)

It was from research and reports similar to these thx spurredstate agencies and other leaders in vocational education toseek out and develop models to enhance the teaching ofbasic academic skills (Pritz, 1988; Grubb and Plihal, 1990;Benson, 1989; Owens and Linder, 1989; and SouthernRegional Education Board, 1989, 1990). Inherent withinmost models being pursued by educationa). agencies to inte-grate basic academic skills into vocational education is cur-riculum development or modification.

Since states have the major constitutional responsibility forproviding public education in the U.S., curriculum devel-opment and innovation are often spearheaded by statedepan 'tins of education. Interstate curricula consortiahave been prominent in vocational education for severalyears (e.g. Vocational Technical Education Consortium ofStates, National Network Curriculum Coordination inVocational and Technical Education). Another such effortis the consortium of 46 state and provincial vocationaleducation agencies which compri.se the Agency for Instruc-tional Thnology (MT), a private, non-profit organizationin Bloomington, Indiana. AIT was established in 1973 tostrengthen education through technology and is governedby a Board of Directors representing American-Canadianeducation. One other nonprofit public service organizationwhich operates through a consortium of state agencies is theCenter for Occupational Resemth and Development (CORD)located at Waco, Texas. Since its inception. CORD hasdeveloped curricula for new and emerging technologies.

During the mid 1980s AIT and CORD pursued the develop-ment of applied academic materials for secondary andpostsecondary vocational students. Their first notableeffort in this area of vocational education was the develop-ment of Principles of Technology (PT) curriculum materi-als. The PT effort was funded by a consortium of 35 statesand provincial vocational education arncies contractedjointly with AIT and CORD to develop a sct of appliedphysics curriculum materials. The development of PTbegan in 1984 with a consortium investment of abou'. atmmillion dollars. PT was completed and available for con-sortium members to begin implementing in 1986. Ingeneral, federal vocational funds were used by the consor-tium members to purchae thm materials. The PT materi-als were given top ratings for "technical physics by theAmerican Association for the Advancement of Science inthe 1988 March/April issue of Science Books and Film. Fora thorough discussion e the development of PT, readersshould rev!ew thu dot_ lit titled, Design and Assessmentof a Formative Evaluation oj the Principles of TechnologyCurrkuka4 Materials, 1986, conducted by the NationalCenter for Research in Vocational Education when it wasoperated by The Ohio State University.

93

1

The genesis of the idea to develop Applied Communicationsand Applied Mathematics materials by and large resultedfroth the development and implementation of Principles ofTeclmology. Beginning in April, 1985, discussions bystate directors of vocational educatioa with rer ',nativesof AIT and CORD clearly indicated that additio,..0 curricu-lum materials in applied communiemion and mathematicswere high priorities. AIT elected to develop a prospectusfor a course in applied communication (Agency for Instruc-tional Technology, 1986). CORD committed to develop aona-year set of materials in applied mathematics (Center furOccupational Research and Development, 1989).

Applied Communicatims is a set of competency-basedlearning materials designed to help students develop andrefme job-related communication skills. The !cantingmaterials are divided into 15 instructional modules, each ofwhich contains 10 lessons and two video programs. Themodules f 3n be uscd individually or all 15 modules can beused in sequential order as the basis for a year long course.Any of the modules or lessons can also be integrated intovocauonal educxion and academic courses where approp ft-ate. The format of each curriculum module consists of ateacher's guide, transparencies, videos, and a student worktext. While Applied Communications was developed pri-marily for high school students, it has been pilot tested inpost,. :ondary and adult programs.

Similarly, CORD developed Applied Mathematics materi-als. The mathematics content in Applied Mathematicsfocuses on arithmetic operations, problem-solving tech-niques, estimation of answers, measurement skills, geome-try, data handling, simple statistics, and the use of algebraicformulas to solve problems. The curric..a emphasizes theability to understand and apply functional mathematics tosolve problero in work settings. The material is presentedin 25 units with each unit divided into six activity sessions.Applieh Mathematics follows the applications approach tolearning which is used in the Principles of Technology andApplied Communication materials.

The adoption and use of the AIT and CORD developedmaterials is currently being referred to aL 'one model ofintegration available to educators as they search for waysto enhance the basic academic skills of their students. Thisis due, in part, to the broad-based appeal these applied ma-terials have experienced ainong administrators, vocationalteachers, academic teachers, and counselors throughouttheir developmental stages as reporte; in their formativeevaluation studies. Also, the popularity of this 'model is

shown by the fact that three more similar efforts are cur-rently in various stages of development; Applied Biology/Chemistry by CORD, Applied Mathematics II by CORD,and Workplace Readiness: Education for Employment,Personal Behavior, Group Effectiveness, and Problem-Solving Skills for a Changing Work place by AIT.

79

Purpose of Study and Research Questions

Grubb and Plihal (1990) have indicated in their anecdotalresearch of integration activities across the country, that theconcept of integrating aademics into vocational educatncan take many forms and use a variety of strategies. Theycontinue to site the nebulousness of the concept of integra-tion and that there is no single best model. However, oneof the more concrete methods of integrating academic withvocational subject matter is through the use Df AppliedAcademic curriculum materials.

With this backarop, this collaborative research project hadthe purpose of: (a) pilot testing, Applied Academics cur-riculum materia/s to provide an opportunity to collect datato assist in the determination of the effectiveness of thismethod of integrating academics; (b) to better understandthe role of teacher collaboration in integrating academicsinto voc.uional subjects, as well as infusing applied learningactivities into academic courses: (c) to identify componentsand processes which are critical to the integration of aca-demic and vocational '..lucation; :Ind (d) to identify poten-tial component parts of a proposed teacher/administratorguidebook regarding the integration of academic and voca-tional education.

From this backdrop the following research objectives weredeveloped:

1. What were the pilot site teachers' perceptions con-cerning the impact of the Applied Academics mate-rials on student achievement as compared to tradi-tional approaches?

2. How did piiot site teachers use AppEee Academicsmaterials in their courses?

3. What were the pilot site teachers' perceptions con-cerning the advantages and disadvantages of theApplied Academics materials as compared to tradi-tional curricula?

4. What were the pilot site teachers' perceptions of thcbenefits and disadvantages . if collaborativeactivities?

5. What were the pilot site teachers' insights concern-ing a broad planning model for integrating aca-demic and vocational objects4 including barriersand key considerations for implementing such amodel?

6. What were the pilot site teachers' insights concern-inL .iie component parts of a teacher/administratorguidebook on integrating academics?

9 4

Nature of Reseal:eh Endeavor and Methodology

This researeh effort was aecomplished through a collabora-tive and symbiotic reladonship between the Applied Aca-denucs project at Illinois itate University funded by theIllinois State Board of Education Department or Ac;:li,Vocational, and Technical Education, and the App lienBasics Curricula in Vocational Educatioa: Validation ofStudent and Program Outcomes project a: the University ofIllinois, funded by the National Center tor Research inVocational Education. Pre jen staff from both projects metperiodically to p' organize, direct, and evaluate projtrtobjectives and activities. Project staff at Illinois StateUniversity coordinated three differeat sets of pilot sites,delivcsed in-service mining, and directed woreops. Projectstaff at the University of llluiois were most directly in-volved with the designing of survey and assessment instru-ments to collect data.

One set of pilot sites included fourteen different localeducation agencies from across IIIin&s which pilot testedApplied Communicanons, and/or Applied Mathematicscurricula. These pilot sites were scattered from around thestate of Illinois including rural, small town, and urbanareas, and ranging from small high schools to comprehen-sive high schools to area vocational centers. Academic andVocational teachere articipated.

The second set of pilot sitee were organized from acrossIllinois and included vocational Ancation teachers acrossall vocational areas. Tne vocational teachers involved fromthis second set of Oct sites had the assignment of keepingjournals of their effzizrs to collaborate with academic teach-ers to strengthen either the academic content of their voca-tional courses or to improve the applied nature of theacademic teachers' courses. These instructors were pre-pared for this activity thrcugh a workshop in September,1989 and wore reconvened at additional dates to reviewtheir activities, and journal entn. Finally, this group ofinstructors prepared a collaborative pres. station for theIllinois Vocational Ass xiadon Annual Conference inFebruary of 1990. These teachers werP identified by theIllinois State Board of Education Depanment of Adult,Vocational, and Technical Education staff.

A third set of pilot site teachers were utilized to identify thebarriers and incentives for teachers to be involved withcollaborative activities. These teachers entered into col-laborative activities and kept journals. These instructorsalso reviewed a potential strategic planning model for use inplanning integration activities and the fvential content of ateacher/administrator integration guidebook. These pilotsite teachers were from the McLean-DeWitt RegionalVocational System art included academic and vocationalinstructors and admLarators. These individuals were alliolunteers.

; 80

Pilot :es for Applied Curricula

Mir= meetings were held between the staff of the twoprojects to work out the details and make the pilot tcst siteselections. Fourteen different local agencies were involved;a the !Ilinois pilot testing of Applied Communications and/or Applied Mathematics. One of the sites is a postsecondary

lutution, one is an area vocational center, one is a magnethigh school, the remaining art:comprehensive high schools.

During July and Augu.i., 1989, the pilot site administratorswere contacted and site visits were made to each institutionto orient and train all the professional staff who would beinvolved in using these materials in the vocational andloracademic program areas. Applied Communication ant; Ap-plied Mathematics materials were disseminated to the par-ticipants al, ' information was secured on the classes when.the materials would be used. The partic ipants were gi ven anoverview of the projectf expectations. Visitation sched-piles were discussed and arrangements were made to holdtwo in-service/evaluation workshops during the academicschool year.

Through. a review of related literature and contacts withother n. al.:hers involved in applied academics evaluation,sample evaluation survey forrz were preparcd and printed.To promote cooperation and coordination of data, contactswere made with: Norton Grubb and Jane Plihal, NationalCenter for Research in Vocational Education, Berkeley,California; Thomas Owens, Northwest Regional Euuca-uccial Laboratory, Portland, Ottgon; Gen,: Bottoms, South-ern Regional Educational Board; and David Payne, Educa-tional Research Laboratory, Athens, Georgia.

Sample survey forms from these and other projects andactivities were reviewed for data items and procedures. ibeproject staff, in turn, designed survey/data collection in-struments which were pilot tested. The instrumcnts devel-oped to collect demographic data on students, teachers, andschool districts; information concerning participant expec-tations and outcomes; educational background of students,teachers and administrators are as follows:

1. Administrator QuestionnaireSurvey Form2. Teacher Questionnaire Survey Form3. Student Questionnaire Survt. Fori

These que.,(ionnaires were to be disseminated and com-pleted sometime between December, 1989, and February,1990. The teacher questionnaire data were collected at theApplied Academics Workshop, December 11, 1989, atIllinois State University in NormalIllinols. Data werecollected from 25 teachers at the work.shop. T1 e ntquestionnaire booklets were disseminated to the partici-pants at the December workshop and wGre to be completedby February, 1990. These forms were eollected by theproject staff during the on-site visitations.

9 5

Vocational Education Tec.cher Collaborative Pilot Sites

Project staff, with the assistance of the management staff ofthe Illinois State Board of Education Department of Adult,Vocational, and Technical Education, selected ten voca-tional instructors to seek out and collaborate with academicteachers to improve the ara demic content of their vocationalcourses and to improve the applied learning strategies in theacademic teachers' courses.

These teachers were identried and solicited during Augustand September, 1989. They attended an in-service work-shop on integration in Champaign, Illinois on September23, 1939 with instructions to keep a joitrnal of their collabo-rative interactions with academic tmchers. They reconve-ned in November, 1989 and January, 1990 to discusspreliminary fmdings and to frame a collaborative presenta-tion to be delivered at the Illinois Voca.qonal AssociationAnnual Conference in Itasca, Illinois. Results from theiractivities provided insight into benefits and barriers fromcollaborative integration efforts.

Academic and Vocational Trzcher Pilot Sites

Through an initiative by project staff and the regionalsystem director for the McLean-DeWizt Regional Voca-tional System, volunteer academic and vocational instrr.-tors in the regien.were identified and contacted in Augustand September, 1989 for their participation to collaboratewith other teachers and to keep journal accounts of theiractivities.

Project staff met once a month with each of the teachers/administrators to discuss collaborative activities related toteaching methods, curriculum content, course develop-ment, and incentives and barriers to collaborative activities.These informal contacts between project staff and pilot siteteachers continued through May, 1990. On June 4, 1990pilot site teachers attended a summit meeting at IllinoisState University to synthesize their reactions to their activi-ties throughout the year, to review potential strategic plan-ning models for integration, and analyze the components ofa proposed teacher/administrator guidebook for curriculumintegration.

Findings :Ind Conclusions

Applied Curricula Pilot Sites

report contains information from the teachers imple-menting Applied Academics curriculum, including bothvocational and academic teachers. The foilowing para-graphs and Tables I tht ough 7 are mtended to present a briefsummary of the type of data collected. A more in-depthanaly Is is currently under way and includes a cross-corre-lation between teacher responses and their background data

81

and between student responses and their demographic data.It should be noted that the totals may not add to 100% dueto those who did not respond to specific items.

Due to the nature of the selection of pilot sites, the resultsshould not be construed as being generali=bie or represen-tative of all schools, students or programs. Teachers wereselected on a competitive basis because of the strong de-mand to participaze as a piolt site. This was the result ofsome positive repom concerning the Applied Academicsmaterials. The researchers are continuing te analyzedata,some of which are not yet available. Data collection basun=ments are being improved and expanded. Your commentsand suggestions are welcomed by the researchers.

Table i and 2 describe the characteristics of the teachersparticipating in the pilot program to implement the AppliedAcademics materials. The data indicate, that the sample isan experienced group of teachers in high schools located indiverse communities and various types of school organiza-tional strucures. Based on the teacher's responses, it hasbeen estimated that 726 students were enrolled in theApplied Academics courses. These students were spreadacross grades nine through twelve, with an average of 16students per class. Some of the teachers participating in theprogram were teaching the Applied Academics materials inmore than one class at the time. As Table 3 indicates, halfof the students have been described by their instructors as*average students* and a majority of the studfints (64%)reported to have enjoyed the Applied Academics instruc-tional approach.

Table 1Instructor Demographics

Educational BackgroundAssociate degree 4%Bachelor's degree 21%Master's degree 50%Associate & Bachelor's 4%Associate & Master's 13%

Master's and Specialist 8%

Years TeachingTwo io five yearsSix to ten yearsEleven to twenty yearsMore than twenty years

Type of School

16%

12%

52%2u%

Comprehensive highsi;hool 64%

Area Vocational School 12%Vocational wing of acomprehensive H.S. 4%Other (correcdonal inst.,

magnet school) 20%

Professionat CertificateProvisional 4%Annual 16%

Continuing 64%None 4%

Tyre of CommunitvRural 32%Small town 44%

Suburban 4%Urban 16%

Staff Development ProgramsAftende.:

State, Regional,and Local 60%

All of the aboveand National 8%

Other 16%

9 6

Table 2!mow& Demographks

Member of a Professionalor Teacher Organization

Yes 72%No 28%

Frequency of Reuling JournalsRepotting Current Research

Occasionally 56%Frequently 28%Seldom 4%Never 8%

Experience with an Occupa- Taught Mathematics Classestion Other than Teaching

Yes 76%No 20%

YesNo

44%56%

Taught English, Communica- Taught Science Classestions or Language ArtsClasses

Yes 24%No 76%

YesNo

Table 3Student Demographics

Total Number of Students = 726Students/Class Average = 16

Grade Level Aaiity Level of Students

9th Grade 10% Gifted 3%10th Grade 26% Above average 11%

Ilth Grade 26% Average 50%12th Grade 33% Below Average 26%Other (post-secondary,

correctional center) 5%Marginally learning

disadvantaged 10%

Did your students seem to enjoy Sexthe Applied Matezials used?

Yes, a lot 24% Male 59%Yes, somewhat 64% Female 41%No, not too much 4%No, not at all 4%

24%76% How many students are in each of the

classes in which you are using theApplied Basics Materials?

Taught Vocational Education Experience Teaching Vocationalor Training Classes Classes

Yes 76%No 24%

1 - 5 years 26%6 - 10 years 5%11 -20 years 38%20 years or

more 26%

The data in Table 4 addresses research question /. Almostall the teachers (92 %) a3reed that the Applied Academicsmaterials reflect an increaSed emphasis on appli,x1 learn-ing, while helping the students improve their academic

Table 4Selected Items that Address Research Question I

5 - 10 students per class 16%11 _ 15 smetrrits per class 24%

16 - 20 stndents per class 28%21 - 30 students per class 28%

achievement. Four out of five teachers agreed that theApplied Academics materials a: e effective because they helpstudents understand the subject matter.

Do you.feel that the Applied Academicsmaterials help students improve'heir academic achievement?

A great deal 16%A fair amount 68%Not too much 4%Not at all 0%

How was the overall impact in termsof instrrctional effectiveness whenusing we Applied Academics materials?

Do you feel that the Applied Academicsmaterials reflect an increasedemphasis on applied learning?

YesNo

92%0%

Do you feel thr t the Applied Academicsmaterials are effective because they helpstudents understand the subject matter?

Excellent 8% A grcat deal 36%Good 68% A fair amount 52%Acceptahle 16% Not too much 0%Poor 0% Not at all 0%

62

Answers to research quesd an 2 are highlighted in Table 5.The majority of teachers (64%) indicated that the materialswere being implemented in a vocational program, and

Table 5

Selected Items dust Address Research Questions 2 & 5

nearly half (44%) indicated that this was their first timeusing the Applied Academics appmack in their courses.

Prior to this year, how extensively have you usedan Applied Academks approachin your courses?

In what type of program are you implementingthe Applied Acadériiies materials?

Often 36% Vocational 64%Seldom 20% MarhPnuties 28%.Never 44% Language Arts/Communication 8%

In what type of course are you currentlyusing the Applied Academics materials?

A new course 16%An existing course 76%Both new and existing 8%

Were the Applied Academics materials theprimary materials us.":1 in an existing course?

YesNo

14%86%

The data in Table 6 provides some insight into researchquestion 3. Two aspects of Table 6 are particularly interest-ing. First, the majority of teachers (80%) indicated that theApplied ArarIpmics materials have promoted academic/vocational collaboration, w.:.;156 % of respondents in favor

Table 6Selected Items Mat Address Research Questions 3 & 6

of academic/vocational team teaching of the courses. Sec-ond, nearly half the teachers (44%) indicated that theApplied Academics materials have induced them to incor-porate some new techniques into their teaching.

Based on your experience:, what kind of teachersdo you think should teadi the Applied Academics course?

How was the overall impact in terms of manageabilitywhen using the Applied Academics materials?

Academic teachers 8% Excellent 16%Vocational teachers 24% Good 44%Academic/vocational Acceptable 28%

team teaching 56% Poor 4%

Have the Applied Academics had a positiveeffect on your classroom performance?

Have the Applied Academics materials caused youincorporate some new techniques into your teaching?

Strongly agree 20% Strongly agree 36%Agree 60% Agree 44%Disagree 12% Disagree 12%Strongly disagree 0% Strongly disagree 0%

Based on your experience with the Applied Academicsmaterials, would you recommend it to other teachers?

Yes, I would highly recommend it 40%Yes, I would recommend it 36%Not sure 24%No, I would not recomment it 0%

Do you feel that the Applied Academics materials promoteacademic/vocational collaboration?

YesNo

80%12%

How well do the Applied AL:ademics materials meet theirintended objective compared to other approaches you havetried before?

Academic teachers 8%Vocational teachers 24%Academic/vocational team teaching 56%

*i.e. stimulate critical thinking anddevelop problem-solving skills

.04G. ..83

8

Table 7 addresses the students interest in the course andtheir perceptions of the emphasis placed on basic aademicskills. Students indicated that their was an increasedemphasis on academic skills because of the use of the

Table 7Students Interest and lype of Credit Received

materials. Also, the students strongly (68%) indicated thatthe materials had a positive impact on their interest in thecontent. In addition, more than half the student3 (56%)completing this course received academic credit.

How was the overall impact in terms of student interestwhen using the Applied Academics materials?

Excellent 12%Good 56%Acceptable 16%Poor 8%

Did the stwients completing this course receive vocational creditor academic credit?

Vocational creditAcademic credit

36%56%

Do you feel that the Applied Academics materials reflectan increased emphasis on higher academic expectations forVocational studentc9

YesNo

80%12%

Data included in Table fi were obtained from meetings withApplied Academics materials pilot site teachers. Interest-ingly, teachers collectively spoke of the common advan-tages and disadvantages of using the Applied Academics

curricula, addressing research question 3, but they alsovoiced differences of opinion based almcct exclusively onspecific characteristics or needs of their instructional set-tings and students.

Table 8Teacher Percepdons of the Advantages and Disadvantages of Utilizing Applied Communications and Applied Mathematics Materials

1.

2.

3.

The materials worked well when adapted to existing courses.

They provided an excellent connection betws.ln work and school.

Teachers needed extra planning time to implement the materials.

4. Applied Communications had several disadvantages as a stand-alone course, while Applied Mathematics dial, t-

5. Video programs stimulated excellent discussion activities.

6. Many related activities needed modification *.o fit local needs.

7. Materials could not be utilized "as is', they needed to be adapted.

8. There needed to be a coordinated effort locally so students did not repeat modules in different classes.

9. The materials worked well with cooperative education classes.

10. The materials needed more work scenes and exercises.

11. Teachers saw an improvement in students' math scores.

12. The rcading level of some materials was a concern.

13. The materials facilitated academic-vocational collaboration.

99

Second and Third Pilot Site Teachers' findings

Data included in Table9addresseti research question No.4.Pilot site instructors from piot sites two and three indicatedthat time constraints and a clear mitsion were the two mostimportant barriers to effective collaboration between aca-demic and vocational teachers. Two other major concernsfor these teachers were the turf battles between departmentsand disciplines, and dealing with local bureaucracy relatedto standards for admission into higher education and teachercertification.

Table 9Summit Report

On the positive side, these pilot site teachers indicated quiteclearly that through collaboration with professionals acrossdisciplines, they acquired assistance, money, , contacts withother individuals, and resources which helped them withtheir instructional program. They also indicated that thishelped them develop professionally and develop &adepts'interests, achievement, concept of what lies outside of theschool, and the need for academic preparation, as well asvocational skills

The barriers that impede collaboration and integration that the teachers identified were:* local bureaucracy in relation to certification

state initiativesteacher certificationadmission into higher educationscheduling students and teacherscompetitim between departments and disciplinestime to plan, =et, and work

* the stigma =ached to vocadonal education* communication problems* dollar support for new programs

the rialcs/rewards for attempting new initiativespersonal philosophiescultureparents lack of undemanding and involvementassessmentclear mission and direation

The top five barriers identified, in rank order were:1. time to plan, =et, and work2. clear mission and direction3. competition between departments and .lisciplines4. local bureaucracy in relation to certification5. admission inn', higher education

Incentives that facilitate collaboration and integration that the teachers identified were.* survival* adding new life to oid programs

the urgency for improvement in educationthe support of democratic education principlesprofessional development opportunities and recognitionself fulfillmentbeing a part of an innovative, winning groupdeveloping a diversity of students in all classesacquiring assistance, i.e. dollar support, techMcal assistance, and resourcesdeveloping students' interests, achievement, and relevant learning

The top five incentives, in rank order were:1. acquiring assistance, i.e. dollar support, technical assistance, and resources2. developing students' interests, achievement, and relevant learning3. professional development opportunities4. professional recognition5. survival

85 00

Table 10, is a flow chart for strategic planning for curricu-lum integration which was dtveloped with the assistance ofpilot site teachers and administrators in the third pilot site.The basis behind this model is that local professionaleducators need to assess the needs of the local school

setting, students, instructors, and empkyers to determineareas of most critical need before identifying strategies tointegrate academics into vocational educatien. This modelalso takes a long range perspective on integration.

Table 10Instruthonal Strategies for Curriculum Integration Pilot Site Integration-Process

maw.May.1990

rD--e's

evelop Awareness coard ofConsc4 and Rond

Superintendent

August. 1930to

June, 1990 r Develop Awareness ot &WingPrat:Pais and Gudince Staff

August. 19S0to

Sept. 1990

Denim Local Integration StrategicFlaming Comrades (u.sPq

Spring, 1991 Wood Acadagrks Stan

Fat 1993Ccepisess Needs Assessmc,1

end ofFall Semester1993.91

t991

F I

1991 fattedki Sprit;193219IC1904

Jun% t991,1932, 1993.1994, Jan..199Z 19931994

June, t991,1902. 1993,1994, kn.1991, 19921993. 19G4

LISPC Precuts Strategic PlanPt= ?kids Alsessmal

Develop Awareness. Interest andSok* Par ticipation 4.1 Teachers

Participating Teachers, Start andApplied Acederrics Staff Actuate

Integration &rates.*

Participating Teachea, SIM andApplied Aculertioli Sta0 Compiete

Fraidtvo and SummadveEvaltation

ApPled #4xlemics Staff CompiatesRemit cd Activate

1.7mOrClii01

Iota integration StrategicFlaming Committee Membesship 03 members) front

SuperesendentPtincipalGuidance counsaborPlacipating teachersSuainese/Incarstry reps,Community leadersParenteStudents

1 14

86

The outline in Table 11 lists the component parts of aguidebook for integration activities for teachers and admin-istrators. Pilot site teachers and administrators indicatedthat the guidebook should have a clear description of themission and provide a strong rationale statement. Theguidebook should illustrate how teachers can benefit fromintegration activities, deal with pragmatic and practicalproblems associated with integration efforts, and providesample lessons that illustrate for administrators and teach-ers the ways to implement integration. The guidebookshould also provide a list of resource materials, methods

and assistance in lesson planning, suggested scope andsequence for various courses, a brid national scope state-ment concerning integration, a list of resource people in theregion and state who axe already involved in projects, anda resource listing of curriculum materials and equipment.AdditionaUy, the document should identify the concept offlexibilicy and local needs assessment in determining inte-gration ;ictivities, as well as. suggest program timelines,and provide sample instruments for assessing the impact ofintegration.

'able 11Integradon Guidebook: Preparing Youth for a Productive 21st Century

Enhancing academic content in vocational classes and infusing applied learning in academic classes to improve soirlents' basic skills.

I. Rationale and backdrop.

tv.

V.

Content Outline

A. Reports an educationB. Reports on trends in the work settingC. Recommendations towards a more effective school system to contribute to a more effective economy.

Strategies for integrating academics with vocational education to improve students' basic skills.

Barriers and incentives to integrating vocational with academic education.

Support and marketing needed to integrate vocational with academic education.

Processes and resources for local integradon activities.

A.B.C.D.E.F.

Listing of key individuals.Flow chart of contacts and activities.Check list of participants or constituents involved.Sqategic planning processes and materials.Curriculum adaptation or development module.Resources1. Technical assistance personnel2. Curriculum materials

a. vocational educationb. academicc. business and industry trade materials

VI. Assessing the impact of integration.

Conclusions

I. In general, teacher and student attitudes toward Ap-plied Academics materials were positive. A majorityof the students indicated that they thought the materialswere important for them to understand, and mostindicated that they found the materials interesting.Students indicated to their teachers that their favoriteparts of the Applied Academics materials were thevideo programs and the simulations-. (*.searchquestion 1).

87

2. The majority of the instructors reacted positively to theApplied Academics materials and ov-x three-fourths(76%) of the respGadents indicated that they wouldrecommend the use of these materials to other teachers.Instructors coasidered the content of Applied Aca-demic materials to be important for students to under-stand (Research question 1).

3. Teachers' major suggestions pointed to an increasedeffort at implementing the materials so that: (a) stu-dents enrolled in stand akne Applied Academics con=

receive academic credit, and (b) that more academicand vocational teachers have the opportunity to teamteach (Research questions 2 and 3).

4. It is apparent that although local settings differ, theseApplied Academics materials can be adapted and util-ized and are seen as effective in infusing academiccontent in the vxational classes (Research quwions 1and 2).

S. In regards to the collaboration between academic andvocational teachers, the concern for adequate planningtime and local bureaucratic support are key barriers tointegration. The responses from the teachers indicatedthat the barriers to their collaborating with teachersoutside their discipline were extrinsic and many timesout of their control, such as, the attitudes betweendisciplines, admission to higher education, the localbureaucracy, and the limits on their time. On the otherhand, the incentives which they identified illustrate themotivational nature and professional renewing whichtakes place because of collaborative activities (Re-search questions 3 and 4).

6, Concerning the strategic planning flow chart, pilot siteteachers and administrators supported the notion ofplanning activities to meet needs, but there has to be aclear concise statement of mission and goals (Researchquestion 5).

7. In dealing with local educational environments, thestrategic planning committee should be made up of abroad cross-section of partkipants to provide input andto disseminate information to constituent groups(Research question 5).

8. Finally,, in regards to content of a proposed guidebook,pilot site teachers and administrators indicated a strongneed for such a document. They felt that it should beconcise, in order that administrators and teachers couldutilize it easily to proceed with individual school andinstructor integration activities (Research question 6).

Recommendations for Business Educators

Based on the preliminary fmdings of this study, the follow-ing recommendations can be elicited.

1. Business educators have state and nationally producedcurriculum materials which have activities which focuson the enhancement of basic skills. The integrating ofthese into business education courses should become arenewed emphasis of business educators.

2. Applied Academics curriculum materials do offer sys-tems and content to enhance and reinforce academic

88

skills in business education courses. Business educa-tors should support the infusion of these where appro-priate.

3. Business educators should make the effort to collabo-rate with academic teachers to effectively plan instruc-tion to integrate academic content or to developapplied academic courses to improve students basicskills.

4. Business educators should increase their involvementin integration activities, i.e. collaboration, team-teach-ing, teacher sharing. This builds respect and providesa tremendous opportunity for informing and marketingbusiness education programs with in-school and out-of-school publics.

5. Business educators should develop and test instruc-tional strategies and evaluation methods for integra-tion efforts.

6. Business educators should utilize lead business educa-tors, such as state supervisors for business education,state business education association leadership, andbusiness teacher educators to pursue the implementa-tion of integration strategies in their states which proveto be effective in raising the basic skills of businesseducation students.

7. Business teacher educators and state business educa-tion supervisors should take a leadership role in assist-ing local education agencies in developing integrationactivities which are based on strategic planning to meetthe needs of the local education agency.

8. Business educators in leadership positions should util-ize planning processes and resource materials to meetlocal needs in the pursuit of raising students' basicskills abilities.

9. The Poficy Commission for Business Education shoulddevelop a strong, supportive position statement re-garding the enh.mcement and reinforcement of basicacademic skills in business education courses to pro-vide a philosophical base from which to focus businesseducawrs' activities.

10. NBEA and its affiliates, Delta Pi Epsilon chapters andNABTE institutions should make integration a priorityactivity over the next three to five years and provideleadership in developing and delivering teacher pre-service and in-service uaining so that teachers have thepedagogical skills and materials to effectively infuseintegration activities.

1. 0 3

1

References

gency for Instructional Technology.(1986, June). Pro-spectus: Applied communication, a curriculum andlearning materials for high school students. Blooming-ton, IN.

Barton, P. E. (1986, Winter). Employers and high schools:The fit between learning and working. Peabody Jour-nal of Education. 63(2), 103-149.

Bennett, W. J., & McLaughlin, A. (1988). The bottomline: Basic skills in the workplace. A Joint Publicationof the U. S. Department of Laborand the U. S. Depart-ment of Education. Washington, DC.

Benson, C. (1989, July 27). On integrating academic andvocational educadon. Testimony before the SenateSubcommittec on Education, Arts, and Humanities.Washington, DC.

Center for Oceupaticoal Research and Development. (1989,June). Prospectus: Applied Mathematics II, to designand develop eleven additional units to augment thetwenty-five unit . of applied mathematics that haverecently been conioleted. Waco, TX.

C lune, W. H., White, P., & Patterson. J. (1989, Februaiy).The implementation and effects of high school gradu-ation requirements: First steps toward curricular re-form. (Reseaxth Report Series RR-011). Center forPolicy Research in Education, Rutgers, The StateUniversity of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ.

Finch, C. R., & Cnmkilton, J. R., (1985, March). Is yourcurriculum for the nineties?. VocEd Journal. 60(2),31-32.

Grubb, W., & Plihal, J. (1990). Preliminary report: Thecunning hand, the cultured mind: models for integrat-ing vocational and academic education. Berkeley, CA:National Center for Research in Vocational Education.

Harris, L. (1988, Spring). The American wnrkforce: Re-storing its competitiveness. Phi Kappa Phi Journal,38-39.

Lockhead, C. (1988, May 23). Even the most basic jobsnow require basic skills. Insight, 30-4J.

Lotto, L. S. (1988). What about vocational Nlucation: Areview of the evidence. Educational Policy. 2(3), 265-285.

National Center for Research in Vocationt Education.(1986). A design and assessment of a formative evalu-ation of the principles of technology curriculum mate-rials. Supported by the Office of Vocational and AdultEducation, U.S. Dept. of Education. The Ohio stateUniversity, Columbus, OH.

Nztional Center on Education and the'Economy. (1990).America's Choice: High skills or low wages! Roches-ter, NY: author.

New York Times. (1988, May 8). Firms learning moreworkers need retraining in basic skills. The

Champaign-Urbana News-Gazette, C-7.

Owens, T., & Linder, F. (1989, February). Entry-levelworker study: Phase I report, executive summary.Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, Port-land, OR.

Parkhurst, C. C. (1986, September). Why we must stressacademic skills. VocationalEducationJournal. 61(6),11.

Pritz, S. G. (1988, March). Basic skills: The new impera-tive. Vocational Education Journal. 63(2), 24-26.

Resnick, L. B. (1987, December). The 1987 AERA Presi-dential Address: Learning in schcol and out. Educa-tional Researcher. 16(9), 13-20.

Schmidt, B. J. (1988, Spring). Reading skills students needfor use of technical materials. Journal of Vocationaland Technical Education. 4(2), 14-20.

U. S. News & World Report. (1989, June, 26). Theforgotten half. 106(25), 44-49, 53.

Weir, D. (1987, Fall). Vocational education in the 1990's-more or less. Journal of Vocational and TechnicalEducation. 4(1), 39-47.

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I

IIIII

IIIIIIII

International Business Communication: Perceptions of ImportanceFrom Association for Business Communication (ABC)

Experts and Nonexperts

James Calvert ScottUtah StAte University

Diana J. GreenWeber State College

Abstract

A list of actions influencing internatienal business communication was developed through the use of the Delphi pro-cess. Both a Delphi panel of experts and a geographically stratified random zample of nonexperts who maintained mem-bership in the ABC and who resided in the U.S.A. evaluated the importat= of the acdon statements using a five-pointLikert-type scale. While the experts perceived 50 of the action statements to be important ones, the lonexpertsperceived all 57 of the action statements to be important ones. Factor analyses revealed that the 57 international businesscommunication actico statements can be grouped into 14 factors for the experts and 12 factors for the nonexperts. One-way analysis of variance tests revealed that perceptions of the importance of the action-statement factors are influencedby four demographic variables.

Introduction

Acknowledging changing worldwide business conditions,the influential American Assembly of Collegiate Scbols ofBusiness (AACSB) began requinng its member-schtols in1974 to include in their curricula content about the world-wide nature of business (*Accreditation Council Forum,'1978). Subsequently, most U.S.A. schools of businessbegan to incorporate international content into their instruc-t ional programs, including those in businesscommunication.

The resulting internationalizatiou of business communica-tion is evidenced by the increasing number of chapters intextbooks and articles in professional literature that addrcssaspects of international business communication. All tyPesof business communication are being identified as interna-tional business comminkaticn, according to Ramsey, Rossi,Underwood, and Wilson (1986), resulting in a designationperceived by most as inappropriate.

Kilpatrick (1984) noted that communication plays an im-portant role in international business. After examining theexisting international business communication literature,she concluded that li.de of the international business com-munication I i terature is based on concrete data and that mostof it is based on perscoal experience and observation orsecondary sources.

From a study of instructors' perceptions of internationalmaterial in bushess communication textbooks, Kohut andBaxter (1985) fuund that some instructor-respondent be-lieve that certain textbooks contain internationa', materialwhile others believe that the same textbooks do not containinternational material. "This confusion underscores theneed for more exploration, discussion, and research onwhat 'international' really means.* (p. 244)

Although the international business communication litera-ture has grown, writers have not addressed the nature of thefield of international business communication in substan-tive ways, resulting in a major void in the expandinginternational business communication literature. In fact,Scott and Green (1988) identified the international businesscommunication field as I very important business commu-nication challenr,e needing to be addressol The Associa-tion for Businm., Communication's Research Topics Sub-committee (1988) also identified international businesscommunication as a field needing to be researched in ascholarly manner.

Determining what the nature of international businesscommunication is as perceived by both the expert andnonexpert members of the Association for Business Com-munication (ABC) who reside in the United States ofAmerica (U.S.A.), two importaLz groups impacted by theinternationalization of business communication, is one

Funding for parts ofthe reported research was provided by Utah State University, Delta Pi Epsilon Research Foundation, Inc., and Weber Stat., College.

91

105

important challenge. Subsequently, thc purposes of thisexploratory research study were (1) to determine the inter-national business communication action statements andtheir importance as perceived by both U.S.A.-based ABCaffiliated experts and nonexperts, (2) to determine systemsfor categorizing the international business communicationaction statements into meaningful fnctors for both exptatsand nonexperts, and (3) to determine if significant differ-ences in perceptions of importance for the experts andnonexperts existed among the factors and ail demographicvariables. While this exploratory study d not seek todevelop a definition for international business communica-tion , it did seek to uncover information that would be usefulin better defining, understanding, and reaching consensusregarding what international business communication is.

Literatme Review

The international business communication-related litera-ture was thoroughly reviewed for guidance and directionfor the study. No substantive attempts to define or to clarifythe nature of international business communication wereuncovered in the international business communicationliterature. Instead, almost all of the international businesscommunication literature related in one way or another toinstructional programs in educational institutions or inbusinesses.

International business communication program content hasbeen addressed by numerous miters at both the general andspecific levels. For example, a number of writcrs haveassociated international business communication with cre-ating an awareness of the languages, the cultures, and thepolitical, legal, and eccoomic systems (Lathan, 1983; Ramsey,Rossi, Underwood, & Wilson, 1986; Paulsell, 1987) andwith the developing of culturally and linguistically fluentinternational businesspersons (Kilpatrick, 1984; Koltut &Baxter, 1985; Victor, 1986). Others have been so specificas to recommend the teaching of such things as the correctuse of Standard English while recognizing differenceswithin English-speaking countries (Haneda, 1976; McDow-ell, 1987; Birkcl, 1988) and the teaching of thc nonverbalaspects of international business communication (Kohut &Baxter, 1985; Himstreet & Baty, 1987).

A variety of international business communication writcrshave shared ideas about teaching methodologies. Forexample, some have advocated a particular overall ap-proach to teaching international business communication,such as the cubre-specific, the culture-general, or theccntext-based approach (Baird & Stull, 1981; Broome,1986). Others have presented arguments for teachinginternational business communication as a separate unit orcourse and for integrating it throughout a relevant course(Varner, 1987; Zimpfcr & Underwood, 1988).

92

Some vaternauonal business communication authors havesuggested areas for research and development. Severalwriters, for example. have noted the need for more researchtoward the develc anent of a generally acccpted defmitionand workable model for international business communica-tion (Hildebrant, 1981; Haworth & Savage, 1987; Zimpfer& Underwood, 1988). Others have offered suggestions forstrengthening the international business communicationliterature and for developing the international businesscommunication field (Kilpatrick, 1984; Zimpfer & Under-wood, 1988).

Only one Delphi study involving beliefs, issues, and phi-losophies was found in the business communication litera-ture. Scott and Green's (1988) research provided strongsupport for investigating the international business commu-nication field as a major challenge needing to be addressed.It also provided useful information about hcw to implementthe Delphi process with business communication experts todevelop and rate action statements and about how to surveybusiness communication nonexperts to determine thcirperceptions of the importance of action statements.

Procedures

The procedures for this study are subdivided into threephases: The Delphi-Procms Phase, The Mailed-SurveyPhase, and The Data-Analyses Phase.

7he Delphi-Process Phase

Actions impacting the international business communica-tion field and its practitioners were identified through thecomprehensive literature search. These actions were con-verted into 41 international business communication actionstatements that were pi esented to a DnIphi panel of22 ABC-affiliated expert-judges who resided in thc U.S.A. TheDelphi-panel experts were selected based on their majorcontributions to the international business communicationfield in terms of a comIgnation of their authorship, speaker-ship, and leadership within thc past ten years. TheseU.S.A.-based Pelphi-pauel experts independently created,refined, and evaluated the international business communi-cation action statements, increasing the number of state-ments by 16 to a total of 57. One hundred percent of theDelphi-panel experts provided usable responses duringeach of the three Delphi rounds. Using a five-point Likert-type scale of importance, thc experts strove toward conn-sus on the ratings of importance for the individual actionstatements.

These action statements involved the program structurccategory, which was for action statements relating to thecaifiguratica of educational programs in international businesscommunication; the program content category, which was

106

for action statements relating to what -hould be taught ineducational programs in international business communica-don; the program methodology emegory, which was foraction statements relating to how to deliver the educationalprogram content in international business communication;and the meamh and development category, which was foraction statements relating to the scholarly investigation ofaspects of international business communication and theenhancement of the international business conmiunicatienfield .

The Mailed-Survey Phase

All 57 international thicineeelmnununication action state-ments and the five-point Likat-type scale of importancefrom the final Delphi-process quesdoreaire were incorpo-rated into a survey questionnaire that was pilot tested,refmed, and mailed along with cover letters and pread-dressed, postage-paid envelopes to a geographically strati-fied random sample that represented the nonexpert ABCgeneral membership residing within the U.S.A. This proupwas also selected for study since its members are alradyinterzted and involved in business communication andsince they have a high potential to be impacted directly bythe emerging intereadonal business communication field.

A sample size of 350 was selected, and a 50 percent responserate was soug'l following guidelines presided by Wunsch(1986). Follow-up postcards and replacement survey ques-tionnaires with preaddressed, postage-paid envelopes weremailed to nonrespondents at the ends of the third and sixthweeks respectively after the initial mailing. A return rate of53 percent was achieved after the second follow-up mailing.About 51 percent of this sample provided n.wonses thatwere usable for purposes of data analyses.

To ensure that the mailed-survey data were representative,a variety of procedures were used. A comparison of theactual and theoretical distributions of returned survey ques-tionnaires from each \BC region confirmed proportionalrepresentation. Sinct the usable response rate was deemedto be adequate (50.0 percent for a sample size of 350),comparisons of selected characteristics of the respondentsand of the sample were made. All differences were found tobe less than r percent, affirming confidence at the .05 levelthat the responses are unbiased (sec Wunsch, 1986). Acomparison of the data provided by the early and laterespondents also revealed no significant differences interms of demographic variables or perceptions of impor-tance. From these facts it may be inferred (a) that had ihenonrespondents acnially responded, they would have re-sponded in a nanner similar to the respondents and (b) thatdespite the norm:sponse factor, the respondents are repre-sentative of the population (see West, 1977). Furthermore,data from additional follow-up mailings to the nonrespon-dents after the deadline for accepting research-study re-sree;es revealed (at thu trivial reasons unrelated to the

central focus and purpose of the survey questionnairecontributed to nonresponse (set West, 1977) and (b) thatwhen nonrespondents were persuaded to complete the sur-vey questionnaire after the deadline for accepting research-study responses, their demographic variables anu ratings ofimportance were not significantly different from those whoresponded prior to the deadline (see Wunsch, 1986). All ?Ifthese data suggest (a) that the mailed-survey respondentsarc not systematically different from the sample or thepopulation and (b) that the mailed-survey respondents arenot rrystemadcally different from the nonrespondaus. Thus,concerns for both respondent and nonrespondent bias arcdiminished.

The Data-Analyses Phase

'Me data from the final Delphi-process and mailed surveyquestionnaires were compiled and entered into a eomputerfor descriptive and inferential analyses. The researchersueed the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) 3.0programs for the analyses.

The demographic analyses included 12 variables: gender ofrespondent; region of residence; age ef respondent; type ofhighest degree earned; type of employment affiliation; typeof educational institution; type of academic institutionaniatien; discipline of primary emcienic affiliation; numberof years of business communication tacking experience;experience in a I eadeship capacity; experience in a speakez -ship ::apacity; and experience in an authorship capacity.

Means and standard deviations were calculated for theaction statements as perceived by the experts aRd nonex-perts. Factor analyses were performed to determine if therewere systematic processes for reducing the data into ameaningful set of factor, for the experts and for the nonex-perts. One-way analysis of variance tests were performedusing iuncan's multiple range tests if there were more thantwo groups to determine if and where significam dif-ferences existed among the factors for the expens aod forthe nonexperts and the demographie variables.

Cronbach's alphas were computed to assess the reliabilityof both data-gathering questionnaires. The Cronbach'salpha for the experts' questionnaire was .86, while theCronbach's alpha for the nonexperts questionnairewas .96; both r'pha valtm confirm high instrumentreliability.

Demographics

The experts we - composed of 44 percent males and 36percent females weo represented all geographic regions ofthe U.S.A. Fifty percent of the experts were in the 41-50year old age category, 14 percent were in the younger agecategories, and 36 percent were in the older age categories.The experts were highly educated, with 86 percent possess-

93 0

ing doctor's degrees and 14 percent possessing master's de-grees. While about 5 percent of the experts were affiliatedwith noneducational institutions, about 95 percent wereaffiliated with educational institutions, with 86 percent atpublic institutions and 14 percent at private institutions.One hundred percent of the experts who worked at educa-tional institudons were affiliated with colleges and univer-sities. The primary academic affiliations and frequenzies ofthe experts who worked at educational institutions were asfollcws: other business, 53 percent; business education, 33percent; and communication, 14 percent. The experts werecomposed of experienced teachers: 33 percent had taughtbusiness communication courses for 21 or more years;28 percent, 11-15 years; 24 percent, 6-10 years; 10 percent,16-20 years; and 5 percent, 1-5 years. While 41 percent ofthe experts maintained membership in National BusinessEducation Association (NBEA), 36 percent of the expertsmaintained membership in Delta N Epsilon (DPE). Theexperts have been major contributors to the business com-munication discipline within the past ten years, with 68percent having served in an ABC regional or nationalleadership capacity, with 95 percent having presented at anABC regional or national meting in a speakership capacity,,and with 95percent having worked on published businesscommunication educational materials in an authorshipcapacity.

The nonexperts were composed of 42 percent males and 58percent females who represented all geographic regions ofthe U.S.A. Thirty-eight percent of the nonexperts were inthe 41-50 year old age category, 27 percent were in theyounger age categories, and 35 pement were in the older agec, nodes. The nonex pens were also highly educated, with62 percent possessing doctor's degrees, 33 percent possess-ing master's degrees, and 5 percent possessing other de-grees. While 11 percent of the nonexperts were affiliatedwith non- educational inititutions, 89 percent of the nonex-pens were affiliated with educational institutions, with 81percent at public institutions and 19 percent at privateinstitutions. The nonexperts who worked at educationalinstitutions were distributed as follows: colleges and uni-versities, 80 percent; junior and community colleges, 13percent; private business colleges, 4 percent; secondaryschools, 1 percent; vocational-technical schools, 1 per-cent; and city, county, and state educational agencies, 1percent. The primary academic affiliations and frequenciesof the nonexperts who worked at educational institutionswere as follows: business education, 45 percent; English,21 percent; other business, 19 percent; communication; 10percent; speech, 3 percent; education, 1 percent.; and other,1 percent. The nonexperts were composed of experiencedteachers: 31 percent had taught business communicationcourses for 6-10 years ; 20 percent, 1-5 years; 19 percent, 21

94

or more years; 18 percent, 11-15 years; and 12 percent, 16-20 years. While 34 percent of the nonexperts maintainedmembership in NBEA, 33 percent of the nonexperts main-tained membership in DPE. The nonexperts have beenmoderate contributors to the business communication disci-pline within the past ten years, with 29 percent havingserved in an ABC regional or national leadership capacity,with 58 percent having presented at an ABC regional ornational meeting in a speakership capacity, and with 46percent having worked on published business commumca-don educational materials in an authorship capacity.

To the extent that the demographic characteristics of otherU.S.A.-based international business communication ex- ,

pens and nonexperts are similar to the demographic charac-teristics of the respective sample groups, they are -alsorepresentative of other U.S.A.-based international businesscommunication experts and nonexperts.

Findings

The fmdings from this study are subdivided into threesections: Means and Standard Deviations for the Interna-tional Business Communication Action Statements, FactorAnalyses Results for the Internric tu.1 Business Communi-cation Action Statements, and Sieifimnt Imluences AmongAction-Statement Factors an% Deruographic Variables.

Means and Standard Deviations for theInternational Business CommunicationAction statements

At the conclusion of the Delphi process, the expert-judgesproduced , list of 57 international business communicationaction statements that was rated on a five-point Liken-typescale of importance from 5, critically important, to 1, notimportant. Table 1 shows that these experts rated 50 of the57 international business communication action statementsas important actions, ones having mean scores of at least2.6, rhe lower limit of the important category on thecontinirim underlying the importance scale. Table 1 alsoshows mat the nonexperts rated all 57 international businesscommunication action statements as important actions us-ing the same five-point Liken-type scale. While the expertsrated action statement No. 3, Establish an awareness of thelanguages, cultures, and political, legal, and economicsystems of other countries, as the most important one, thenonexpens peiceived action statements No. 3, Establish anawareness of the languages, cultures, and political, legal,and economic systems of other countries, and No. 15,Encourage the use of simple, clear, precise, and conciselanguage for international business communication pur-poses, as equally important ones.

108

Table 1Experts' and Nonexperts' Means and Standard DeYfations for the International Business Communication Action Statements

Number and international businesscommunication action statrment

No. 3 Establish an awareness of the lan-guages, cultures, and political, legal,and economic systems of other countries.No. 20 Teach such nonverbal aspects ainternational business communic asuse of time, personal space, body language,and manner of dress.No. 55 Encourage professional organiza-tions to promote further business researchand development of the international busi-ness communication field.No. 34 Increase the quantity and improvethe quality of international business com-munication training programs that areavailable to personnel in the businessworld.No. 4 Emphasize that difficulties ininternational business communicv'onusually arise from differences in thelanguages, cultures, and political, legal,and economic systems of countries.No. ZO Encourage the study of languagesother than English for business purposes.No. 41 Use such trIching methods as read-ings, lectures, experiential exercises,role playings, simulations, and labora-tories to develop international businesscommunication knowledges, skills, andattitudes.No. 46 Investigate the international com-munication problems of particular businessesand identify the communication knowledges,skills, and attitudes that are needed tominimize or alleviate those problems.No. 35 Emphasize culture-specific interna-tional business communication trainingprograms in the business world so that per-sonnel are better prepared for the specificcultural environments in which they willwork and live.No. 32 Encourage U.S. international cor-porations to sponsor foreign internships forU.S. students and faculty interested inother business cultures.No. 42 Use guest speakers from othercultures and countries to add realism tointernational business communicationinstruction.

95

Experts Nonexperts(n = 22) (n = 180)

Mean S.D. Mean S.D.

4.864 .351 4.117 .917

4.818 .395 4.061 .910

4.773 .528 3.617 1.010

4.682 .568 3.467 1.155

4.500 1.225 4.094 .889

4.500 1.263 3.778 1.039

4.409 1.054 3.494 1.165

4.364 1.002 3.533 1.070

4.318 .945 3.567 1.196

4.227 .813 3.550 1.074

4.227 1.066 3.756 1.112

109 (table continues)

Number and international buginevrcommunication action statement

No. 23 Teach cross-cultural business com-munication for use in the United States.No. 43 Use travel-study tours andresidency programs to refine internationalbusiness communicatim knowledges,and attitudes.No. 13 Encourage schools to teach geographyand world politics.No. 5 Prepare culturally and linguisti-cally fluent businesspersais who can conductbusiness effectively in selected businessenvironments.-NG. 50 Identify the process and steps tointernationalize a business communicationcourse.No. 1 Emphasize the increasing need forand promote the importance of internationalbusiness communication as the primary meansthrough which international business istransacted.No. 48 Research the business communicationskills that transcend cultural boundariesand investigate their relative importance.No. 27 Work with the Atnerican Assemhly ofCollegiate Schools of BUSine3S (AACSis) toensure adequate coverage of internationaldimensions of business.No. 17 Teach both direct and indirect logicand thinking panerns.No. 18 Develop the knowledges, skills, aadattitudes necessary to assess the businesscommunication practices in another culum.and to combine elements of that culture withthose of another culture to facilitate thetransaction of business.No. 15 Encourage the use of simple, clear,precise, and concise language for interna-tional business communication purposesNo. 21 Teach such aspects of oral interna-tional business communication as listening,interpersonal communication, interviewing,and negotiating.No. 8 Establish a minimum core graduationrequirement of at least one internationalbusiness communication course for all under-graduate and graduate international businessmajors.No. 2 Promote an interdisciplinary approachto develc.7 international business communi-cation kaowledges, skills, and ar aides andencourage business, foreign language, andother interested faculty to .to m a partner-ship in international busiaess communication.

Experts(n = 22)

Nonexperts(n = 180)

Mean S.D. Mean S.D.

4.227 1.270 3.528 1.075

4.182 .907 3.550 1.110

4.182 1.097 3.778 1.096

4.091 .610 3.744 1.031

4.000 .873 3.367 1.148

4.000 1.718 3.861 1.040

3.909 .921 3.506 1.151

3.909 1.065 3.133 1.343

3.909 1.630 3.744 1.139

3.864 1.246 3.756 1.102

3.818 1.296 4.117 1.115

3.773 1.193 4.017 .900

3.773 1.478 3.256 1.282

3.773 1.572 3.744 1.099

1 1(u.ble continues)

Number and international businesscommunication action statement

No. 23 Teach such aspects of written inter-national business communication as nnssagecontent, organization, style. semantics,readability, comprehensibility, and format.No. 7 Establish a minimum core graduationrequirement of at least some internationalbusiness conimunication instruction for allundergraduate aad graduate business majors.

No. 47 Develop international business com-munication training materials and programsand disseminate them through a centralizednetwork or clearinghouse.No. 37 Encourage businesses to work withexpert consultant-specialists on complicatedinternational business communication tasks.No. 38 Teach interaationl business com-munication as a separate unit or course andby integrating it throughout other relevantcourses.No. 57 Collect significant articles relatingto international business communication into

one volume that is periodically updated.

No. 11 'Develop and promote for nativeEnglish speakers foreign language courses

that emphasize spealing, listening, writing,and reading stalls for business purposes.

No. 49 Determine the mmt effective method-ologies for teaching business communicationskills that transcend cultural boundaries.

No. 44 Devclop a generally accepted defini-tion of and workable model for internadonalbusiness conuvunication.No. 12 Develop and promote for nonnativeEnglish speakers English language coursesthat emphasize speaking, listening, writing,and reading skills for business purposes.

No. 9 Maintain English as the primary lan-guage of international business.

No. 14 Require two years of foreign languagefor college admission and two more years forrnllftge graduation.

No. 56 Develop an international businesscommunication journal.No. 40 Teach international business commu:",cation through the context-based approach,which focuses on communication and culttre atthe structural, situational, and meaning

No. 19 Emphasize the professional and per-sonal benefits from using formal and informalcommunicaelon channels while conductinginternational business.

No. 45 Improve the international businesscommunication literature by focusing on pri-mary data rather than on secondary data.

'It .;

Experts Nonexperts

(n = 22) (n = 180)

Mean

3.727

3.727

3.682

3.591

3.591

3.500

3.455

3.455

3.409

3.409

3.364

3.364

3.318

3.182

3.136

3.136

S.D. Mean S.D.

1.077 3.828 1.056

1.202 3.183 1.146

.995 3.361 1.195

1.297 3.361 1.195

2.016 3.289 1.335

1.372 3.317 1 198

.858 3.633 1.133

1.335 3.644 1.117

.908 3.339 1.215

1.008 3.728 1.098

1.649 3.572 1.341

1.649 2.900 1.346

1.171 3.178 1.168

.958 3.144 1.256

1.207 3.489 1.080

1.457 3.122 1.336

(tabk emirates)

Number and international businesscommunication action statement

No. 26 Teach strategies to facilitate theinternational transfer of information.No. 16 Emphasize Standard English to facil-itate international business conimunicationwhile recognizing differences in usage amongeducated people from countries where Englishis the primary language.No. 30 Encourage academie institutionsinvolved in graduate teacher education and incondnuing education to indude courses ininternational business comminicafion, itsteaching and practice.No. 22 Teach such opects of oral inter-naonal business C0111=LIC'. atiOrl as super-vising and managing foreign nationals.No. 24 Strive toward more unified technicalteminology.No. 6 Train international business cozinini-cation consultant-specialists who can resolvecommunication prblem n different businessenvironmentsNo. 39 Teach international business communi-cation through the culture-specific approach,which focuses on one culture it a time, arthrough the culture-general approach, whichfocuses on groups of cultures at one time.No. 29 Instruct business communicationsnidents about the differences betweenBritish and American English, especiallyvocabulary differences.No. 36 Offer language mining for businesspersonnel who wish to becon r. bilingual ormultilingual managers.No. 54 Develop a standardized internationalsystem of graphic symbols to overcome someof tilts, obstacles to written internationalbusiness communication.No. 52 Devise iriernational standards forbusiness comm.nication.No. 53 DcAse international standards forinformation processing and transfer.No. 25 Strive toward more Unified businesspractices and core.nunication practicesthroughout the business world.No. 33 Promote uniferin standards for inter-nat;onal business communication teachers andtrainers.No. 31 Encourage qualified foreign nationalsto complete business degrees at U.S. univer-sities under the sponsorship of U.S. corpora-tions that they will later represent.No. 51 Develop tests for measuring businessforeign language competencies that araacceptable to both the business and academiccommunities.

Experts(n = 22)

Nonexperts(n = 180)

Mean S.D. Mean S.D.

3.091 1.306 3.517 1.091

3.091 1.716 3.706 1.199

3.000 .926 3.350 1.086

3.000 1.662 3.433 1.031

2.864 .834 3.211 1.210

2.773 1.193 3.517 1.175

2.682 1.129 2.878 1.331

2.682 1.555 2.817 1.141

2.636 1.177 3.556 1.197

2.591 1.054 3.022 1.237

2.500 .859 2.883 1.220

2.455 .858 3.061 1.206

2.409 1.054 2.883 1.238

2.273 1.202 2.761 1.164

2.227 1.152 2.817 1.235

1.909 .971 2.994 1.179

98 11 2

F.ator Analyses Results for theInternational Business CommunicationAction Statements

Factor analysis, a data reduction technique, was used toreduce the 57 international business communication actionstatements into a smaller number of factors fcr the expertsand for the nonexperts. Fac tor analysis strives to constructnew variables from the old variables that explain as much ofthe total variance as possible with as few new variables aspossible (Kleinbaum &Kupper, 1978; Wentz, 1979). Suchanalysis makes the data analysis more manageable and helpsto minimize the risk of incorrect rejection or Type I errorcaused by repeated statistical testing of the data. The factoranalysis for the experts generated 14 factors with eigenval-ues greater than or equal to 1.00 that accounted for 92.9percent of the variance. The factor analysis for the nonex-perts generated 13 factors with eigenvalues greater than orequal to 1.000 that accounted for 67.9 percent of thevariance. Since the data rotations were orthogonal, thefactors remained statistically uncorrelated (Kleinbaum &Kuppef, 1978). Only factor loadings of plus or minus .600were considered to eliminate spurious items, resulting inthe disre3arding of Factor 13 for the nonexperts because ofits factor icadir:gs of .559 and .509 and subsequently thelowering of the cumulative percentage of variance from67.9 percent to 66.0 percent (see Nie, Hull, Jenkins,Steinbrenner, & Bent, 1975).

Results for the experts. Table 2 shows the key informationfrom the factor analysis, including descriptive titles, factorloadings, and percentages of variance, for each factor forthe experts. Factor 1, business language, which accountsfor one -sixth of all of the variance, includes action state-ment Nos. 9, 12, 15, 16, 39, and54. Factor 2, instructionalguidelines, includes action statement Nos. 3, 21, 23, and41. Factor 3, international standards, includes actionstatement Nos. 20, 52, and 53. Factor 4, desirable stan-dards, includes action statement Nos. 4, 7, 8, 24, 34, and46. Factor 5, instructional goals, includes actionstatementNos. 1, 26, 27, and 48. Factor 6, research goals, includesaction statement Nos. 25, 40, 50, and 55. Factor 7,business-world dimensions, includes action statement Nos.22 and 37. Factor 8, cross-cultural perspectives, includesaction statement Nos. 17, 18, and 42. Factor 9, businessforeign language, includes action statement Nos. 11 and 49.Factor 10, broadening background, includes action state-ment Nos. 13 and 14. Factor 11, business languagedifferences, includes action statement Nos. 10, 29, and 45.Factor 12, enrichment experiences, includes action state-

ment No. 43. Factor 13, cross-cultural goals, includesaction statement No. 5. Factor 14, business-sponsoredcross-cul rural, education, includes action statement No. 31.

Results fortize nonexperts. Table 3 shows the key informa-tion from the factor analysis, including descriptive titles,factor loadings, and percentzges of variance, for eachfactor for the nonexperts. Factor 1, training programs,which accounts for three-tenths of all of the variance,includes action statement Nos. 34, 35, and 39. Factor 2,research goals, includes action statement Nos. 48, 49,.and50. Factor 3, instructional content, includes action state-ment Nos. 20, 21, and 23. Factor 4, unified standards,includes action statement Nos. 24, 25, and 26. Factor 5,international English, includes action statement Nos. 9 and16. Factor 6, information dissemination, includes actionstatement Nos. 55, 56, and 57. Factor 7, cross-culturalgoals, includes action statement Nos. 5 and 6. Factor 8,business foreign Ianguage, includes action statement Nos.10 and 11. Factor 9, interdisciplinary approach, includesaction statement No. 2. Factor 10, broadening back-ground, includes action statement No. 13. Factor 11,business-sponsored cross-cultural education, includes ac-tion statement No. 31. Factor 12, business language char-acteristics, includes action statement No. 15.

The results of the factor analyses for the experts and for thenonexperts are compatible with the four-part classificationschemeprogram structum, program content, program meth-odology, and research and developmentthat the research-ers devised after completing the literature review phase ofthe research.

Significant Influences AmongAction-Statement Factors andDemographic Variables

Relationships among the experts' and nonexperts' demo-graphic vatiabies and perceptions of importance for theinternational business conununication action-statement factorswere also investigated. One-way analysis of variance testswere performed using Duncan's multiple range tests if therewere more than two groups to determine (1) if respondentsfrom various demographic categories differed significantly(p < .05) in their perceptions of importance for action-statement factors and (2) if so, where those statisticallysignificant differences occurred. Results from the compu-tations for the most influential demographic variables ofgender, age, discipline, and speakership are reported in thisartic I e.

9,9/ 1 3

Table 2Experts' Factor Analysis Results for the International Business Conununication Action Statements

Factor ActionFactor Percentage

loading vans=

1 Business languageMaintain English as the primarylanguage of international business(No. 9)Develop and promote for nonnativeEnglish speakers English languagecourses emphasizing speaking,listening, writing, and reading forbusiness purposes (No. 12)Encourage use of simple, clear,precise, and coxise language(No. 15)Emphasize Standard English whilerecognizing national differences(No. 16)Use the culture-specific or culture-general approach (No. 39)Develop an international systemof graphic symbols to overcomeobstacles to wriaen communica-tion (No. 54)

2 Instructional guidelinesEstablish awareness of languages,cultures, and systems of othercountries (No. 3)Teach oral aspects of interna-tional business communication(No. 21)Teach written aspects of interna-tional business commtmication(No. 23)Use such teaching methods as read-ings, lectures, experiential exer-cises, role playings, simulations,and laboratories (No. 41)

3 International standardsTeach nonverbal aspects of inter-national business communication(No. 20)Devise standards for internationalbusiness communication (No. 52)

Devise standards for informationprocessing and transfer (No. 53)

4 Desirable standardsEmphasize that difficulties in inter-national business communication arisefrom differences in languages,cultures, and systems of countries(No. 4)Establish a minimum core grad.lationrequirement of sc-ie internationalbusiness communication instructionfor all undergraduate and graduatebusiness majors (No. 7)

100

114

.644

.842

.874

.709

.631

.622 16.6

.775

.892

.692

.789 13.1

.673

.950

.928 10.3

.922

.679

(table continues)

Factor ActionFactor Percentage

loading variance

Establish a minimum cat graduation .880requirement of at least one interna-tional business communication coursefor all undergraduate and graduateinternational business majors (No. 8)Strive toward unified technical .731terminology (No. 24)Increase the quantity and improve .676the quality of training programsavailable to businesspersons (No. 34)Investigate the international com- .626 8.6munication problems of businessesand identify the knowledges, skills,and attitudes needed to mirimize oralleviate these problems (No. 46)

5 Instructional goalsEmphasize the increasing need for .813and promote the importance of inter-national business c...mmunication(No. 1) Teach strategies to facilitate .607worldwide information transfer(No. 26)Work with AACSB to eusure coverage .823of international dimensions ofbusiness (No. 27)Investigate cross-cultural skills .721 7.9and their importance (No. 48)

6 Research goalsStrive toward unified worldwide .706business and communication practices(No. 25)Use the context-based approach to .791teaching (No. 40)Identify the process and steps to .800internationalize a business com-munication course (No. 50)Encourage professional organizations .789 6.8to promote research and development(No. 55)

7 Business-world dimensionsTeach oral aspects of international .794business communicadon such assupervising and managing foreignnationals (No. 22)Encourage businesses to work w_th .846 5.7consultant-specialists on compli-cated tasks (No. 37)

8 Cross-cultural perspectivesTeach both direct and indirectlogic and thinking patterns (No. 17)Develop the knowledges, skills, andattitudes to assess the businesscommunication Factices in anotherculture and to combine elements ofthat culture with those of anotherculture to facilitate business(No. 18)1

.821

.760

(table continues)

Factor ActionFactorloading

Percentagevariance

Use guest speakers from othercultures and countries to addrealism to instruction (No. 42)

.604 5.4,

9 Business foreign languageDevelop and promote foreign languagespeaking, listening, writing, andreading for business purposes

.911

(No. 11)Determine the most effectivecross-cultural teaching method-odologies for skills (No. 49)

.606 5.0

10 BroaAening backgroundEncourage schools to teach geog-raphy and world politics (No. 13)

.690

Require two years of foreignlanguage for college admissionand tw.o more years for collegegraduation (No. 14)

.688 .f.3

11 Business language differencesEncourage study of foreign languagesfor business purposes (No. 10)

.634

Instrixt business communicationst-lents about the differencesbetween British and American

666

English (No. 29)Improve the literature by focusingon primary rather than secondarydata (No. 45)

.799 2.9

12 Enrichment exp ziencesUse travel-study tours and foteignresidency program: to refine knowl-eges, skills, and attitudes (No. 43)

.882 2.4

13 Cross-cultural goalsPrepare culturally and linguisti-caily fluent businesspersons forselected _ Ironments (No. 5)

.825 2.1

14 Business-sponsored cross-culturaleducation

Encourage foreign nationals tocomplete U.S. business degreesunder the sponsorship of 1.',.S.companies (No. 31)

.671 1.8

Total 92.9

Note. Only factor loadings greater than plus or minus .600 zz.e shown.

:116

102

1

III1

IIIIIIIIII(

III.I.

1

II

Table 3Plnexperts' Factor Analysis Resuits for the huentational Business Communication Action Statements

Factor ActionFactot Percentage

loading variame

Training programsIncrease the quantity and improve thequality of training programs (No. 34)Emphasize culture-specific trainingprograms (No. 35)Use the culture-specific or culture-general approach (No. 39)

2 Research goalsInvestigate cross-cultural skills andtheir importance (No. 48)Determine the most effective cross-cultural teaching methodologies forskills (No. 49)

.605

.605

.727

.803

.8k7

30.1

Identify the process and steps to .708 6.9internationalize a businms communi-cation course (No. 50)

3 Instructional contentTeach nonverbal aspects of interna- .654tional business communication (No. 20)Teach oral aspects of international .709business communication (No. 21)Teach written aspects of interna- .654 4.3tional business communication (No. 23)

4 Unified standardsStrive toward unified technical .781terminology (No. 24)Strive toward unified worldwide .677business and communication practices(No. 25)Teach strategies to facaitate world- .612 3.9wide information transfer (No. 26)

5 International EnglishMaintain English as the primary .754language of international business(No. 9)Emphase Standard English while .736 3.6recognizing national differences(No. 16)

6 Information disseminationEncourage professional organizations .688to promote research and development(No. 55)Develop an international business .763communication journal (No. 56)Publish periodically an interna- .658 3.1tional business communication volume(No. 57)

7 Cross-cultural goalsPrepare culturally and linguisti- .766cally fluent businesspersons forselected environments (No. 5)Train consultant-specialists who .652 2.9resolve problems in different 117environments (No. 6)

103.

(tabie continues)

Factor Action

8 Business foreign languageEncourage study of foreign languagesfor business purposes (No. 10)Develop and promote foreign languagespeaking, listeming, writing, andreading for business purposes(No. 11)

9 Interdisciplinary approachPromote an interdisciplinary approachto develop knowledges, skills, andauitudes among bush.ess, foreignlanguage, and other interestedfaculty (Ne. 2)

10 Broadening backgroundEncourage schools to tesch geographyand world politics (No. 13)

11 Business-sponsored cross-culturaleducation

. Encourage foreign nationals to com-plete U.S. business degrees underthe sponsorship of U.S. compank3(No. 31)

12 Business language characteristicsEncourage use of simple, clear,precise, and concise language(No. 15)

Total

Factorloading

Percentagevariance

.687

.800 2.6

.652 2.5

.64-8 2.2

.700 2.1

.754 L9

66.0

Note. Only factor loadings greater than plus or minus .600 are shown.

Influences of gender. Table 4 summarizes the key informa-tion from the one-way analysis of variance computations forthe action-statement factors with gender-related significantdifferences in means for both the experts and the nonex-pens. For Factor 12, enrichment experiences, for theexperts and for Factor 5, international Engiish, Factor 7,

cross-cultural goals, and Factor 12, business languagecharacteristics, for the nonexperts, the male expert andnonexpert respondents consistently had mean scores thatwere lower than those of the female expert and nonexpertrespondents.

Table 4Experts' and Nonexperts' Gender-Related Influences on Action-Statement Facws

Factornumber Factor name p Value

Means

Male Female

Experts (n = 22)

12 Enrichment experiences .022 - .359 .629

Nonexpens (n = 180)

5 International English .048 - .172 .1267 Cross-cumull goals .015 - .211 .15412 Business lanpage characteristics .007 .233 .170

104

Influences ofage: Table 5 summarizes the key informationfrom the one-way analysis of variance computations for theaction-statement factors with age-related significant differ-ences in means for both the experts and thc non-experts.For NC tor 4, unified standards, the nonexpert respondentsaged 31-40 years old and 41-50 years old had mean scoresthat were lower than those of nonexpert respondents aged

61 years old or over, who had the highest mean scores. ForFactor 5, international English, and Factor 8, buf;:nessforeign language, the nonexpert respondents aged 21-30years old had thc highest mean scores. For Factor 11,business-sponsored cross-cultural education, thc nonexpertrespondents aged 21-30 ycars old had the lowest meanscores.

Table 5Experts and Nonexperts' Age-Related Influences on Action-Statement Factors

Factornumber

Factorname

Means

21-3's 31-40 41-50 51-60 61+p Value year years years years years

Evens (a = 22)

None

Nonexpetts (n = 180)

4 Unified standards .028 - .192 .498- .170 .498

5 International .023 .811 - .197English .811 - .180

8 Business foreign .022 1.159 - .057language 1.159 - .070

1.159 - .10311 Businesssponsored .044 - .812 .206

cross-culturaleducation

- .812 .298

Note. There were no significant differences for respondents in the 1-20years oge categocy; because of space constraints, that categoryis not shown.

Influences ofdiscipllne. Table 6 summarizes dr key infcanaticnfrom the one-way analysis of variance computations for thea:dm-state:1mi facto with discipline-related signifimi differ-ences in means for both the experts and the nonexperts. ForFactor 2, research goals, and Factor 3, instructional con-tent, the nonexpert respondents who were business educa-tors consistently had the highest mean scores. Fur Factor 8,business foreign language, and Factor 9, interdisciplinaryapproach, the nonexpert respondents who were businesseducators had the lowest mean scores.

Influence of speakership. Table 7 summarizes the keyinformation from the one-way analysis of variancecompu-tations for the action-statement factors with speakership-related significant differences in meal's for both the expertsand the nonexpens. For Factor 5, international English,and Factor 8, business foreign language, the nonexpert

icspondents who had presented at ABC regional or nationalmeetings within the past tcn years consistently had thehighest mean scores.

Conclusions

Based on study data, the following conclusions are made.The expert and nonexpert respondents arc different in termsof a majority of the demographic variables. Both theexperts and nonexperts perceive that there are a largenumber of important international business communicationaction statements that impact international business com-munication. While the responses of the experts on theinternat:ona business communication action statementscan be grouped into 14 action-statement factors, the re-sponses of the nonexperts on the international businesscommunication action statements can be grouped into 12

105 119

Table 6Experts' and Nonexperts' Disciptine-Relaied Influences on Actian-Statemeru Factors

Means

..-

Factor Faztor Bus. Othernumber name p Value ed. bus. Corn. Eng.

None

Expens (n = 21)

Nonexperts (n =160)

2 Research goals .000 .195 - .3473 Instnictional

content.034 .226 - .269

8 Business foreign .000 - .357 .105language - .357 .754

- .357 .348.1011 .754

9 Intadisciplinary .007 - .176 .647approach .081 .647

.647 .025

Note. Bus. ed. = Business education, Other bus. = Other business, Corn. = Communication, and Eng. = English.

Note. There were no significant differences for respondents in the education, speech, and other disciplines categories; because ofspaceco.straints, those categories arc not shown.

Table 7E.rperts' and Nonexperts' Speakership-Related Influences on Action-Statement Factors

Factornumber Factor name p Value

Means

Have Have notpresented presented

Experts (n = 22)

None

Nonexperts (n = 180)

5 International English .046 .124 - .1788 Foreign business language .034 .147 - .172

120106

actionstatement factors. Five of these action-sta'...mentfactots have identical names, and several others have simi-lar names. Perceptions of thc importance of the interna-tional business communication action-statement factorsarcinfluenced by gender of respondent, age of respondent,discipline of primary academic affiliation, and experiencein a speakership capacity,, especially for nonexperts and forboth the nonexpens' Factor 5, international Enplish, andthe nonexperts' Factor 8, business foreign language.

Recommendations

Based on study findings and conclusions, the followingrecommendations arc made: (1) The Association for Busi-ness Communication (ABC) should utilize the study fmd-ings for developing the international business communica-tion discipline and for guiding business communicationpractitioners interested and involved in international busi-ness communication. (2) The ABC should focus its attrn-lion and that of all business communication practitioners itinfluences on the highest rated international business com-munication action statements for experts and for nonex-pens that influence international busibess communicationand on thcactioa-sn.. -meat factors forexperts and for non-experts that influence international business communica-tion. (3) Businms commication practitioners shouldhave opportunities through forums sponsored by profes-sional organizations to share their perceptions about theimportant international busines- communication actionstatements and to suggmt possible ways to minimize thedifferences in perceptions among experts and nonexpertswith various demogtaphic characterutics. (4) Businesscommunication instructors who are involved in interna-tional business communication should use the findingsfrom this study as they plan and implement instructionalprograms in educational instiiutions and in businesses untilthis research study is replicated or superseded. (5) Otherresearch= should address the implant international businesscommunication xtion statements, patinps conducting iden-tical, similar, or relawd types of studies within the nextdecade.

References

'Accreditation Council Forum. (1978, Wintcr). TheAACSB Bulletin, 2(2), 31.

Association for Business Conununicat ion Research TopicsSubcommittee. (1988). Topics for busincss conmumi-cation research. The Bulletin of the Association forAssiness Communication, 5 t(2), 32-39.

Baird, J. W., & Stull, J. B. (1981, May). Communicationeffectiveness in multinational organizations: Develop-ing universal intercultural skills. Paper presented at theAnnual Meeting of the International CommunicationAssociation, Minneapolis, MN.

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Earkel, L. F. (1988, April). Using English effectively ininternational busiraL.s. Paper presented at the SeventhAnnual Eastern Michigan University Conference onLanguages and Communication for World Business andProfessions, Ann Arbor, MI.

Broome, B. J. (1986). A context-based framework forteaching intercultural communication. CommunicationEducation, 35, 296-306.

Haneda, S. (1976). On international cooperwion forbusiness communication studies. The Journal of Busi-ness Communication, 13(3), 23-31.

Haworth, D. A., & Savage, G. T. (1987). Model forintercultural communica- tion, In Proceedings of the52nd Annual and 14th International Convention of theAssociation for Business Convnunication (pp. 73-84).Houston: Thc Association for Business Communica-tion.

Hildebrandt, H. W. (Ed.). (1981). International businessconvnunicasion: Theory, practke, and teath!ng through-out the world. Ann Arbor, MI: Universirv of MicNgan.

Himstreet, W. C., & Baty,, W. M. (1987). Businesscommunications: Princip:es and methods (8th cd.).Boston: Kcnt Publishing Company.

Kilpatrick, R. H. (1984). International business commu-nication practices. Journal of Business Communica-tion, 21(4), 33-44.

Kleinbaum, D. G., & Kupper, L. L. (1978). Appliedregression analyst's and other nuddvariate methodsNorth Scituatc, MA: Duxbury Press.

Kohut G. F., & Baxter, C. M. (1985). Teaching interna-tional business communication: A review and critique.In S. J. Bruno & J. D. Pcttit, Jr. E.ds.), Proceedings ofthe 1985 ABC International Convention (pp. 237-244).Chicago: Association for Business Communication.

Lathan, M. G. (1983). Intee=tionalizing business com-munication. In R. B. Mitchell and M. C. Wcbbcr(Eds.), Credibility in Business Communication: Pro-ceedings of the Southeast ABCA Regional Conference(pp. 3-8). Uttle Rock: Southeast ABCA RegionalConference.

McDowell, P. G. (1987). A comparison of writtencorrespondence between thc U.S. and other English-speaking countries. In S. J. Bruno (Ed.), Proceedingsofthe ABC52nd Annual and 14th International Conven-tion .1p. 85-91). Houston: Tbe Association for Busi-ness communication.

Nie, N . H., Hull, C. H., Jenkins, J. G., Steinbrenner, K.,& Bent, D. H. (1975). SPSS: Statistical package forthe soda! sciences (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-HillBook Company.

Paulsell, P. R. (1987). Establishing a cross-culturalanalysis component in business foreign language courses.ADFL Bulletin, 18(2), 38-44.

Ramsey, R. D., Rossi, M. J., Underwood, R., & Wilson,G. N. (1986). International business communication.In S. P. Golen (Ed.), Methods of Teaching SelectedTopics in Business Communication (pp. 9-14). Urbana,IL: The Association for Business Communication.

Scott, J. C., & Green, D. J. (1988). Major businwscommunication challenges: Perceptions of importancefroi-. an Association for Business Communication (ABC)Delphi panel and sample. In R. B. Mitchell (Ed.),Delta Pi Epsilon 1988 National Research ConferenceProceedings (pp. 37-52). Little Rock: Delta Pi Epsi-lon.

Varner, I. I. (1987). Internationalizing business commu-nication courses. The Bulletin of the Association forBusiness Communication, 50(4), 7-11.

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Victor, D. A. (1986). Teaching international businesscommunication framework and application. In Pro-ceedings of the 51 st ABC International Convention(pp. 84-88.1). Los Angeles: The Association forBusiness Communication.

Wentz, W. B. (1979). Marketing research: Managementmethods and cases. New York: Harper & Row.

West, L. J. (1977). Design and conduct of educationalsurveys and experiments (Delta Pi Epsilon service bul-letin no. 2). St. Peter, MN: Delta Pi Epsilon.

Wunsch, D. R. (1986). Survey research: Determiningsample size and representative response. Business Edu-cation Forum, 40(5), 31-34.

Zimpfer, F., & Underwood, R. (1988, April). The statusof international business convnunication training in the100 largest multi-national United States corporations.Paper presented at the Seventh Annual Eastern Michi-gan University Conference on Languages and Commu-nication for World Business and the Professions, AnnArbor, MI.

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Integration of the Computer into the Elementary SchoolCurriculum: A Collaborative Case Study

Sandra UbelackerUniversity of Alberta

Abstract

This study describes how keyboarding was taught on microcomputers to a combined grade 2 and 3 class in MalmoSchool, Edmonton, Alberta, through the Apple Centre for Innovation Project. Instruction was teacher-centered andstarted the second day of school. Students were taught for 30-minutes 4 days a week. One-minute timings were

ministered to compare their handwriting and typewriting speeds. The methodology was primarily qualitative. Theresults of this collaborative resez,ch project support the view that elementary students in grades 2 and 3can learn totouch typewrite and use the computer as their "writing tool.' in their language arts program.

Background

My child has very much enjoyed her computerexperience. My greatest concern is will she feelfrustrated next year and in futureyears if she mustreturn to pencil and paper writing. (a parent)

In 1987 Apple Canada Education Foundation (ACEF)awarded a project 'Elementary School Integration of theMicrocomputer into the Curriculum* to set up the AppleCentre for Innovation (ACI) in grade three in MalmoElementary School, Edmonton, Alberta. The objectiveswere: (1) to develop, test, and disseminate computer-basedcurriculum material, (2) to create a working model for in-tegrating the computer into the curriculum, addressing bothorganizational and c ,atent concerns, and (3) to conductlongitudinal research on a variety of topics related to theintensive use of computers in the classroom.

In Phase I materials were developed and tested to teachyoung children keyboarding in order to use the computer asa 'writing tool. In Phase II computer integrated languagearts units, novel studies, and data bases were developed forthe language arts curriculum. In Phase III the project wassigned on to the Apple Global Education Network (AGE)linking this grade three classroom to 15 Canadian cities, 25states in tire United States, 3 schools in Arabic t.....intries,Tel Aviv, and most European countries.

Collaborative Research Project

A collaborative research project between the project direc-tor of the Malmo Api.te Centre for Innovation and thebusiness education professor in the Department of Secon-dary Education, University of Alberta, was designed forPhase I of the Mahno ACI.

Imagine 26 seven- and eight-year old children in thesecond and third grades who are anxious, even elated

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to learn. Then imagine these same kid's siblingsstaying after school to get a chance to do what theiryounger brothers and sisters did during regularclassroom hours (Putterman, 1988, p. 2).

Methodolcv

The methodology used in this research project was primar-ily qualitative. The keyboarding program was written anddeveloped through participatory action research The skillprogress of the students was monitored by one-minutetimed writings given at four different stages. The writingprocess was 3va1uated through the students' writing. Thestudents were interviewed at the end of the school year. Theparents were surveyed through a questionnaire. Pre- andpost-tests were given in langiu.ge arts for reading andwriting and in mathematics for concepts and facts. Docu-mentation included slides and the students written work.

As the emphasis during the initial presentation of thekeyboard was technique development, a teacher-directed,not software-driven, keyboarding program was developed.Thirty-minute lessons were taught four days a week fromSeptember to December by the businew education profes-sor. The grade three teacher assistee and observed theteaching methodology. Based on the feedback and fmdingsof the first year, the keyboarding program was revised andretested by the business education professor during thesecond year. The grade three teacher developed the com-puter language arts units, novel studies, and data bases forthe language arts curriculum. During the transitional phaseof the first two years, the conditions in the classroom wereconstantly changing as new furniture was designed, addi-tional computers were added, and a network was installed.During the first year, there was only one computer for everytwo students. These computers were placed on tables andthe students sat on regular chairs with their feet dangling tothe floor. Laminated keyboards were taped to other tablesfor the students who did not have access to a computer.

Within weeks, unattached Macintosh keyboards replacedthe laminated keyboards.

By December furniture was designed and custom built sothat students sat in satellite work areas. Each satellite wasan octagon-shaped table with four computer wings. Thefurniture was built in three sizes to accommodate studentheight. Electrical wiring was installed to avoid all floorcords or floor to ceiling poles.

I like the computer tables because we can slide thekeyboard out and they have a desk beside the com-puter and it is fun. (Vinay, grade 3)

I like the furniture very much because it belongs toour room and it is our desk that we sit and keep ourworking tools in it. (Judy, grade 2)

At the start of the second year of the project, the studentsstill shared computers. Eventually the room was upgradedwith a computer on every desk. Four students used eachsatellite as their regular desk turning to their computerwhich was on a wing to their left. Their computers were onand available whenever they wanted to use them during theday.

I learned how to center things and use the computerwith all my fmgers instead of using only one finger.(Kim, grade 3)

I like computers because they help you work fasterand it is a lot neater. I like computers because yourhands don't hurt as much as when you use a pencil.(Emma, grade 3)

During the 30-minute lesson, each student spent 15 minuteson a computer and 15 minutes on an unattached keyboard.The sequencing of introducing the alphabetic keyboard andthe teaching methodology was found to be different thanteaching jdnior or senior high school students.

The objective of the first three months of instruction was toteach, reinforce, and develop correct fingering, good tech-nique, and speed. Accuracy and editing were not empha-sized. Two new keys were introduced in a lesson. Everyfourth lesson was a review The introduction of the shiftkey was delayed although students typed words, phrases,and sentences beginning in lesson one. To provide forvisual and oral learners, eac-i lesson was teacher pacedprimarily through oral dictation as students read from theoverhead screen. Althuugh attention was given to tech-nique development, the speed approach was used. Thealphabetic keyboard was covered by lesson 25. Twentyadditional lessons were taught for keyboard reinforcementand the introduction of basic language arts ac:ivities. Theobjective of the remaining months of the school year was touse to the computer as a "tool' in the writing process.

110

The Computer as a Writing Tool

Shortly after the alphabetic keys had been introduced, allstudents typed as fast or faster than they were handwriting.As soon as the alphabetic keyboard had been taught, the

students used the computer as a creative writing tool. Thefirst activity was a data base using the theme "All AbJutMe." The students completed a survey about themselvesindicating their birthdate, education, family, favourites,etc. Tnis data was transferred to a large wall chart in theclassroom. By using this chart, the students could manuallysearch the data to answer a variety of questions. Thisinformation was also entered into the computer using a database. The students could then ask the same questions bysearching on the computer. The found that the computerwas faster but would not tolerate their spelling errors. By

using the wall chart under "my favourite animal,' for ex-ample, they knew hores was really horse but the computerdid not. They soon discovered the importance of correctspelling.

Automatic centering was used for poetry writing. The tab,delete, and backspace keys as well as selected specialoptions were introduced during the writing process

activities.

Cold Winter Air

In the cold winter air,Among the trees so cold and bare,

The birds are flying south towarmer air,

And not coming back till spring.

(Alexis, grade 3, December, 1988)

From January to June, the keyboarding program shifted toweekly review lessons. The computers were now usedprimarily for language arts and mathematics. The studentsdeveloped their typing skill by wri:ing, not by drill work.By the end of the year, students averaged 20-30 wpm on aone-minute timing with new material. Several studentsconsistently typed over 40 wpm.

Parents were invited to 'editing parties." Peer and teacher-student cottferencing and editing took place directly fromthe screen display. At other times a draft was printed Indconferencing and editing took place away from the com-puter. By midyear the students preferredcomposing at thecomputer to writing with pencil and paper. At various times

senior citizcns, student teachers, parents, and peers wereinvolved in the editing process.

Flat Stanley Takes Out the Garbage

One day Stanley was taking out the garbage when hesaw the garbage men. His Mother had told him that

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she would not like it if everyone in the Mississippiknew that there was a walking breathing pancakeliving in the red house across the street from theCO-OP supermarket. So he curled up as tight as hecould (it was so tight it looked like an old piece ofpaper) and he waited for something to happen.

The garbage men thought he was an old poster thathad fallen out of the garbage can so they threw himin the trash compactor. It would have been the endof Stanley if he had not sneezed out loudKKCCHHOOUU!!! Then just as the compactorwas closing one of the men yelled, "Gesundheit.'The other Stopped the compactor to see what waswrong with him.

Just then Stanley's parents came running (no oneelse sneezed like Stanley)! His parents keptyelling,

Hey! Stop! That's my kid in there! Hey!'

' Mom, hay is for horses not for people,' sai.:1Stanley.

(Laura, grade 3, January, 1989)

If a business teacher assists an elementary teacher in devel-oping a typewri rrg/keyboarding program, it is not a matterof adapting a junior or senior high text or program to anelementary setting. It is different. The students aredifferent. The focus of the program is different. Thelearning styles and instructional styles are different. Thetraditional bUsiness teacher must therefore start with a newmind set and vork in collaboration with the elementary

:ocher. Together they can develop a program to meet theneeds of young students. (Ubelacker, 1988)

The grade three teacher who was the project director and acollaborative researcher in this project has been awarded theNorthern Telecom Award 'in recognition of outstandingachievements in applying technology to education" in 1988and the prestigious Marshall McLuhan Distinguished TeacherAward 'for her innovative use of technology, creativeteaching methods and contribution to communication in theclassroom' in 1990.

The possibilities for using computers in the elementaryschools are really untapped. The future is just beginning.

...But a computer isn't a bed of roses it makesmistakes just like you and me but you should latowthat a computer can do a lot more work than me oryou. This whole wide gigantic world needs com-puters with them to do some work. But nobody szidin this whole gigantic world that computers are thebest. (Darren, grade 3)

References

Putterman, Nancy. (1989) 'Teacher brings Apple for thekids," Computing Canada, September 15, 1988. 2.

Ubelacker, Sandra. (1988) 'Elementary keyboarding istoday's reality, The Canadian Journal of BusinessEducation, 24-29.

The author wishes to express her sincere appreciation to thestudents of Mrs. Gloria Cathcart's class. They contributedmuch to the project by providing their unedited material.

125111

A Methodology Study Utilizing the Top 40 Misused Similar WordsBased on a Ranking of the Top 75 Misused Similar Words Often

Confused by Business Communicafion Students

Jolene D. &rivenPaula C. Williams

Northern Illinois University

F. Stanford WayneSouthwest Missouri State University

Abstract

This research was designed to establish a valid rank listing of misused similar words (MSW) and to determine the mosteffective method for teaching misused words. The rank listingwas determined using 16 tests of sentences containing238 MSW combinations. The three teaching methods analyzed were in-depth instruction with accompanyinghandout, no direct instruction but providing a handout, or no handout and no instruction. A rank listing of the top75 words was identified and the top 40 words were used in the experimental study on teaching methods.

Introduction

Many students are weak in the area of English grammarregardless of the amount or kind of basic English writinginstmc,:on given in writing courses. One part of grammar,word choice, can present a communication problem for areader when incorrect choices are made. Without knowl-edge of the correct word to use, the writer can send amessage resulting in misinformation or misunderstood in-formation. Because so many of these words exist, theinstructor doesn't have the time to address all of thun andneeds to know the most productive way to teach thesewords. Therefore, the problem of Part I of this study wasto determine a valid rank listing of misused, similar words(MSW) that are often confused by students enrolled incollege business report writing and communicationcourses.In addition, effort was made to determine any relationshipsexisting between selected student characteristics and com-petency in applying those words.

The problem of Part H was to identify effective teachingmethodologies for the top 40 MSW identified through therank listing research. The purpose of the study was todetermine if there were differences in gams made amongstudents who are taught using in-depth insrruction withaccompanying handout only, providing a handout only butno direct instructit 1, or no instruction or handout.

Procedures

Pad IThe Rank Listing

For Part I of the study, frequently MSW were identified bythe three researchers in independent searchs through 19business communication, business report writing, and basicEnglish texts published within the last three years. Otherpublished listings of such words were also examined fordifferent words or combinations of words cited as causingproblems for writers. Each word was recorded on a cardwith its defined meaning based on a dictionary definition.A resulting pool of 575 words were located after the cardsets were compared and merged to eliminate duplicatewords.

The researchers wrote two business-related sentences foreach word in the MSW combination. These sentences werereviewed for intended meaning, clearness, and conciseness;and one sentence was chosen for each word in the combina-tion. In reviewing the words and their dictionary defini-tions, the researchers found that some words were ex-tremely close or synonymous in meaning, to the extent thatappropriate business-oriented sentences could not be writ-ten; therefore, 58 words were dropped from the study,resulting in 517 usable words. When grouped, 238combinations of MSW resulted with the number of words

113 1 2 6

for which sentences were wntten within each group varyingfrom two to four.

The sentences were placed randomly on 16 tests using amultiple choice format, with each test containing only oneof the sentences that were written for the words in any MSWcombination. The 16 tests were pilot tested during theSummer of 1988 with three sections of Business ReportWriting taught at Northern Illinois University. Minorrevisions were made for purposes of clarity andunderstanding.

The sample consisted of 399 students. Juniors and seniorsenrolled in Business Report Writing and Business Commu-nication classes, as well as a graduate class in BusinessCommunication, participated in the study during FallSemester, 1988. Six instructors, including the three re-searchers, participated in the study.

Students completed a survey form that requested theirnames, social security numbers, ages, gender, class levels,majors, gtade-point averages, and their perceptions ofmajor influences on the development of their vocabulary.

Tests were administered weekly during the semester with atotal of 16 tests being given. No discussion was made of theanswers on any test, and no formal instruction of misused,similar words was given. Students who missed the testduring class time were asked to complete the test in thedepartment c unmunication laboratory. At the end of thesemester, Ile answer sheets were checked to determinewhich students had remained in the class the enti re semesterand had completed all 16 tests. Test sets for 353 studentswere usable.

A computer program was used that calculated the percent oftime the students chpse the incorrect word choice fc: eachsentence. The results were that the researchers could rankthe most t the least missed word combinations. Next,frequencies were measured for the students' perception ofthe major influences on their written business vocabulary.Finally, a one-way analysis of variance was used to statis-tically test (.05 level) whether or not any significant differ-ences existed for the students' overall performance on the16 tests. Differences were studied in terms of age, gender,class level, major, and grade-point average.

Part IIThe Expetiment

The experiment utilized a pretest-posttest design with thr.top 40 MSW and varied the type and extent of instruction.Six sections comprising three groups were chosen ran-domly from the Business Report Writing sections offered inSpring, 1990, at Northern Illinois University. Group 1,two sections taught by one instructor, was designated thecontrol group and received uo instruction concerning the40 MSW. Group 2, two sections taught by.,a second

114

Instructor, wae the first expenmental group and receivedonly a handout of definitions with no in-class discussion ofthe 40 MSW. Group 3, two sections taught by the re-searcher, was the second experimental group and receiveddaily word drill and discussion and the same defmitionhandout that Group 2 received.

The pretest and posttest sentences were randomly selectedfrom the sentences written in the rank-listing identificationstudy. The two tests consisted of 40 sentences each withonly one of the word combinations used per test. Thepretest was administeted to all sections during the week ofJanuary 22, 1990. During the three-week experiment,students in Group 3 received classroom Instruction on ap-proximately 6 of the 40 M SW per class meeting. During theweek of February 19, 1990, the posttest was administeredin all six sections. Only data from students who took boththe pretest and the posttest were used in the study. Studentswere awarded extra credit points as an incentive to partici-pate in the study.

The sample of Part IIThe Experiment was comprised of130 business students. Group 1, the control group, had 33students. Group 2, the first experimental group, had 49students, while Group 3, the second experimental group,had 48 students. After the experiment was completed, thetests were scored to determine the total number correct forboth the pretest and the posttest.

A one-way analysis of variance was conducted using thepretest scores to determine if the three groups were equiva-lent because intact groups were used. Mean scores for eachgroup were calculated, gains from the pretest to the posttestwen: measured, and a one-way analysis of variance wasconducted to determine any significant difference amonggroups at the .05 level.

Findings

The Rank Listing

In the rank-listing identification study all 238 word combi-nations were ranked, but only the top 75 MSW were ofmajor importance to the researchers. The most frequentlyconfused word combination was 'anxious/eager." Thecorrect use of "people/persons" was missed by 290 of thestudents, and "avert/avoid was missed by 77 percent of thestudents. "Fortuitous/fortunate" was the next word pairmost often confused. Of all 238 word combinations tested,the only grouping correctly identified by all 353 studentswas "fiscal/physical."

Students were asked to identify from a listing the five mostmajor classes, events, activities, or people that they be-lieved infli awed the development of their written vocabulary.English classes were cited as either the highest-rated majorinfluence or the second most important influence by three of

12'?

every five students (61.2 percent). Nearly nine of every tenstudents (87 percent) checked English classes as one of theirfive major influences. Formalized instruction was indi-cated as the choice for either first or second most majorinfluence by 30.6 percent of the students. Additionally,when the highest two rankings of influence were combined,over one-fourth of the respondents acknowledged that writtenassignments as a part of class activity had been a majorinfluence on their written vocabulary.

A one-way analysis of variance was conducted to determineif any significant differences existed in students' testper-formance at the .05 level of statistical significance based onage, gender, year in college, major in college, or grade-point average. Significant differences were found in com-parisons of year in college, major in college, and grade-point average. Graduate students performed significantlybetter on the tests than did other students. Students major-ing in Accounting and those classified as General Businessstudents had more correct responses than did students inother departments. And, students with a 3.0 or higher (ona 4-point grading scale) grade-point average performedsignificantly better than did the students with an average of2.99 or less.

The Experiment

In analyzing the data gathered, be following hypothesiswas tested:

No significant differences exist in gains made on aMSW posttest among Business Report Writing stu-dents who participate in one of the following groups:in-depth instruction with accompanying handout,no direct instruction but providing a handout, or noinstruction or handout.

Equality of teaching method groups. Since intact classeswere used a one way analysis of variance was performed onthe mean scores for the pretest to determine if any group wassignificantly different from another. The analysis yieldedan F = .5627 which was less than 3.00, the critical value for

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F (.05) for 2 and 127 degrees of freedom. The groups weredeemed sufficiently equal for the purposes of this study.

Gains achieved for groups. Gains per treatment group werealso analyzed using a one-way analysis of variance. Theanalysis yielded an F = .0000 Much was less than 3.00, thecritical value for F (.05) for 2 and 127 degrees of freedom.Some significant gains on the posttest exist for the threegroups; therefore, the hypothesis is rejected.

The post-hoc test, Tukey B, when applied at the .05 level tothe gains for each group provided that the performance ofGroup 3, the experimental group using in-depth instructionwith accompanying handout, was significantly differentfrom the other groups. In addition, the performance ofGroup 2, the experimental group provided with a handoutonly, was significantly different from Group 1.

Conclusions

Based on the research provided in this paper, the followingconclusions are made:

1. Some words identified as troublesome in the literatureprovide students with more difficulty in their applica-tion than do other words.

2. Students achieve the greatest learning gains on MSWthrough use of a definition handout and strenuousteaching. However, students using a definition hand-out only achieve greater learning gains than studentswho receive no instruction.

Implications

While the findings arc not surprising, knowing whichteaching methods are helpful is beneficial to instructors. Byidentifying the more commonly MSW and the beneficialteaching methods, instructors may choose to use the strenu-ous teaching with a definition handout or a defmitionhandout only and know that their students will make gainsin their understanding of correct word choice.

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A Proposed P. lalysis of the Interactive Effects between Selected LearnerCharacterisks and the Method of InstructionLecture or Experiential

Learningon Student Cognitive, Communicative and InterpersonalAchievement in Elementary Accounting at the Undergraduate

and Graduate College Level

Michael A. SedaFairleigh Dickinson University

Abstract

This study will investigate a non-traditional instructional strategy in accounting education that may prove to be apositive response to widespread complaints that accounting graduates do not know how to communiute, do notreason logically, aresleficient in interpersonal skills, and cannot thillk creatively. Recently, Baker, Simon, andBazel li (1987) stated thai the optimal teaching mode for accounting courses is the Experiential Learning Model(ELM), to be discussed shortly, since the approach accomodates the various learning styles of students whiledeveloping their communication, interpersonal, reasoning, and creativity skills. The purpose of this study will be toimplement the ELM approach in Introductory Accounting Courses, as designed by Baker, Simon, and Bazelli(p. 222-5), .- 0. graduate and undergraduate college levels. Specifically, this study will assess the progress of ELMstudents in u. 4 of communication and interpersonal skills, as well as, compare the cognitive achievement of theELM students with those subjected to the traditional lecture approach.

Introduction

A special report by the American Accounting Association's(AAA) Committee on the Future Structure, Content andScope of Accounting Education (1986) noted that account-ing education has not made significant efforts to improve itsteaching methods over the last 50 years despite widespreadcomplaints that accounting graduates do not know how tocommunicate, do not reason logically, are deficient ininterpersonal skills, and cannot think creatively.

Based on the current criticism of Accounting Education,Baker, Simon, and Bazelli (1987) conducted a study toselect and design an instructional design for the optimalteaching mode (stimulus pattern sent to students) in the areaof accounting, which addresses content coverage and self-develop Inept. Baker, Simon, and Bazelli (p. 216) stated thatthe optimal teaching mode for accounting courses is theExperiential Learning Model (ELM), to be discussed shortly,since the approach accomodates the learning styles of allstudents while developing their communication, interper-sonal, reasoning, and creativity skills.

The experiential learning model is a four-stage learningcycle that individuals move through in order to effectivelylearn and apply concepts. For each major concept coveredwithin a course, the cycle begins with concrete learningexperiences, moves to reflective experiences, is followed

by abstract experiences, and ends with active experimenta-tion experiences. The fmal objective of the learning experi-ence is the ability to apply the concepts, utilizing smallgroup dynamics, to the real-world experiences the studentswill face upon graduation. Thus, the studeet is gainingexperiential knowledge of the world he or she will beparticipating in and acquiring the necessary life skills to besuccessful within that world.

Instructional Design for Accounth based on ELM byBaker, Simon, and Bazelli

The following are the six steps involved in the instructionaldesign for Elementary Accounting based on the ELM asdeveloped by Baker, Simon, and Bazelli (1987, p. 218):

Step 1-Group Formation:Large classes need to be subdivided into study groupsof five to eight students. Formation of groups canprovide support for individual students who are havingdifficulty with a specific learning stage.

Step 2: Concrete Experience (CE)During the Concrete Experience stage of the instruc-tional cycle, the purpose is to present students withsamples ef objects, artifacts, behaviors, processes, orphenomena found in practice.

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Step 3: Reflective Observation (P.0)After students have observed samples of the concepts,the concepts are proved deductively, expanded, andadded to related concepts. The instructional method inthis stage is usually the deductive lecture/discussion.

Step 4: Abstract Conceptualization (AC)Students are now ready to enter the theory-buildingand problem-testing stage of the learning cycle. Themost effective system of instruction for this stage issome form of problem solving laboratory environ-ment.

Step 5: Active Experi mentation (AE)The learning process :n this stage leads to :he applica-tion of what has bedm learned to the practical problemsas they would be encountered by practitioners. Roleplay and simulation gaming are excellent teachingmethods for this stage.

Step 6: EvaluationEvaluation instruments such as quizzes and tests arepart of the feedback mechanism that the teacher usesto inform students of their progress in the learning en-vironment. The evaluative instruments should includea variety of questions from each of the five steps aswell as integrative questions involving all stages.

Baker, Simon, and Bazelli (1987) developed the six stepinstructional design for Elementary Accounting based onthe ELM as a practical teaching strategy which addressesthe weaknesses of the highly criticized 'passives lecturemethod presently being used in accounting education. Theystated that the traditional lecture mode is outdated. Ac-countants today are expected to be dynamic multi-perspec-tive business advisors and hence a more dynamic multiper-spective instmctional approach such as the ELM should beadoptei.. They further state, that since our post-secondarystudent population possesses varied learning styles, apti-tudes, and attitudes, a multi-faceted instructional approachsuch as the ELM is required in order to maximize students'academic performance as well as their self-development interms of communication, interpersonal, and creative think-ing skills. My study will be undertaken to investigate thefeasibility of introducing the experiential learning teachingmethod, as advanced by r ilb, in elementary accountingclasses as suggested by Baiter, Simon, and Bazelli. TheELM is a significant departure from the traditional lecture/discussion method and, due to its multi-perspective teach-ing approach, satisfies the AAA Committee on the FutureStructure, Content and Scope of Accounting Educationrecommendations. These recommendations involve thedevelopment of a broad-based multi-disciplinary orienta-tion in accounting emphasizing adaptive competencies,interpersonal skills, creative thinking, and the training ofaccountants with 'horizons that go beyond accounting ' and'who can grow into the role of advisors to business'.(Sloal , 1983, p. 59)

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Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study will be to implement the ELMapproach in Introductory Accounting Courses, as ciesignedby Baker, Simon, mid BazeiE (p. 222-5), for select graduateand undergraduate dasses at Fairleigh Dickinson and RutgersUniversities. Specifically, this study will assess the prog-ress of ELM students in the areas of communication andinterpersonal skills. as well as, to compare the cognitiveachievement of the ELM students with those subjected tothe traditional lecture approach. A merit DIALOG, ERIC,and AAA (American Accounting Association's database onr- , tearch in Accounting Education) relaizd literature search:A &is area proved negative.

Research Questions

1 - To what degree do cognitive achievement scores be-tween the control (Lecture) and experimental (ELM) groupsdiffer?

2 - To what degree do ELM students perceive their progressin communication and interpersonal skills?

3 -To what degree does a student's learning style, aptitude,sex, major, attitude towards accounting, prior accountingacademic and work experience interact with the method ofinstruction to impact student cognitive achievement in anIntroductory Accounting course?

4 - To what degree does a student's learning style interactwith the learning style of the instructor to impact studentcognitive achievement in an Introductory Accounting course?

Reearch Method

Sample Selection

The subjects will consist of approx imately 140 undergradu-ate and 140 graduate students enrolled in four "intact"classes o f an underg raduate Accounting Principles course atFairleigh Dickinson University (FDU) and Rutgers Uni-versity and four "intact' eraduate level classes at FDU andRutgers University during the Spring 1991 semester.

Data Co;action

During ti:e first two weeks of classes, the following instru-ments will be distributed to students to determine theirselect individual characteristics:

- Kolb's Learning Style Inventory- Attitude Toward Accounting (Differential

semantic scale)- Demographic Information (Sex, Major,

Aptitude, Prior Accounting Academic andWork experience)

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Participant Instructors will be required to complete theKolb's Learning Style Inventory.

Experinzenial Design

Students.in both the control and experimental groups willuse the same or similar textbook, cover similar material, dosimilar homework assignments, and will be given the samethree modular exams. An Instructors Manual outlining theExperiential Learning Teaching approach, suggested ac-tivities and evaluative instruments will be distributed andexplained to panic ipant instructors. In order to produce theExperiential Learning Cycle Instructors Manual, materialfrom the following items, published by Prentice Hall (PH),McGraw-Hill (MH), and System Publications (SP) will beutilized with their permission:

- (PH) 1989 textbook entitled 'Acct;anting' authored byHorngren and Harrison

- (PH) 1989 textbook entitled 'Introduction to ManagementAccounting' authored by Horngren and Sudem

- (PH) 1989 "Video Tape Tutorial Activities' authored byTerry

- (PH) 1989 accounting practice set entitled 'The LuggageMerchant' authored by Hearing

- (PH) 1989 "Accounting Test Bank' authored by Rocknessand Skender

- (PH) 1989 'Ethic Cases in Business and Accounting"authored by Horngren and Harnson

- (PH) 1984 paperback entitled 'Write to the Point'authored by Goodman

- (PH) 1989 'Spreadsheet Applications in Management Ac-counting" authored by Robertson and Pcyvandi

- (PH) 1989' Hypergraphics Training System' authored byHorngren and Harrison

- (PH) 1989 series of computerized cases for ManagerialAccounting entitled `Like Magic" authored by Kole

- (SP) 1989 'Systems Understanding Aid for Financial Ac-counting authored by Kieso, Aretr, and Ward

- (MH)1965 textbook entitled 'Social Psychology au-thored by Backman and Secord

The ELM Instructors Manual will be reviewed for authen-ticity by Richard E. Baker, a Professor of Accounting atNorthern Illinois University, who has done extensive re-search in the ELM arca.

The ELM cases involving role play activities will be re-viewed by Michael Goodman, a Professor of Communica-tions at FDU, and Jacob Steinberg, a Professor of SocialPsychology at FDU, to assure that interpersonal, oral andwritten communication skills will be addressed. Studentswill be required to evaluate their peers communication andinterpersonal performances after each group presentationbased on criteria recommended by Professors Goodman(1984) and Steinberg. Participant Instructors will be re-quired to log average communication and interpersonal

scores for each student. Near the end of the semester.students will be required to indicate on their course evalu-ations to what degree their communication and interper-sonal skills were effected by the ELM activities.

The three modular exame ?ill consist of a etture ofmultiple choice questions, blems and cases addressingcognitive and written COM1u, 'cation skills. The examswill be reviewed by Richard E. Baker, a Professor ofAccounting at Northern Illinois University, and Peter Wilson,a Professor of Accounting at New York University, toassure that the following areas are addressed: (1) eachtraditional elementary accounting content objective;(2) each stage of the ELM; and (3) each of Bloom's (1956)Taxonomy of Educational Olectives in the cognitive domain.

Evaluation

The research questions/hypotheses will be oaluated usingthe following measures:

- ANOVA st2tistical tests at .05 significance levels will beused to determine whether cognitive achievement scoresbetween the control (Leer re) and experimental (ELM)groups differ significantly.

- Specific questions on the Student Course EvaluationSurvey (Liken Scale) forms will be used to determinewhether ELM students perceived any progress in theircommunication and interpersonal skills attributable to theELM activities.

- Multiple Regression Statistical Analysis will be used todetermine whether a student's learning style, aptintde, sex,major, attitude towards acco nting, prior accounting aca-demic and work experience interact with the methot: ofinstruction to impact student cognitive achievement in anIntroductory Accounting course.

- Multiple Regression Statistical Analysis will also be usedto determine whether a student's learning style interactswith the learning style of the instructor to impact studentcognitive achievement in an Introductory Accotuxhig course.

Final Commentary

The ongoing conflict of wiledier teachers should stressproduct or process is addressed in this study. Can instruc-tors teach students the technical matter of Accounting whiledeveloping their reasoning, communication, interpersonaland creativity skills? Perhaps the ELM approach to beimplemented in this study will shed some light on thisproblem.

incidentally, a copy of the ELM Instructors Manual andmeasurement instruments to be used in this study will bemade available for review at the DPE Conference.

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References

American Accamting Association's Committee on the FutureStructure, Content, and Scope of Accounting Educa-tion (1986,Spring). Future accounting education: Pre-paring for the expanding profession. Issues inAccounr-ing Education, 168-195.

Baker, R. E., Simon,J. R., & Bazelli, F. P.(1987, Fall).Selecting instnictional design for introductmy account-ing based on the experiential learning model. Journalof Accounting Education, 207-226.

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Bloom, B.S., M.D. Englehart, G.J. Furst, W.H. Hill, andD.R. Krathwohl, Taronomy of Educational Objec-tives, Handbook I: Cognitive domain (New York:David McKay Co. Inc., 1956).

Goodman, M.B., Writer() the Point (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1984).

Sloan, D. (1983, March). The education of the professionalaccountant. Journal of Accountancy, 56-60.

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Putting Writing Errors in Context

Patricia A. MerrierThomas B. Duff

University of Minnesota, Duluth

Abstract

Business/government and junior/senior college members of thc Association for Business Communicationwere sur-veyed to determinc their reaction to grammar, style, or word choice errors in three contextsa business letter, anelectronic mail message, and a report. Analysis revealed that respondents were most tolerant of crrors occurring inELM and least tolerant of crrors occurring in a report. When data from all respondents were analyzed, statisticallysignificant differences were found to existamong media for eight of the errors. Fcwcr differences were found whenresponses from educators and practitioners were analyzed separately.

Background

A survey of the business communication literature of thepast 10 to 15 years reveals that basic writing skills (gi.-z,-mar, punctuation, and mechanics) are viewed by businesscommunication instructors and business professionals as

being important (Warner, 1979; Vik, 1979; Stinc andSkarzenski, 1979; Bennett and Olney, 1986), are perceivedwith ally moderate ii3portanre by business graduates (Storms,1983), and are rueiving increasingly less coverage inbusinss communication courses (Glassman and Farley,1979; Stis: Ind Skarzenski, 1979; Dorrell and Johnson,1982; Merrier, 1988).

Business communication instructors have responded inseveral ways to the challenge of improving basic writingskills while also meeting othcr course goals. Among thctechniques employed have been (1) brief units of instruc-tion, (2) diagnostic tests supplemented by independentstudy, and (3) writing laboratories. Regardless of themethod that is selected, studcnts must be convinced thatbasic writing skills arc important and that skill improve-ment is essential. Using testimonials is onc approach toptrsuasion (Skarzcnski and Stinc, 1979); providing con-crctc data about how readers react to writing errors isanother.

Hairston (1981) surveyed 101 individuals employed in a

variety of professions by having them indicate thc extent towhich they wcrc bothered by the usagc errors in (5 re-searcher-constructed sentences. She learned that readersattached varying degrees of concern to different tyres oferrors. Leonard and Gilsdorf (1990) surveyed executivevice presidents of large industrj or service firms andmembers of the Association for Business Communication to

determine the distraction level of 45 questional0 usageitems. In addition to reinforcing the results of Hariston's

work, Leonard .and Gilsdorf learned that academics arcmore bothered by most errors than arc business executives.This study builds on the work ,)f these researchers byexploring now thc medium of thc message affects readerreaction to errors.

Purpose

The purpose of this study is to dctcrminc thc extent to whichthc medium of a message aftects a reader's reaction to crrors

in grammar, word choice, and style. Specifically, answerswere sought to thc following research questions:

1. To what degree arc communication professionals andeducators affected by errors in grammar, word choice,and style?

2. Docs thc context in which a grammar, word choicc, orstyle error occurs influence communication profes-sionals' and educators' attitudes toward those errors?

3. Are there significant differences between thc way inwhich conununication professionals and educators reactto grammar, word choir;e, and style crrors that occur indifferent contexts?

Procedures

A 20-item questionnaire was developed and mailed to 252members of the Association for Business Communication(ABC). Half of thc individuals surveyed were identified bythe association as being affiliated with business/govern-ment; the othcr half were identified as being affiliated witha junior or a senior college. Names were randomly selectedso that each educational level was represented in the samplein proportion to its representation in the educationalcategory.

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Each survey itcm contained onc error in grammar, wordchoice, or style; these errors might be broadly deimed asusage errors. The types of errors selected to bc included inthc questionnaire were representative of the types of errorsmade by business communication students. Respond...arswere asked to rcact to each statement a.; they would if theyencountered it in three different document typesa letterfrom someone in another organization, an electronic mailmessage from someone in his/hcr organization, and a re-port. Educators were to assume that the rcport was writtenby a student intern; business/government respondents wereto assume that the report was written by a managementtrainee. The reactions from which respondents couldchoose were: Unaffected, Moderately Bothered, and StronglyDisturbed. These verbal descriptions werf; coded as Unaf-fected= 1, Moderately Bothered=3, and Strongly Dis-turbed =5 . Respondents who didn't recognize the crror inan item were asked to respond as though they were unaf-fected by the error.

Data were analyzed using the chi-square analysis and Fried-man nonparametric tcst subprograms of SPSS -X, Release3.0.

TABLE 1Disturbance Level Ranking by Media 7ype(All Respondents)

Findings/Diseussiol

Responses wcrc reccit,ed from 122 AP:: members; 63 wcrcbusiness/government represertatives and 59 were educa-tors. Six surveys were returned as undeliverable or wereincomplete; the overall re.sponse ratc, therefore, was 50.8percent.

Table 1 presents each of thc error types included in thesurvey and the ranked level of disturbance for each in thethree medialetter, electronic mail message, and report.

There was agreement among respondentsacross all mediatypesabout the three most and the three least disturbingcrrors. Respondents were most bothered by misuse of thepronoun I* and by subject/verb disagreement (nonessen-tial information distraction); they were least disturbed byverb tense, word choice (bring/take), and a parallelismerror caused by the absence of a preposition M a compound.The low ranking for thesc errors might have been influ-enced by the fact that Unaffected* was to be marked ifrespondents did not detect an crror in an item.

Error

Media Type

Letter ELM Report

Incomplete sentence 16 17 16Lack of parallel structure (compound gerund/participle) 6 7 6Pronoun does not clearly identify antecedent 13 12 13

Pronoun and antecedent do not agree in number 9 8 8Subject/Verb disagreement (nonessential information distractor) 3 3 3Subject/Verb disagreement (inverted sentence) 11 9 12Dangling modifier 5 4 5V/ord Choice (its/it's) 4 5 4Verb tense (was/is; ongoing condition) 20 20 20Subject/Verb disagreement (collective noun) a 10 9Pronoun seledon (I as object of v.:rb) 1 1 1

Word choice (bring/take) 19 19 19Word choice (gender bias) 14 11 14Lack of parallel structure (preposition missing in compound) 18 18 18Word choice (cliches) 10 13 11Split infmitive 17 15 17Pronoun selection (reflexive pronoun as object of preposition) 2 2 4

Verb mood (if I was/if I were) 7 6 7

Word choice (between/among) 15 14 15Inappropriate modifier (real/really) 12 16 10

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The Friedman nonparametric analysis revealed significantdifferences in the way respondents viewed the same error in

TABLE 27)ifferences Within Media(All respondents; significant difference marked with an asterisk)

different media contexts. Table 2 presents tht results of theanalysis.

Item

Incompl:te sentenceLack of parallel strucure

(compound gerund/participle)Pronoun does not clearly identify

the antecedentPrceoun and antecedent do not agree

in numberSubject/verb disagreement (nonessential

information distractor)Subject/verb disagreement

(inverted sentence)Dangling modifierWord choice (its/it's)Verb tense (was/is; ongoing condition)Subject/verb disagreement

(collective noun)'Pronoun selection (1 as object of verb)Word choice (bring/take)Word choice (gender bias)Lack of parallel smicture

(preps:Gil missing in corn; cad)Word choice (cliches)Split infinitivePronoun selection (rellexhqs pronoun

as object of preposition)Verb mood (if I waslif I were)Word choice (between/among)Inappropriate modifier

(real/really)

Mezo Rank-

Letter ELM ReportSignificassoe

Level

2.03 1.75 2.22 .0011'

2.05 1.82 2.13 ,0416'

1.00 1.88 2.13 .1484

1.91 1.95 2 s4 .2427

2.00 1.92 2.08 .4581

2.04 2.14 .0495*1.99 1.82 2.18 .0188'1.99 1.84 2.18 .0289'1.99 1.91 2.09 .4525

1.99 1.89 2.12 .20942.00 1.88 2.12 .16782.03 1.89 2.09 .27111.97 1.90 2.13 .1756

2.03 1.92 2.08 .45812.02 1.82 2.16 .028272.04 1.83 2.13 .0602

1.98 1.89 2.14 .14302.02 1.90 2.09 .33001.96 1.8$ 2.19 .0259'

2.02 1.78 2.20 .0052'

**Lower number represents lower rank

It is interesting to note that the pattern is identical in ALLcases-eaors in ELM are always most tolerated; errors inreports arc always least tolerated. These E dings parallelthe formality of the messages. By their very nature,electronic mail messages are informal; the comm., of themessage takes precedence over the format of the me&.2ge.Converse:1, reports are oftcn viewed as quite formal. Arigid format may be prescribed, and authors are expected toverify not only the content but also the mechanics of thedocument.

Other factors which may have influenced the results are theperceival 'life of the dorument and its audience. Mes-sages trarsmitted via ELM may be viewed as fleeting;reports, on the other hand, may be considered the most

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long-lived documents. While the audience for a messagegenerated in any of the three media types may be large,reports are probably vieworfas having the broadest distribu-tion, letters and ELM messages the narrowest.

When data for educators and practitioners were analyzed todetermine whether differences existed in the way eachviewed the same error in three contexts, fewer Jignificantdifferences were found. For raporses from educators,significant differences were noted among media for the itembvolving use of cliches (p = .0397) and for the itcminvolving use of an inappropriate modifier (p = .0127).For responses from practitioners, a signifiunt differenceamong media was noted for the incomplete semesce item(p = .0189). The pattern displayed when all responses were

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considered was evident in each of these groups as wellrespondents showed the greatest tolerance for errors inelectronic mail messages and the least tolerance for errors inreports.

The chi-square analysis revealed that, as a group, educatorsreacted more strongly than did practitioners to a dis4oree-ment between a subject and its verb in ELM (p = .0498) andin a report (p = .0165); they also reacted more strongly toa split infmitive when it occurs in a report. No othersigni9cant differences were found.

Summary/Conclusions

It appears that respondents hold writers to a higher vandardfor usage in reports and letters than in electronic mailmessages. Students should be aware of these differences.Students, however, must also e cautioned to view eachmessage separatelyto analyze its purpose and its audience.An electronic mail message to a colleague, for example,asking whether he/she is available to play racquetball afterwork is much different from an elecmmic mail messageannouncing and presenting the agenda for a meeting. Similarly,a memo report to one's supervisor might be viewed with adifferent standard than a formal report to be distributed tothe organization's governing board or clients. In short,business communication students should make every effortto be sure that every document they createregardless of themedium used to transmit ituses correct grammar, style,and word choice.

References

Bennett, J. C. and Olney, R. J. (1986). Executive prioritiesfor effective communication in an information society.The Journal of Business Communication, 23(2), 13-22.

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Dorrell , J. and Johnson, B. (1982). A comparative analysisof topics covered in twenty college-level communica-tion textbooks. The ABCA Bulletin, 45(3), 11-16.

Glacsm2n, M. and Farley, E. (1979). AACSB accreditedschools'approach to business communication courses.7he Journal of Business CommunKation, 16(3), 41-48.

Hairston, M. (1981). Not all errors are created equal:Nonar2demic readers in the professions respond tolapses in usage. College English, 43(8), 794-806.

Leonard, D. J. and Giisdorf J. W. (1990). Language inchange: Academics and executives' perceptions ofusage errors. 77rR Journal of Business Convnunica-don, 27(2), 137-158.

Merrier, P. A. (1988). How well do course descriptionsdescribe? Presentation at the National Conference ofthe Association for Business Communication.

Skarzenski, D. and Stine, D. (1979). Motivating businesscommunication students: An introductory handout.The ABCA Bulletin, 42(1), 27-28.

Stine, D. and Skarzenski, D. (1979). Priorities for thebusiness communication classroom: A survey of busi-ness and academe. The Journal ofBusiness Communi-cation, 16(3), 15-30.

Vik, G. N. (1979). Upgrading basic writing skills inbusiness communication students. The ABCA42(1), 32-34.

Warner, J. E. (1979). Wlmre has all the syntax gone? TheABCA Bulletin, 42(1), D-18.

The Quality of Student& Work Experiences in Office and MarketingOccupations: School Supervised and Non-school Supervised

Charles R. HopkinsUniversity of Minnesota, Twin Cities

Abstract

Increasingly, national groups are suggesting that experience in the work place should be integral to the education ofall students. At the snme time, large numbers of secondary students are already employed, many for more than 20hours per week and most in jobs which do not have school connectedness. Of concern is the quality of those jobsand their effects on student workers. The research reported in this paper compared the quality of work experienceso f students who participate in secondary-school marketing and office education cooperative education programs withstudents who work in similar types ofjobs but who are not enrolled in such programs. The findings suggest that thereis more difference between the jobs held by school supervised students enrolled in a marketing (MSSWE) or an office(OSSWE) cooperative education program than between the jobs held by supervised or non-school supervisedstudents within an occupational area, marketing or office.

Theoretical Framework

During the past several years a number of national groupshave expressed ideas similar to Dewey's (1916), that expe-rience gained in the workplace should be integral to theeducation of all students (National Commission on the Re-form of Secondary Education, 1973; National Commissionon Secondary Vocational Education, 1986; National Panelon High School and Adolescent Education, 1976; Presi-dent's Science Advisory Commit:ce, 1973; National Acad-emy of Education Task Force on Education and Employ-ment, 1979; Carnegie Council on Policy Studies in HigherEducatiou, 1979; William T. Grant Foundation on Work,Family and Citizenship, 1988). Cognitive psychologists(Resnick, 1987; Brown, Ccllins, and Duguid, 1989), whohave examined the discontinuities between school and non-school settings, have suggested that some kind of *situated"learning (i.e., some form of work experience, integratedwith courses in school) can teach skills and knowledge thatare not learned in classrooms.

Proponents of work experience at the secondary levelarguethat such an experience will help students (a) become moreemployable by learning to learn on-the-job; (b) securebetter and higher paying jobs than those not in such anexperience; (c) stay in se-nol longer by motivating themand, in some cases, by providing income; (d) better under-stand the intellectual content of academic subjects by mak-ing it more meaningful and relevant; and (e) become moresocially and vocationally mature by increasing awareness ofsocial and economic iwerdependencies and by developingself-concepts. This perspective is not without controversy.Opponents argue that there is a mounting body of evidencethat suggests adolescent employment can have effects thatare not desirable. Studies cited by Steinberg (1982) in hisanalyses of student jobs show that there are low rates on

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initiative taking and little formal instruction by work super-visors so-workers. Students, he suggests, are rarely everrequired to read, write, or use arithmetic skills on the job.The problem, he concludes, with the type of work per-formed by adolescents is that it: 1) does not demand a gre_tdeal cognitively; 2) does not strengthen the work ethic; and3) does not lead to future employment. Others argue thatwork while attending school negativAy affects grades,attendance, participation in school utivities, and peer andfamily relationships.

Of special concern, then, is the quality of students' workexperiences. If having a job during high school givesstudents a foothold in the labor market but takes time awayfrom school work and does not teach much except a cynicalattitude toward work (Greenberger & Steinberg, 1986),then the short-term payoff may not be worth the long-termcost. This kind of argument has been made before (Behn,et al., 1983; Timpane, et al., 1976). Greenberger andSteinberg (1986) did not test whether qualitative differ-ences in the jobs held by stu :ents in their sample had anyeducational, attitudinal, or other consequences. Possiblythe only previous study that has used longitudinal data totest whether qualitative aspects of students' jobs make adifference is by Stern and Nakata (1989). This study foundthat experience in jobs offering more opportunity to use anddevelop s *;ents' skills was, in fact, associated with lessunemployment and higher wages in the years immediatelyafter high school.

Although the longitudinal effect of qualitative differencesin students' jobs remains virtually unstudied, there has beensome research on adults, and this research does indicate thatthe quality of work experience can ave pronounced effectson psychological development. Kohn and Schooler (1978,1982) found that more complex work contributed, in par-

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ticular, to development of 'ideational flexibility and 'self-direction, each of which was measured by several indica-toi. Mortimer and Lorence (1979, also Lorence andMortimer, 1981) found that autonomy on the job contrib-med to a greater degree of involvement in work, a morepositive self-concept, and interest in work as a means ofhelping other people and obtaining intrinsic rewards.Subsequently, Mortimer and Finch (1986) reported thatjobs offering more autonomy contributed to individuals'self-esteem.

These existing studies of post-school job quality and psy-chological development strengthen the supposition that thequality of jobs held by students is likely to have importantconsequences. It is possible that the quality of work is evenmore consequential for students than for adults, sinceattitudes and abilities may be more malleable when peopleare younger.

In the most part, there has been no school involvement in thework of the students that has been researched. School-basedwork experience programs are designed to provide schoolintervention throughout the qudent's work experience--identifying potential jobs, assisting in placement, develop-ing a training plan, evaluating student performance andrelating classroom study to activities on the job. Thus,supporters of these programs expect that students whosepaid jobs are directly linked to their classroom work shouldfmd school more interesting, should learn more, becomemore productive, have better work attitudes, and shouldeventually get better jobs than students who are not enrolledin such programs. While the research does find thatcooperative education students are relatively satisfied withschool, there is no consistent evidence that they learn more,become more productive, or find better jobs (Leske andPersico, 1984). Failure to detect any differences may be afactor of the research design rather than the variables beingstudied. For example, lumping together of students from avariety of school-based work experience programs (i.e.,cooperative education and work study) where the linkbetween classroom instruction and experience on the job isless strong, lumping together students from a variety ofcooperative education programs (e.g., health, agribusi-ness, office), short time perspective (only one or twoyears), lack of sufficient statistical control over other stu-dent-related variables, and lack of attention to the variationin the quality of cooperative education jobs, may tend tohide any differences. This studv is an attempt to overcomeat least some of these design weaknesses and provide betterinformation on the quality of student work experiences intwo occupational areas, marketing and office.

Objectives

The research reported in this paper was designed to comparethe quality of work experiences of students who participate

in secondary-school marketing and office education coop-erative education programs with studeLts who work insimilar types of jobs but who are not envAled in suchprograms. For the purposes of this study, indicators of aquality work experience have been identified as: use ofbasic academic skills en the job (reading, writing, mathe-matics); work complexity, , autonomy, and variety; respon-sibility, decisionmaking and opportunity to think and prob-lem solve on the job; work-related learning; amount oftraining and quality of supervis!on; and amount of contactwith adult role models.

Procedures

The data analyzed and reported on in this paper are part ofa larger five-year !ongitudinal study, Learning ThroughSchool-Based Work 2xperience Programs, funded throughthe National Center for Research in Vocational Education(NCRVE). The larger study was designed to answer aseries of questions about school-supervised work experi-ence programs centering on two major issues:

1. What effect does quality (and quantity) of work expe-rience have on increasing desirable educational, eco-nomic, social, and psychological student outcomes?

2. How can a school arrange an environment to maximizethe desirable effects of student work experience?

To respond to these and other related issues, a model ofacademic-social-career development was evolved from theliterature. Drawing from the work of Greenberger andSteinberg (1986), Koim (1969), Mortimer and Finch (1986),Wollack, et al. (1971), and others, a number of constructsthat defmed desirable outcomes were idemr.ed. The con-ceptual model that emerged included social and carelrmaturity, academic attainment, the work mvironment,cognitive development, and job transition as dependentconstrucr The nature of the school intervention, nature ofthe ivironment, work autonomy/complexity, inten-sity u. ....: work experience, and relatedness of instructionwere identified as inciependent constructs along with stu-dent background characteristics.

Those constructs related to job quality are addressed in thepreliminary analysis of a subsample of the first wave of datacollection.

Data Sources

The data for this study were part of the baseline datacollected during the 1988-89 academic year fro-n a sampleof secondary school students located at two sites. (Anadditional, and larger, sample of baseline data has beencollected from four additional sites in 1989-90 but was notyet ready for analysis at the time of this paper.)

126 138

Site One. Site one is a large north-central industrial city,callel "Midcity." Two Midcity senior high schools wereincluded in the study. One is a magnet school specializingin business careers. The second is a magnet school special-izing in technical and trade occupations. At the businessmagnet school all juniors and seniors were invited toparticipate (n=300). At the trade and technical magnet, arandom sample of freshmen and seniors enrolled in classesthat had members participating in the cooperative educationprogram were invited to participate (n=400). Permissionslips were returned and baseline questionnaires were com-pleted by 350 students. Of these, 136 students were em-ployed in jobs that were not part of a school program while59 were enrolled in school-supervised jobs.

Site Two. The second site, called "Southvale," is a countyschool system that has four comprehensive high schools anda regional vocational center. A random sample of allstudents, grades 10, 11, and 12, was selected (n=830). Ofthat sample, 341 students returned permission slips andcompleted the base-line questionnaire. Of this number, 169were employed in non-school supervised jobs and 42 wereemploy ed in school-supervised jobs.

The sample at each school included students who wereparticipating in a variety of school-based work experienceprograms, students who were working but not in schoolsupervised jobs, and non-worldng students. For informa-tion regarding the differences in students across sites thereader is referred to Stone, Stern, Hopkins and McMillion(1990) and Stern, Stone, Hopkins, and McMillion (inprey:).

Student data were collected in class using a series of sevenquestionnaires, one of which included an extensive set ofquestions about characteristics of their current jobs, wheAherschool-supervised or nut.

The analyses reported et- in this study are based on asubsample of the sample described above. That is, onlythose students who were participating in office or marketingcooperative education programs or who were employed inoffice or marketing related jobs but not enrolled in acooperative program at the time the baseliLe data werecollected have been included in this analysis. Compositionof this subsample is shown below:

Marketing occupation, school supervised (MSSWE)N = 19

Marketing occupation, non-school supervised (MNSWE)N = 66

Office. occupation, school supervised (OSSWE)N = 44

Office occupatiun, non-school supervised (ONSWE)N = 17

Data Analysis

For this paper, comparisons are being made within andacross occupational areas. First, the perspectives of thestudents within an o_cupation (school supervised or non-school supervised by type of program office or market-ing) are being examined on the major constructs of interest:use of basic academic skills on the job (reading, writing,mathematics); work complexity, autonomy, and variety;responsibility, decisionmaking and opportunity to thinkaixl problem solve on the job, work-related learning, amoantof training, quality of supervision, and amount of contactwith adult role models. In a similar fashion, students fromthe two school supervised groups (MSSWE & OSSWE) arebeing compared on the same constructs to determine if theremight be differences across occupations.

To make the comparisons, two types of analyses wereundertaken. Several of the questions provided nominaldata. The responses to these questions were analyzed usingthe cross-tabular procedure. The resulting chi-square sta-tistics indicated if the pattern of observed responses differedfrom that which might be expected. In this way, differencesin response patterns of the various groups were determined(MSSWE x MNSWE, OSSWE x ONSWE, MSSWE xOSSWE). For scaled variables t-tests were used to test forsignificant differences in these same groups.

Findings

The findings of this study,, based on the data analysesconducted, are reported in the sections that follow. Infor-mation iegarding types of jobs held by students, bothsupervised and non-supervised, and hours worked are pre-sented first. Following that, findings are presented withinajob-quality constnA area. Because of the large number ofvariables and spr ,! constraints in this paper, variables forwhich statistically signify. .1'fference were not identifiedmay not be reported. Further, since the research is explora-tory in nature, the author has chosen to prescnt findings atthree levels-of-significance (p < .10, p < .05, p < .01) ratherthan the customary two.

Types of Jobs and flours Worked

Tu better understand the types of jobs held by students, theywere asked to report job titles and work duties. Categoriesof marketing and office jobs reported by employed studentsincluded the following:

Marketing Occupations (N = 85) MSSW MNSWERetail & other sales supervisors -Retail sales workers & cashiers 17

3

55Street and door-to-door sales workers 2 8

1271.99

Office Occupations (N = 61) OSSWESecretaries, typists, word processors,

receptionists, and general clerks 29Records processing clerks: bookkeepers,payroll clerks, billing clerks, fileand records clerks 9

Shipping/receiving clerks, stock clerks 1

Data-entry keyers 1

Postal clrks, mail carriers, messengers -Bank tellers 1

Other 3

ONSWE

8

3

1

21

2

Supervised and non-supervised students from each occupa-tional area tended to report similar types ofjob titles. Thatis, most students employed in a sales and marketing positionreported they were retail sales workers or cashiers. Moststudents employed in offices, either school supervised ornon-school supervised, reported such job titles as secretary,typist, word processor, receptionist, or general office clerk.About 20 percent of the OSSWE students reported jobs asbookkeepers, payroll clerks, billing clerks, or file andrecords clerks.

Students enrolled in a marketing or office cooperativeeducation program reported working more hours per weekthan students who were working in similar jobs but notenrolled in one of these programs. With the exception ofONSWE students, the average work week for employed=dents was mare than 20 bolus. MSSWi3 students (x =28.44,sd =7.03) reported wo;king significaltly more hours (p< .05) than MNSWE students (x =21.98, sd =10.8) andOSSWE students (x =22.07, sd =6.54) reported workingsignificantly more hours (p < .01) taan ONSWE students(x =14.8, sd=9.09). When school supervised studentsfrom the two occupations were compared, it was found thatMSSWE students reported working significantly more hours(p <.01) than OSSWE students.

Use of Basic Academk Skills on the Job

Reading. Employed students were asked if they read ontheir jobs. Further, those students who reported that theyread on the job were asked to indicate tne type of readingd .ie. Table 1 shows response patterns to this question bycomparison groups. There were no differences in theresponse patterns of the MSSWE and MNSWE students.One difference was found in the response patterns of theOSSWE and ONSWE students with the OSSWE studentsreporting that they were more likely to "read job manuals"on the job than were the ONSWE students. V/hen responsepatterns of the school supervised marketing students (MSSWE)and the school supervised office students (OSSWE) werecompared, significant differences were found on three ofthe dimensions. OSSWE students were Laore likely to 'readon the job", to look up unfamiliar words, and to "readtechnical journals, reports, legal documents."

Math. Students were asked to..kepon if they used math onthe job. Again, as in the use of reading on job, respondentsreporting that math was used on the job were asked to reportbow it was used. Response rates relative to these questionsalso can be found in Table I. Ninety or more percent of theMSSWE (90%) and MNSWE (94%) students reportedusing math on the job while students working in officesreported somewhat lower percentages of use (OSSWE,73 %; ONSWE, 68.3%). There were no significant differ-ences in the response patterns on this question when theinn7group and intergroup comparisons were undertaken.All students reported frequent use of math on the job to"add, subtract, multiply, divide, make change, simplemeasurements. MNSWE students were mare likely to"add, . . . than were MSSWE students. OSSWE studentswere more likely than MSSWE students to use math in thissame way. A significantly higher proportion of ONSWEstudents reported that they "compute discounts, markups,selling prices" thar did OSSWE students. Few studentsreported using math for *ratios, percents, decimals, frac-dons, to "calculate surface areas, volume, weight," or to"apply percentages, fractions, algebra, geometry to workproblems."

WhALT. Table 1 also displays data relative to the use ofwriting on tio job. As can be seen, high percentages ofstudents from all groups reported that they u.,:e writing onthe job. Studrits who wrote were most likely to "print orwrite simple sentences" or to write "more than simplesentences, fill out forms. Few students, reported that thee"writr reports,' or "write manuals, editorials, journals.Also, with the exception of OSSWE students, few studentsreported use of wri ting to "prepare reports, business letters,summaries using given format." More OSSWE thanONSWE students and more OS SWE than MSSWE studentsreported this type of writing activity. No differences werefound on any of the other analyses of the writing on the jobdimension.

Skills and Knowledge

Employed students were asked if their jobs provided themthe opportunity to 'practice what is learned in school."There were siguificant differences in the perceptions of thestudent groups on this dimension. MSSWE and OSSWEstudents reported greater opportunity than MNSWE andONSWE students respectively to practic on the job what islearned in school. No difference was found in the opportu-nity reported by MSSWE and OSSWE students.

Participants were also asked about the students' opportuni-ties to learn additional useful skills and knowledge on thejob, to learn how to learn, and to improve basic skills,"There was a significant difference, between OSSWE andONSWE students on the dimension 'job provides a chancetolParn a lot of new things"; ISSWE students reported thisopportunity more frequently (Table 2).

128 1 4 0"4

1

I

I

I

II

I

I

I

I

I

I

II

Table 1Use of Bask Academic Skills on the Job

Marketing Office SSWEMSSWE X MNSWE OSSWE X ONSWE Mktg x Off'

(N=85) (N=61) (N=63)

Job Dimension

1.A..._gl;n on job?

Compare words?Look up unfamiliarwords?

Read safety rulesor instrucdons?

Read job manuals?Read teemicaljournals, repous,legal documents')

Math on the job?+, -, x, -, make

change, simplemeasurements?

Use ratios, percents,decimals, fractions?

Compute discounts, mark-ups, selling price?

Calculate sit face areas,volume, weight?

Apply percentages,fractions, algebra,geometry to workproblems?

Wr_Lgin on the job?Print or write simple

sentences?Write more than simple

sentences, fill outforms?

Write reports?Prepare reports, business

letters, summariesusing given format?

Write manuals,editorials, journals?

MSSWE MNSWE OSSWE ONSWE(N=19) (N=66) (N=44) (N=17)

% YES % YES % YES % YES21 38 75 65 ***

25 12 39 55

0 8 52 27 *

50 48 30* 3650 48 52 18

0 12 55 27 *

90 94 73 65

t**

77 97 97 100 it*

24 30 9 18***

71 64 21 64 ***

0 7 3 9

18 15 9 18

79 70 84 82

60 69 58 64

53 50 68 647 20 8 14

*

7 11 50 21 ***

0 9 5 7

*See previous columns for appropdate response rates.(*) p < .10; (**) p <.05; (***) p <.01

1

r

I1

129141

q

Table 2Opportunity to Use and Learn Skills and Knowledge

MarketingMSSWE X MNSWE

(N =85)

OfficeOSSWE X ONSWE

(N =61)

SSWEMktg x Ofl(N =63)

Job Dimension MSSWE(N=19)

x sd

MNSWE'),I=66)

x sdSig

OSSWE(N=45)

x sd

ONSWE(N=17)x sd

Sig Sig

Job provides 2.95chance topractice what islearned in school

1.13 2.08 .97 *** 2.96 1.09 2.29 .92 **

1 =not at all true; 4= vuy trueJob provides 3.21

chance tolearn a lotof new things

.79 2.88 .89 3.22 .79 2.59 1.06 **

1 =not at all true; 4=very much trueJob has 3.26helped tolearn how tolearn

.81 2.94 .93 3.02 1.03 2.71 .77

1 =not at all; 4=a great dealJob has 2.26improved basicskills

.87 2.42 1.10 2.42 1.06 2.76 .90

1 =not at r.11; 4=a great dcal

'See previous columns for appropriate response rates.(*) p <.10; (**) p <.05; (***) p <.01

Challenge in the Job

Participants in the study were asked to indicate their percep-tions as to the degree of challenge in the their jobs. OSSWE

Table 3Degree efChallenge in the Job

students reported a higher degree of challenge than didONSWE students. When OSSWE students and MSSWEstudents were c ompared , 0 S SW E students reported a higherdegree of challenge (Table 3).

Job Dimension

MarketingMSSWE X MNSWE

(N=85)

OfficeOSSWE X ONSWE

(N =61)

SSWEMktgx0f111

(N =63)

MSSWE(N 19)

x sd

MNSWE(N=66)

x sd

OSSWESig (N =45)

x sd

ONSWE(N =17) Sig Sigx sd

How 2 .47 .84 2.42 .84challenging?

1 =very challenging; 4=not at all challenging

2.11 .75 2.76 .83 *** * *

'See previous columns c` appropriate response rates.(*) p <.10; (**) p <.05; (***) p <.01

142130

Respondents also were asked to indicate the type of chal-lenge in the job: mental, physical, both, or not ctallenging.A difference was found in the response patterns of the twooffice groups ea this question; about 33 percent of the

Table 4TYpe of Challenge

ONSWE students reported their jobs as "not challengingcompared to only 5 percent of the OSSWE studer's(Table 4).

MarketingMSSWE X MNSWE

(N =85)

OfficeOSSWE X ONSWE

(N=61)

SSWEMktg x Oft'

(N=63)

Job Dimension MSSWE MNSWE(N=19) (N=66)

OSSWE ONSWE(N=44) (N=17)

% YES % YES % YES % YES

Mainly Mental 17 27 42 31Mainly Physical 11 12 5 0Both Mental andPhysical 67 52 49 38

Not Challenging 6 9 5 31 **

`See previous colunns for appropriate response rates.(*)

P (**) P <.05; (***) p <.01

Training on the Job

More than 80 percent of all employed students reported thatthey received training when they began their jobs. Nodifferences were found on this job dimension in any of thegroup comparisons. Students were asked to report thenumber of hours of initial training they received. Studentemployees reported receiving between two and one-fourthand two and two-thirds hours of initial training from theirrespective employers. There was no differznce in theamount of training reported within the two student groups,marketing and office. However, there was a difference

Table 5Amount of Training

(2 < .10) in the amount of training reported by OSSWE(2.62 hours) and MSSWE (2.25 hours) students (Table 5).Students were also aske4 to report the purpose of theirtraining and how it was delivered. More than 75 percent ofall student workers reported they =dyed training to 'performtasks unique to job, and a large number of studentsreported receiving training to 'perform a wide range ofrelated tasks.' While no differences were found, it isinteresting to note that between 12 and 27 percent of th_employed studcnts reported receiving training needed to'perform basic communication, math, and reading/writingactivities required on the job' (Table 6).

Job Dimensicn

MarketingMSSWE X MNSWE

(N=85)

OfficeOSSWE X ONSWE

(N=61)

SSWEMktg x Of?

(N=63)

MSSWE(N=19)

x sd

MNSWE(N =66)

x sd

OSSWESig (N =45)

x sd

ONSWE(N=17) Sig Sigx sd

Number ofhours beginningtraining (total)

2.25 .77 2.38 .56 2.62 .71 2.29 .73

`See prevous colwuns for appropriate response rat's.(*) p .10; (**) p <.05; (***) p <.01

131143

Most students reported being *taught by manager, supervi-sor, or co-worker." A higher percent of MNSWE thanMSSWE students reported being taught in this way. Twodiffereires were found in die intergrcup (MSSWE X OSSWE)

Table 6Purpose and Form of Training

comparisons. The MSSWE students were 'more likely tohave participated in an 'orientation lecture/day" and tohave used 'films, slides, videos" than were the OSSWE stu-dents (Table 6).

MarketingMSSWE X MNSWE

(N =85)

OfficeOSSWE X ONSWE

(N=61)

SSWEMktg x Off'

(N=63)

lob Dimension MSSWE MNSWE

Training to:perform tasks uniqueto job

perf9rm a wide rangeof related tasks

perform basicf;ommunication,math, and reeding/writing activitiesrequired on job

Form of traing was:Orientation lecture/dayRegular classesFilms, slides, videosManuals, written

instructionsTaught by manager,supervisor orco-worker?

OSSWE ONSWE(N=19) (N=66) (N=44) (N=17)

% YES % YES % YES % YES

75 78 85 80

50 44 56 33

19 12 22 27

56 44 24 20 ***

13 7 12 13

13 20 0 0 ***

38 39 24 20

81 95* 83 67

'See previous columns fcr appropriate response rates.(*) p <.10; (*4) p <.05; (***) p <.01

Work Autonomy, Responsibility, and Decisionmaking

Students were asked several questions relating to workautonomy, responsibility, and the opportunity to makedecisions. When the responses of the two marketing groups(MSSWE x MNSWE) were compared, no differences were

.d. When the response patterns of the two office studentgroups (OSSWE X ONSWE) were compared, the OSSWEstudents reported more frequently that their 'job has helpeddevelop ability to follow directions '; 'job has helped de-velop ability to take responsibility for own work"; and "jobhas helped develop ability to be in time. There was onlyone dimension on which there was a difference when the

132

intergroup comparisons (MSSWE X OSSWE) were made.MSSWE students reported more frequently that the 'job hashelped develop the ability to take responsibility for ownwork. '

As an aspect of job responsibility, student workers wereasked to report the number of other workers they were askedto supervise. A very high percentage of workers in eachgroup (7P'SWE, 8g%; MNSWE, 79%; OSSWE, 91%;ONSWE, 82%) reported they did not have responsibilityfor supervising other workers. No significant differenceswere found in various group response patterns on thisvariable (Table 7).

144

TabkWork Autonomy, Responsibility, anti Decisionntaking

MarketingMSSWE X MNSWE

(N=85)

OfficeOSSWE X ONSWE

(N=61)

SSWEMktg x Off"(N=631

Job Dimetnsion MSSWE(N=19)

x sd

Freedom to 2.56 1.10make decisionsover what to do andhow to do itI =complete control; 5 =almost no control

3.58 .84Job has helpeddevelop ability tofollow directions1=not at all; 4=a great deal

Job has helpeddevelop ability totake responsibilityfor own work1=not at all; 4=a great deal

Job has helpeddevelop ability toset priorities1=not at all; 4=a great deal

Job has helpeddevelop ability tomake decisions1=not at all; 4=a great deal

Job has helpeddevelop ability tobe on time1=not at all; 4=a great deal

4.00 0

3.37 .76

3.53 .84

3.79 .54

MNSWE(N=66)

x sd

OSSWESig (NL=45)

x sd

ONSWE(N=17)x sr!

Sis Sig

2.55 .83 2.71 1.04 3.12 .78

3.29 .76 3.49 .79 3.06 1.09 *

3.79 .48 3.73 .54 3.41 1.00 * * *

3.17 .81 3.3r .77 3.12 .93

3.20 .87 3.20 .79 3.12 .78

3.59 .74 3.4^ .75 3.12 1.17 *

'See previous columns for appropriate response rates.(*) p <.10; (**) p <.05; (***) p <.01

Supervision

When asked about the supervision provided thun on thejob, students replied at about the same rate to the threeresponse options of 'supervisor decides what to do and howto do it, 'supervisor decides what to do," and supervisor'gives some freedom to decide what to do and how tn do it.A few students reported that they were their 'own bosseswithin general policies. No differences were found onthese variables. Several questions related to student andsupervisor relationships. MSSWE students reported morefrequently than MNSWE students that they felt free todisagree with their supervisors. Also, MSSWE studentswere more willing to exhtlit this behavior than were OSSWEstudents. While nr3 differences were found between com-parison groups, it is apparent that most students are treated

133

fairly by their supervisors and that most supervisors arewilling to listen to probli.'ts and help find solutions.Student workers, in genera, I'eel chat for them to do well.it is important that they do exactly as told (Table 8).

Oppersunity to Think and Solve Problems

Respondents were asked if their jobs helped develop theability to think and solve problems. MSSWE studentsreported that this was more likely to be true for their jobsthan did MNSWE students. Respondents were also askedif they had the opportunity to think of new ways of doingthings on their jobs and to problem solve. When theresponses of the various student groups were comparPd, nodifferences wein found (Table 9).

145

Table 8Student and Supervisor Relationships

MarketingMSSWE X MNSWE

(N=85)

OfficeOSSWE X ONSWE

(N=61)

SSWEMktg x Off'

(N=63)

MSSWE(N=19)

x sd

MNSWE(N=66) Sig

x sd

OSSWE(N =45)

x ed

ONSWE(N=17) Sig Sig

X sd

Feel free to 1.5 .73disagree withsupervisor

1.97 .83 * * 2.11 .75 1.81 .75 * * *

1 =very free; 4 =not at all freeImportant to 1.75 .86do exactly as told

1.97 .77 1.53 .67 1.75 .68

1 =extremely important; 4 =not importantSupervisor 3.31 .95

treats me fairly3.40 .76 3.64 .61 3.56 .63

1 =usually not; 4 =all of the timeSupervilor 1.56 .96

willing to listen1.65 .89 1.55 .87 1.38 .81

1 =almost always; 5 =never

'See previous colurcis for appropriate response rates.(*) p S..10; (**)p <.05; (***) p.O1

Table 9Opportunity to Think and Solve Peoblems

MarketingMSSWE X MNSWE

(N=85)

OfficeOSSWE X ONSWE

i,N=61)

SSWEMktg x Ofl(N = 63)

MSSWE(N=19)

x sd

MNSWE(N=66)

x sdSig

OSSWE(N =45)

x sd

ONSWE(N=17) Sig Sigx sd

Job has helped 3.21develop ability tothink & solve problems

=not at all true; 4=very much true

.63 2.82 .91 3.12 .59 2.88 .86

Think of new 2.89ways to do thingsand problem solve

1.18 2.77 1.12 3.09 .90 3.18 .88

1=almost always; 5 =never

'See previous columns for appropriate response ratcs.(*) p <.10; (**) p <.05; (***) p <.01

Contact with People on the Job

Opportunity to work with adult role models has beenidentified as an indicator of quality in student jobs. Partici-pants were asked to report the amount of time spent at workdealing with people generally and the amount of time atwork spent with adults and other people in their own agegroup. Results of these analyses are presented in Table le.

All students reported spending large amounts of time work-ing with people generally. MSSWE students spend moretime working with people than do OSSWE students. Itinteresting to note that MSSWE students report more fre-quently than MNSWE students that they work with peoplein their own age group. When MSSWE and OSSWEworkers are compared on this dimension, MSSWE workersare more likely to spend *:ime working with people about

134 146

the same age. Conversely, as would bc expected. OSSWEworkers are more likely to report more 'time working withadults' than are MSSWE workers.

Participants were also asked if their jobs had 'helpeddevelop ability to get along with people' and 'helped de-

Table 10Contact with People on the Job

velop ability to communicate with others. No differenceswere found in the marketing innagroup (MSSWE X Iv2sISWE)

and marketing and office intergroup (MSSIVE X OSSWE)comparisons. In the office intragroup comparison (OSSWEX ONSWE) the OSSWE workers reported more fres:pentlythat their jobs helped develop these abilities.

Job Dimension

MarketingMSSWE X MNSWE

(N=85)

OfficeOSSWE X ONSWE

(N=6I)

SSWEMktg x Off*(N=63)

Time dealingwith people1=all of the time; .3=no time at all

Time working 1.89with adults

1=all of the time; 6=no time at allTime working 2.21

with people aboutthe same age1=all of the time; 6=no time at all

Job has helped 3.84 .50develop abilityto get alongwith peopleI =not at all; 4=a great deal

Job has helped 3.84 .69develop abilityto communicatewith othersI =not at all; 4=a great deal

MSSWE(N=19)

x sd

1.21 .92

.94

1.13

MNSWE(N=66)

x sdSig

OSSWE.=45)

x sd

ONSWE(N=17)x sd

Sig Sig

1.24 .58 '..38 1.28 2.00 1.17 ***

1.82 1.12 1.36 .80 1.59 .94 **

3.12 1.65 ** 3.89 2.12 4.29 1.90 **t

3.76 .53 3.62 .65 3.18 1.01 **

3.71 .58 3.71 .55 3.35 .86 *

'See previous columns for appropriate response rates.(*) p <.10; (**) p <.05; (***) p <.01

Internal Motivation

To assess their motivation, students were asked how willingthey were to do more than the minimum amount of workrequired on the job. A fairly high degree of student interestin doing more than was required was reported by all groupsof student woi kers. OSSWE workers indicated a higherdegree of willingness to do more than required than didONSWE students. Students were also asked if their jobshad helped them develop the ability to strive to do well.MSSWE students, when compared to MNSWE students,were more likely to report that their jobs had helped themdevelop this abi:ity. MSSWE students were also morelikely than OSSWE students to report this perception(Table 11).

135

Discussion

The information presented in the rmdings section of thispaper suggest that there is more difference between the jobsheld by school supervised studeni 'rolled in a mz-keting(MSSWE) or an Office (OSSWE) cbtperative educationprogram than between the jobs held by supervised or non-school supervised students within an occupational arca,marketing or office, when using such job-quality indicatorsas use of basic academic skills on the job (reading, writing,mathematics); work complexity, autonomy, and variety;responsibility, decisionmaking and opportunhy to thinkand problem solve on the job; work-related learning; amountof training and quality of supervision; and amount ofcontact with adult role models.

147

Table 11Inteinal Motiration

Job Dimension

MarketingMSSWE X MNSWE

(N=85)

OfficeOSSWE X ONSWE

(N=61)

SSWEMktg x(N =63)

MSSWE(N=19)x sd

MNSWE(N=66)x sd

OSSWESig (N=45)

x sd

ONSWE(N=17) Sig Sigx sd

Interestedenough in job to domore than minimum workrequired1 =never; 5=almost always

Job has helpeddevelop ability tostrive to do well1 =not at all; 4=a great deal

3.37 1.12 3.29 1.05

3.6t .75 3.29 .7o

3.72 .80 3.24

3.33 .71

AO *5

3.29 .77

'See previous columns for appropriate response ratcs.(5) p <.10; (55) p <.05; (55*) p <.01

In the use of basic academic skills, high percentages of allemployed students, supervised or non-supervised, reporteduse of math and writing on the job. No differences werefound when comparing the response patterns of MSSWEstudents with MNSWE students in the reading and writingdimensions. OSSWE students were mrxe likely thaa ONSWEstudents to read job manuals and to prepare repot.---, busi-ness letters, and summaries using a given format. ONSWEstudents were more likely than OSSWE students to use mathfor thc special purpose of computing discounts, markups,and selling prices. Perhaps, even though job titles reportedby the two groups of office workers are similar, job dutiesof the ONSWE students are different. Further examinationof these duties may be worthwhile. When response patternsof MSSWE and OSSWE students were compared, OSSWEstudents were more likely to read and use math on the job.They more frequently look up unfamiliar words, rcadtechnical journals, reports, &legal documents, and preparereports and business letters from,:k given format.

A high percentage of respondents reported that their jobshave helped them to learn how to learn. School-supervisedstudents, both MSSWE and OSSWE, reported more fre-quently than their respective comparison groups the oppor-tunity to practice what is learned in school'. OSSWEstudents also reported more frequently than their counta-parts (ONSWE) that they had the opportunity to learn newthings. OSSWE students reported their jobs as morechallenging than did ONSWE and MSSWE students. Afairly high percentage of CUSWE =dents viewed theirjobs as not challenging.

While the amount of initial training provided to any of thegroups of employed students was quite low (2 1/4 to 2 2/3

hours), OSSWE students did report receiving significantlymore training than MS SW E students. Again, this may bc afactor of the job duties and level of position and furtherexmination is warranted. Employed students, in genet.1,reported that their jobs helped develop the ability to followdirections, take responsibility for their own work, set theirpriorities, make decisions, and bc on time. On a number ofthese dimensions OSSWE students reported their jobs helpedthem develop these responsibility-related characteristics.MSSWE students reported more frequently than OSSWEstudents that their jobs have helped them develop the abilityto take responsibility for their own work.

As might be expected, students employed in sales andmarketing positions spend more time dealing with peoplethan do students employed in office positions. Howevtstudents employed as office workers are more likely to workwith adults while students employed as sales and marketingworkers are more likely to work with people about the sameage. Students in all groups feel that their jobs have helpedthem develop their abilities to get along and communicatewith people.

Differences were not found on a numbcr of individualdimensions included as components of the job-qualityconstructs. For that reason indices ofjob quality that willfactor in the various questions included for each qualityconstruct are being developed. Additional analyses will beundertaken using the indices rather than the raw scores. Theadditional baseline data collected are being added to the database and analyses similar to those completed for this studyand those using the job-quality indices will be undertakenon the larger data base. Analyses that compare jobs ofstudents in other occupational areas-(tWe and industry,

136 1 4,

agriculture) with those of the business and marketing occu-pad ons are also being considered. A logical next step wouldbc to do in-depth observations and interviews with em-ployed students and their employers to secure greater detailrelative to the actual application of the job-quality con-structs identified in thc

References

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Brown, J.S., Collins, A., and Duguid, P. (1989). Situatedcognition and the culture of learning. EducationalResearcher, 18(1): 32-41.

Carnegie Council on Policy Studies in Higher Education.(1979). Giving youth a better chance: Options for edu-cation, work and service. San Francisco: Josscy-BassPublications.

Dcwcy, J. (1916). Democrary and educof ion: An intro-duction to the philosophy of educatIo: Ncw York:Macmillan.

Greenberger, E., & Steinberg, L.D. (1986). Whenteenagers work: The psychological and social costs ofadolescent ensplo)ment. New York: Basic Books.

Kohn, M.L. (1969). Class and conformity: A study invalhes. Homewood, IL: Dorsey.

Kohn M.L., & Scholler, C. (1978). The reciprocal effectsof the substantive zomplexity of work and intellectualflexibility: A longitudinal assessment AmericanJournal of Sociology, 84, 24-52.

Kohn, M.L., & Scholler, C. (1982). Job condikns andpersonality: A longitudinal assessment of their recip-rocal effects. American Itmrngl of Sociology, 87,1257-1286.

Leske, G., & Pcrsico, J., Jr. (1984). Indicators of qualityin cooperative vocational education. A review andsyn-thesis of rrearch. St. Paul, MN: Minnesota Researchand Development Center for Vocational Education,Department of Vocational and Technical Education.University of Minnesota.

Lorcncc, J., & Mortimer, J.T. (1981). Work experienceand work involvement. Sociology of Work and Occu-pations, 8, 297-326.

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Mortimer, & Finch, M.D. (1986). The effects ofpart-time work on adolescent self-concept and achieve-ment. In K. Borman &J. Reisman (Eds.), Beco-ning aWorker. (pp. 66-89). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Mortimer, J.T., & Lorfaice, J. (1979). Work experienceand occuparional value socialization: A longitudinalstudy. American Journal of Sociology, 84, 1361-1385.

National Academy of Educadon Task Force on Education'Ind Employment. (1979). Educat ion fo r employment:Knowledge for action. Washington, DC: AcropolisBooks.

National Commission on the Reform of Secondary Educa-tion. (1973). The reform of secondary ethtcation.New York: McGraw-HiLl.

National Commission on Secondary Vocational Education.(1986). The unfinish.d agenda: The role ofvoca:ionaleducation in the high school. Columbus, OH: Na-tional Center for Research in Yocational Education,Ohio State University.

National Panel on High School and Adolescent Education.(1976). The education of adolescents. Washington,DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

President's Science Advisory Committee. (1973). Yo3:Transition to adulthood. Washiegton, DC: U.S. Gov-ernmmt Printing Office.

Resnick, L.B. (1987). Learning in chool and Jut. Edu-cational Researcher, 169, 13-20.

Steinberg, L.D. (1982). Jumping off the work experiencebandwagon. burnal of Youth and Adolescence. 11183-205.

Stern, D., Hopkins, C.R., Stone, J.R. III, & McMil )11,

M. Proposal

Ster, D., Stone, J.R. III, Hopkias, C.R., & McMillion.M. (in press). Quality of students'work experienceand orientation toward work. Youth and Society.Beverly Hill, CA: Sage Publications.

Stern, D., & Nakata, Y. (1989). Characteristics of highschool students' paid jobs, and employment experiencedfter graduation. Stern, D. and Eichorn, D. (Eds.):Adolescence and work; influences of social structure,labor markets, and culture (pp. 1S9-233). Hillsdale,NJ: Erlbaum.

14 9

Stone, J.R. III, Stern, D., Hopkins, C.R., & Mc Million,M. (1990, Spring). Adolescents' perceptions of theirwork: School supervised and non-school supervised.Journal of Vocational Education Research, 15(2).

Timpane, M., Abramowitz, S., Bobrow, S.B., & Pascal,A. (1976). Youth policy in transition. Santa Monica,CA: RAND Corp.

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Wollack, S., Gooddale, J.G. Wijting, J.P., & Smith, P.C.(1971). Development of the survey of work values.Joumal of Applied Psychology, 55(4), 331-338.

Youth and America's Future: The William T. GrantFoundation on Work, Family and Citimnship (1988).The forgotten half: Non-college youth in America.Washington, DC: Author.

150

Student Attitudes Toward Male and Female Work Roles

Lila PriggeUniversity of North Dakota

Abstract

This study was designed to determine whether secondary students hold traditional attitudes toward male anti femalework roles and whether educational equity matenals can provide a learning experience that will change traditionalattitudes held by students to contemporary attitudes.

Students from 13 North Dakota schools completed an attitude assessment to determine their attitudes. Following thispre-assessment, educational equity materials were taught for three class periods. A post-assessment of student at-titudes was then administered.

The pre-assessment indicated that 42 percent of the students held traditional attitudes. The pm- to post-assessmentsindicated that educational equity materials provided learning experiences that changed traditional attitudes.

Introduction

"Women continue to stream into the work force. Betweennow and the year 2000; almost two-thirds of new entrantsinto the work force will be women, according to aU.S. Departmcs of Labor study" (Schultz, 1989, p. 34).Research indicates that these women face problems basedon sex-role stereotyping when they enter the work force. Itis well documented that women work in female-intensiveoccupations which pay lower salaries than men earn inmale-intensive occupations. "In 1987, women of all racesworking full-time, year-round earned 65 cents for everydollar earned by white men; . . . a 1987 Census Bureaustudy found that 17 to 30 percent of the wage gap is due tothe 'overrepresentation' of women in certain occupations;i.e., the more women in a job or a profession, the lower thepay (Schreiber, 1989, p. 6).

Male and female students hold many of the traditionalattitudes that perpetuate the breadwinner model (workingfather, housewife mother, and two children). Yet, govern-ment statistics indicate that very few of these students willbe living in that traditional breadwinner family setting. "Inmore than one-half of all American marriages today, bothhusband and wife work outside the home" (Schultz, 1989,p. 34). As reported by Couch (1989, p. 24), 'Women nowrepresent 44 percent of all workers, and recent projectionsindicate that by the mid-199Gs, half of the work force willbe female.

Traditiocal attitudes have undoubtedly played a major rolein keeping women in lower paying, less prestigious careers.And it is not only males who believe that women are bestsuited for the careers th2.t require nuituring and caring, and

that women in general do not possess the characteristicsnecessary to become effective leaders. These beliefs arebased upon myths which have been perpetuated for manyyears. However, after eight years' of research, "Research-ers at the Center for Creative Leadership concluded thatwhen careers are matched, women and men are notablysimilar in their characteristics, motives, and abilities, butthat expectations of each are different due to stereotypicperceptions. The environment which forms the context formale and female roles breeds the disparity in expmtations"(Curcio, Morsink, and Bridges, 1989, p. 153).

Walch (1980) in her dissertation, Utah High School Sopho-more Attitudes Toward Women's Roles and Non-Tradi-tional Vocational Career Choices, found a significant dif-ference in overall student attitudes toward women's rolesand non-traditional vocational career choices. Since herstudy was limited to sophomores in high school, Walchrecommended that similar stuches by conducted to comparestudent attitudes by grade level. . . and that educationalequity materials aimed at reducing sex bias and sex stere-otyping in educational programs and expziding student lifechoices be developed and tested expenmentally within theschools.

Problem

The problem of this study was to determine whether m21cand female students at various grade levels have L., ditionalattitudes toward male and female wo:k roles and whetherclassroom materials designed for educational equity canchange traditional attitudes, when they exist, to contempo-rary attitudes.

139 1 51

PurPose

The purpose of this study was to gather information relatingto sn._ em attitudes toward male and female work roles andto the use of sex equity materials in their curricula to helpstudents better understand the nature of male and femalework roles. The information gathered should be useful inreducing misconct, tions and inequalities based on sexstereotypes in the work force.

Null Hypotheses

This study was &signed to test the following nullhypotheses:

1. There is no significant difference in student atti-tudes toward male and female work roles as meas-ured by the pre- and post-asyssment, when stu-dents are provided learning experiences 'ming edu-cational equity materials.

2. There is no significant difference in student atti-tudes toward male and female work roles, based ongender, as measured by the pre-and post-assess-ment, when students are provided learning experi-ences using educational equity materials.

3. There is no significant difference in student atti-tudes toward male and female work roles, based ongrade level, as measured by the pre- and post-assessment, when students are provided learningexperiences using educational equity materials.

Procedures

This study required the completion of the following steps:(1) development of an assessment instrument to measurestudent attitudes; (2) identification of participants;(3) determination of educational equity materials for thetreatment; and (4) analysis of data.

Development of Assessment Instrument

An assessment instrument was developed by selecting twentystatements from an attitude assessment used by Walch(1980) in her dissertation. Walch's assessment instrumentconsisted of 60 statements with a Liken-type scale with sixchoices provided from strongly agree to strongly disagree.For this study, a more concise instrument was needed toallow the two administrations of the assessment instrumentand the treatment to be completed during three class peri-ods. This study was designed for use with business stu-dents; therefore, 16 statements in Walch's assessment in-strument which related to other vocational areas wereeliminated. A review of the remaining 44 statements foundthat in several instances three or four statements measured

140

the same concept; therefore, only one statement was se-lected to measure each of the concepa represented.

The State Coordinator for Educational Equity, the StateSupervisor for Office Education, and three business teach-ers served as a panel of experts to judge the validity of the20-statement assessment instrument. They concurred thatthe instrument was valid for its intended purpose.

Identification of Participants

Fifteen North Dakota high schools were selected to providerepresentation from both rural and city school districts.Business education teachers in the fifteen selected highschools were contacted to secure their cooperation in ad-ministering this study; thirteen of them agreed to participateproviding a sample poptuation of 346 students. The size ofthe participating schools ranged from 1,321 to 116 studentsenrolled in grades 9-12.

Determination of Materials

Each of the vocational business education teachers in NorthDakota had received a copy of Maximizing Options forStudentsin Business (Deutsch, Gassman, and Weiss, 1984)from the State Supervisor of Office Education and the NorthDakota State Board for Vocational Education. It had beenrevised from material developed specifically for educa-tional equity by the Wisconsin Department of Public In-struction, Division for Instructional Services, Bureau forVocational Education. Module HI - "Men and Women inthe Workforce: Myth and Reality included instructionalmaterials covering societal attitudes about men and wcinen.sex stereotypes, and sexism, particularly in the businesssetting; and was designed to be presented in three classperiods.

Module III in the instructor's manual provided the ration-ale, five objectives, copies of the tour handouts for stu-dents, sixteen transparency masters, step-by-step instruc-tions for how to use the handouts and transparencies, andthe important concepts to discuss with each of them.

Treatment

A letter containing detailed instructims en how to conductthe study was sent to each teacher, along with the appropri-ate number of assessment instmments and computer answersheets. The teachers were instructed to:

1. administer the pre-assessment instrument,2 present the materials in Module III in Maximizing

Options for Students in Business following the step-by-step instructions identified in the instructor'smanual for each activity, and

3. administer the post-assessment instrument.

152

During the same class period, for three consecutive days,the teachers introduced the concepts through lectures usingthe Module HI transparencies; the students participated inclass discussions, which evolved from the handouts theycompleted, and the students participated in small groupactivities.

Analysis of Data

The sample population consisted of 346 students from 13high schools in North Dakota. Pre- and post-assessmentsw6re collected for 301 of these students. A Likert-typescale was used with six choices provided from stronglyagree to strongly disagree. Fourteen statements were codedby assigning a numerical value from 0 to 5, correspondingwith strongly agree to strongly disagree respectively; theremaining six statements were coded in the reverse orderwith strongly disagree to strongly agree assigned values 0 to5, respectively. The students were not aware of the codingor the numerical value.

The data was analyzed by using the SPSS package tocompute frequency distributions for each item on the as-sessment instrument and to calculate t-test values for theentire sample, for males, for females, and for each gradelevel.

Findings

The analysis of the frequency distributions for the pre-assessment indicated that a majority of the students had

Table IFrequency Distribution for Attitude Statements

contemporary attitudes. Foi all but one of the statements,over 58 percent agreed with the statements with whichagreement indicated a contemporary attitude and disagreedwith the statements with which disagreement indicated aconteniporary attitude. However, the other 42 percent hadtraditional attitudes. Table I shows the frequency distribu-tion by th percentage of students choosing each of thecategories for each statement on the pre- and post-agsPA.sments.

The analysis of the frequency distributions for the post-assessment showed that for all but three of the statements,a higher percentage of students had contemporary attitudesafter the treatment. The greatest change (11 percent) wasfound for Statement 1: 59.3 percent were in the disagreecr tegories on the pre-assessment while 70.3 percent were inthe disagree categories on the post-assessment.

To determine whether significant differences in attitudesexisted before and after the treatment, t-test values werecalculated. The t-tests for each of the 20 statements re-vealed that the change in attitudl was significant at the 0.05level or higher for nine of the statements. The change frompre- to post-assessment was not significant for some state-ments because the majority of the students already hadcontemporary attitudes, as reflected by those statements, onthe pre-assessment. For example, on the pre-assessment 94percent and on the post-assessment 97 percent stronglyagreed, moderately agreed, or agreed with the statement,"Men and women should be paid the same money if they dothe same work. "

Codes: SA = Strongly AgreeMA = Moderately AgreeA = Agree

D = DisagreeMD = Moderately DisagreeSD = Strongly Disagree

Statement %SA %MA %A %D %MD %SD

1. The man should be the achieverand worker in the householdwhile the woman takes responsi- 7.4 14.1 19.1 16.4 17.1 25.8*bility for the home and family. 7.0 10.3 12.0 16.3 15.3 38.7**

2. Women have less control over 13.4 18.8 26.5 13.8 9.7 17.8their emotions than men do. 11.3 15.6 25.2 15.3 15.3 16.9

3. The husband should take primaryresponsibility for major familydecisions such as the purchase 8.4 11.7 18.8 14.8 13.4 32.9of a home or car. 6.0 13.0 13.3 20:3 13.0 34.6

4. Women tend to think of employ-ment as a job rather than a 5.0 16.1 19.1 25.2 19.5 15.1long-term career. 2.3 13.6 22.3 23.3 21.9 16.6

(table continues)

141

Statement %SA %MA %A %D 4CMD %SD

5. Men are better bosses than 8.8 11.8 11.8 17.5 6.8 33.3women in worldng situations. 5.0 8.6 11.3 17.3 18.3 39.2

6. Marriage is a partnership inwhich the wife and husbandshould share the economicresponsibility of supportine 57.9 18.9 14.1 6.7 1.7 0 7the family. 60.8 14.0 15.6 4.7 2.7 2.3

7. A woman should not aeccpt acaredr promotion if it wouldrequire her family to move and 10.4 12.8 18.1 26.8 20.8 10.7husband tc find another job. 7.3 10.6 21.9 24.9 19.6 15.6

8. A woman should have exactly the 59.7 15.8 10.4 5.7 3.0 5.4same job opportunities as a man. 67.8 12.3 11.0 4.7 1.0 3.3

9. It is more important for a wifeto help her husband's career 3.4 7.7 12.1 26.8 18.1 31.9then to have a career herself. 3.0 5.6 13.3 22.9 20.6 34.2

10. The saying that 'A woman'splace is in the home' is stillbnicully true and should 4.4 5.4 5.7 16.1 19.1 48.7*remain true. 4.3 4.7 3.6 15.9 17.6 55.5**

11. It is better to have a man as a.amervisor of a department com-posed of both men and women 8.1 9.7 17.4 19.8 18.8 26.2employees. 6.0 8.6 13.0 21.6 17.3 33.6

12. A married woman with childrenshould work only if her incomeis necessary to support the 16.4 11.4 14.1 22.5 21.8 13.8family. 11.3 13.0 17.3 20.3 19.6 18.6

13. Men tend to disiike intelligent 6.0 14.4 12.8 21.5 16.4 28.9women. 8.3 13.3 16.7 22.7 16.0 23.0

14. Men and women should be paidthe same money if they do the 5.4 7.0 2.7 1.3 1.7same work. 81.7 8.0 7.3 2.0 0.7 0.3

15. Women seem to be naturally lesscapable of logical and scien- 3.0 3.7 8.4 l'..',.1 13.4 56.4tific thinking than men. 0.7 6.6 5.6 12.0 14.6 60.5

16. Men should help in getting thehousehold tasks completed suchas doing tile laundry or washing 44.0 28.9 11.4 6.4 3.7 5.7the dishes. 52.5 19.6 16.3 5.0 4.0 2.7

17. A male student and a femalestudent are equally qualifiedfor a certain scholarship; itshould be awarded to the malestudent on grounds that he has 3.0 4.0 6.4 10.1 7.1 69.4greater *career potential.' 3.3 3.0 6.3 12.6 9.3 65.4

142 1 5 4

(table connnues)

,

Statement %SA %MA %A %D %MD %SD

18. Women do not deserve the samepay as men because they are 2.7 1.3 1.3 7.7 8.7 78.2less reliable workers. 0.7 2.0 3.0 11.0 8.0 75.4

19. A husband should not feel uncom-fortable if his wife earns a 32.6 24.2 25.8 7.7 5.0 4.7larger salary than he does. 37.5 19.6 25.9 8.6 4.7 3.3

20. Women should be prepared to 66.8 14.1 14.4 2.0 1.7 1.0support themselves financially. 74.0 12.3 10.0 1.0 2.0 0.7

*The percentage in the first row for each item represents the pre-**The percentage in the second row for each item represents the

Table 2 shows the results of the t-test for the total sample.The change in student attitudes from pre- to post-assess-ment was significant at the 0.0001 level. Therefore, the

Table 2t-Test Results for Total Sample

assessment.post-assessment.

null hypotheses, there is no significant difference in studentattitudes toward male and female work roles as measured bythe pre- and post-assessment, was rejected.

StandardVariablt N Mean Error

pre-asseSSMeat 70.7 W3 0.906301

post-assessment 73.5166 0.915

StandardDeviation

Degrees otFreedom

2-TailT-Value Prob.

9.932 300 -4.89 0.000

Table 3 shows the results of the t-tests by gender. Onestudent indicated male on the pre-assessment and female onthe post-assessment; therefore, the computer did not in-clude that student in the results of these two t-tests. Thechange in attitudes of the male students was significant atthe 0.05 level. For the female students the change in

Table 3t-Test Results by Gender

attitude was significant at the 0.0001 level. Therefore, thenull hypothesis, there is no significant difference in studentattitudes toward male and female work roles, based ongender, as measured by the pre- and post-assessment, wasrejected for both males and females.

Variable N MeanStandardError

StandardDeviation

Degrrt.s ofFreedom T-Value

2-TailProb.

Males

56.7286 2.006pre-assessmat70 12.943 69 -2.23 0.029

post-assessment 60.1714 2.093

Females

75.0283 0.834pre-assessment230 8.855 229 -4.41 0.000

post-assessment 77.6022 0.851

Table 4 shows the results of the t-tests by grade level. Thechange in student attitudes was significant at the 0.01 levelfor the ninth and eleventh grades; and at the 0.05 level forthe tenth and twelfth grade. Therefore, the ntfii hypothesis,

143

there is no significant difference in student attitudes towardmale and female work roles, based on grade level, asmeasured by the pre- and post-assessment, was rejected forall"four grade levels.

Table 4t-Test Results by Grade Level

Variable MeanStandardError

StladardDeviation

Degrees ofFreedom T-Value

2-TailProb.

9th Gradepre-assessment 69.5313 3.135

32 12.479 31 -2.78 0.009post-assessment 75.6563 2.762

10th Gradepre-assessment 68.4286 2.445

42 9.338 41 -2.18 0.035post-assessment 71.5714 2.765

llth Gradepre-assessment 68.0875 1.913

80 11.238 79 -3.11 0.003post-assessment 71.9938 1.854

12th Gradepre-assessment 73.2959 1.155

147 8.659 146 -2.39 0.018post-assessment 75.0000 1.214

Cony lusions

The fmdings of this study support the following conclu-sions:

1. Although many secondary student; have contemporaryattitudes, almost half of the students still have tradi-tional attitudes. Students entering the work force withtraditional attitudes are likely to perpetuate the tradi-tional sex roles and sex stereotypts whith have beenfound to be detrimental to both males and females.

2. Providing students with learning experiences usingeducational equity materials changes their traditionalattitudes to contemporary attitudes. Students who areprovided these learning experiences will enter the workforce better equipped to implement changa in thetraditional sex roles and sex stereotypes as they ad-vance in their business careers.

3. Both males and females, whether they indicated tradi-tional or contemporary attitudes before the treatment,displayed more contemporary attitudes after partici-pating in classroom activities using educational equitymaterials. Finding that educational equity matehelp students develop more contemporary anima,encouraging since it is vital that males and femaleswork together to ensure equality in the work force.

4 The attitudes of secondary students can be changed toreflect more contemporary attitudes by exposing the

students to information about the male and female workroles as they currently exist in society. The develop-ment of contemporary attitudes in the students of todaywill provide society with future enTloyers and em-ployees with contemporary perceptions of the male andfemale work roles. This should greatly increase theprobability that traditional sex roles and sex stere-otypes will be used less frequently to inPuence busi-ness decisions.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study, it is recommended that:

1. Teachers incorporate educational equity materials intotheir courses to provide students the opportunity tobecome more aware of male and female work roles andthe negative effects of traditional sex roles and sexstereotypes.

2. This study be replicated in several urban communitiesto determine whether there is a difference in studentattitudes between rural and urban students.

3. Further experimental research be conducted to deter-mine the grade level at which the use of educationalequity materials has the greatest impact.

4. Further experimental research be conducted to deter-mine if other educatioul equity materials would pro-duce the same results.

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References

Couch, S. (1989, September). Career and family: Themodem worker's balancing act. Vocational EducationJournal, 24-27.

Curcio, 3., Morsink, C., & Bridges, S. (1989, Summer).Women as leade.... Moving beyond the stage ofpowerlessness. educational Horizons, 150-155.

Deutsch, N., Gassman, R., & Weiss, L. (1984). Maximiz-ing options for students in business. Madison, WI:Department of Public Instruction, Division for In-structional Services, Bureau for Vocational Education.

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Schreiber, R. (1989, Fall Preview). All in the family.AAUW Outlook, 6-7.

Schultz, J. (1989, September). Iowa cultivates curriculumon work and family. Vocational Education Journal,34-35.

Walch, E. S. (1980). Utah high school sophomore atti-tudes toward women's roles and non-traditional voca-tional career choices. Unpublished doctoral disserta-tion, Utah State University, Logan, UT.

A Study of the Career Development and Aspirations of Women inMiddle Level Management Positions in Business Firms

Rose Mary WentlingIllinois State University

Abstract

The major goal of this study was to determine the career development and aspirations of women in middle levelmanagement positions in business firms. The major method of this research study was the individual case study.Case studies relied on face-to-face interviews with ci sample of 30 women in middle level management positions in15 Fortune 500 companies. The findings of the Fiudy revealed the factors most pertinent to the women managers'success. In addition, the barriers that hindered the career development of the women managers were identified. Thefmdings also revealed that the majority of the study participants ultimately aspire to attain top lr vel managementpositions, and they believe it is either very realistic or somewhat realistic that they will acquire; these positions.

Introduction

The number of women seeking management positions isincreasing as a function of their greater participation in thelabor force, expanded access to educational and employ-ment opportunities, and affirmative action programs.According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (1989),more than 60 percent of all women over sixteen work, and,or women in the age range 25 to 54, nearly 73 percent work.Women now constitute more than 50 percent of the Ameri-can work force. *The influx,' says David Bloom, aHarvard University economist, Is 'le single most impor-tant change that we' ve ever experaenced in the Americanlabor market" (Bradley, 1987). The trends indicate that,through 1995, the majority of the 25 million new entrantsinto the job market will be women (Raynolds, 1987).

Although opportunities for women have increased substan-tially in recent years, there are still a great many barriers aadthe unanswered question of why so few women reach seniormanagement level positions in business firms. In 1986, of1,362 senior corporate executives surveyed by Korn/FerryInternational, an executive search firm, only two percent,or twenty-nine, were women (Brophy & Linnon, 1987)..ilthough women hold roughly 38 percent of executive,administrative, and managerial jobs, they are largely in theentry and middle ranks (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics,1989). Middle manager for the purpose of this study isdefmed as, *the group of managers extending from topmanagement down to those immediately above first-linemanagement. They implement the strategies or policies setby top managers and coordinate the work of lower-levelmanagers' (Van Fleet, 1988).

The literature hold plenty of evidence that women have aneasier, faster start on their career now than they did in thepast. The problem is that getting women into corporations

is not the same as moving them up. But are women now inthe mid-level management pipeline aspiring to becomesenior level managers? And if they are aspiring to becomesenior level managers, are they aware of barriers they willencounter and the sacrifices required to reach the top ranksof management? Do they know what action they will haveto take in order to attain a senior level management posi-tion? These are questions that guided this study.

Purpose of Study

The overall purpose of this study was to examine the careerdevelopment and aspirations of women in middle levelmanagement positions in business firms. The purpose ofthis study led to the formulation of the following majorresearch questions:

1. What is the educational background of women inmiddle level management positions?

2. What is the work history of women in middle levelmanagement positions?

3. What factors have assisted the career development/progression of women in middle level management po-sitions?

4. What barriers/hindrances have women encountered inachieving middle level management positions?

5. What are the career goals and aspirations of women inmiddle level management positions?

6. What barriers/hindrances do women in middle levelmanagement positions think they will encounter intrying to attain the positions to which they ultimatelyaspire?

147158

7. What actions do women in middle level managementpositions think they will have to take in order to attainthe positions to which they ultimately aspire?

Background information was also collected to aid in de-scribing the cample of the study,

Methodology

The major method of this research study was the individualcase study. Case studies relied on face-to-fez interviewswith a sample of middle managers.

Instrument

An interview schedule was developed to use as a guide incollecting the data from the interviews. A study advisorycommittee, made up of business educators and people frombusiness and indusuy, reviewed the interview schedule andstudy procedures. Also, a pilot study, involving a sampleof five women in middle level management positions inbusiness firms, was conducted for the purpose of determin-ing content validity and appropriateness of the interviewschedule.

There was agreement that the interview schedule and thedma being collected were appropriate for meeting the objec-tives of the study.

Sample and Data Collection

The researcher conducted in-person interviews with 30women in middle level management positions in 15 Fortune500 companies. The companies were located in the mid-west (Illinois, Missouri, and Indiana).

After reviewing the total number of Fortune 500 companiesin the state of Illinois (50), Missouri (15), and Indiana (8),a proportional sample was randomly selected to reflect thenumber of companies in each of the states. A total of 15companies were randomly selected, ten from Illinois, threefrom Missouri, and two from Indiana.

The Placement Service Office at Ilhnois State Universitywas then contacted to assist in identifying the campusrecruitment person for each of the companies. The campusrecruitment person from each of the fifteen Fortune 500companies was then contacted by telephone and was askedto assist in identifying two women in middle level manage-ment positions in the company. Names, position titles, andtelephone numbers of thirty women managers were thenobtained. Initial contacts with the women managers werethen made over the telephone at which time dates, interviewappointments, and arrangements were made. All thirtywomen managers that were contacted, consented to partici-pate in the study.

Each interviewee received a letter confirming the interviewappointment two weeks prier to the scheduled interview.From March to June, 1989, interviews were conducted with30 women in middle level management positions in 15Foitune 500 companies. The interviews focused on thecareer development and aspirations of the women manag-ers. The interviews lasted from one and a half to two and ahalf hours. On the average, the interviews lasted two hours.The interviewer/restarcher took extensive notes duringeach interview with additional write-up occurring aftereach interview.

Analysis and Findings

The major findings of this study are summaiized in fourmajor sections: (1) Description of Study Participants, (2jBackground and Development of Participants, (3) Factc,rsthat have Assisted and Hindered Participants' Career Le-velopment, and (4) Future Career Goals, Perceived Barri-ers, and Actions Believed Necessary to Attain Positionsl'itimately Aspired.

Description of Study Participants

Thirty middle level women managers at fifteen Fortune 500companies were interviewed. The women managers workedin industrial corporations whose sales and assets variedfrom $500 million to $20,000 plus million and $600 millionto $24,000 plus million, respectively. The median lumberof employees in these fifteen companies was 35,000. Thestudy participants are employed in a variety of industries,which included the following: Aerospace, 4 (13 %); Chemi-cals, 4 (13 %); Computer, 4 (13 %); Electronics,4 (13 %);Food, 4 (13 %); Petroleum Refming, 4 (13 %); Industrialand Farm Equipment, 2 (7 %); Pharmaceutical, 2 (7 %); andPublishing/Printing, 2 (7%).

The participants range in age from 30 to 46 years, with anaverage age of 38.2 years. The majority (70%) cf thewomen managers were between 35 and 44 years.

Twenty-three (77%) of the participants are married (in-cludes remarried), while 5 (17 %) are single (never mar-ried), and 2 (7%) are divorced. Of those participants whoare married, 8 (35 %) have been married more than once.

The ethnic origin of all but one study participant wasCaucasian. The remaining one was Black.

Eighteen (60%) of the participants do not have children oftheir own, and 12 (40%) do have children of their own. Thefmdings also indicate that participants have very smallfamilies with the average of .6 children.

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Background and Development of Study Participants

Two types of background and development questions wereasked. The first set related to the educational background ofparticipants such as degrees and training attained. Thesecond sct of questions inquired about participants workhistory. Such questions as job positions, employment, andwork experience were included.

Educational Background. MI of the participan:s with theexception of one have earned a hachelor's degree. Seven-teen (57%) of the participants have earned a master'sdegree, and one has earned a doctorate degree. Major fieldso f study in unde rgraduate school were quite varied, as Table1 reveals. Thr, iargest group, 8 (25 %) graduated with adegree in mathematics. It is interesting to note that 20(69%) of the participuts' undergraduate degrees were notin business-related fields, and only 9 (31%) had under-graduate degrees in business-related fields (Business Ad-ministration, 4 (14%); Accounting, 4 (14%); Marketing, 1(3 %)). It may be assumed that, at this point in their lives,the participants had not yet made a managerial careerchoice. But, this changed drastically once the participantsentered graduate school, as Table 2 illustrates. Of thoseobtaining master's degrees, 13 (76%) obtained a mastL:'sdegree in a business-related field (MBA, 12 (70%); Ad-ministration & Organi7ational Behavior, 1 (65)).

In addition to their college education, all of the studypanic ipants had obtained additional training to further theirknowledge. The topics most often pursued for additionalknowledge were management and human relations typetraining.

Work History. The next area addressed was the workhistory of the study participants. Participants were asked toidentify their current position tifle and department/area.The results included thirty different position titles, andseven different departments anu.':31 areas. The seven differ-ent departmental P:eas include the following: Human Re-sources, 9 (30%); Management Information Systems, 7(23 %); Finance, 5 (17 %); Marketing, 3 (10 %); Account-ing, 3 (10 %); Engineering, 2 (7 %); and Research 1 (3%).

Participants were also asked to identify the number of yearsof work experience that they have acquired, the number ofyears of managerial experience (including all levels ofmanagement experience), the number of years of experi-ence as a middle manager, and the number of years it tookto attain middle level management position.

The number of years of work experience acquired byparticipants range from 8 to 25 years, with an average of15.1 years. The majority (77 %) of the participants have 8to 16 years of work experience.

The number otysars of managerial expenence (includingall levels of management experience) that participants havehad range from 3 to 17 years, Mal an average of 7.6 yearsot managerial experience. The majority (66%) of thepanicipants have 3 to 8 ycars of managerial experience.

The number of years of experience that ;articipants havehad as middle managers range from 1 to 10 years, with anaverage of 4.5 years. The majority (57 %) of the partici-pants have 1 to 4 years of experience as a middle manager.

The number of years that it took participants to attain amiddle level management position range from 1 to 20 y ears,with an average of 10.0 years. The majority (67 %) of theparticipants attained their middle level management posi-tion in 5 to 12 years.

Factors That Have Assisted and Hindered CareerDevelopment

During the interviews, two types of career developmentquestions were asked. The first set related to factors thatassisted the careerdevelopment! progression of participantssuch as role models, mentors, and influential people. Mesecond set of questions inquired about factors that havehindered the career development/progression of partici-pants.

Factors That Assisted Career Development/Progression.Participants were asked if they had role models during thetime they chose their careers. Twenty-three (77%) did nothave role models, and 7 (23%) did have role model* whenchoosing their careers.

Twenty-seven (90%) of the participants indicated havingmentors during their professional careers, and only 3 (10 %)indicated not having mentors. Table 3 shows that thelargest group of mentors, or 23 (85%), was represented bymanagers, followed by directors, who represented II (41%)of the individuals identified. It is also interesting to notethat of the 54 mentors identified, 45 (83%) were male andonly 9 (17 %) were female. A variety of functions were per-formed by mentors that assisted participants' career devel-opment. The five most frequent functions performed bymentors include the following: Provided participants withjob opportunities/challenges to demonstrate their skills andabilities, 20 (74 %); offered participants feedback on theirperformance, 19 (70 %); gave participants useful advice, 17(63 %); shared his/her expertise with participants, 16 (59 %);and encouraged participants to meet high performancestandards, 15 (56%).

Participants were also asked to think back over their careersand to consider those people who have significantly influ-enced their career advancement. They were asked to select

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the people who have provided them with substantial help,and without them zheir career progress may have beenhindered or made considerably more difficult. Twenty-seven (90%) of the study participants indicrIed that theirmentors were the individuals who most influenced theircareer advancement. The remaining 3 (10%) indicated amanager, supervisor, or husband as the individuals whomost influenced their career advancement.

It is obvioLs from the results of this part of the study thatn.entors play an important role in assisting many partici-pants in their career development/progression.

Participants were asked to identify factors that they con-sider to have been the most important to their careeradvancement. The six factors most frequently mentionedby participants as most important to their career advance-ment include the following: Educational credentials, 23(77 %); hard work, 22 (73 %); mentors, 17 (5796); interper-sonal/people skills, 15 (50%); demonstrated competencyou the job (producing high quality work), 12 (40%); andwillingness to take risks, 11 (37%).

Factors That Hindered Career Development/Progression.The next arca addressed the factors that have hindered thecareer development/progression of the study participants.Participants were asked to identify 'key events and/orbarriers that they have encountered in the past that havehindered their career progression. The six most frequentbarriers .--ncoontered by participants ia the past that havehindered their career progression include the following:Bosses who did not guide or encourage career progression,17 (57%); sex discrimination, 12 (40%); lack of politicalsavvy, 10 (33%); lack of career strategy, 9 (30%); unwill-ingness to conform to company norms, 8 (27%); andinterpersonal conflicts, 8 (27%).

Future Career Goals, Perceived Barriers, and ActionsBelieved Necessary to Attain Positions UltimatelyAspired

In this section three types of questions were asked. The firstset related to career goals and aspirations of participantssuch as ultimate career aspirations and realit, of careeraspirations. The second set of questions related to barriers/hindrances that participants think they will encounter inuying to attain the position to which they ultimately aspire.The third set of questions inquired about actions thatparticipants think they will have to take in order to attain theposition to which they ultimately aspire.

Career Goals and Aspirations. In order to deternune thecareeraspirations of the study participants, they were askedto identify the highest position to which they ultimatelyaspire. They were asked to identify the level and title of thehighest position which they ultimately aspire. On a scalefrom 'Very Realistic' to 'Very Unrealistic", participants

were asked the reality of acquiring the highest pon towhich they ultimately aspire.

According to the findings the highest level positions ulti-mately aspired by 25 (83%) of the participants are top levelmanagement positions, while 5 (17%) of the participantsultimately aspire upper middle level management

positions.

Information regarding the position titles to which partici-pants ultimately aspire were grouped into five categories.According to the findings, twelve (40%) of the participantsultimately aspire to be directors; 10 (33%) aspire to be vice-presidents; 6 (20%) aspire to be managers; 1 (3%) aspiresto be a chief fmancial officer; and 1 (3%) aspires to be achief executive officer.

The findings reveal that 23 (77 %) of the participants believeit is either very realistic or somewhat realistic that they willacquire the highest level positien that they ultimately aspire(very realistic, 8 (27 %); somewhat realistic, 15 (50 %));while 3 (10%) believe it is between somewhat realistic andsomewhat unrealistic; 1 (3 %) believes it L; somewhat Liz:re-alistic; and 3 (10%) believe it is very unrealistic.

Overall, the findings suggest that most of the participantsaspire to attain top level management positions and that theybelieve it is realistic that they will attain these positions.

Perceived Barriers/Hindrances to Attaining Positiwn Ulti-mately Aspired. Thu next area addressed the barriers/hindrances that partic,pants perceive in attaining the posi-tions to which they ultimately aspire. Participants wereasked to identify the barriers that they think will hinderthem from attaining the positions to which they ultimatelyaspire. The five most frequent barriers perceived by partici-pants in attaining the positions to which they ultimatelyaspire include the following: Competition (less high levelpositions available and many talented/competent peoplewanting these positions), 15 (50 %); family obligations(getting married, having children, wanting to s, end moretime with family), 13 (43 %); being a woman, 12 (. )%); notwilling to give and/or give up what it takes to get theposition, 8 (27%); and lack of education/MBA, 7 (23%).

Actions Believed Necessary to Attain Positions UltimatelyAspired. The fmal set of questions asked during theinterviews inquired about actions that participants thinkthey will have to take in order to attain the positions towhich they ultimately aspire. There were various actionsthat participants believe they will have to take in order toattain the positions to which they ultimately aspire. Thefive most frequent actiorts that participants believe they willhave to take in order to attain the positions to which theyAtimately aspire include: Continue to demonstrate compe-tency on the job (produce high quality work), 14 (47%);work hard (spend more time working), 12 (40%); get

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experience/exposure in other areas/functions of company(move to other positions/areas to become more diversified,learn more about the company and how it functions glob-ally), 12 (40%); make major contributions in present andfuture positions/arca, 11 (37 %); and obtain an MBA de-gree, 7 (23%).

Conclusions

The following arc some major conclusions based upon thefmding of the study:

1. The educational level of the women managers is excep-tionally high. All of the women managers with theexception of one have earned a bachelor's degrec, andover half have earned a master's degree.

2. The number of years of work experience acquired bystudy participants range from 8 to 25 years, with anaverage of 15.1 years. The majority of the study par-ticipants have 8 to 16 years of work experience.

3. The six major factors most frequently mentioned bystudy participants as pertinent to their success wereeducational credentials, hard work., mentors, interper-sonal/people skills, demonstramd competency on thejob (producing high quality work), and willingness totake risks.

4. The six major barriers most frequently mentioned bystudy participants as hindering their career develop-mentiprogression were bosses who did not guide orencourage their career progrest on, sex discrimina-tion, lack of political savvy, lack of career strategy, un-willingness to conform to company noms, and inter-personal conflicts.

5. The majority of the study participants ultimately aspireto attain, top level management positions, and theybelieve it is either very realistic or somewhat realisticthat they will acquire these positions.

6. There a:e a variety of barriers that study participantsthink will hinder them from attaining the positions towhich they ultimately .aspire. Thr, three most fre-quently mentioned barriers were competition (less highlevel positions available and many talented/competentpeople wanting these positions), family obligatioos(getting married, having cliAlren, wanting to spendmore time with family), and being a woman.

7. There are various actions that study participants believethey will have to take in order to attain the positions towhich they ultimately aspire. The three most frequentactions that study participants believe they will have totake were continue to demonstrate competency on the

job (produce high quality work), work hard (spendmore time working), and gez experience/exposure inother areas/functions of company (move to other posi-tions/areas to become more diversified, learn moreabout the company and how it functions globally).

Recommendations

Based upon the findings and conclusions of this study, thefollowing recommendations arc presented for businesseducators:

1. Busiwass educators at the college level who work withthe career planning and development processes forwomen should use the information obtained from thisstudy as a resouice.

2. H igh school and co I lege level business educators shoulduse the information obtained from this study to informyoung lemale students who aspire a career in manage-ment of the ingredients necessary for success, and theobstacles they may encounter as they steer themselvestoward middle and senior level management positions.

3. Business educators should ure the information obtainedfrom this study to identi& better ways to select andtrain women for management positions.

4. This study should be read, or made available to thevarious management departments in colleges through-out the country, as a guide for womcn who may aspirea career in management.

5. Business educators involved in the training and devel-opment of women managers saould analyze the addi-tional school and training obtained by the study partici-pants and attempt to incorporate into their curriculumthe information which encompasses these are-,.

The following recommendations are presented for furtherresearch:

1 A study should be conducted on the career develop-ment and aspirations of men in middle level manage-ment positions in business fi rms, and a comparisonshould be made to the resul's of this study to identifyany factors overlooked by wemsit or given too muchimportance by women in a fi e I d which is still predomi-nantly male.

2. A study should be conducted to compare the answersgiven by the wnmen in this study to woman who arealready in top le lel management positions, in order toidenOfy any factors overlooked or given too muchimportance by women in middle level managementpositions.

151 11;2

3. A study should be concluded in more depth to exploreand expand the information which pertains to mentors.This study did not exar:ae when, mentors or othercareer enhancing relationships wcre formed. An inves-tigation of this matter, as well as functions performedat different stages of the managerial women's careerdevelopment, could provide valuable information re-garding how one moves through various career ad-vancement stages.

4. The results of this study indicate that there are manydifferent types of mentors and that mentors performvar;ous functions that assist women in their eareer de-velopment. A study should be conducted to determinewhy mcntors and other career advancement relation-ships choose certain proteges to sponsor, and whatprompts a mentor to exert a great deal of influence onbehalf of a protege. What does the women do thatmotivates thex individuals to provide assistance? Whatis the nature of the reciprocity as perceived by thcinfluential other?

References

Bradley, B. (1987, June 7). Women making suidesas faras middle management. The Champaign-Urbana News-Gazette, pp. B13, B16.

Brophy,, B., & Linnon, N. (1987, January 5). Why womenexecs stop before the top. U.S. News & World Report,pp. 72-73.

Raynolds, E. H. (1987). Management women in thccorporate workplace: Possibilities for the year 2000.Human Resource Management, 26(2), 265276.

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (1989, July). Employ-ment and earnings, 36(7), 9-30.

Van Fleet, D. D. (1988). Cnuemporary management.Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company.

TABLE 1Strut. 'articipants' Bachelor Degrees Majors

n=29

Major Field (0 %

Mathematics (8) 28

Business Administration (4) 14

Accounting (4) 14

English Education (3) 10

Political Science (2) 7

Journalism (2) 7

Biology (2) 7

Public Administration (1) 3Industrial Engineering (1) 3Chemistry (1) 3Marketing (1) 3

TOTALS (29) 100

TABLE 2Study Participants' Master Degrees Majors

n=17

M. ield (0 %

MBA (12) 70

Administration andOrganizational Behavior (1) 6

Communication Arts (1) 6Biochemistry (1) 6English Education (1) 6Education (1) 6

TOTALS (17) 100

TABLE 3rule and Gender of Study Partkipana' Afentors

n =27

TitleFemale Male Tltal(0 % (0 % (t/ %

Manager (5) 19 (18) 67 (23) 85

Director (1) 4 (10) :17 (11) 41

Vice-President (1) 4 (5) 19 (6) 22

Boss/Supervisor (2) 7 (2) 7 (4) 15

Comptroller (0) 0 (3) 11 (3) 11

Executive Vice-President (0) 0 (2) 7 (2) 7

Husband (0) 0 (1) A (1) 4Father (0) 0 (1) 4 (1) 4

President (0) 0 (I) 4 (1) 4

Assistant to President (0) 0 (1) 4 (1) 4

Treasurer (0) (1) 4 (1) 4

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Multiple resgonscs were accepted.

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1Using Computer Spreadsheets for Instruction in Cost Control

Curriculum at the Undergraduate Level

James J. BuergermeisterUniversity of Wisconsin-S. Jut

Abstract

This paper discusses how the instructional use of spreadsheets can help focus student attention on the influence ofcostcontrol variables and provide increased practice opportunities for students learning cost control concepts. Discussionaddresses the question of whether any instructional improvements would justify increased use of computerspreadsheets for teaching content in undergraduate cost control courses. Keywords: spreadsheets, cost control,achievement, application software, mstruction.

NOTE: This work represents a small portion of a comprehensive study on the effects of computer spreadsheets oncost control concept attainment to be published in its entirety in the near future.

Introduction

The microcomputer has dramatically affected twentiethcentury education.-Microcomputers offer educators uniqueopportunitiec for presenting curriculum and for addressingresearch questions about motivation, achievement, andlong term consequences of thisnew technology (Lepper andChabay 1985; Roblyer 1985).

The ability to use and understand computing is te-coming as important as our ability to understand andhandle the written word. A computer literate popu-lation is as necessary to an information society as rawmaterials and erragi aze to an industrial society (Deringerand Molnar 1982, p. 3).

Not all educators would support the above quote in full;however, the basic Apremise is generally accepted through-out the education ' community (Mynatt, Smith, Kamouri,and Tykodi, 1986). As mic. ..zomputers continue to per-vade the classrooms of the country, themagnitude of impactis less clear. Therefore, education must address threequestions: I) What is the true impact of using computers inthe classroom with respect to achievement, cost-effective-ness and unanticipated side-effects? 2) What curriculumcontent should be taught with computers? 3) How snouldthis be accomplished?

Computers to..ay repre.-.--.: a powerful tool for education.The comptiter of the year 2000 will be more powerful,changing the life of both teacher and student. 'But it is notthe Ttiol that gets the job done, the person using it does,'(Luke, et al, 1986, p. 8). Computer spreadsheets allow forthe use of real-world problem sets and at the same timepermit the student to wo rk on concepts associated with the

curriculum content as opposed to the mechanics of theproblem. Furthermore, spreadsheets enable the user tocapture and save the entire concept for future scrutiny andreview; they provide the user with an array of feedbackoptions.

Computer Software

Traditienally, most computer use in school els been con-centrated in two areas: pure progt ?miming skills such asBASIC or COBOL; and orientation/tutorial and practiceprograms commonly referred to as computer assisted learn-in or CAL (California State Department of Education1985). Figure 1.01 suggests a continuum between CALsoftware programs and formal programming users as afunction of control. Application software lies between thetwo traditional approaches offering the user structuredinteraction.

Nuts 1.01Computer Uso end Student Control Contirwurn

less student some studentInteraction interaction

most studentinteraction

Unlike CAL software, which commonly drills students onparticular content matter such as vocabulary or mathemati-cal computation (drill and practice), or presents informa-tion and suggest where the student should go next in theprogram (tutorial), spreadsheets provide an alternativedimension. Spreadsheets are tcols designed to organize

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data, compute numenc variables and present solutions toreal problems in a timely manner. The 'tool school ofthought maintains that the computer is one of many todsdevised by humans to help them perform certain tasks.What is critical is for the individual to use the computer tomeet his or her need (Megany, 1983).

Secondly, spreadsheets are used to illustrate financial modelsand other rAated applications through the use of dataqueries and sorts. This characteristic can be further ex-ploited instructionally with the use of a special overheadprojector, providing students the opportunity to see theeffect of different numeric variables on model output. Inessence, spreadsheets provide educators with a wide arrayof options to help promote learning financial concepts.

One of the single most important reasons for using applica-tion software for teaching is the amount of additional timea student may then have to spend on content-related prob-lems. Ease of calculation provided by spreadsheets makespossible many practice opportunities related to numericalanalysis. In addition, these application programs, such asspreadsheets, may also provide opportunities for the devel-opment of critical-Oinking and problem-solving skills(Eastment, 1986).

Ironically, few students in the public schools use spread-sheets and data bases as learning tools in appropriate courses.Lambrecht (1986) found that business teachers in Minne-sota avoid the computer for the teaching of content. Herfmdings reported an averace of three topics out o f a possible19 were taught using the computer. Reasons for teachersnot using application software for teaching related contentin the classroom might be linked to the lack of availablehardware. Furthermore, empirical research designed toaddress questions about computer spreadsheet effective-ness, approprbte curriculum content and methodology isvery scarce.

More on Computer Spreadsheets

An illustration of computer technologies that can augmentmental functioning is the electronic spreadsheet, such asMultiplan, Quattro and Lotus 1-2-3. Several million copieshave been sold since M.:y appeared in 1979 (Pea, 1985, p.167). Electronic spreadsheets are software programs formicro-computers which serve as powerful tools. Thescreen images physically resemble paper ledger sheets, withcells organized in rows and columns. However, m anelectronic spreadsheet, one can place a label, number,calculation, or a formula in any spreadsheet cell , which cansubsequently be edited, copied, or moved. The results ofcalculations in the formula area appear as the content of thecell. The most dramatic difference from static paper spread-sheets is that one can change cell entries and see therepercusiions cf that change recalculated immediately through-out thespreadsheet (Levy, 1984). This what-if property has

154

dramatic consequences for the development and use ofwhat-if budgeting and cost control models.

The typical spreadsheet also offers some limited program-ming language capabilities, including the ability limpu-late strings, write macros and to do interactive c.In addition, built-in functions can be combined to producea plotting capability, thereby providing both a graphicaland numerical method of illustrating relational concepts.Although the spreadsheet program requires that the user beable to specify the relationships to be explored, it does notrequire that the end-user be a programmer (Hewett, 1985).

Similarly, providing some students with spreadsheets astools to experiment with cost comrol concepts vs. a lecture-discussion format without spreadsheets should result indifferent outcomes because of dr unique activities associ-ated with using spreadsheets.

Problem Statement

What is the effect on understanding cost control conceptswhen computer spreadsheets are used to: display costcontrol models, change key numeric variables within thecost control concept, provide multiple examples of conceptuse, allow active learner participation in model develop-ment and evaluation of spreadsheet feedback in contrast tousing lee ture/discussion methods to present and practice thesame content?

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this paper is to discuss the important issuessurrounding the use of computer spreadsheets for the teach-ing of undergraduate cost control concepts ods forusing the computer spreadsheet will be explained andsupported with information processing theoly.

Need for the Study

Some of the more critical unanswered questions in educa-tion today deals with computers. Specifically, do comput-ers significantly improve instructional methods and conse-quently student performance? Literature in the field con-tains numerous articles pertinent to computer assisted in-struction (CAI) or computer assisted learning (CAL).However, there is no empirical research to support the use,of application software (spreadsheets) for the teaching ofcontent. Robert Gagn offers the following thoughts on thesubject of computers and instruction.

The computer remains a highly intriguing way of pre-senting instructional content, and of taking some ac-count of the learner's response to content. Maybelearners simply prefer to look at screens rather thanpages. Maybe they like the pressing of keys as a kind

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of concrete action that is not demanded by a page ofprinted text. Maybe th e. reassurance of a visualmessage displaying an answer to a question is inher-ently more pleasing than looking up the answer on aprinted page (1982, p 3).

The computer spreadsheet is a powerful tool, it provides theuser with numerous opportunities to experiment with andevaluate information/data. If used appmpftely, spread-sheets can offer educators new variables in the area ofinstructional methodology. By granting students the use ofspreadsheets to process, apply, and evaluate cost controlconcepts, it is possible to influence the events of learning(see Figure 2.01) as outlined by Gagn and Briggs (1974).

Fee7utive-eonTr-oll

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Structure

Receptors

4SeterI r7S;e71

Shorttermmemory

Longtermmemory

Shoreurmmemory

Responseenerator

Identifying which instructional event(s) the spreadsheet isinfluencing, and why, would be helpful for designers ofinstruction. I( learners do prefer screens to written pages orpressing keys instead of using a pencil, educators need toloaow the degree of impact this has on learning perform-ance. Understanding the specific outcomes of applicationsoftware on student performance in relation to the events ofinstructions will help educators address issues surrounding:1) the role education should play in preparing students touse application software as tools in appropriate curriculum;2) the best way to integrate application software withcontent; and 3) the impact of application software ft.edbackonstudent performance on concept attainment

Plaint:2MTh. lafermation.Prscessing Mot .1

linPuu

SpmdsheetEvent

Receptions or patterns Turn on Computerof moral impulses

ketive perception

rtterm storage:Rehearsal

Semantk encoding

Longterm Itorage:4- search promotes

.1.4 Retrieval

Effectors

Performance

Feed back reinforcement

yin Color Monitor

Split ScreenGraphingLookmp TabksMacros

Cues:GraphsNaming BlocksGo b. Macroes

More Time Spent onConcepts/1de=vs.Computations

!Executive Control]

Processes of lemming and menacry as inputs to and outputs from postelatedstructure sof the in formatimprocessing model (Gsgni. 1977. p. 59).(Spreadsheet events added by researcher.)

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Assumptions

The following assumptions are made:

I. The external events and dynamics of a learning situ-ation influence learning. These include: availabil-ity of stimulation to activate attention, variety andtype of cues available for student perception,suggested schemes for coding inforniation, sug-gested schemes for remembering/retrieval, oppor-tunities to transfer learning to a new situation,acmal student perform= and reinforcement/feed-

..

2. The use of computer spreadsheets as tools provideunique external events with respect to how infor-mation is processed. This is attributed to thespreadsheets capability to stimulate student atten-tion; promote schemes for coding and retrieval/storage of information; permit the student todevelop, apply and manipulate a concept in itsentiretysaving the work for easy retrieval andreview; allow the user to change numeric vari-ablesremilting in unlimited what-if testing; andprovide the student with timely evaluation of spread-sheet feedback.

Nature of Instruction

To reach the objectives of this study two instructors taughtone experimental group and one control group each. Thepopulation of each was set at 41, for a total of 82 subjects.

For the experiment, all classes met ill, the same buildingutilizing a traditional classroom for the Lontrol groups, andthe computer labowary for the treatment groups. Thisfacility is equipped with 21 IBM PS-2/Model 30 computersutilizing a local area network (LAN). This system uses thePS-2/Model 60 as a file server, with each individual PS-21Model 30 workstation having the ability to access programsloaded on the file server. Le Quattro spreadsheet was modfor the experiment.

The experimental groups (spreadsheets) were introduced tothe Qaattro spreadsheet through a six lesson tutonal pro-gran published by the software company (Getting Startedwith Quattro, 1.987). Two weeks of instructional time wasallocated to orientation and instruction on how to use thespreadsheet.

Instruction in both the experimental and control groups wasaccomplished by the instructor introducing cost control

156

concepts via the computer. A special overhead projector(SHARP QH-50 Computer Projection Panel) was used todisplay information from the instructor's computer monitoronto a large wall screen, allowing the entire class to see afunctional spreadtheet perform. In addition, each studentwas provided with a hard copy of thespreadsheet model toserve as resource and provide step-by-step instructions onhow to complete the coirept assignment.

All subjects were introduced to the concepts by the instruc-tor demonstrating each one of the cost control models on thecomputer and a QA-50 (special overhead) projector. In

addition, the student was provided hard copies of theconcept lesson and a cost control textbook.

In the experimental group, the students were provided withcomputers to allow for the building of their own modelworksheet using the spreadsheet at their work station, orcalling up a partially completed worksheet and completingthe model by entering the necessary formulas and formats tomake the spreadsheet operative. Subjects could comparetheir own spreadsheet model to the instructors by utilizingthe computer file server. The student had regulated accessto a collection of cost control concepts on the file server.

Calt/Di groups were instructed through an idemical method.The instructor demonstrated the cost control corcept usingthe c o mpu te r spreadsheet and presentri this material via theQA-50. However, the control group did not have use of apersonal computer at their workstation to serve as a re-source for work and practice on cost control concepts.

The researcher believes the external conditions which con-tribute to learning in a traditional lecture-discussion ap-proach will be considerably different from the externalconditions present when computer spreadsheets are avail-able for each student to serve as a tool.

A close examination of two environments (one wii spread-sheetsone without) it' Airily how and why the environ-ments are different as well as alike. Specific learning phasesinclude: the stimulus; feedback; and opportunity for prac-tice. The spreadsheet offers users external conditionswhich encourage additional experimentation and can possi-bly draw out a greater response from students with spread-sheet availability vs. thse without, Table 1.01 comparesand contrasts the role spreadsheets play in the learningphases and relates it to the instructional events as outlinedby (Gagn , 1977).

1 6 7

Table 1.01

The Instructional Events Learning Phases Associatedwith Experiment

Example of how a concept was presented forlearning in the experimental group (spreadsheets)and the control group (no spreadsheets).

All students participating in the study received acopy of the major concept to be discussed. Thisresource included the following informatim andcharacteristics:

a) The cost control concept was provided inwritten form. This model concept was producedby a computer spreadsheet and did depict actualdata under two different sets of conditions tohelp the student see a comparison and contrastof the key variables, and how this influencesthe end results.

b) The model concept did Include the followingattributes: description of the cost controlconcept, how the concept is used in the costcontrol arca, and pertinent forn_Jas associatedwith the concept.

c) The model concept also included references torows and columns as found on a workingspreadsheet.

St.dents in both groups were introduced to themodel concept by the instructor using alecture-discussion approach.

Students in the experimental group and controlgroup did witness a demonstradon of the costcontrol concept on the insuuctor's computerspreadshext; the screen image was displayed via aspecial projector on a large wall screen. Allstudents witnessed how the model works. Actualdata was manipulated using a "what-irorientation. Lecture-discussiot focusing on thecost control concept will follow.

Students in the control group spent timedeveloping a m Yel of the same cost controlconcept, howevei, this group utilized the chalkboard instead of the computer spreadsheet to buildthe model. Student% in the control group did haveaccess to lecture notes, textbook, and other classhandouts to serve as resourcesas well as asource of feedback.

1. Activating motivation: The individual strivesto achieve the goal of learning cost controlconcepts, and in the experimental group the useof a computer spreadsheet.

Differences between treatments: The expectancyof learning computer spreadsheets in theexperimental group coupled with heightenedmotivation.

Implieation: Heightened motivation resultingfrom the novelty associated with computers andindiridual student expectancy during earlystages of the experiment, however, thisexpectancy is likely to decrease over the 16week study and is unlikely to have asignificant effect on cost control conceptauninment ever the long run.

2. Inforrnearner of the objective:Communicating to the learner the desiredbehavior or performance they will be capable ofas a result of Me lesson.

Differences betwczn treatments: None

3. Directing attention: This event in the lessonis directing auention to the stimuli which arean inherent part of the learning task. In thisstudy both control ['soup aud experimental groupwill witness the same demonstration.

Difference between treatments: None

4. Stimulating recall: This event is designed tohelp the learner access p...viously learnedcapabilities.

Differences between treatments: None

5. Providing learning guidance: These events forma part of instruction during this learningphase. The amount of learning gvklanceprovided (the length and comp,exity of thecommunication or other form of stimulation)

157 166(table continues)

The Instructional EventsLearning Phases Associated

with Experiment

Students in the control group spent timedeveloping a model of the same cost controlconcept, however, this group utilized the chalkboard instead of the computer spreadsheet to buildthe model. Students in the control group did haveaccess to lecture notes, textbook, and other classhandouts to serve as resourctsas well as asource of feedback.

A cost control concept problem was distributedto both experimental group and control group.Students were required to answer questionsregarding the cost control concept.

158

will vary depending on the content and type of studentsinvolved in the le-ming process. The rAost common char-acteristic to be sought in learning guidance is the orientationto the objective. In whatever form it is given,whether as verbal statement, hints, diagrams,pictures, or spreadsheets the purpose is toinsure a form of encoding which will enable thelearner to recover what he had learned anddisplay it as some kind of performance at alater time.

Differences between treatment: Experimentalgroup will have access to computer spreadsheet,providing them with unique cues for ;wring andrecalling data. Special features of thespreadsheet include: the input lin:, statusline, and special message windows. Thesa areexamples of stimuli unique to the computerspreadsheet environment, continually servingthe student.

Implication: Students in the experimentaloroup are expected to have a marked edge overthe control grouRbecause of encodingadvantages provided by the spreadsheet.Censidering the outcome of cost control conceptaua:ament, (the ability to apply the conceptto a realistic situation) the spreadsheet

provides the student with a unique opportunityto actually build the idea on a electronictablet, demonstrate the finished product,receive feed back on some numeric formulas anddevelop a variety of pcmonalized cues forfuture reference. This difference suggests adefinite advantage regarding learning andoverall performance for the experimental group.

6. Enhancing retention: Instructional provisionsfor enhancing retention and receipt of feedbacktake the form of spaced reviews. This ste,.will preface the distribution of a reviewproblem distributed to both groups.

Difference between treatments: None

7. Promoting transfer of learning: Promotion oftransfer is brought about by instruction whichprovides novel tasks for the student, spacedover time, and calling for the use ,)f what haspreviously been learnal. This phase oftentakes the form of solving a problem ordesigning an investigation for a given problem.

Difference between treatments: Theexperimental group will have the use of thespreadsheet tool to assist in getting at theaaswer, building the control model, orpredicting a outcome. Using the notion that

169(table continues)

The Instructional EventsLearning Phases Associated

with Experiment

Both groups participated in a review anddiscussion activity focusing on the cost controlconcept. Feedbamc was provided in the form ofcorrect auswers (attached to the original model)and a preseatatioa of the model using theinstructors computer and special screen projectorfor all students to see. In addition, students inthe experimental group had access to a completedmodel accessible from computer file server. Groupdiscussion explained the outcomes and identifiedthe correct response(s). Each student was able tocompare their work to the correct copy displayedon the screen or printed on the handout.

Both groups were administered a concept quiz afterthe review and discussion period was completed.The concept quiz measured how well the subjectunderstood the cor -cpt (number correct) and theamount of time (in minutes) it took to completethe quiz. The experimental group used thecomputer spreadsheet to work through the concept,while the control group relied on the handcalculator.

the spreadsheet tool is a *amplifier ofcognition,' the user will have the advantage ofbeing able to perform more problems in lesstime.

Imlication: The experimental group willbenefit because of the increased exposure topractice problems afforded by the spreadsheet.The spreadsheet is likely to improve thetransfer phase of learning because of increasedactivity.

S. Eliciting theaerformancearoviding feedback:It is important to provide an occasion for thedisplay of the performance by the student.Having learned, the student needs to *show whathe can do," not only for the teacher's purpose,but for his own learning. This is referred toas informative feedback.

Difference between treatment: The experimentalgroup will have the use of spreadsheets toserve as a electronic text or resource.Students will be able to check theirperformance against the electronic model theyrecently completrdverifying the correctnessof formulas and accuracy of computation.Control groups will have use of hard copy notesand handouts, which are static in nature, andwill not permit the easy changing of keyvariables.

Ir jiplstion: Students in the experimentalgroup are likely to check their work againsttheir spreadsheet model for accuracy andcorrectness more often then the control groupstudents. This is explained by the limitedcapabilities of static paper copy information(control group) vs. a dynamic spreadsheetmodel- -capable of recalculations, and in someinstancesalerting the user to errors in logicand formulas.

Summary

The instructional use of spreadsheets can improve educa-tional outcomes in undergraduate cost control curriculumthrough:

1. The Tool Metaphor. Provide the learner with apowttful tool that will allow for increased prac-tice oppartunities, serve as a contemporary tool toapply cast control concepts awl offer "t-hat-if"tcsting scenarios.

4,

2. The Medium and Method. Serve as an efficientvehicle to transport educational concepts from

teacher to students via special technology allowingfor the demonstration of cost control conceptsusing real data. The computer spreadsheet me-dium will allow the instructor to use a variety ofmethods to present material to studentsincreas-ing the chances of identifying the cptimum method.

3. Teaching Valuable Technical Skills. Expose thestudent to the technical skills associated withpersonal computers and application software,teaching them how to use c)mputer technology inthe work environment they plan to pursue as acareer.

159 170

References

Deringer, D., Molnar, A. (1985). Key components for anational computer literacy program, In Seidel, R., An-derson, R. & Hunter, B., (Eds.), Computer literacy,issues and dhections for 1985. New York: AcademicPress.

Eastment, D. (1986). Based on a paper presented at aconference of International Association of teachers ofEnglish as a Foreign Language. United Kingdom,England. ERIC Document Reproduction Service, ED280 282.

Gagn, R.M. (1977). The conditions of learning, 3rd ed.New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Gagn, R.M., and Briggs, L.J. (1974). Principles ofinstructional design. New York: Holt, Rinehart andWinston.

Getting started with quattro. (1987). Scotts Valley, CA:Boreiand International.

Hewett, T. (1985). Using an electronic spreadsheetsimulator to teach neural modeling of visual phenom-ena. (Report No. MWPS-F-85-1). Drexel University, ,Philadelphia, FA. (ERIC Document ReproductionService No. ED 267 750).

Lambrecht, J. (1986). Instructional microcomputer appli-cations by business teachers in Minnesota. Universityof Minnesota, St. Paul. Department of Vocational andTechnical Education. ERIC Document ReproductionService, ED 266 272.

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Upper, M., Chabay, S. (1985). Intrinsic naotivation andinstruction: Conflicting views on the role of motha-tional processes in computer-bases educadon. Educa-tional Psychologist, 20(4): 217-230.

Lesgold, A.M., Shimron, J., Levin, LR. & Gunman, J.(1975). Pictures and young children's learning fromoral prose. Journal of Educational P.sychology, 67,636-642.

Levy, S. (1984, November). A spreadsheet way of knowl-edge. Ramer's, pp. 64-68.

Luke, T., Thearling, K., Jkiena, S., Robison, A., Omohun-dro, S., Barlet, M., Wolfram, S. (1988). Academiccomputing in the year 2000. Academic Computing,(13): 8-12, 62-65.

Megarry, J. (1983), Thinking, learing, and education: Therole of the computer. World Yearbook of Education1982-83: Computer Ed.M. Megarry, D. Waler, S.Nisbit and A. Hoyle. New York: Nichols PublishingCompany.

Mynatt, B.T., Smieht, K.H., Kamouri, A.L., Tykodi,T.A. (1986). Which way to computer literacy, pro-gramming or applications experince! InternationalJounal of Man Machine Studies, 25(5): 557-572.

Roblyer, M. (1985). Measuring the impact of computers inInstruction: A non-technical review of research foreducators. Washington, DC: Association for Educa-tional Data Systems.

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INDEX TO CONFERENCE PARTICIPANTS

Andera, Frank ix,43viii

ixviii, 35

xiiixvi

xvi, 23vii, xviixii, 1.53

xii, 39xv

x, 63viixii

xiv, 57xvii, xixxiii, 121

xiv, 57xiv, 57xii, 39ix, 91

xv, 77xvi, 125

xvi7fi, viii

xiv, xv, 53xv

xixxv, 77

xiiix

xvi, xixxi

xiii, 121xi, xvi, 3, 29

vii, xviixvi

ix, 21xvi, xix

xv,77x, 71

viix, 63

xiv, 139viii

xiviiixiii

xiv, xv, xvii, xix, 49, 53ix, xii, xiv, 9, 91

xiii, 113xi, 117

ixx

ix

Arnold, VivianBarton, ShirleyBayless, Marsha L.Bennett, JamesBiockhus, WandaBronner, MichaelBrown, Betty J.Bnergermeister, JamesCable, Roberta J.Child, JimCrank, Floyd L.Crawford, Marian C.Cunningham, TontDaniel, Larry GDauwnlder, David P.Duff, Thomas B.DuFrene, Debbie D.Elliott-Howard, FlorenceFrydman, Nancy S.Green, Diana J.Haynes, Thomas S.Hopkins, Charles R.Hyslop, DavidInacker, Charles J.Joyner, Randy L.Mopping, IngeLambrecht, JudyLaw, DaleLundberg, Mary V.Lundberg, RobertLund-O'Neil, SharonMartin, KennethMerrier, Patricia A.Miller, Lany E.Modlin, Gail G.Mulcahy, KevinNorton, RobertOber, ScotPepple, JerryPericault, Heidi R.Pettigrew, Judith HoytPrice, Martha K.Prigge, LilaRegan, Elizabeth A.Remp, AnnRose, Ginger A.Saperstein, MartySchmidt, B. JuneScott, James Calve. tScriven, Jolene D.Seda, Michael A.Shank, Ton

Simcoe, Annell L.Snyder, Eldon

Stewart, Jeffrey R., Jr. xiv, 53Stiu-Gohdes, Wanda xi, xiiUbelacter, Sandra x, 109Valdez, Ccnstanza xv, 77Wagner, Judith 0. ix, 27Wasson, Lynn E. x, 71Wayne, F. Stanford xiii, xvii, 19, 113Wending, Rose Mary xiv, 147Williams, Paula C. xiii, 113Wunsch, Daniel R xi, xii

173162

I -N

Delta Pi Epsilon Chapters, Dates of Installation, Institutions, Cities, States

1936 Ai.PHA: New York University, New York, NY 100031938 BETA: Oklahoma State University, Stiilwater, OK 740741940 GAMMA: University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 162601942 DELTA: University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 452211942 EPSILON: Boston University, Boston, MA 022151942 ZETA: University of North Carolina, Greensboro, NC 274121942 ETA: University of Denver, Denver, CO 802011945 THETA: Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 474051945 IOTA: Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 132101946 KAPPA: University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 481031946 LAMBDA: Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 602011946 MU: University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 379161947 NU: Univershy of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 405061947 XI: University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 326031947 OMICRON: University of Iowa, lowa City, IA 522401948 PI: Ball State University, Munck, IN 473061948 RHO: Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 432101949 SIGMA: University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 730691950 TAU: Columbia Un:velsi:y, New York, NY 10027 (Inactive)1951 UPSILON: University of Mississippi, University, MS 386771951 PHI: University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 554551951 CHI: Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA 16802

(Inactive)1953 PSI: University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA

90007

1953 OMEGA: George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, TN37203

1954 ALPHA ALPHA. 'Iniversity of NnIthern Colorado, Greeley, CO80631

1955 ALPHA BETA: University of Illinois, Urbana, IL 618031956 ALPHA GAMMA. University of Houston, Houston, TX 770041957 ALPH DELTA: Emr^ria State Univer:sity, Emporia, ICS 6680 l1958 ALPhA EPSILON. University of North Texas, Denton, TX

162031958 ALPHA ZETA: Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 191221958 ALPHA ETA. University of WisconsinMadison, Madison, WI

537061959 ALPHA THETA. University of Texas, Austin, TX 787121959 ALPHA IOTA: University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 803041960 ALPHA KAPPA. San Francisco State University, San Francisco,

CA 941321961 ALPHA LAMBDA. Michigan State University, Dist Lansing, MI

48823

1963 ALPHA MU: State University of New York, Albany, NY 122031963 ALPHA NU: University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND

582021964 ALPHA XI: Hunter College of tbe City Univers:ty of New York,

New York, NY 100211964 ALPHA OMICRON: University of California at Los Angeles,

Los Argeles, CA 900241965 ALPHA PI: Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 482021966 ALPHA ARO: California State University, Fresno, Frcsno,CA

937261966 ALPHA SIGMA: Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 852811966 ALPHA TAIL University of Northern Iowa, Cedar Falls, IA

50631

1966 ALPHA UPSILON. University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 6850819 67 ALPHA PHI. Oonhern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL 601151968 ALPHA CHI: Rider College, L.awrenceville, NJ 086481969 ALPHA PSI: Mankato State University, Mankato, MN 560011969 ALPHAOMEGA. Brigham Young University, Proto, UT 846011969 BETA ALPHA: Indiana Universityof Pennsylvania, Indiana, PA

15701

1969 BETA BETA: Southern Illinois University at Edwardsville,Edwardsville, IL 62025

1969 BETA GAMMA: Virginia Polytechnic Institute and StateUniversity, Blacksburg, VA 24061

174

1969 BETA DELTA: University of Georgia, Athens, GA 306011969 BETA EPSILON: San Jose State University, San Jose, CA

951921971 BETA ZETA: Indiana State University, Terre Haute, IN 478091971 BETA ETA: Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green,

OH 434031971 BETA THETA: University of WisconsinWhitewater,

Whitewater, WI 531901971 BETA IOTA: Illinois State University, Normal, IL 617611971 BETA KAPPA: Portland State University, Portland, OR 972071972 BETA LAMBDA: Shippensburg University of Pennsylvania,

Shippensburg, PA 172571972 BETA MU: Central Connecticut State University, New Britain,

CT 060501972 BETA NU: Utah State University, Logan, UT 843211972 BETA XI: Memphis State University, Memphis, TN 381111972 BETA OMICRON: Southern Illinois University at Carbondale,

Carbondale, IL 629011972 BETA PI: California State University, Los Angeles, CA 900321973 BETA RHO: Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI

4900!1973 BETA SIGMA: University of WisconsinEau Claire,

Eau Claire, WI 547011973 BETA TAU: Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 303031974 BETA UPSILON: Pittsburg State Uni.versity, Piusburg, KS

667621974 BETA PHI: Montclair State College, Upper Montclair, NJ 070431974 BETA CHI: Western Illinois University, Macomb, IL 614551975 BETA PSI: Eastern Illinois University, Charleston, IL 619201975 BETA OMEGA: Louisiana Tech University, Ruston, LA 712721975 GAMMA ALPHA. Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, Mi

481971976 GAMMA BETA. Trenton State College, Trenton, NJ 086251977 GAMMA GAMMA: Virginia Commonwealth University,

Richmond, VA 232841977 GAMMA DELTA. University Rhode Island, Kingston, RI

02881

1978 GAMMA EPSILON. East Texas State University, Commerce,TX 75428

1979 GAMMA ZETA. University of Southern Mississippi,Hauiesburg, MS 39401

1979 GAMMA ETA. Middle Tennessee State University,Murfreesboro, TN 37130

1979 GAMMA THETA. 1.4kansas State University, State University,AR 72467

1979 GAMMA IOTA: University of the District of Columbia, MountVernon Campus, Washington, DC 20005

1980 GAMMA KAPPA: Murray State University, Murray. KY 42071080 GAMMA LAMBDA. Western Kentucky University, Bowling

Green, KY 421011980 GAMMA MU: University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 402921980 GAMMA NU: University of Alabama, University, AL 354861981 GAMMA XI: Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania,

Bloomsburg, PA 178151983 GAMMA OMICRON: Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR

973311983 GAMMA PI: University of Aricinsas, Fayettev,lle, AR 727011984 GAMMA RHO: University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 336201985 GAMMA SIGMA Cn=al Michigan University, Mt. Pleasant,

MI 488591986 GAMMA TAU. University of Central Arkansas, Conway, AR

7207,2

1986 GAMMA UPSILON: Robert Morris College, Coraopolis, PA15108

1986 GAMMA PHI: Centrall/ashington University, Ellensburg, WA98926

1988 GAMMA CHI: University of MissouriColumbia, Columbia,MO 65211

EXPANDING OUR RESEARCH BEYOND THE TECHNOLOGY

DELTA PI EPSILON, founded in 1936, is a national honorary professionalgraduate society for mcn and women devoted to the advancement and piofes-sionalization of business education. Through its ideals of scholarship, leader-ship, and cooperation, the society strives to make significant and uniquecontribliofis ,to professional growth and' scholarly achievement in businesseducation. In the words bf its founder, Dr. Paul Lomax, call be seen the scopeof the society: "The professionalinterests of Delta Pi Epsilon encompass thewhole of business educatiortin relation to the entire fields of American businessand American education. Its membership . . . must always think in terms of thecommon good and advancement of all our business teachers and of all studentswho pursue courses in business education."