Ecosystem Goods and Services IN DEVELOPMENT PLANNING This presentation has been prepared as part of...

Ecosystem Goods and ServicesIN DEVELOPMENT PLANNING

This presentation has been prepared as part of the publication “Ecosystem Goods and Services in Development Planning: A Good Practice Guide”. The CBD endorses the use and modification of these presentation materials for non-commercial purposes. If modifying the presentation materials, photographic credits should be maintained.

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In this presentation, you are invited to navigate freely through some of the main components of

policy and financial planning which highlight, capture and integrate Environmental Goods

and Services (EGS).

NOTE TO THE READER

By definition, ecosystem goods and services represent the benefits that humans derive

from naturally functioning ecological systems. Source: Costanza et. al., 1997

Please select one of the following two navigational tools. You may prefer to view the slides either through a linear or a systematic

approach.

LINEAR OUTLINE SYSTEMIC OUTLINE

OUTLINEENVIRONMENTAL CONCEPTS

Demystifying the Environmental Jargon Ecosystem Goods & Services in Development

DEVELOPMENT PLANNING Building Governance and Vision Assessment and Valuation of EGS Integrative and EGS Inclusive Planning

BUDGETING AND FINANCIAL PLANNING Budgeting and Financial Planning Background Environmental Fiscal Reform Innovative Environmental Finance Architecture Medium Term Expenditure Framework

ADAPTIVE PLANNING AND KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT Capacity Building and Awareness Raising Policy and Budget Monitoring Lessons Learned and Knowledge Sharing

RESOURCES References Readings

Secure environmental

vision and governance



EGS benefits feed into Sustainable Development &

Poverty Reduction Strategies



Monitor results,

develop and share

knowledge

Monitor results,

develop and share

knowledge

Assess & Value Ecosystem Goods & Services


EGS Systemic Model in Policy and Financial Planning

InnovativeFinance

Mechanisms

Environmental Fiscal Reform

Medium Term

Expenditure Framework

Decentralized plans

Decentralized plans

Spatial plansSpatial plans

SectorPlansSectorPlans

Integrated Demystifying “environmental

jargon”

EGS in Development/

Poverty/ Disasters

More info

Click on selection

?

Readings

Policy Planning Questions

?

Facts

?

Financial Planning Questions

?Benefits

? Benefits

?Challenges?Benefits

Case Studies

?

EGS Background Information









Monitor results,

develop and share

knowledge

Monitor results,

develop and share

knowledge



DecentralizedPlans

DecentralizedPlans

SpatialPlansSpatialPlans



jargon”

EGS in Development/

Poverty/ Disasters

InnovativeFinance

Mechanisms


Medium Term










Monitor results,

develop and share

knowledge

Monitor results,

develop and share

knowledge




DecentralizedPlans

DecentralizedPlans




jargon”

EGS in Development/

Poverty/ Disasters

More info

i

Non-accessible environmental jargon and its consequences on planning :

It is too costly and can slow down development; It is a secondary issue compared to socio-economic priorities; It can only generate limited benefits ; It is possible to mitigate environmental damage through modern technologies; It is just about certain charismatic species and trees; It is not always possible to have clear agreement on scientific issues concerning the environment; It requires complicated measures of intervention to deal with some environmental issues.

Common Beliefs About the Environment

BACK TO LINEAR OUTLINE

Dem

ystifying “environmental jargon”

BACK TO SYSTEMIC OUTLINE Slide 1/12

i Why Demystify Environmental Jargon?

Factor requiring demystification Gap between scientific language and policy/financial planning; Technical language barriers hinder the effective integration of environmental concepts in planning Environment regarded often as a set of problems to be solved.

How to demystify? Reducing language barriers; Focusing on environmental benefits.

Where to apply? Environmental issues are the responsibility of all sectors .

Dem


BACK TO LINEAR OUTLINE BACK TO SYSTEMIC OUTLINE Slide 2/12

i Biodiversity and Ecosystems

Biological diversity (Biodiversity) is the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part;

Each ecosystem contains complex relationships between living organisms (biodiversity) and non-living matter as well as the weather patterns that affect them.

Ecosystems, Eco- from the Greek oîkos meaning house/‘habitat’

Dem



i Humans, Biodiversity and Ecosystems

Ecosystem services sustain development

Development impacts ecosystem services

Source: WRI 2008

Dem

ystifying

“enviro

nm

ental jarg

on

”


i Common Look at Biodiversity and Ecosystems

Human beings are part of biodiversity - they interact directly with all its elements at different geographical and temporal scales.

Ecosystems provide vital services for human needs and development. They are found in a state of dynamic equilibrium, to

which development can cause severe damages.

Wrong Correct

Common Understanding Real Situation

Dem



i

50% of the world’s wetlands have been lost in the past century; 80 % of grasslands are suffering from soil degradation; 20 % of dry lands are in the danger of becoming deserts; Tropical forest shrinking at about 5 % per decade, adding 3 billion tons of CO2 to the atmosphere yearly and contributing to major loss of biodiversity; 90 % of all large fish species have disappeared from the oceans in the past half century; Inland water species have declined by 50%; Marine and terrestrial species have declined by approximately 30%; 23% of mammals and 25% of conifers threatened with extinction; 12% of bird species now threatened with extinction ; 32% of amphibians are categorized as threatened with extinction; Current atmospheric emissions of CO2 are nearly 400% emissions in 1950.

Impacts on Biodiversity & Ecosystems

Source: JLG 2007 / SCBD 2006/ World Bank 2008/Worm, Lotze and Myers 2003

Dem



Click for more factsNext Previous

i Biodiversity and Ecosystem Goods and Services

>> Biodiversity and Ecosystem Goods and Services (EGS)

Ecosystems provide vital goods and services to humans; EGS come in a bundled form; Exploiting intensively one EGS can render others unavailable; EGS can be tangible and non-tangible; Some EGS can be renewable but run the risk of depletion;A pressured ecosystem can collapse suddenly without pre-notice; Neighboring ecosystems can be affected by changes occurring in any of them.

Dem



i

20 to 120 million people live in areas affected by desertification; 1.3 billion human beings live from agro-forestry resources; 70% of world population relies on medicinal plants; More than 3 billion people depend on marine and coastal biodiversity for their livelihoods; 60 million indigenous people are almost wholly dependent on forests; 350 million people depend on forests for a high degree for subsistence and income; About 33% of the world is living under moderate to severe water stress.

Human Dependence on Biodiversity and Ecosystems Click for more facts

Source: JLG 2007 / SCBD 2006/ World Bank 2008

Dem



Next Previous

>> Ecosystem Goods & Services

(MA 2005)

ECOSYSTEM GOODS AND SERVICES

Provisioning Services ▪ Food, Fiber and Fuel▪ Genetic Resources▪ Biochemicals▪ Fresh Water

Cultural Services ▪ Spiritual and religiousvalues▪ Knowledge system▪ Education and inspiration▪ Recreation and aesthetic value

Regulating Services ▪ Invasion resistance▪ Herbivory▪ Pollination▪ Seed dispersal▪ Climate regulation▪ Pest regulation▪ Disease regulation▪ Natural hazardprotection▪ Erosion regulation▪ Water purification

Supporting Services ▪ Primary production▪ Provision of habitat▪ Nutrient cycling▪ Soil formation andretention▪ Production ofatmospheric oxygen▪ Water cycling

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA)i

MA study >1200 experts over 3 years; Published in 2005; MA identified 4 categories of ecosystem services; 24 services were studied and evaluated; 16 services were found in decline.


Dem


>> Estimated Yearly Value of Ecosystem Services

Source: R. Costanza et al. 1997

Global GNP 18 US$ Trillion

Global Ecosystem Services 33 US$ Trillion

i Demystifying the environmental jargon



Dem


Ecosystem Based Solutions Man-Made Solutions

-Cheaper than man-made infrastructures (water treatment plant…) -Preserves the functions and services of ecosystems -Ecosystem management skills required

-Costly and might involve recurring operational costs-Can alter the functions and services of ecosystems-Requires access to technology

i Ecosystem Based Solutions vs Manmade Solutions

Mainly Pro-active Approach

Mainly Responsive Approach


Dem

ystifying “environmental jargon”“Wetlands and forests can be up to 22 times more effective than

investing in water treatment plants.” Christian Nellemann, UNEP

CASE STUDY

Water treatment and purification - Nakivubo wetland

The wetland plays an extremely important role in maintaining the quality of the city’s water supply. Wetland plants can remove […] pollutants and pathogenic organisms in the wetland’s bottom.

Source: Emerton et al. 1998


Click for more Case Studies Next Previous

Man-made Solutions vs Ecosystem Based Solutions (Uganda) Dem










Monitor results,

develop and share

knowledge

Monitor results,

develop and share

knowledge




DecentralizedPlans

DecentralizedPlans




jargon”

EGS in Development/

Poverty/ Disasters

More info

i EGS in Development Sectors

What are the inter-linkages, impacts and dependence of socio-economic sectors on ecosystem goods and services?

How can EGS contribute to development, through sustainable economic growth, poverty reduction and resilience to climate change and natural disasters?

EGS

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iEcosystem goods and services and some development sectors

Identify key EGS services;Balance EGS distribution;Reduce ecological footprint ;Improve efficiency of sectoral consumption/usage of EGS.

Agriculture

IndustryHealth

Other (business, infrastructure …)

EGS

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Development activities have various EGS impacts and needs:


Benefits

Impacts

CASE STUDY

Catskill Mountains

New York City spent $US1 billion restoring watersheds in the Catskill mountains–a significant savings compared to the $US8 billion to build a water filtration plant and $US300 to $US500 million per year to maintain it.

Source: UNEP

EGS in developm

ent sectors

BACK TO LINEAR OUTLINE BACK TO SYSTEMIC OUTLINE


Man-made Solutions vs Ecosystem Based Solutions (USA)

Slide 3/12

i

1.1 billion of the world population have no access to clean water; Agricultural sector can represent up to 80% of a country’s water consumption; The livestock sector generates more greenhouse gas emissions than the transport sector. (about 18 % of global GHG); 13 million hectares of the world’s forests are cut down and converted to other land uses every year ; Deforestation and forest degradation are the 2nd cause of GHG; Mining industry accelerates deforestation and releases toxic compounds (e.g. mercury, cyanide…) in neighboring ecosystems.

EGS and Impacts of Sectors’ Development

Source: FAO n.d.



Slide 4/12

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iEconomic Sector Dependence and Impacts on EGS

The same EGS are often shared between multiple sectors and the broader population. (e.g. water, timber, medicinal plants…) ; Sectors’ activities can impact ecosystems in different ways (negatively/positively) while having conflicting goals relative to the potential use of available EGS; The degradation of one ecosystem can have both local and regional consequences on EGS availability.


EGS

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Collapse of fish species by 2050,

ocean can be empty under continuous

unsustainable practices

Ecosystem goods and services and Global Loss of Seafood Species

Source: FAO n.d.

EGS in developm

ent sectors


i Facts About EGS and Poverty

75% of the 2.6 billion people who live on less than $2 a day are dependent upon local natural resources; 75% of the poor live in rural areas and from agriculture but in marginalized or insufficient land or resources to meet their basic needs; The rural poor, still depend on rivers and streams for their water; The poor often rely on traditional medicines for many of their ailments; One billion persons live in bamboo houses; Significant differences between the roles and rights of men and women in many societies make women vulnerable to changes in EGS availability; 20 % of the burden of diseases in developing countries can be attributed to ecological factors; Direct and indirect costs from malaria consume approximately 33 % of household income of the poor.

Source: UNEP 2004, INBAR n.d., WRI in collaboration with UNDP/ UNEP and World Bank 2008

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Slide 7/12

iConstituents and/or Determinants of Well-being

1. Being able to be adequately nourished;2. Being able to be free from avoidable disease;3. Being able to live in an environmentally clean and safe shelter;4. Being able to have adequate and clean drinking water;5. Being able to have clean air;6. Being able to have energy to keep warm and to cook;7. Being able to use traditional medicine;8. Being able to continue using natural elements found in ecosystems for

traditional cultural and spiritual practices;9. Being able to cope with extreme natural events including floods, tropical

storms and landslides;10. Being able to make sustainable management decisions that respect

natural resources and enable the achievement of a sustainable income stream.

10 constituents and/or determinants of well-being which are closely related with ecosystems (Duraiappah 2004) are:

EGS

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i

The poor rely on ecosystem goods and services for a range of basic needs (food, shelter, clothing, medicine, energy, income...); As demand for ecosystem services has grown, it is particularly poor people that have lost access and their rights to these resources due to privatization; Poor are particularly vulnerable to environmental change; Reliance of rural poor on ecosystem services is rarely measured and thus typically overlooked in assessments and poverty reduction strategies.

Source: Comim 2008

EGS

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Poor’s Vulnerability to Environmental Change


iEGS and the Millennium Development Goals (MDG)

MDG 1 Eradicate poverty & hunger

Livelihood strategies and food security of the poor often depend on healthy ecosystems and ecological services they provide.

MDG 2 primary education

Longer time spent collecting water and fuel-wood by children, can reduce time at school.

MDG 3 gender equality

Poor women are have the burden of collecting water and fuel-wood, and have unequal access to land and other natural resources.

MDG 4 child mortality

Ecosystem disruption can impact on health in a variety of ways:Water-related diseases, vector-borne diseases

MDG 5 Improve maternal health

Indoor air pollution and carrying heavy loads of water and fuel-wood adversely affect women’s health and can make women less fit for childbirth and pregnancy complications

MDG 6 Combat major diseases

Up to one-fifth of the total burden of diseases in developing countries may be associated with environmental risk factors

MDG 7 environment sustainability

Environmental degradation must be reversed in order to sustain the health and productivity of the world’s ecosystem

Source: PEI 2008

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iEGS Climate Change and Natural Disasters

In the last 10 years, economic losses from natural disasters have averaged about $ 40 billion a year; Between 1990 and 1998, 94 % of the world’s major disasters were in developing countries ; 24 of the 49 least developed countries face a high-level of disaster risk; Global costs of natural disasters will rise by 500% over the next 50 years; By 2050, more than 200 million people could be rendered homeless by rising sea levels, floods and drought; By 2050 agricultural yields in some countries could be reduced by as much as 50%;Women constitute up to 80% of refugee and displaced populations worldwide, and in emergency situations women and children may typically make up 70 to 80% of those needing assistance.

Source: ECOSOC 2008, IUCN and World Bank 2008

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Slide 11/12

iEcosystem Resilience Climate Change and Natural Disasters

There are 5 reasons to integrate ecosystem-based management in disaster risk reduction and development planning:

1.It can decrease vulnerability to natural disasters ;2.Natural disasters have a high cost;3.It costs less to prevent disasters than it does to fix the damage they cause ;4.At-risk populations depend on ecosystems for their livelihoods;5.Natural disasters and the responses to them have a negative impact on biodiversity.

Source: Sudmeier-Rieux et al. 2006

EGS

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Monitor results,

develop and share

knowledge

Monitor results,

develop and share

knowledge




DecentralizedPlans

DecentralizedPlans




jargon”

EGS in Development/

Poverty/ Disasters

Governance and VisionBu

ildin

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vern

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and

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Governance Environmental Vision

Working with nature

Strengthen environmental governance

Development planning with sound environmental vision and governance can favor sustainable results:


Environmental Governance: Definition

1. The characteristics of natural resources (water, minerals, timber…);

2. The actors involved (private and the public, business and consumers, as well as local communities and Indigenous Peoples);

3. The institutional framing and rules (Role of ministries and government institutions).

Three main factors can shape the management of natural resources and governance-related arrangements these are:

Source: OECD 2009


Build

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Environmental Governance: Land Rights and Access to Resources

Securing equitable access and benefit sharing to genetic resources appears as the 3rd objective of the CBD. This objective has expanded to include mechanisms to share various types of EGS.

Review how natural resources are used, controlled and shared by stakeholders including poor and vulnerable groups;

Delegate the management of public lands to poor communities as a way of empowering them;

Ensure the transparent and democratic governance of natural resources with active involvement and representation of communities.

Strengthen Land Rights and Fair Access to

Resources


Build

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Set Long Term Environmental Vision

Clear reference to ecosystem/biodiversity objectives in long term development strategies

Constitutions which refer directly to

environmental rights

Policies integrative of Multilateral

Environmental Agreements

Green Constitutions

& Legal Initiatives

National Priorities

NSDS

Building an inclusive long term development vision of EGS

Global environ.commitments


Build

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Policy and strategy tools

>> Ecuador Constitution - Chapter 7 outlines the rights of the environment

Article 71 states that the environment, or Pachamama, has the right to be respected and that its cycle structure, functions, and evolutionary processes should be maintained and regenerated. Every person, community, and nation should enforce the rights of nature, the article maintains, while the state is to provide incentives to protect nature and promote its rights.

Article 74 provides a description of the rights of people, communities, and nations to benefit from the environment and natural riches that allow them to live well.


Build

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develop and share

knowledge

Monitor results,

develop and share

knowledge




DecentralizedPlans

DecentralizedPlans




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EGS in Development/

Poverty/ Disasters

Limits of Economic Models

“Society must urgently replace its defective economic compass so that it does not jeopardize

human well-being and planetary health through the under-valuation and consequent loss of ecosystems

and biodiversity.”

Source: Pavan Sukhdev, Study Leader: The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity - COP 9Asse

ssm

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of E

GS


Assessment and Valuation of EGS

EGS assessment and valuation are crucial to recognize the importance of integrating biodiversity and ecosystems within planning processes by allowing the following:

Asse

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of E

GS

Providing justification relative to EGS; Building EGS argumentation ; Raising EGS awareness; Enhancing planning processes and success

based on EGS.


Assessment and Valuation of EGS

Annual value of some Ecosystem Goods and Services is estimated at:

World fish catch – US$58 billion (EGS provisioning service). Anti-cancer agents from marine organisms – up to US$1 billion/year (EGS provisioning service). Global herbal medicine market – roughly US$43 billion in 2001 (EGS provisioning service). Honeybees as pollinators for agriculture crops – US$2–8 billion/year (EGS regulating service). Coral reefs for fisheries and tourism – US$30 billion/year (EGS cultural service).

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Source: UNEP 2007


Economic Valuation of EGS

Full range of ecosystem services underpinned by biodiversity

Qualitative review

Quantitative assessment

Monetary valuation

Qualitative: range and materiality of various ecosystem and biodiversity benefits provided by the ecosystem instance being evaluated, & knowledge gaps

Quantitative: e.g. cubic meters of water purified, tons of carbon stored, share of population affected by loss of food provisioning

Monetary: e.g. avoided water purification costs, value of food provision, value of carbon storage

Areas in white

triangles are where EGS is not specified

Source: EU 2008

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US$ per ha per year

Source: EU 2009

Values of 7 Ecosystem Goods and Services in Wetlands

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Monitor results,

develop and share

knowledge

Monitor results,

develop and share

knowledge




DecentralizedPlans

DecentralizedPlans




jargon”

EGS in Development/

Poverty/ Disasters

Integrative and EGS Inclusive Planning

Decentralized Plans

Spatial Plans Sectors Plans

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Plan at lowest level possible

Plan in terms of spatial layers

Include green considerations

Guiding Questions for Policy Makers

What are the main ecosystem services that a country’s economy relies on? How will the proposed policy/strategy depend on ecosystem services? How will the proposed policy/strategy change the indirect and direct drivers affecting these ecosystem services? What will be the impact of the change in drivers on the ecosystem services? What is known about the status and trends of these services? Under what conditions will it be appropriate to quantify the economic and societal values of ecosystem services? What methods are available to estimate these values? How will economic development and human well-being be affected by a decline in the quality and delivery of ecosystem services and, conversely, what opportunities do ecosystem services provide to improve economic development and human well-being? And for which groups or stakeholders?

Source: OECD 2008


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How can future ecosystem service changes be explored? How can ecosystem service risks and opportunities be incorporated into the development strategy? What policies can help sustain ecosystem services? What capacity development is needed? Have important ecosystem services been mapped? Are the quantity and quality of ecosystem services included in the monitoring scheme? If a baseline includes ecosystem services, indicators of these services can be used as “key performance indicators” in the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) or development strategy of a country.

Source: OECD 2008

Guiding Questions for Policy Makers (cont’d)


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Lack of political support/will to environmental initiatives Limited power/influence of environment ministry Limited resources/capacities for environmental activities Limited understanding and access to knowledge about ecosystem goods and services Economic growth and development needs focusing on short to medium term income generation Limited capacity of conventional economic approaches to capture role/benefits ecosystem goods and services Lack of environmental data to reinforce EGS knowledge Lack of transparent and coherent mechanisms to evaluate what has been (or needs to be) spent on the environment

Examples of Common Environmental Policy Challenges


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Sector Plans

Sector priorities and need for generating rapid economic returns can “obscure” the importance of environmental sustainability and the role of EGS ; Ecosystem services are often required to meet diverging sector goals. Conducting an ecosystem assessment to determine the EGS condition, role and value to development ; Using mechanisms promoting sector dialogue with, and input by, environment ministry and stakeholders (e.g. sector working groups, sector wide approaches…); Including relevant EGS issues found in multilateral environmental agreements within sector plans( National Biodiversity Strategies and Action plans…);Using best environmental practices and techniques; Balancing EGS needs and use between sectors.

How?

Why?


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FreshWater

Water for: industrial

operations and inlandtransport

Impact on water :

Availability Regeneration

QualityTreatmentStorage of

ground water

Forestry

Facts: Cost of forest loss between 2-$5 trillion

Water for: irrigation

transportationtreatment

energy generation

Impact on water quality through:Chemicals used

FertilizersAnimal effluent

Deviation of water bodies

Landuse change

Agriculture

Facts: ~ 70% of available freshwater to agriculture

Water needed for:

CookingDrinkingWorking

Pressure on limited

water bodies

Poverty

Facts: Economic losses due to lack of access to safe water and sanitation estimated be $14 billion/y for Africa

Tourism related

jobs

Tourism related waste

emissions

Tourism

Facts: Coral reefs tourism ~ $30 billion each year

Some use and impacts on ground/surface water by

sector

Water needed for:

HygieneWashingCleaning

Polluted water as a source of disease

Facts: >2 million children in developing countries die annually from polluted water & poor sanitation

Health


Reduced Impact Logging (RIL) can provide both environmental and economic benefits. Studies have found that RIL can be used to reduce carbon emissions by up to 40 tons per hectare of forest compared to conventional logging. This, combined with the preservation of higher levels in biodiversity in selectively logged forests, lends a strong case to sustainable forest management […] Apart from the environmental benefits, RIL has been shown to reduce […] timber wastage.

Reduced Impact Logging (RIL)

CASE STUDY

Source: SCBD 2009

Integrative and EGS inclusive planning



Spatial Plans

Spatial planning compensates for rudimentary planning approaches which fail to account for the cumulative impacts of combined sector planning; Looking at impacts over large geographic areas and longer time periods.

Adopting the Ecosystem approach (or similar approaches);Implementing Strategic Environmental Assessments;Environmental Impact Assessments; Thinking about EGS availability across time.

How?

Why?


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Land use planning is a major cross-cutting environmental issue in Nepal because in the absence of land use planning and its implementation more and more forest and agricultural lands are being lost to expanding settlements and urbanization thereby contributing to land degradation, biodiversity loss, and climate change. Moreover, inappropriate land use and cropping system have contributed to increased soil erosion and land degradation.

Land Use Planning and Implementation (Nepal)

CASE STUDY

Source: Government of Nepal 2008




Decentralized Plans

Decisions from central government will benefit from traditional and local knowledge of ecosystems.Benefits of EGS are best identified and assessed in terms of their importance to direct users (e.g. local communities…)

Adopting when possible community based natural resource management (CBNRM); Adopting when possible a dialogue in both directions: bottom-up and a top-down approach in policy development (Participatory planning); Including all stakeholders (with particular attention to poor and vulnerable groups).

How?

Why?


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Limits of Decentralized Planning (Bolivia, Ghana, Tanzania)

CASE STUDY

Source: OECD 2001

In many countries, there are strategic planning frameworks at provincial and district levels, such as district environmental action plans and Local Agenda 21s . Under decentralization, districts and municipalities increasingly are assuming devolved responsibility for sustainable development and are required to prepare and implement their development strategies and plans – increasingly through participatory processes, as in Bolivia. However, the skills and methods to undertake decentralized participatory planning are frequently lacking or weak, and the finances to implement plans are inadequate. Often such plans need to be passed upwards for harmonization and approval at regional and national levels, as in the cases of Ghana and Tanzania.




Benefits of Integrative and EGS Inclusive Planning

Increasing the level of ownership and success of policies and plans; Contributing to good governance (responsive to citizens needs) by involving stakeholders; Enhancing visibility of gender and indigenous role to the environment; Downsizing and streamlining of central government institutions; Scaling up successful local/traditional experiences linked to ecosystem management ; Enhancing integration and harmonization of policies in terms of EGS; Enhancing strategic thinking for sectoral policies by integrating environment in sector policies and across time/space; Reducing conflicts between stakeholders.


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Creating new policy dialogue forums to share EGS priorities and benefits ; Enhancing donor aid impacts/opportunities based on improved sector strategies ; Enhancing environmental integration between sectors contributing to more efficient policies; Capturing the economic value of EGS and its importance to sectors; Enhancing the role of the Environment Ministry as a bridge between the different sectors; Enhancing institutional set-up through better environmental governance; Weighing and taking into consideration potential scenarios based on EGS opportunities.

Benefits of Integrative and EGS Inclusive Planning (cont’d 2)


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Raising the role of environmental issues to national policy dialogue; Allowing EGS to contribute in a pro-active manner to policies; Enhancing pro-active capacity in assessing EGS impacts/benefits; Reducing socio-economic costs of development activities ; Enhancing understanding about the interdependence of sectors and their strategies relative to shared EGS; Identifying innovative income sources related to EGS; Reducing conflict between stakeholders, by involving systematically vulnerable communities in Development/poverty strategies ; Enhancing ecosystem resilience and capacity of vulnerable populations to face natural disasters; Increasing coordination and alignment of various donor funded programmes and projects with country environmental objectives.

Benefits of Integrative and EGS Inclusive Planning (cont’d 3)


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INTRO

DU

CTION

• How can markets be reinforced to capture the value of EGS?• What are the new revenue opportunities to explore in term of EGS?• What are the perverse tax incentives with impacts on EGS?• How to structure the public environmental finances to reflect and benefit from EGS?• What financial incentives can be introduced to reward responsible stewards of EGS? What are the costs of restoring degraded ecosystems to recover EGS (if feasible)?

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Guiding Questions for Financial Planning

Slide 1/2

INTRO

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Why should the government be involved in financing environment-related infrastructure? How should the public environmental financing be organized? Are overall environmental expenditures effective and adequate? How should the performance of environmental expenditures be evaluated? How can Ecological Goods and Services provide monetary and non-monetary opportunities to poor and vulnerable groups?

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Guiding Questions for Financial Planning

(Cont’d)

Slide 2/2









Monitor results,

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jargon”

EGS in Development/

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InnovativeFinance

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Medium Term


Innovative Financial

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Medium Term Expenditure Framework

New EGS based revenues

Environmental taxation/ Eliminating

perverse subsidies

EGS based strategic budgeting

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From the economic perspective, the most important gaps to be filled relate to the measurement of ecosystem services and of the ecological condition of the ecosystems that provide them.

Filling Economic Gaps Relative to EGS

Source: EU 2009


Environment and Finance Ministries can assess where sources of green benefits exist by identifying:

EGS sources of revenue generated at the national level;EGS revenue opportunities from international sources;Non-market value of EGS;Non-use value of EGS;Option of reallocating negative subsidies to greener initiatives.

Sources of Green IncomeG

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Environmental fiscal reform refers to a range of taxation and pricing measures which can raise fiscal revenues while furthering environmental goals. Example of what is captured by EFR are measures in: Strengthening environmental finance; Introducing system for environmental taxes and charges; Abolishing perverse subsidies; Introducing pro-poor EFR.

Halting the erosion/pressure on natural resources by identifying opportunities to generate green revenue, taking into consideration the impact of development on the environment. EFR raises fiscal revenue while furthering environmental goals.


How?

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EFR represented an opportunity for Morocco to induce a change in the behavior of economic agents; to generate income and raise revenues for environmental investments; to improve the urban and suburban environment; to protect natural environments; to preserve air quality and promote renewable energies; to reduce the volume of solid waste and the cost of solid waste management; and to protect water resources against all forms of pollution.

Benefits of Environmental Fiscal Reforms (Morocco )

CASE STUDY

Source: GTZ 2008


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Perverse subsidies can often impact EGS: Collectively sector (agriculture, fisheries, transport…) subsidies can be considerable and represent 1% of global GDP.

EGS responsible investments: 1% of global GDP should suffice toprevent future climate change damage expected to cost 5% to 20% of global GDP.

Perverse Subsidies and Impact on EGS

Greener Budgeting Processes

Source: EU 2009



Greener budgeting and financial planning

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Identifying contributions of EGS to various sectors and linking sector funding to environment initiatives; Through basket funding mechanisms integrating EGS in sector approaches such as agriculture and environment, health and environment… Introducing Payments for ecosystem services (PES).

New means exist to generate income based on ecosystem goods and services. Taking advantage of these opportunities at both national and international levels can open new sources of revenue .

Innovative Environmental Finance Architecture

How?

Why?

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Brazilian and Canadian researchers seeking to find the source of mercury contamination in the Amazon came to a startling conclusion: agricultural practices rather than gold mining were most to blame. […] the researchers came to the conclusion that the mercury was occurring naturally in the soil and was being released into the river system — and eventually the food chain.

Mercury Contamination in the Amazon (Brazil )

CASE STUDY

Source: IDRC 2003




Slide 2/7

Comparing the economic and social value of mangroves & shrimp farms

Example of EGS Economic and Social Value

Source: WRI 2008


Greener budgeting and financial planning

Slide 3/7

Payments for Environmental Services (PES) are one type of economic incentives for those that manage ecosystems to improve the flow of environmental services that they provide. Generally these incentives are provided by all those who benefit from environmental services, which includes local, regional and global beneficiaries. Source : PRESA

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BeneficiaryBeneficiaryBeneficiaryBeneficiary

Financing Mechanism

Payment Mechanism

Governance Structure

Intermediaries

Land userLand userLand userLand user

Ecosystem Goods and Services

Source: InfoResources 2004

Slide 5/7

Payments for Ecosystem Services (Cont’d)

Among existing PES definitions, a commonly cited one is attributed to Wunder, who identifies five points as the basis for a PES scheme. PES exists when there is:

1. A well-defined environmental service (e.g., specific changes in peak- or dry-season stream flow at the outlet of a watershed) or a suitable proxy for this service (e.g., hectares of forest conserved);2. At least one buyer of this service or proxy;3. At least one seller;4. Voluntary transactions between buyer(s) and seller/provider(s);5. Payments that are conditional on contracted environmental services (or proxies for same) actually being supplied.

Source: Wunder 2005

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Source: WWF n.d.

Steps for PES implementation

PES schemes require three steps:

First, an assessment of the range of ecosystem services that flow from a particular area, and who they benefit. Second, an estimate of the economic value of these benefits to the different groups of people. And third, a policy, subsidy, or market to capture this value and reward landowners for conserving the source of the ecosystem services.

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The MTEF is annual, rolling three year-expenditure planning. An MTEF sets out the medium-term expenditure priorities and hard budget constraints against which sector plans can be developed/refined. An MTEF contains outcome criteria for the purpose of performance monitoring.

Medium Term Expenditure Frameworks (MTEF) provide a planning and budget formulation process within which there is an opportunity for environment ministries to develop strategic thinking, and stronger financial discipline. This results in a stronger understanding about environment benefits/requirements to staff from finance ministries.

Medium Term Expenditure Framework

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[…] The long-term nature of some environmental (particularly infrastructure investment) policies clearly benefit from the stability created by the medium-term expenditure framework and the government commitments to stick to the financial ceilings allocated to the sector. In South Africa and Armenia, actual allocations have been higher than requested in recent years. This also points to the fact that some re-allocation of resources to the environment sector within the MTEF framework has been taking place.

MTEF – (South Africa and Armenia )

CASE STUDY

Source: OECD 2009




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Contributing to poverty reduction through EFR for pro-poor investments; Leveling the social balance by re-establishing a certain equity, and by empowering the poor ; Providing a source of revenue for the poor; Introducing a discipline in environmental finance practices; Strengthening legal and regulatory approaches for environmental management; Increasing the efficiency of the economy; Increasing efforts to consider environmental effectiveness in planning; Generating recurrent environmental revenue; Enhancing capacity to identify potential impacts of subsidies on ecosystem goods and services.

Environmental Fiscal Reform - Benefits

Source: IUCN 2007/ Yaron and White 2002

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Introducing innovative incentive mechanisms through payments for ecosystem services ; Enhancing distribution of budget allocations based on EGS inputs and benefits to each sector; Identifying new funding opportunities based on ecosystem goods and services and their contribution to sector development; Enhancing dialogue/cooperation between environmental ministries and other sectors according to role of EGS; Bringing environmental issues up-front and facilitating their links to aid delivery; Reducing pressure on the environment sector as a result of increased funding through national budget.

Innovative Finance Architecture - BenefitsG

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Allowing institutions to plan with more certainty for multi-year programmes through greater budget predictability ; Improving strategic planning and management through better priority-setting and preparing multi-year, costed programmes to achieve them; Introducing a better system of target-setting and performance indicators to put in place credible monitoring procedures; Improving financial planning accuracy based on a medium-term perspective in budgeting - particularly beneficial to environmental actions, which are often long term in nature; Responding to greater demand for good economic and financial tools to prepare well-costed programmes as environmental agencies need to demonstrate a sound use of resources.G

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Building comprehensive budget process; Increasing fiscal discipline and budget stability which can reduce unexpected and last minute budget re-allocations which can hurt weaker ministries such as the Environment Ministry ; Offering the capacity to promote a consultative spirit where the Environment Ministry can take part in policy/budget dialogue ; Increasing transparency in budget mechanisms can be enhanced through MTEF consultation mechanisms favoring an equitable/balanced distribution of funds; Introducing green indicators attached to the budget review process; Linking environmental fund allocations to programmes rather than projects.

Source: UNEP-PEI 2009

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National Development and Poverty Reduction Strategies

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Development strategies are weakly integrated as they do not focus appropriately on environmental contributions and priorities. There is a need to reinforce the visibility of EGS in policies and to capture their role in development.

Securing a green long term vision and legal background; Conducting EGS valuation and assessment; Adopting pro-active EGS measures; Adopting integrative planning approaches (decentralization, greening sector, spatial planning); Introducing EGS based financial mechanisms ; Implementing adaptive management.

How?

Why?


National Development and Poverty Reduction Strategies

Ecosystem Goods and Services provide the missing link for planning integration

By including EGS dimensions (benefits and limits) the integration of planning approaches is enhanced and aligned, resulting in sustainable and equitable development strategies.

Decentralized Plans

Green Sector Plans

Spatial Plans

EGS

EGS

EGS


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The notion of adaptive co-management refers to the multi-level and cross-organizational management of ecosystems and focuses on the adaptive capacity of

social-ecological systems to deal with ecological changes, uncertainty and surprise. This approach combines the dynamic learning characteristic of

adaptive management with the linkage characteristic of collaborative management.

>> Adaptive Co-Management

Example of Adaptive Management Approaches With

an EGS focus


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Adaptive Management and Knowledge Consolidation

Data Collection Monitoring and

Evaluation

Lessons Learned and Knowledge

sharing

Awareness and Capacity Building

Develop new EGS knowledge

Continuously adjust strategies and plans

Enhance awareness and capacities

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Building capacity to introduce EGS in sector plans; Building capacity for valuation of ecosystem services; Building capacity to introduce EGS in budgeting through MTEF and complementary tools; Building capacity/instruments for markets to capture EGS; Building scientists’ capacity to provide scientific information in a manner that can be used by decision makers.

As EGS understanding is often new, capacity building is required, involving staff from all ministries. For instance staffs in ministries of finance do not sufficiently understand the nature of environmental investments and their economic benefits. The end result is a chronic under-funding of environmental programmes.

EGS Capacity Building

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Raising EGS Based Awareness

Targeting both government and non-government players; Awareness for turning towards greener initiatives should be done without fear of losing economic advantages or access rights; Rewarding good environmental stewards(communities , individuals, companies…); Building awareness that highlights realistic EGS targets can maximize successful outcomes.

Awareness complements capacity building initiatives where EGS awareness can contribute towards building a sound environmental governance and improved development planning .

How?

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Workshop - Building Ecosystem Services Research Capacity for Semi-Arid Africa (Kenya)

The Pro-Poor Rewards for Environmental Services in Africa project conducted a Capacity Building workshop on Ecosystem Services Research for semi-Arid Africa in 2009 […] The workshop […] aimed at helping to establish the evidence base to be used in assessing ecosystem service tradeoffs and the impacts of various financial and regulatory instruments. […] Sessions included information on the ecosystem services approach, bridging the gaps between knowledge and action, valuation of ecosystem services and contract design.

CASE STUDY

Source: PRESA 2009

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Slide 3/3

Developing an evidence base relative to EGS benefits; Including EGS based indicators for monitoring success of policies (e.g. In Performance Assessment Framework) ; Conducting monitoring and evaluation of public environmental expenditures(e.g. Public Environmental Expenditures Reviews…); Gathering new EGS related data; Developing poverty-environment indicators to build links between EGS and poverty in policies.

Regular monitoring by government agencies is needed to identify impact of policy and financial planning and to conduct adjustments when needed in terms of environmental performance.

Policy and Budget Monitoring

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Outcomes-based Planning and Public Environmental Expenditure Review (Tanzania)

[…] the Tanzanian government’s 2004 Public Environmental Expenditure Review […] proved to be a critical turning point in highlighting the considerable potential of environmental resources to contribute to revenue, the significant under-pricing of environmental services, and very low revenue collection in Tanzania.

The budget of the environment authorities in the subsequent financial year quadrupled.

CASE STUDY

Source: Cottrell et al. 2008

Measures to Enable Im

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The Government of Tanzania, with the support of some donors, developed environmental indicators for the Performance Assessment Framework […] The inclusion of these indicators has helped elevate the environment to a higher level and has also focused government attention on its own environmental performance.In this context, 14% of the targets of the second PRSP of Tanzania wererelated to environment and natural resources.

Environment Dimensions in Performance Assessment Framework (Tanzania)

CASE STUDY

Source: PEI 2008

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Developing a biodiversity/EGS clearing house mechanism; Developing networks between key stakeholders and promoting cooperation at multiple levels ; Constantly updating EGS related information and rendering it accessible to decision makers.

Sustainable strategies depend on constant information availability and update. EGS knowledge base has to be reinforced regularly and made accessible for informed development planning.

Lessons Learned and Knowledge Sharing

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Biodiversity Clearing House Mechanism (China )

China is one of the 'megadiverse' countries of the world, and is therefore rich in biodiversity information. Decision making on biodiversity conservation and sustainable utilization demands sufficient, accurate, data and information which covers living things as well as natural background and human activities. It is estimated that 152 biodiversity databases have been developed in China, mainly distributed in thematic information categories [...]

CASE STUDY

Source: Xu, Wang and Sun 2000

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Ongoing EGS Research and Analysis

The TEEB D0 report (2009) analyzes a large number of economic values that have been estimated for the main types of ecosystem services around the world, making use of existing databases and the valuation literature.It aims to provide a synthetic picture of values for different services in different regions and socio-economic conditions (population density,income level) to provide an information pool for future assessments. Over 1,100 values have been collected so far, covering 10 biomes and 22 ecosystem services. These are being organized based on geographical and socio-economic criteria.

CASE STUDY

Source: TEEB, 2009

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Increasing availability of EGS data and monitoring measures for improved EGS valuation and assessment; Building knowledge about EGS for better argumentation in policy; Identifying optimum budget allocations to the environment initiatives with concrete benefits to socio-economic sectors; Allowing donor agencies to assess policy progress with focus on EGS contributions to poverty reduction and development objectives; Consolidating and systematically assessing the effectiveness, efficiency and equity of green expenditures.

Benefits of Adaptive Management & Knowledge

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Improving capacity to trace environmental expenditures; Enhancing budget allocation opportunities for environment as a result of transparent budget process ; Packaging EGS data in an accessible and useful form to planning officers; Developing and sharing new EGS based knowledge products; Promoting technical and scientific cooperation relative to EGS.

Benefits of Adaptive Management & Knowledge

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EGS Readings

Gender

LINEAR OUTLINE SYSTEMIC OUTLINE

Point mouse above book icons to see

contentSecure environmental








Monitor results,

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Monitor results,

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InnovativeFinance

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Medium Term


RESOURCES?

Anil Markandya, Kirk Hamilton, and Ernesto Sanchez-Triana. (2006). Getting the Most for the Money — How Public Environmental Expenditure Reviews Can Help, Environment Strategy No. 16, September 2006, World Bank, Washington, USABird Neil and Lidia Cabral. (2007). Green aid using general budget support for environmental benefits, id 21 natural resources highlights (5), Institute for development studies, Brighton, UKBird Neil and Lidia Cabral. (2007). Changing aid delivery and the environment Can General Budget Support be used to meet environmental objectives? ODI Briefing Paper Issue 17, March 2007, ODI, London, UKBishop, J. et al. (2008). Building Biodiversity Business. Shell International Limited and the International Union for Conservation of Nature: London, UK, and Gland, SwitzerlandBunce, M. et al. (2008). Ecosystem Services for Poverty Alleviation: Marine & Coastal Situational Analysis. Synthesis Report. Report for NERC/DFID. November 2008Cottrell Jacqueline et al. (2008). Environmental Fiscal Reform in developing, emerging and transition economies: progress & prospects, GTZ, Eschborn, GermanyDalal-Clayton Barry and Steve Bass. (2009). The challenges of environmental mainstreaming experience of integrating environment into development institutions and decisions - an issues paper based on a 12 country survey and global review, IIED, London, UKDeutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ). (2008), Macroeconomic Impact of Climate Change:“Opportunities and Challenges” Nusa Dua, Bali, Paper presented at the Bank Indonesia Annual International Seminar August 1-2, 2008Drakenberg, O. et al. (2009). Greening Development Planning: A Review of Country Case Studies for Making the Economic Case for Improved Management of Environment and Natural Resources, OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 5, OECD publishing, Paris, FranceEmerton Lucy et al. (1998). the present economic value of Nakivubo urban wetland, Uganda, IUCN The World Conservation Union, Nairobi, KENYAEuropean Commission (EU). (2008). TEEB Interim Report, Office for the Official Publications of the EUEuropean Commission (EU). (2009). TEEB – The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity for National and International Policy Makers – Summary: Responding to the Value of Nature 2009, Office for the Official Publications of the EUGil Yaron and Judy White (2002), Mainstreaming cross-cutting themes in programme and sector aid: the case of environmental issues, Natural Resource Perspectives, issue 77), ODI, London, UKHeather Tallis et al. (2007). An ecosystem services framework to support both practical conservation and economic development,Department of Biology and Natural Capital Project, Woods Institute for the Environment, Stanford University, Stanford, USAHernán Blanco et al. (2008), Effective tools and methods for integrating environment and development: Chile and Latin America, IIED, London, UKInternational Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). (2007). Environmental Fiscal Reform in Abbottabad EFR, Poverty Alleviation and Environmental Conservation, IUCN, Islamabad, Pakistan

>> Manuals and Reference Materials


RESOURCES?

Kolhoff Arend et al. (2006). Biodiversity in EIA and SEA - Voluntary guidelines on biodiversity- Inclusive impact assessment, Commission for Environmental Assessment, The NetherlandsLayke, Christian. (2009). Measuring Nature’s Benefits: A Preliminary Roadmap for Improving Ecosystem Service Indicators, WRI-Working Paper, World Resources Institute, Washington, USALuttrell Cecilia and Innocent Pantaleo. (2008). Budget support, aid instruments and the environment: the country context Tanzania country case study, ODI London, UKMillennium Ecosystem Assessment. (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well- Being: Current State and Trends: Findings of the Condition and Trends Working Group. Washington DC. Island Press.Neil Bird and Lidia Cabral. (2007). Changing aid delivery and the environment Can General Budget Support be used to meet environmental objectives?, ODI Briefing Paper Issue 17, March 2007, ODI, London, UKOrganization for Economic Co-operation and Development - DAC Network on Environment and Development Co-operation (2008). Strategic Environmental Assessment and Ecosystem Services, OECD, Paris, FranceOrganization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2005). Environmental Fiscal Reform for Poverty Reduction, Paris, FranceOrganization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2006). Recommendation of the Council on Good Practices for Public Environmental Expenditure Management, 8 June 2006, Retrieved December 2009 from: www.oecd.org/dataoecd/10/46/38787377.pdfOrganization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2009), Natural Resources and Pro-Poor Growth: The Economics and Politics, DAC Guidelines and Reference Series - A Good Practice Paper, OECD Publishing, Paris, FranceOrganization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2009). Integrating Public Environmental Expenditure within Multi-year Budgetary Frameworks, A background report for the joint Environment and Development Task Team on Governance and Capacity Development for Natural Resource and environmental Management, Paris, FranceOrganization for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2009). Natural Resources and Pro-Poor Growth: The Economics and Politics, DAC Guidelines and Reference Series - A Good Practice Paper, OECD Publishing, Paris, FrancePalerm, J., Ledant, J.-P., and Brinn, P. (2006). Addressing environmental objectives in the context of budget support, ODI London, UKPayments for environmental services from agricultural landscapes, Retrieved December 2009 from: http://www.fao.org/es/esa/PESAL/PESmaterials7.htmlPetersen Caroline and Brian Huntley. (2005). Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Production Landscapes, Global Environment Facility, Working Paper 20, November 2005Poverty Environment Initiative. (2008). Making The Economic Case: A Primer on the Economic Arguments for Mainstreaming Poverty-Environment Linkages into National Development Planning, Poverty Environment Initiative, KenyaRanganathan Janet et al. (2008). Ecosystem Services: A Guide for Decision Makers, World Resources Institute, Washington, USAReport of the international expert group meeting on extractive industries. (2009). Indigenous Peoples’ rights and corporate social responsibility, 2009, New York, USASecretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, World Tourism Organization and The United Nations Environment Programme. (2009). Tourism for Nature and Development: A Toolkit of Good Practices, UNEP, Montreal, Canada



RESOURCES?

Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity. (2006). Global Biodiversity Outlook 2, UNEP, Montreal, CanadaSecretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity. (2009). Forestry, Conservation and Poverty Alleviation: A Toolkit of Good Practices. Montreal, CanadaSheng Fulai. (1997). Public Environmental Expenditures: A Conceptual Framework, Macroeconomics for Sustainable Development Program Office (MPO)- World Wide Fund For Nature, Retrieved December 2009 from: http://www.panda.org/about_our_earth/all_publications/?3881/Public-Environmental-Expenditures-A-Conceptual-Framework-Sheng-FulaiShepherd, Gill. (2004). The Ecosystem Approach: Five Steps to Implementation. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UKSudmeier-Rieux et al. (eds). (2006). Ecosystems, Livelihoods and Disasters: An integrated approach to disaster risk management. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UKSwanson, AuPhil, and Leiv Lundethors. (2003). Public. Environmental Expenditure Reviews: Experience and. Emerging Practice, Environment Strategy Paper No.7, The World Bank, Washington, USATrumper, K. et al. (2009). The Natural Fix? The role of ecosystems in climate mitigation. A UNEP rapid response assessment,United Nations Environment Programme, UNEPWCMC, Cambridge, UKUnited Nations Development Programme-United Nations Environment Programme Poverty-Environment Initiative (UNEP-PEI). (2009), Mainstreaming Poverty-environment Linkages into Development Planning: a Handbook for Practitioners, UNEP, Nairobi, KenyaUnited Nations Development Programme-United Nations Environment Programme Poverty-Environment Initiative. (2008). Making the economic case: A Primer on the economic arguments for mainstreaming poverty-environment linkages into National Development Planning, UNEP, Nairobi, KenyaUnited Nations Development Programme-United Nations Environment Programme Poverty-Environment Initiative. (2009). Mainstreaming Poverty-environment Linkages into Development Planning: a Handbook for Practitioners, UNEP, Nairobi, KenyaUnited Nations Environment Programme. (2007). Global Environment Outlook (GEO) 4: Environment for Development. Nairobi. UNEP.World Bank. (2008). Assessing the environmental, forest and other natural resource aspects of development policy lending- A World Bank Toolkit, The World Bank, Washington, USAWorld Resources Institute in collaboration with United Nations Development Programme, United Nations Environment Programme, and World Bank. (2008). A Guide to World Resources 2008: Roots of Resilience-Growing the Wealth of the Poor, WRI, Washington, USAWorld Resources Institute. (2008). Nature for People’s Sake Integrating ecosystem services in public decision making, Power Point Presentation, Retrieved December 2009 from: http://www.wri.org/publication/ecosystem-services-a-guide-for-decision-makers



Photo credits: Slide 1, top to bottom - stockphoto.com; Flickr.com/Owen Byrne; Flickr.com/MacJewell;Flickr.com/Pati Gaitan. Slide 2, top: Flickr.com/Serge Melki; Flickr.com/Dyl Walters.

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