economic importance of fungi
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Economic and cultural importance of Fungi
Fungi as food
Yeast fermentations, Saccaromyces cerevesiae
Glucose
+ 2 ATP
2 glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
2 pyruvate + 2 ATP
+ 2 H2O
2 acetaldehyde + 2 ATP + 2 CO22 ethanol
2 NADH22 NAD O2
alcoholic beverages, yeast leavened bread
Fungi as food
Citric acid Aspergillus niger
Citric acid is an additive in many processed food products, mainly carbonated
soft drinks. Also used as an ingredient in cleaning agents.
Industrial production of citric acid uses the fungus Aspergillus niger, with corn
starch/corn syrup as the primary substrate that is acted on by the fungus.
The use of large scale fungal fermentations to produce citric acid dates from
about 1920, and the pharmaceutical company Pfizer was the major US citric
acid producer.
After the discovery of penicillin, produced by the related fungus Penicillium
notatum, in 1929, and the subsequent development of antibiotic therapies to
cure bacterial infections, the technology used to produce citric acid was
adapted to the large scale production of penicillin.
Mass production of penicillin was a major factor in saving lives during World
War II.
Fungi as food
Cheese Penicillium camembertii, Penicillium roquefortii
Rennet, chymosin produced by Rhizomucor miehei
and recombinant Aspergillus niger, Saccharomyces
cerevesiae
chymosin first GM enzyme approved for use in food
Fungi as food
Quorn mycoprotein, produced by Fusarium venenatum
High quality protein, very low fat
Soy fermentations, Aspergillus oryzaeRed yeast rice, Monascus purpureus
contains lovastatin?
Tempeh, made with Rhizopus oligosporus
Fungi as food
Fungi as food
Other fungal food products: vitamins and enzymes
• vitamins: riboflavin (vitamin B2), commercially produced by Asbya gossypii
• chocolate: cacao beans fermented before being made into chocolate with a
mixture of yeasts and filamentous fungi: Candida krusei, Geotrichum
candidum, Hansenula anomala, Pichia fermentans
• candy: invertase, commercially produced by Aspergillus niger, various
yeasts, enzyme splits disaccharide sucrose into glucose and fructose, used to
make candy with soft centers
• glucoamylase: Aspergillus niger, used in baking to increase fermentable
sugar, also a cause of “baker’s asthma”
• pectinases, proteases, glucanases for clarifying juices, beverages
Fungi as food
Perigord truffle, Tuber
melanosporum
Morels, Morchella
spp.
Agaricus bisporus
Lentinula edodes
Boletus edulis
Cantharellus
formosus
Tricholoma
magnavelare
Fungi as food
Cyttaria darwinii,
pan de indio, llao
llao, on
Nothofagus
dombeyi
Corn smut, Ustilago
maydis, cuitlacoche,
huitlacoche
Fungi as pharmaceuticals
Penicillin, from Penicillium notatum and other species
Discovered in 1928 by Alexander Fleming
Interferes with bacterial cell wall synthesis, -lactam antibiotic
Most widely used antibiotic to treat bacterial infections
Methods developed for mass production of citric acid used
Another -lactam antibiotic is cephalosporin, first isolated from Cephalosporium
acremonium
Various modifications of the cephalosporin molecule have resulted in a large
number of cephalosporin antibiotics having different action spectra and properties
Fungi as pharmaceuticals
Cyclosporin, from Tolypocladium inflatum, asexual state (anamorph) of
Cordyceps subsessilis, an insect parasite
First investigated for its antifungal properties, it was found to have strong
immunosupressive activity. First non steroid immunosuppressant, now used
in organ and bone marrow transplant therapy.
Selectively inhibits T-lymphocytes
T. inflatumC. subsessilis
Fungi as pharmaceuticals
Antifungal antibiotics
Griseofulvin, from Penicillium griseofulvum, used to treat cutaneous fungal
infections in humans, pets and livestock. Inhibits fungal mitosis, not used
much since development of triazole anti mycotics
Cilofungin, from Aspergillus nidulans, inhibits fungal cell wall synthesis
Fungi as pharmaceuticals
Statins, cholesterol lowering drugs, used for treating coronary heart disease
Inhibit the enzyme -hydroxy, -methylglutaryl-CoA-reductase, a key enzyme
in the cholesterol synthesis pathway, HMG to mevalonic acid
Japanese researchers first looked for HMG-CoA inhibitors in microbes,
discovered Mevastatin, from Penicillium citrinum
Lovostatin, patented by Merck in 1987, isolated from Aspergillus terreus,
more active than Mevastatin
Now various synthetic statins are made, based on the structures of the fungal
molecules
Fungi as pharmaceuticalsErgotamine
Consumption of grain contaminated with the sclerotia of Claviceps purpurea,
ergot, during the middle ages caused various human maladies. One
physiological effect of the ergot alkaloids present in the sclerotia is
vasoconstriction, and loss of blood circulation to the extremities could result in
loss of limbs to gangrene, depicted in the painting of “the beggars” by Pieter
Brueghel.
Ergotamine, one of the ergot alkaloids, has been used since 1920 to treat
migraine and cluster headache, interacts nonselectively with several
neurotransmitter receptors. Ergot derivatives are under investigation for
treatment of Parkinson’s disease.
Fungi as pharmaceuticals
Beano, - galactosidase, another useful metabolite from Aspergillus terreus
Fungi in human and animal health
Fungal pathogens, mycotic infections
Cutaneous mycoses, dermatophytes: Malassezia fufur, cause of dandruff,
tinea, ringworm caused by various keratinophilic fungi
Candidiasis: Candida albicans
Systemic mycoses, can be lethal
Histoplasmosis: Histoplasma capsulatum
Coccidiomycosis: Coccidiodes immitis
Cryptococcosis: Cryptococcus neoformans
Aspergillosis: Aspergillus fumigatus and other species
Pneumocystis pneumonia: Pneumocystis jirovecii, a major cause of AIDS
related mortality
Fungi in human and animal health
Mycotoxins in food
•aflatoxin: cause of turkey x disease, liver cancer, hepatitis, Reyes
syndrome, Aspergillus flavus
•ochratoxin: kidney disease, Aspergillus ochraceous, Penicillium verrucosum
•fumonisins: cause of esophageal cancer, equine leucoencephalomalacia,
Fusarium verticilloides
•zearalenones: swine estrogenic syndrome, Fusarium zeae
•trichothecenes: alimentary toxic aleukia, various fungus species
•patulin: carcinogen, Penicillium, Aspergillus, Byssochlamys species,
•ergot alkaloids: cause of “St. Anthony’s fire”, from infected rye
Fungi in human and animal health
Mushroom poisoning
Chlorophyllum molybdites may
be mistaken for edible
Macrolepiota or Agaricus spp.
Amanita phalloides is responsible for
several deaths every year, often in Asian
immigrants who mistake this species for
an edible Asian Volvariella spp.
Fungi in human and animal health
Inocybe geophyllum
Amanita pantherinaAmanita muscaria
Mushroom poisoning
Instances of dogs or young children experimentally ingesting
poisonous mushrooms are pretty common. Usually the
results are not fatal if treated quickly. The mushroom
species involved can be varied, but the most common and
attractive poisonous species are Amanita pantherina and A.
muscaria. These species are commonly implicated in
mushroom poisoning.
Fungi in industrial processes
“Stone washed denim” actually treated with
cellulase from Trichoderma reesei to give the
appearance of having been beaten by hand on
stones by the river.
Laundry detergents
contain fungal
enzymes,
proteases and
lipases, to remove
stains
Xylanase, phytase,
-glucanase added
to animal feeds to
improve nutritional
quality
pullulan: exocellular glucan from Aureobasidium pullulans
an edible film used as a base for
breath fresheners
also used as a drug delivery agent and
in the manufacture of Kevlar
Fungi in agriculture and forestry
Mycorrhizal fungi are symbiotic with most plants,
aid nutrient uptake
Arbuscular mycorrhiza
Ectomycorrhiza
Plant pathogens: the
majority of plant disease
agents are fungi
Fungi in agriculture and forestry
Storage rot and deterioration,
~40% of food lost due to
deterioration
Fungi in agriculture and forestry
Biocontrol agents
Plant and insect pathogens are used as mycoherbicides, mycoinsecticides
Commercial preparations of Colletotrichum
gloeosporioides, Fusarium oxysporum,
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum are sold as biocontrol
agents for control of various weeds.
Controversy about US program for use of F.
oxysporum on coca in Columbia.
Phragmidium violaceum, rust fungus used to control
invasive blackberry, now introduced in N. America
and is a concern to caneberry growers in Oregon.
Fungi in agriculture and forestry
Biocontrol agents
Several insect pathogenic fungi
are used as biocontrol agents to
control insect pests.
Entomophaga maimaga to
control gypsy moth, Metarrizium
anisopleae to control various
insects
Species of Trichoderma and other
fungi are being tried as biocontrols
against agricultural plant pathogens
Fungi in agriculture and forestry
Anaerobic chytrid fungi in rumen are essential for digestion
Fungi in traditional cultures
Phellinus igniarius powder used as a
tobacco additive for its stimulant
properties by Inuit people
Fungi in traditional cultures
Fomitopsis officianalis, “quinine conk”, a
conifer heart rot fungus that produces a very
large (1 m +) basidiocarp. The basidiocarps
“ghost bread” were used to carve special
grave guardians for the graves of shamans of
the native Americans of the coastal
northwest.
F. officianalis also reportedly used by the
ancient Greeks as a cure for tuberculosis.
and is still used in various herbal remedies.
Fungi in traditional cultures
Haida carving depicting the
story of the origin of
humans. “Fungus man”
guided Raven to collect
genitalia for the first people.
Haploporus odorus, a highly fragrant
polypore, used to decorate sacred
objects of the northern Plains
Indians
Fungi in traditional cultures
Fungi in traditional cultures
Fungi in traditional Asian medicine
Cordyceps sinensis
Parasitized caterpillars are
collected and sold for
general health benefits
Ganoderma lucidum, a wood
decomposing basidiomycete, used
to produce reishi, the herb of
longevity, reputed to have a variety
of beneficial health effects,
including anti tumor activity, anti-
HIV, blood pressure lowering, and
immune response suppression.
Fungi in traditional Asian medicine
Fungi in traditional cultures
Fungi in traditional cultures
Kombucha, Russian tea mushroom
Kombucha tea is reputed to have various healing properties. Produced by
fermentaion of sweetened black tea. Traditionally made in Russia, China and
Japan. The exact nature of its chemical constituents and their health benefits
are disputed.
“Kombucha mushroom” is actually a microbial cocktail of Acetobacter spp. and
several yeasts, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Torulospora delbruckii,
Saccharomycodes ludwigii, probably many local variants with different yeast
species).
Teonanáctl
Halluncinogenic mushrooms mainly in the genus Psilocybe used by the
Mazatecs of Mexico and Guatemala to induce sacred visions, active
molecule psilocybin.
Fungi in traditional cultures
Hallucinogens, “entheogens”
Fungi in traditional cultures
Hallucinogens, “entheogens”
Tea made from A. muscaria used to induce visions by native people of
Siberia. Ibotenic acid, the active molecule is passed in the urine and
reportedly the experience was shared by consuming urine of the shaman or
others who consumed the mushroom tea.
Much undocumented speculation concerns
the relationship of A. muscaria to various
religions, including Christianity.
Fungi in biology
Classical genetic model systems
Neurospora, Schizophyllum: mating systems in fungi
Fungal model organisms, genomics “simple eukaryote systems”:
Saccharomyces, Neurospora, Aspergillus, Phanerochaete,
Magnaporthe, Ustilago, Trichoderma, Nectria
Fungal systems for transformation and heterologous gene expression:
Saccharomyces, Aspergillus
Fungi in biology
Neurospora crassa, a fungal model organism
G. W. Beadle and E.L. Tatum one gene-one enzyme hypothesis from
auxotrophic mutants, showed they were single gene mutations.
Later used to elucidate genes regulating mating in fungi
Ascospores in “ordered tetrads” that mirror the orientations of four chromatids
in meiosis, allows inference of recombination events
Fungi in biology
Fungal biodiversity
The fungi are a kingdom of eukaryotic life equivalent to plants and
animals
Global estimates of fungal diversity suggest there may be as many
as 1.5 million species of fungi (or more, > 3 M)
Only about 70,000 species of fungi currently are known, so less
than 5% of the total biodiversity of fungi is known
Fungi in ecological processes
•Fungal biomass global estimate: 15 Gt
•Carbon cycling: decomposition of woody
substrates
•Mycorrhizae: the interface between plants
and soil, links between plants in common
networks
•Plant pathogens: affect plant species
distribution, community composition
•Lichens: N2 fixation, primary productivity in
extreme environments, animal forage
•Insect interactions: various mutualisms,
pathogens and parasites
•Soil microbial community: >90% of
biomass is fungal
•“linking” organisms
Earth is a moldy planet!!!