ECOLOGY ENVIRONMENT · ECOLOGY Ecology is a science that studies the interdependent, mutually...

Add : D/108, Sec-2, Noida (U.P.), Pin - 20 1301Email id : [email protected]

Call : 09582948810, 09953007628, 0120-2440265

ECOLECOLECOLECOLECOLOGYOGYOGYOGYOGY

&&&&&

ENVIRENVIRENVIRENVIRENVIRONMENTONMENTONMENTONMENTONMENT

Chronicle IAS Academy [2]


CONTENTS

Sl. No. TOPICS Pg. No.

1. Introduction......................................................................................... 5-10

2. Ecosystem ......................................................................................... 11-18

3. Biodiversity. ...................................................................................... 19-48

4. Environmental Pollution & Degradation ....................................... 49-88

5. Climatic Change ............................................................................. 89-109

6. Human Impact on the Natural Environment. ........................... 110-125

7. EIA & Environmental Audit ....................................................... 126-138

8. Environmental Conservation ....................................................... 139-152

��


INTRODUCTION

ECOLOGY

Ecology is a science that studies theinterdependent, mutually reactive andinterconnected relationship between theorganisms and their physical environment on theone hand and among the organisms on the otherhand.

The word ‘Ecology’, derived from the Greekword: oikos meaning habitation, and logosmeaning discourse or study, implies a study ofthe habitations of organisms. Ecology was firstdescribed as a separate field knowledge in 1866by the German zoologist, Ernst Haeckel, whoinvented the word ‘oeckologie’ for “the relationof the animal to its organic as well as its inorganicenvironment, particularly its friendly or hostilerelation to those animals or plants with which itcomes in contact”.

Ecology has been variously defined as“scientific natural history”, “the study of bioticcommunities” or “the science of communitypopulation”; probably the most often given: astudy of animals and plants in their relationshipto each other and to their environment. Krebs(1985) defined ecology in simple moderncomprehensive way as “thescientific study of theinteractions that determine thedistribution and abundance oforganisms”.

ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

1. The first & second law ofthermodynamics:1st law;energy can neither becreated nor destroyed; itcan only be changed fromone form into another.

2nd law; there is no lossof total energy, but thereis a loss of useful energy.

2. Limiting Factor Principle:Too much or too little ofany abiotic factor can limit

CHRONICLEIAS ACADEMYA CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

or prevent growth of a population, even ifall other factors are at or near the optimumrange of tolerance.

3. Homeostatic principle: It is the maintenanceof constant internal conditions in the faceof a varying external environment. Thethickening of fur in winter, the darkeningof skin in sunlight, the seeking of shade inheat, and the production of more red bloodcells at high altitude are all examples ofadaptations animals make in order tomaintain homeostasis.

GEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

A biogeochemical cycle or substanceturnover or cycling of substances is a pathwayby which a chemical element or molecule movesthrough both biotic (biosphere) and abiotic(lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere)compartments of Earth.

The Earth is a closed system for matter,except for small amounts of cosmic debris thatenter the Earth’s atmosphere. This means thatall the elements needed for the structure andchemical processes of life come from the elements


that were present in the Earth’s crust when itwas formed billions of years ago. This matter,the building blocks of life, continually cyclethrough Earth’s systems, the atmosphere,hydrosphere, biosphere, and lithosphere, on timescales that range from a few days to millions ofyears. These cycles are called biogeochemicalcycles, because they include a variety ofbiological, geological, and chemical processes.

Many elements cycle through ecosystems,organisms, air, water, and soil. Many of theseare trace elements. Other elements, includingcarbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, sulphur,and phosphorus are critical components of allbiological life. Together, oxygen and carbonaccount for 80 per cent of the weight of humanbeings. Because these elements are keycomponents of life, they must be available forbiological processes. Carbon, however, isrelatively rare in the Earth’s crust, and nitrogen,though abundant in the atmosphere, is in a formthat is not useable by living organisms. Thebiogeochemical cycles transport and store theseimportant elements so that they can be used byliving organisms. Each cycle takes many differentpathways and has various reservoirs, or storageplaces, where elements may reside for short orlong periods of time. Each of the chemical,biological, and geological processes varies in theirrates of cycling.

1. Hydrologic Cycle (Water Cycle)

Water is always on the move. Rain fallingwhere you live may have been water in the oceanjust days before. And the water you see in a riveror stream may have been snow on a highmountaintop.

Water can be in the atmosphere, on the land,in the ocean, and even underground. It isrecycled over and over through the water cycle.In the cycle, water changes state between liquid,solid (ice), and gas (water vapour).

Most water vapour gets into the atmosphereby a process called evaporation. This processturns the water that is at the top of the ocean,rivers, and lakes into water vapour in theatmosphere using energy from the Sun. Watervapour can also form from snow and ice throughthe process of sublimation and can evaporatefrom plants by a process called transpiration.

The water vapour rises in the atmosphereand cools, forming tiny water droplets by aprocess called condensation. Those waterdroplets make up clouds. If those tiny waterdroplets combine with each other they growlarger and eventually become too heavy to stayin the air. Then they fall to the ground as rain,snow, and other types of precipitation.

Most of the precipitation that falls becomesa part of the ocean or part of rivers, lakes, andstreams that eventually lead to the ocean. Someof the snow and ice that falls as precipitationstays at the Earth surface in glaciers and othertypes of ice. Some of the precipitation seeps intothe ground and becomes a part of thegroundwater.

Water stays in certain places longer thanothers. A drop of water may spend over 3,000years in the ocean before moving on to anotherpart of the water cycle while a drop of waterspends an average of just eight days in theatmosphere before falling back to Earth.


2. Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen is required for the manufacturingof all amino acids and nucleic acids; however,the average organism cannot use atmosphericnitrogen for these tasks and as a result isdependent on the nitrogen cycle as a source forits usable nitrogen. The nitrogen cycle begins withnitrogen stored in the atmosphere as N2 ornitrogen stored in the soil as ammonium (NH4+),ammonia (NH3), nitrite (NO2-), or nitrate (NO3).Nitrogen is assimilated into living organismsthrough three stages: nitrogen fixation,nitrification, and plant metabolism. Nitrogenfixation is a process which occurs in prokaryotesin which N2 is converted to (NH4+). Atmosphericnitrogen can also undergo nitrogen fixation bylighting and UV radiation and become NO3-.Following nitrogen fixation, nitrification occurs.During nitrification, ammonia is converted intonitrite, and nitrite is converted into nitrate.Nitrification occurs in various bacteria. In thefinal stage, plants absorb ammonia and nitrateand incorporate it into their metabolic pathways.Once the nitrogen has entered the plantmetabolic pathway, it may be transferred toanimals when the plant is eaten. Nitrogen isreleased back into the cycle when denitrifyingbacteria convert NO3- into N2 in the process ofdenitrification, when detritivorousbacteriaconvert organic compounds back into ammoniain the process of ammonification, or whenanimals excrete ammonia, urea, or uric acid.

A lot of environmental problems are causedby the disruption of the nitrogen cycle by humanactivity, some of the problems caused range fromthe production of troposphere (loweratmospheric) smog to the perturbation ofstratospheric ozone and contamination of groundwater. An example of one of the problems causedis the formation of greenhouse gas. Like carbondioxide and water vapor greenhouse gas trapsheat near the earth’s surface and destroys thestratospheric ozone. Once that occurs nitrousoxide in the earth’s atmosphere is broken downby UV light into nitrogen dioxide and nitric oxide.These two products can reduce the ozone.Nitrogen oxides can be changed back into nitratesand nitrite compounds and recycled back into theearth’s surface.

3. Carbon Cycle

Carbon is required for the building of allorganic compounds. Carbon in the form ofcarbon dioxide (CO2) is obtained from the

atmosphere and transformed into a usableorganic form by organisms. The reservoirs forthe carbon cycle are the atmosphere, wherecarbon dioxide exists as a free gas, fossil organicdeposits (such as oil and coal), and durableorganic materials like cellulose. Mineralcarbonates, such as limestone, are a significantgeological sink for carbon. During the processof carbon fixation, carbon dioxide is taken upfrom the atmospheric reservoir (or from bio-carbonates dissolved in water) by plants,photosynthetic bacteria, and algae and is “fixed”into organic substances. Animals obtain theirrequirements for carbon (as carbon-basedmolecules) by eating plants or other animals. Forthe biological links, the carbon cycle comes fullcycle when carbon is released by either plantsor animals as they respire or after life as theydecompose. Organisms respire carbon dioxideas a waste product from the breakdown oforganic molecules as their cells derive energyfrom oxidizing the molecules containing “fixed”carbon. The burning of organic material such aswood or fuels also results in the release of carbondioxide from organic carbon.

CO2 is a trace gas and has huge effects onEarth’s heat balance by absorbing infraredradiation. During the growing season orsummer, there is a decrease in atmospheric CO2because increased sunlight and temperaturehelps plants increase their carbon dioxide uptakeand growth. In the winter time, more CO2 entersthe atmosphere than can be removed by plants.This happens because plant respiration and thedeath of plants happens faster thanphotosynthesis.

4. Oxygen Cycle

The oxygen cycle is the cycle that helps moveoxygen through the three main regions of theEarth, i.e. the Atmosphere, the Biosphere, andthe Lithosphere. The Atmosphere is of course theregion of gases that lies above the Earth’s surfaceand it is one of the largest reservoirs of freeoxygen on earth. The Biosphere is the sum of allthe Earth’s ecosystems. This also has some freeoxygen produced from photosynthesis and otherlife processes? The largest reservoir of oxygen isthe lithosphere. Most of this oxygen is not on itsown or free moving but part of chemicalcompounds such as silicates and oxides.

In the atmosphere Oxygen is freed by theprocess called photolysis. This is when highenergy sunlight breaks apart oxygen bearing


molecules to produce free oxygen. One of themost well known photolysis it the ozone cycle.O2 molecule is broken down to atomic oxygenby the ultra violet radiation of sunlight. This freeoxygen then recombines with existing O2molecules to make O3 or ozone. This cycle isimportant because it helps to shield the Earthfrom the majority of harmful ultra violetradiations turning it to harmless heat before itreaches the Earth’s surface.

In the biosphere the main cycles arerespiration and photosynthesis. Respiration iswhen animals and humans breathe consumingoxygen to be used in metabolic process andexhaling carbon dioxide. Photosynthesis is thereverse of this process and is mainly done byplants and plankton.

The lithosphere mostly fixes oxygen inminerals such as silicates and oxides. Most of thetime the process is automatic, all it takes is a pureform of an element coming in contact withoxygen such as what happens when iron rusts.A portion of oxygen is freed by chemicalweathering. When a oxygen bearing mineral isexposed to the elements a chemical reactionoccurs that wears it down and in the processproduces free oxygen.

THE MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT & FOR-ESTS

The Ministry of Environment & Forests(MoEF) is the nodal agency in the administrativestructure of the Central Government for theplanning, promotion, co-ordination andoverseeing the implementation of India’senvironmental and forestry policies andprogrammes.

The primary concerns of the Ministry areimplementation of policies and programmesrelating to conservation of the country’s naturalresources, including its lakes and rivers, itsbiodiversity, forests and wildlife, ensuring thewelfare of animals, and the prevention andabatement of pollution. While implementing thesepolicies and programmes, the Ministry is guidedby the principle of sustainable development andenhancement of human well-being.

The Ministry also serves as the nodal agencyin the country for the United NationsEnvironment Programme (UNEP), South AsiaCo-operative Environment Programme (SACEP)and International Centre for IntegratedMountain Development (ICIMOD) and for the

follow-up of the United Nations Conference onEnvironment and Development (UNCED). TheMinistry is also entrusted with issues relating tomultilateral bodies such as the Commission onSustainable Development (CSD), GlobalEnvironment Facility (GEF) and of regionalbodies like Economic and Social Council for Asiaand Pacific (ESCAP) and South AsianAssociation for Regional Co-operation (SAARC)on matters pertaining to the environment.

The broad objectives of the Ministry are:

� Conservation and survey of flora, fauna,forests and wildlife.

� Prevention and control of pollution.

� Afforestation and regeneration of degradedareas.

� Protection of the environment and.

� Ensuring the welfare of animals.

These objectives are well supported by a setof legislative and regulatory measures, aimed atthe preservation, conservation and protection ofthe environment. Besides the legislative measures,the National Conservation Strategy and PolicyStatement on Environment and Development,1992; National Forest Policy, 1988; PolicyStatement on Abatement of Pollution, 1992; andthe National Environment Policy, 2006 alsoguide the Ministry’s work.

TERMINOLOGY OF ECOLOGY

� Species: A species is a natural biologicalunit tied together by the sharing of acommon gene pool. It can be also definedas a uniform interbreeding populationspread over time and space.

� Vegetation: The collective and continuousgrowth of plants in space is calledvegetation. Thus, vegetation is actually thetotality of plant growth, including large orsmall populations of each speciesintermixed in a region. In other words wemay say that vegetation is the sum total ofplant population covering a region.

� Flora: Flora is the species content of theregion irrespective of the numerical strengthof each species.

� Population: A population is a group ofindividual organisms of the same speciesin a given area.

� Community: A community is a group ofpopulation of different species in a given


area. It thus includes all the populations inthat area- all plants, all animals andmicroorganisms.

� Factor: Any external force, substance orcondition that affects organisms in anyway, is known as factor.

� Environment: The sum of all factorsconstitute environment. It thus becomesindeed a complex of so many factors, betterreferred to as environmental complex.

� Habitat: The place, where an organismlives, or the place where one would go tofind the particular organism is known asthe habitat of that organism. The habitatof an organism actually represents aparticular set of environmental conditionssuitable for its successful growth.

� Adaptation: Any species puts its efforts tomake full use of the available nutrient pooland other environmental conditionsprevailing in the area of its growth. Itensures its own protection against adverseconditions of the habitat. This all isaccomplished by the development of somecharacteristics.

� ECAD: Some of the species have more thanone kind of populations spread over widerange of habitat conditions. An ecad of aplant species is a population of individualswhich although belong to the same geneticstock, but differ markedly in vegetativecharacters such as size, shape, number ofleaves, stems, etc. These variations aresimply environmentally induced, and thusare temporary or reversible i.e. one type ofecad may change into another with thechange in its habitat.

� Ecotype: An ecotype is a population ofindividuals of a species, which aregenetically different. Since differentecotypes are inter-fertile, these are keptunder the same taxonomic species. Theirvariations are permanent and irreversibleas these are genetically fixed.

� Eco-tone: Although plant species grow inassociation with each other in groups ascommunities in nature, there is hardlydistinguishable a point or sharp line ofdistinction between the two differentcommunities. There is generally a zone oftransition, presenting a situation of specialecological interest between two different

types of communities, which is known asan eco-tone.

� Life Form: A life form is the sum of theadaptation of the plant to the climate. Thisview point is considered in thephysiognomic method of study of plantcommunities.

� Biological Spectrum: The percentagedistribution of species among the variouslife forms of a flora is called the biologicalspectrum of that place.

� Ecological Succession: Vegetation is hardlystable, and thus dynamic, changing overtime and space. Although comparativelyless evident than vegetation, animalpopulations, particularly lower forms, alsoshow dynamic character to some extent.Succession is a natural process by whichdifferent groups or communities colonizethe same area over a period of time in adefinite sequence. The succession, whichstarts from a primitive substratum withoutany previous living matter, is known as theprimary succession, whereas that startingfrom the previously built up substratumwhere living matter already existed, isknown as the secondary succession. If theexisting community, as a result of itsreaction with the environment, causes itsown replacement, then such a successionis known as autogenic succession but if thereplacement of the existing communitytakes place due to the influence of anyexternal force or condition, then it is calledallogenic succession.

� Climax: In the natural process ofsuccession, one community continues tofollow another, until a stage comes when atype of community cannot be displacedunder the prevailing environmentalconditions. This final, terminal community,that can maintain itself more or lessindefinitely in equilibrium with theprevailing environment, is known as theclimax community and the stage is said tobe the climax.

� Biome: A complex of several types ofcommunities, some in climax stage andothers in different stages of succession,maintained more or less similar climaticconditions is known as a biome.

� Ecosystem: In a given area, the biotic


assemblage of all the organisms, plant aswell as animal communities, interacts withits physical environment in such a mannerthat there is a flow of energy leading toclearly defined trophic structure, bioticdiversity and material cycles within asystem, is known as an ecological systemor ecosystem. An ecosystem is the wholebiotic community in a given area plus itsabiotic environment.

� Biosphere: The earth’s living organismsinteracting with their physical environmentmay be considered as a giant ecosystem,which is the largest and most nearly self-sufficient biological system we know, andthis is designated as the biosphere orecosphere. Thus the planet earth along withthe atmosphere, hydrosphere andlithosphere which sustain life is known asbiosphere.

� Standing State: The amount of inorganicsubstances, such as P, S, C, N, H etc. presentat any given time in the environment of anecosystem, is known as the standing stateor standing quality.

� Standing Crop: The amount of livingmaterial, present in a componentpopulation at any time, is known as thestanding crop, which may be expressed interms of numbers or weight per unit area.

� Biomass: Biomass is the standing cropexpressed in terms of weight (i.e. organismmass) of the living matter present.

� Food Chain: In any ecosystem, various livingorganisms are arranged in a definite sequenceaccording to their food habits. Plants areproducers which are eaten by herbivores,which in turn are eaten by carnivores. Thistransfer of food energy from the source inplants through a series of organisms withrepeated eating and being eaten is known asa food chain in an ecosystem.

� Food Web: Under natural conditions in thesame ecosystem, depending upon thevariety of organisms, there generallyoperate a number of linear food chains ata time. These chains are interlinked witheach other at several points. Thisinterlocking pattern of a number of food

chains forms a web-like arrangementknown as food-web.

� Productivity: The rate of production i.e.amount of organic matter accumulated inthe living component of an ecosystem inunit time is referred to as the productivityof the ecosystem. Primary Productivity isdefined as the rate at which radiant energyof sun is stored by photosynthetic andchemosynthetic activities of producers inthe form of organic substances, used as foodmaterials. The rates of energy storage atconsumer levels are referred to as SecondaryProductivity.

� Gross Primary Productivity: It is the totalrate of photosynthesis, including theorganic matter used up in respirationduring the period of measurement. This isalso called Total Photosynthesis or TotalAssimilation.

� Net Primary Productivity: It is the rate ofstorage of organic matter in plant tissue inexcess of that utilized in respiration byplants during the period of measurement.This is also called Apparent Photosynthesisor Net Assimilation.

� Net productivity: Net productivity of acommunity is the rate of storage of organicmatter not used by heterotrophs i.e. netprimary production minus heterotrophicconsumption, during the period underconsideration.

� Biogeochemical Cycles: More or lesscircular pathways, through which thechemical elements, including all the essentialelements of the protoplasm, circulate in thebiosphere from environment to organismsand back to the environment, are knownas the biogeochemical cycles.

� Ecological Niche: Ecological niche of anorganism include the physical spaceoccupied by it, its functional role in thecommunity i.e. trophic position, and itsposition in environment gradients oftemperature, moisture, pH of soil, etc. andthe conditions of existence. Organisms thatoccupy the same or similar ecological nichein different geographical regions are knownas Ecological Equivalents.

��


ECOSYSTEMCHRONICLEIAS ACADEMYA CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

The two components of nature, viz. organ-isms and their environment are not only com-plex and dynamic, but also interdependent,mutually reactive and inter-related. Ecologydeals with the various principles which governsuch relationships between organisms and theirenvironment.

Professor Eugene P. Odum (1913-2002), iswidely recognized as the “Father of EcosystemEcology”. His monumental book entitled Fun-damentals of Ecology (first published in 1953)revolutionized teaching of ecology world overas it presented a new framework of the subject.Haeckel first used the term ecology. He regardedthe ecology of an organism as the knowledge ofthe sum of the relations of organisms to the sur-rounding outer world and to organic and inor-ganic conditions of existence. After the introduc-tion of the term ecosystem in literature by A.Tansley in 1935, started the era of ecosystemapproach to ecology.

The various communities of living organisms(plants and animals) interact among themselvesas well as with their physical environment likesoil, air and water. The living organisms inter-act with one another through their food chainsin which one organism consumes another organ-ism. The living organisms like plants interactwith soil to get essential nutrients like nitrogen,phosphorus, etc, with air to get carbon dioxideand also with water bodies for carrying out theprocess of photosynthesis. Thus, the variouscommunities of living organisms like plants andanimals along with soil, air and water of thatregion form a self-subsisting or functional ambitof the living world. This functional unit or sys-tem made up of living and non-living compo-nents which is capable of independent existenceis called an ecosystem.

Definition: Tansley defined ecosystem as“the system resulting from the integration of allthe living and non-living factors of the environ-ment.” He further stated that “ the whole sys-tem includes not only the organism complex butalso the whole complex of physical factors form-

ing what we call the environment of the biome-the habitat factors in the widest sense. "It is thesystems so formed which-are basic units of na-ture on the face of the earth.”

Strahler has defined ecosystem as “the totalassemblage of components entering into the inter-actions of a group of organism”. He further elabo-rated that “to the geographer, ecosystems are thepart of the physical composition of the life layer.”

Ecosystem has also been defined as-“a unitthat includes all the organisms (biological fac-tors) in a given area interacting with the envi-ronment (physical factors) so that a flow of en-ergy leads to a clearly defined trophic (nutrientrequiring) structure, biotic diversity, and mate-rial cycles (i.e. exchange of materials betweenliving and non-living sectors).”

An ecosystem is an overall integration ofwhole mosaics of interacting organisms and theirenvironment. It is normally an open system witha continuous, but variable, influx and loss ofmaterial and energy. It is a basic, functional unitwith no limits of boundaries, consisting of bothbiotic and abiotic components interacting witheach other, both necessary for maintenance oflife upon earth. Thus an ecosystem representsthe highest level of ecological integration whichis energy-based and this functional unit is ca-pable of energy transformation, accumulationand circulation. Its main function in ecologicalsense is to emphasize obligatory relationships,interdependence and causal relations.

KINDS OF ECOSYSTEM

Ecosystems may be categorized as follows:

1. Natural Ecosystems: These operate bythemselves under natural conditions with-out any major interference by man. Basedupon the particular kind of habitat, theseare further divided as:

a) Terrestrial, as forest, grassland, desert, etc.

b) Aquatic, which may be further distin-guished as:


i) Freshwater, which may be lotic(running water as spring, stream, orrivers) or lentic (standing water aslake, pond, pools, swamp, etc.).

ii) Marine, such deep bodies as anocean or shallow ones as a sea orestuary, etc.

2. Artificial (man-engineered) ecosystems:these are maintained artificially by manwhere, by addition of energy and plannedmanipulations, natural balance is disturbedregularly. For example croplands likemaize, wheat, rice-fields, etc. where mantries to control the biotic community as wellas the physio-chemical environment, areartificial ecosystems.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF AN ECO-SYSTEM

The two major aspects of an ecosystem areits structure and its function.

By structure we mean

1. The composition of biological community,including species, numbers, biomass, lifehistory and distribution in space, etc.

2. The quantity and distribution of the non-living materials, such as nutrients, water,etc. and

3. The range or gradient of conditions of ex-istence, such as temperature, light, etc.

By function we mean

1. The rate of biological energy flow i.e., theproduction and respiration rates of thecommunity.

2. Rate of materials or nutrient cycle and

3. Biological or ecological regulation, includ-ing both regulation of organisms by envi-

ronment (photoperiodism etc.) and regula-tion of environment by the organism (ni-trogen fixing organisms etc.).

Structure of an Ecosystem

All the ecosystems are made up of two maincomponents i.e. Abiotic components and Bioticcomponents.

1. Abiotic component of an ecosystem in-cludes:

i) The amount of inorganic substances likecarbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen, waterand elements (P, S, C, N, H etc.) involvedin material cycles. The amount of theseinorganic substances, present at any giventime in ecosystem, is designated as theStanding State or Standing Quality.

ii) The amount and distribution of inor-ganic chemicals, such as chlorophyll,etc., and of organic materials, such asproteins, carbohydrates, lipids, etc.,present either in the biomass or in theenvironment i.e. Biochemical Structurethat links the biotic and abiotic compo-nents of the ecosystem.

iii) The physical factors or climatic factorslike light, temperature, pressure andhumidity.

2. Biotic component of an ecosystem is in-deed the trophic structure of any ecosys-tem, where living organisms are distin-guished on the basis of their nutritionalrelationships. From this trophic standpoint,an ecosystem has two components:

A. Autotrophic Component in which fixa-tion of light energy, use of simple inorganic sub-stances and build up of complex substances pre-dominate. The component is constituted mainlyby green plants, including photosynthetic bac-teria. To some lesser extent, chemosynthetic mi-crobes also contribute to the build up of organicmatter. Members of the autotrophic componentare known as Producers.

B. Heterotrophic Component in which uti-lization, rearrangement and decomposition ofcomplex materials predominate. The organismsinvolved are known as Consumers, as they con-sume the matter built up by the autotrophs. TheConsumers are further categorized as:


a) Macroconsumers: These are the consum-ers, which in an order as they occur in afood chain are Herbivores, Carnivores (orOmnivores). Herbivores are also knownas Primary Consumers. Secondary andTertiary Consumers, if present, are Car-nivores or Omnivores. They all arePhagotrophs which include chiefly ani-mals that ingest other organic and par-ticulate organic matter.

b) Microconsumers: These are popularlyknown as Decomposers. They areSaprotrophs (Osmotrophs) and includechiefly bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi.They breakdown complex compounds ofdead or living protoplasm, absorb some ofthe decomposed products and release inor-ganic nutrients in environment, makingthem available again to autotrophs.

The biotic component of any ecosystem maybe thought of as the Functional kingdom of na-ture, since they are based on the type of nutri-tion and the energy source used. The trophicstructure of an ecosystem is one kind of pro-ducer-consumer arrangement, where each“food” level is known as trophic level. Theamount of living material in different trophiclevels or in a component population is knownas the Standing Crop, a term applicable to both,plants as well as animals. The standing cropsmay be expressed in terms of

1. Number of organisms per unit area, or

2. Biomass i.e. organism mass in unit area,which can be measured as living weight,dry weight, ash-free dry weight or car-bon weight, or calories or any other con-venient unit suitable for comparativepurposes.

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

Trophic structure, i.e. the interaction of foodchain and the size metabolism relationship be-tween the linearly arranged various biotic com-ponents of an ecosystem is characteristic of eachtype of ecosystem. The trophic structure andfunction at successive trophic levels, i.e. produc-ers, herbivores, carnivores, may be showngraphically by means of ecological pyramidswhere the first or producer level constitutes thebase of the pyramid and the successive levels,the tiers making the apex.

Ecological pyramids are of three generaltypes-

1. Pyramid of numbers, showing the numberof individual organisms at each level.

2. Pyramid of biomass, showing the total dryweight and other suitable measures of thetotal amount of living matter, and

3. Pyramid of energy, showing the rate ofenergy flow and/or productivity atsuccessive trophic levels.

The pyramids of numbers and biomass maybe upright or inverted depending upon the na-ture of the food chain in the particular ecosys-tem, whereas pyramids of energy are alwaysupright.

1. Pyramid of Numbers: They show the re-lationship between producers, herbivores andcarnivores at successive trophic levels in termsof their number. In a grassland, the producers,which are mainly grasses, are always maximumin number. This number then shows a decreasetowards apex, as the primary consumers (herbi-vores) like rabbits, mice, etc. are lesser in num-ber than grasses; the secondary consumers,snakes and lizards are lesser in number than therabbits and mice. Finally, the top (tertiary) con-sumers, hawks or other birds are least in num-ber. Thus the pyramid becomes upright. Simi-larly, in a pond ecosystem, the producers, whichare mainly phytoplanktons as algae, bacteria, etc.are maximum in number; the herbivores, which


are small fishes, rotifers, etc. are lesser in num-ber than the producers; and the secondary con-sumers (carnivores), such as fish eating eachother, water beetles, etc. are lesser in numberthan the herbivores. Finally, the tertiary consum-ers, the bigger fishes are least in number. Similarupright pyramid can be observed in a forest eco-system also. However, in a parasitic food chainthe pyramid of number is always inverted. Thisis due to the fact that a single plant may supportthe growth of many herbivores and each herbi-vore in turn may provide nutrition to severalparasites, which again can support numeroushyper-parasites. Thus, from the producer to-

wards con-sumers, thenumber ofo r g a n i s m sg r a d u a l l yshows an in-crease, mak-ing the pyra-mid inverted.

Actuallythe pyramidsof numbersdo not give atrue picture

of the food chain as they are not very functional.They generally vary with different communitieswith different types of food chain in the same en-vironment. It becomes difficult to represent thewhole community on the same numerical scale(as in forests).

2. Pyramid of Biomass: They are compara-tively more fundamental, as they, instead of geo-metric factor, show the quantitative relationshipsof the standing crops. The pyramids of biomass

in grasslands and forests are upright as there isgenerally a gradual decrease in biomass of or-ganisms at successive levels from the producersto the top carnivores. However, in a pond as theproducers are small organisms, their biomass isleast; this value gradually shows an increase to-wards the apex of the pyramid, thus making thepyramid inverted in shape.

3. Pyramid of Energy: The pyramid of en-ergy gives the best picture of overall nature ofthe ecosystem. As against the pyramids of num-ber and biomass the shape of the pyramid ofenergy is always upright because in this the timefactor is always taken into account. The pyra-mid of energy represents the total quantity ofenergy unutilized by different trophic level or-ganisms of an ecosystem per unit area over a setperiod of time (usually per square meter peryear). In a terrestrial ecosystem, the quantity of


energy trapped by green plants in an area overa period say a year is highest compared to thatof organisms of other trophic levels and there-fore the base of the pyramid is broad. In aquaticsystem also, the population of phytoplanktonsquickly complete their life cycle and sets of newgeneration of crops of phytoplankton are formedevery few hours of day. The cumulative energycontent that these generations of phytoplanktonstrap in course of a year is certainly much morethan that of only a few generation of herbivorefishes in the corresponding time and space. Theenergy content of top carnivores is the least.Therefore, the pyramid of energy can never beof any other shape except upright pyramidal.

One way to calculate the energy transfer, isby measuring the energy at one trophic level andthen at the next. Calorie is a unit of measure usedfor energy. The energy transfer from one trophiclevel to the next is about 10%. For example, ifthere are 10,000 calories at one level, only 1,000are transferred to the next. This 10% energy andmaterial transfer rule can be depicted with anecological pyramid that looks like this:

This pyramid helps one visualize the fact thatin an ecological system there need to be manyproducing organisms at the bottom of the pyra-mid to be able to sustain just a couple of organ-isms at the top.

In the event of destruction of organisms atany level, the organism of next higher trophiclevel will automatically die for want of food (orsource of energy) and ultimately the uprightpyramidal shape is maintained.

FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM

From the operational viewpoint the livingand non-living components of ecosystem are sointerwoven in the fabric of nature that their sepa-ration from each other becomes practically verymuch difficult. Ecosystems possess a natural ten-dency to persist. This is made possible by a vari-ety of functions performed by the structural com-ponents. For instance, green leaves function assites of food production, and roots absorbs nu-trients from the soil. Herbivores perform thefunction of utilizing parts of the plant produc-tion and in turn, serve as food for carnivores.Decomposers carry out the function of breakingdown complex organic materials into simplerinorganic products, which can be used by theproducers. These functions are carried out in theecosystem through deliberately balanced and

controlled processes. For example, the processof photosynthesis is involved in food production,and that of decomposition, leads to release ofnutrients contained in the organic matter.

Knowledge of the rates at which differentprocesses occur in the ecosystem is necessary tounderstand the interrelations of the ecosystem’sstructure and function. The key functional as-pects of the ecosystem are:

1. Productivity and energy flow

2. Nutrient cycling; and

3. Development and stabilization.

Productivity of ecosystem

The productivity of an ecosystem refers tothe rate of production i.e. the amount of organicmatter accumulated in any unit time. Produc-tivity is of following types:

1. Primary Productivity. It is associated withthe producers which are autotrophic, mostof which are photosynthetic, and to a muchlesser extent the chemosynthetic microor-ganisms. These are the green plants, highermacrophytes as well as lower forms, thephytoplanktons and some photosyntheticbacteria. Primary productivity is defined as“the rate at which radiant energy is storedby photosynthetic and chemosynthetic ac-tivities of the producers.” Primary produc-tivity is further distinguished as:

(a) Gross Primary Productivity. It is the to-tal rate of photosynthesis including theorganic matter used up in respirationduring the measurement period. This isalso sometimes referred to as Total (Gross)Photosynthesis or Total Assimilation. Itdepends on the chlorophyll content. It isestimated in terms of either chlorophyllcontent as, Chl/g dry weight/unit area,or photosynthetic number i.e. amount ofCO2 fixed/g Chl/hour.

(b) Net primary Productivity. It is the rateof storage of organic matter in plant tis-sues in excess of the respiratory utiliza-tion by plants during the measurementperiod. This is thus the rate of increase ofbiomass and is also known as ApparentPhotosynthesis or Net assimilation. Thusnet primary productivity refers to balancebetween gross photosynthesis and respi-ration and other plant losses as death etc.


2. Secondary Productivity. It refers to the con-sumers or heterotrophs. These are the ratesof energy storage at consumer level. Sinceconsumers only utilize food material (al-ready produced) in their respiration, simplyconverting the food matter to different tis-sues by an overall process, secondary pro-ductivity is not divided into ‘gross’ and ‘net’amounts. Thus, some ecologists prefer to usethe term assimilation rather than productionat this level. Secondary productivity actu-ally remains mobile (i.e. keeps moving fromone organism to another) and does not livein situ like the primary productivity.

3. Net Productivity. It refers to the rate of stor-age of organic matter not used by the heterotro-phs (consumers) i.e. equivalent to net primaryproduction minus consumption by the het-erotrophs during the unit period, as a seasonor year, etc. It is thus the rate of increase ofbiomass of the primary producers which hasbeen left over by the consumers. Net produc-tivity is generally expressed as production ofC g/m2/day which may then be consolidatedon month, season or year basis.

FOOD CHAINS IN ECOSYSTEM

The unidirectional transfer of food energyfrom the producers, through a series of organ-isms (herbivores to carnivores to decomposers)with repeated eating and being eaten, is knownas food chain. Producers utilize the radiant en-ergy of sun which is transformed to chemical

form, ATP during photosynthesis. Thus greenplants occupy, in any food chain, the first trophic(nutritional) level- the producers level, and arecalled the primary producers. The energy, asstored in food matter manufactured by greenplants, is then utilized by the plant eaters- theherbivores, which constitute the second trophiclevel- the primary consumers level, and are calledthe primary consumers (herbivores). Herbivoresin turn are eaten by the carnivores, which con-stitute the third trophic level- the secondary con-sumers level, and are called the secondary con-sumers (carnivores). These in turn may be eatenstill by other carnivores at tertiary consumerslevel i.e. by the tertiary consumers (carnivores).Some organisms are omnivores eating the pro-ducers as well as the carnivores at their lowerlevels in the food chain.

A number of food chains are interconnectedby organisms which occur in more than onefood chain. All organisms, including man needfood which provides energy for growth, main-tenance and reproduction. A part of the energyprovided by food is used for biological processesand the rest is dissipated to the environment asheat energy by the process of respiration. Undi-gested food is excreted and enters the detrituspath. Now, plants can be eaten by a rat. The rat,in turn, can be eaten by a cat and finally, the catcan be eaten by a dog. So, we find that there is asequence in which one organism eats up theother organisms to fill its belly. The sequence ofliving organisms in a community, in which oneorganism consumes another organism to trans-fer food energy, is called a Food Chain.

FOOD WEB

A food web is a graphical description of feed-ing relationships among species in an ecologicalcommunity, that is, of who eats whom. It is also


a means of showing how energy and materialsflow through a community of species as a resultof these feeding relationships. Typically, speciesare connected by lines or arrows called “links”,and the species are sometimes referred to as“nodes” in food web diagrams.

The pioneering animal ecologist Charles Elton(1927) introduced the concept of the food web(which he called food cycle) to general ecologicalscience. As he described it: “The herbivores areusually preyed upon by carnivores, which get theenergy of the sunlight at third-hand, and theseagain may be preyed upon by other carnivores,and so on, until we reach an animal which hasno enemies, and which forms, as it were, a termi-nus on this food cycle. There are, in fact, chainsof animals linked together by food, and all de-pendent in the long run upon plants. We refer tothese as ‘food-chains’ and to all the food chainsin a community as the ‘food-cycle.

A food web differs from a food chain in thatthe latter shows only a portion of the food webinvolving a simple, linear series of species (e.g.,predator, herbivore, plant) connected by feed-ing links. A food web aims to depict a more com-plete picture of the feeding relationships, and canbe considered a bundle of many interconnectedfood chains occurring within the community. Allspecies occupying the same position within afood chain comprise a trophic level within thefood web. For instance, all of the plants in thefood web comprise the first or “primary pro-ducer” tropic level, all herbivores comprise thesecond or “primary consumer” trophic level, andcarnivores that eat herbivores comprise the thirdor “secondary consumer” trophic level. Addi-tional levels, in which carnivores eat other car-nivores, comprise a tertiary trophic level.

ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEM

At the base of an ecosystem, primary pro-ducers are actively converting solar energy intostored chemical energy. Photosynthesis is theprocess of converting solar energy, water andcarbon dioxide into carbohydrates and oxygen.The process occurs in two steps: first light en-ergy is absorbed by chlorophyll to split a mol-ecule of water releasing hydrogen and oxygen.The second step uses the energy to convert car-bon dioxide to carbohydrates.

The carbohydrate (C6H12O6) can be convertedinto starch and stored by the plant. Carbohy-drate can be combined with other sugar mol-

ecules to make cellulose, the basic structuralmaterial of a plant.

Oddly enough, of all the solar radiation strik-ing a plant, only about 1 per cent is used in pho-tosynthesis. The rate of photosynthesis is depen-dent on several things, including the amount oflight received. As solar radiation increases, therate of photosynthesis increases. For many plantsthere is an upper limit to the rate of photosynthe-sis. In some plants, as incident solar radiation in-creases, the rate of photosynthesis levels off, ormay decrease. The increasing solar energy causesthe plant to be too hot and the need to cool theplant increases. As a result, transpiration takesover as the dominate plant process. Transpira-tion, the loss of water from plants, acts to cool theplant by releasing latent energy. Adequate sup-plies of water, carbon dioxide and the availabil-ity of nutrients in the soil affect photosynthesis.

Respiration

While photosynthesis builds stored chemicalenergy in a plant, respiration is the process of“burning” stored chemical energy, basicallythrough oxidation, for maintaining plant me-tabolism. During respiration, carbohydrates com-bine with oxygen and are reduced to carbon di-oxide, water and heat.

While photosynthesis operates only duringday when sunshine is available, respiration goeson both night and day. Plant growth occurs solong as photosynthesis exceeds respiration.

Two laws of physics are important in thestudy of energy flow through ecosystems.

The first law of thermodynamics states thatenergy cannot be created or destroyed; it can onlybe changed from one form to another. Energy forthe functioning of an ecosystem comes from theSun. Solar energy is absorbed by plants whereinit is converted to stored chemical energy.


The second law of thermodynamics statesthat whenever energy is transformed, there is aloss of energy through the release of heat. Thisoccurs when energy is transferred betweentrophic levels as illustrated in a food web. Whenone animal feeds off another, there is a loss ofenergy in the process. Additional loss of energyoccurs during respiration and movement. Hence,more and more energy is lost as one moves upthrough trophic levels. This fact lends more cre-dence to the advantages of a vegetarian diet. Forexample, 1350 kilograms of corn and soybeansis capable of supporting one person if convertedto beef. However, 1350 kilograms of soybeansand corn utilized directly without converting tobeef will support 22 people.

To summarize: In the flow of energy and inor-ganic nutrients through the ecosystem, a fewgeneralizations can be made:

1. The ultimate source of energy (for most eco-systems) is the sun.

2. The ultimate fate of energy in ecosystems isfor it to be lost as heat.

3. Energy and nutrients are passed from organ-ism to organism through the food chain asone organism eats another.

4. Decomposers remove the last energy from theremains of organisms.

5. Inorganic nutrients are cycled, energy is not.

Ecological Efficiencies

Various ratios are used to express the efficiencywith which organisms exploit their food resourcesand convert the food into biomass. Commonly,such ratios are calculated by relating output toinput of energy (both expressed in same units) atvarious points along pathways of energy flow.These ratios are multiplied with 100 to expressthe efficiency as percentage. At the level of pro-ducer, the photosynthetic efficiency and net pro-duction efficiency deserve consideration.

The percentage of energy transferred fromone trophic level to another is called ecologicalefficiency. The efficiency of energy transfer fromone trophic level to another varies from 5% to

20% depending on the types of organisms andenvironmental conditions. In the terrestrial eco-system, only 10% of the plant energy is trans-formed to herbivores, rest 90% escape in the formof heat. That means on an average, only 10% ofenergy is transferred from one trophic level toanother.

The ability of herbivores and carnivores touse the food energy ingested varies from onespecies to another. Important efficiency mea-sures for consumers include assimilation effi-ciency (at one trophic level) and ecological effi-ciency or trophic level efficiency (between twotrophic levels).

BIOLOGICAL MAGNIFICATION

Modern agricultural activities use a largenumber of toxic chemicals like pesticides,weedicides and rodenticides, to protect the cropplants from pests and diseases. Some of thesepoisonous chemicals mix up with soil and waterand are absorbed by the plants from the soil alongwith water and other minerals. In this way, thepoisonous chemical substances enter the foodchain right from the producer level. When manand other animals eat these plants or their prod-ucts, the poisonous chemical substances are trans-ferred to their bodies. During the process of foodtransfer through trophic levels, these harmfulchemicals get concentrated at each successivelevel. The increase in concentration of harmfulchemical substances like pesticides in the body ofliving organisms at each trophic level of a foodchain is called biological magnification.

In 1992, at lot of DDT was put in the LakeMichigan in North America to kill the mosqui-toes and eliminate malaria. After about 20 years,it was found that the number of pelican birdswhich lived around this lake was decreasing veryrapidly. The scientists explained the abnormaldisease in the pelican population on the basis ofbio-magnification of the DDT pesticide in thebodies of pelicans. Due to the presence of DDT,the eggs laid down by them had a very thin outershell. Due to this, even before the young ones ofpelicans could hatch, the thin shell of the eggbroke off, which resulted in the decrease of peli-can population.

��



BIODIVERSITY

Biological diversity or biodiversity refers tonumbers, variety, and variability of livingorganisms and ecosystems. The term'biodiversity' includes all terrestrial marine, andother aquatic organisms. It also covers diversitywithin species, between species, as well as thevariation among ecosystems. It is concerned alsowith their complex ecological interrelationships.

Biodiversity boosts ecosystem productivitywhere each species, no matter how small, havean important role to play. For example,

� A larger number of plant species means agreater variety of crops.

� Greater species diversity ensures naturalsustainability for all life forms.

� Healthy ecosystems can better withstandand recover from a variety of disasters.

Types of Biodiversity

Biological diversity deals with the degree ofnature's variety in the biosphere. This variety canbe observed at three levels; the genetic variabilitywithin a species, the variety of species within acommunity, and the organization of species inan area where distinctive plant and animalcommunities constitute ecosystem diversity.

I. Genetic Diversity: It refers to variationof genes within species. Each member of anyanimal or plant species differs widely from otherindividuals in its genetic makeup because of thelarge number of combinations possible in thegenes that give every individual specificcharacteristic. Thus, for example, each humanbeing is very different from all others. This geneticvariability is essential for a healthy breedingpopulation of a species. If the number of breedingindividuals is reduced, the dissimilarity of geneticmakeup is reduced and in-breeding occurs.Eventually this can lead to the extinction of thespecies. The diversity in wild species forms the'gene pool' from which our crops and domesticanimals have been developed over thousands ofyears. Today the variety of nature's bounty is

being further harnessed by using wild relativesof crop plants to create new varieties of moreproductive crops and to breed better domesticanimals. Modern biotechnology manipulatesgenes for developing better types of medicinesand a variety of industrial products.

II. Species diversity: The number of speciesof plants and animals that are present in a regionconstitutes its species diversity. This diversity isseen both in natural ecosystems and inagricultural ecosystems. Some areas are richerin species than others. Natural undisturbedtropical forests have much greater speciesrichness than plantations developed by the ForestDepartment for timber production. A naturalforest ecosystem provides a large number of non-wood products that local people depend on suchas fruit, fuel wood, fodder, fibre, gum, resin andmedicines. Timber plantations do not provide thelarge variety of goods that are essential for localconsumption.

In the long-term the economic sustainablereturns from non-wood forest products is saidto be greater than the returns from felling a forestfor its timber. Thus the value of a natural forest,with all its species richness is much greater thana plantation. Modern intensive agriculturalecosystems have a relatively lower diversity ofcrops than traditional agro-pastoral farmingsystems where multiple crops were planted.Areas that are rich in species diversity are called'hotspots' of diversity.

The following factors determine the degreeof species diversity in an ecosystem orcommunity:

a) Habitat stress: species diversity is low inhabitats under any stress such as harshclimate or pollution.

b) Geographical isolation: species diversity is lessin isolated regions like an island. If a speciesin an island disappears due to random events,it cannot be easily replaced. Organisms fromthe mainland have difficulties in reaching andcolonizing the island.


c) Dominance by one species: the dominantspecies consumes a disproportionate shareof the resources. This does not allow manyspecies to evolve and flourish.

d) Edge effect: there is always greater speciesdiversity in transition area, where two ormore ecosystems overlap.

e) Geological history: old and stableecosystems such as rain forests that havenot experienced many changes have highspecies diversity. An ecosystem like thearctic has undergone many changes andthis does not allow any species to establishthemselves.

III. Ecosystem Diversity: There are a largevariety of different ecosystems on earth, whichhave their own complement of distinctive interlinked species based on the differences in thehabitat. Ecosystem diversity can be described fora specific geographical region or a political entitysuch as a country, a State or a taluka. Distinctiveecosystems include landscapes such as forests,grasslands, deserts, mountains, etc., as well asaquatic ecosystems such as rivers, lakes, and thesea. Each region also has man-modified areassuch as farmland or grazing pastures. Anecosystem is referred to as 'natural' when it isrelatively undisturbed by human activities or'modified' when it is changed to other types ofuses, such as farmland or urban areas.Ecosystems are most natural in wilderness areas.If natural ecosystems are overused or misusedtheir productivity eventually decreases and theyare then said to be degraded. India isexceptionally rich in ecosystem diversity.

MEASURING OF BIODIVERSITY

Purvis & Hector (2000) describe threefacets of biodiversity that can be measured:

� Numbers: e.g. the number of genes,populations, species or taxa in an area.

� Evenness: a site containing 1000 speciesmay not seem very diverse if 99.9% of thespecies are the same.

� Difference: some pairs populations, speciesor taxa may be very similar whilst othersare very different. For example, ifpopulations within a species are verydifferent they may be considered asdifferent sub-species, management units or

evolutionary significant units. Somedifferences may be considered to be moreimportant than others, for example,ecological differences between species maybe important for ecosystem function. All ofthese kinds of differences are likely to be atleast partly reflected by phylogeneticdiversity among organisms, which is thesum total of the branch lengths in theevolutionary tree (phylogeny) that links theorganisms together. If you sample thephylogeny in different places you will finddifferent things.

Although biodiversity can be measured in lotsof different ways the most commonly usedmeasure is that of species richness because:

a. Species often keep their genes to themselvesand thus can have independentevolutionary trajectories and uniquehistories; it thus makes biological sense tomeasure species richness rather than ahigher taxonomic grouping.

b. It is often easier to count the number ofspecies compared to other measures ofbiodiversity. Humans tend to be able torecognize species and these are the unitstypically used in folk knowledge, practicalmanagement and political discourse.Humans can visualize variation inbiodiversity as variation in species richness.

c. There is a substantial body of informationalready available on species, for example,in museums and herbaria.

d. Species richness can act as a 'surrogate' forother measures of biodiversity. In general aslong as the number of species involved ismoderate, greater numbers of species willtend to have more genetic diversity and havegreater ecological diversity as more niches,habitats or biomes will be represented.

IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY

Environmental services from species andecosystems are essential at global, regional andlocal levels. Some environmental services arediscussed below:

a) Ecosystem Services

� Protection of water resources: Thenatural vegetation cover in catchments


areas helps in maintaining hydrologicalcycles, regulating and stabilizing runoffand acts as buffer against extreme eventslike flood and drought. It also helps toregulate underground water table andprevents its drying up. Thus a pointerto degradation of habitats is thedepletion of ground water levels. InIndia, the last 25 years have seen a declineof water level by 30 feet in the entire easterncoast and can be reasoned for theoccurrence of frequent floods and drought.

� Soil formation and protection: Bio-diversity also helps maintenance of soilstructure and increases the moistureretention capacity as well as nutrient levelof soil. No sustained effort to preserve theecology has resulted in denudation andsoil erosion. Thus, salinization of soils,leaching of nutrients, top soil erosion, etc.lead to overall decline in soil productivity.Trees also help in soil formation, their rootsystem enables deep penetration of waterand transport mineral nutrients to surface.

� Nutrient storage and cycling: Nutrientrecycling is an essential event concernedwith maintenance of the ecosystem.Biological diversity is inevitable for this.Microorganisms in the soil, bydecomposing dead and decayed wastes,replenish the soil nutrients. The functionof nitrate bacteria and that of a nitrifyingbacteria being different, diversity of themicroorganisms is also essential.

� Pollution, breakdown and absorption:The many pollutants, including sewage,garbage, oil spills etc. are all deleteriousto the balance of the ecosystem. Thediverse components of ecosystem, withspecial mention of the decomposers,break down and assimilate these wastes.

� Climatic Stability: Vegetation influencesclimate both at the micro and macrolevels. Forests maintain rainfall byrecycling water vapour steadily intoatmosphere turbulence. There happensan increase in temperature due toincrease in levels of CO2 in atmosphere.Only trees can absorb CO2 and maintaina stable CO2-O2 balance.

� Maintenance of ecosystems: Theanimal-plant interrelationship is essentialto allow survival, and to maintainbalance between living things and theneedful resources. Thus vegetation isintegral to maintenance of water andmoisture levels as well. The web of life isso intricate that removal or disturbanceof one part of the ecosystem could affectthe smooth functioning of many of itsother components.

b) Biological Resources

� Food Resources: Heterotrophs dependon autotrophs, the primary producersof food. Only through conservation offloral biodiversity can global foodcapacity be met with since nutritionalvalue is different for different groups.Further, diversity of food crops increasesopportunities for enhancing agriculturalproductivity.

� Medicine: The Ayurvedic system ofmedication is entirely dependent on thebiodiversity of the flora. Diverse plantshave diverse medicinal values. Plantproducts are immense ranging fromQuinine, Cinchona, Tylorebrine, to theVine Tylophra (for the treatment ofserious lymphoid leukemia). Thus, toprovide resource of searching newmedically active compounds, at leastsome part of the nature has to be leftundisturbed. The Silent Valley Forestsof Kerala are preserved since it wasknown to hoard diverse endemicvarieties with immense medicinal value.

� Wood requirements: Wood is a basiccommodity and is harvested from thewild. The timber industry forms asignificant part of our modern economy.Hard woods, soft woods etc. are put toentirely different uses; others are usedas fuels, for paper manufacturing, etc.So to meet different needs, bio-diversityhas to be maintained.

c) Social Benefits

Nature serves as the best laboratory forstudies. It's hard to duplicate strictly a naturalenvironment. So, research, education and suchextension works can progress only with the help


of nature and its inherent biodiversity. Unalteredhabitants help us to evolve indexes to formulatedifferent management levels.

� Recreation and tourism: The aestheticqualities of natural habitats are a resultof its biological diversity. No two spotsin a forest can exactly be alike in allaspects. Since time immemorial naturehas satisfied recreational pursuits of thehumans. The gifted nature and the richbio-diversity have made India one of theimportant tourist attractions of themodern world.

� Cultural Value: There are ampleevidences to prove that human culture hasco-evolved with the environment. For thisreason itself, conservation of bio-diversityis important for man's cultural identity.For, it has been found that nature hasalways provided inspirational, aestheticand educational needs of the people.Nature also contributes to our emotionaland spiritual well being.

LOSS OF BIO-DIVERSITY

Extinction is a natural event. But humanshave increased the species extinction rate by asmuch as 1,000 times over background ratestypical over the planet's history. 10-30% ofmammal, bird, and amphibian species arecurrently threatened with extinction.

In modern era, failure to consider theimportance of nature has resulted in the threatto bio-diversity as a whole. There exists an overalllack of any sustained effort to preserve theecosystem. As genetic diversity erodes ourcapacity to maintain and enhance agriculturalforest and livestock productivity decreases. Dueto human actions, biodiversity is threatened withdestruction to an extent rarely seen in earthhistory. We can attribute the loss of species tothe accelerating transformation of the earth bya growing human population. We appropriateroughly half of the world's net primaryproduction and most available fresh water, andwe harvest virtually all of the availableproductivity of the oceans. No wonder thatspecies are disappearing and ecosystems arebeing destroyed. Apart from population growththe Millennium Ecosystem Assessment identifieshabitat change, climate change, invasive species,

over-exploitation and pollution as the primarydrivers leading to loss of biodiversity.

a) Habitat change

Humans have had an effect on every habitat onEarth, particularly due to the conversion of land foragriculture. Cultivated systems (areas where at least30% of the landscape is in croplands, shiftingcultivation, confined livestock production, orfreshwater aquaculture) now cover one quarter ofEarth's terrestrial surface. Habitat loss also occursin coastal and marine systems, though these changesare less well documented. Trawling of the seabed,for instance, can significantly reduce the diversityof benthic habitats.

b) Climate change

Observed recent changes in climate, especiallywarmer regional temperatures, have already hadsignificant impacts on biodiversity and ecosystems,including causing changes in species distributions,population sizes, the timing of reproduction ormigration events, and an increase in the frequencyof pest and disease outbreaks. By the end of thetwenty-first century, climate change and its impactsare likely to be the dominant direct driver ofbiodiversity loss and changes in ecosystem servicesglobally.

c) Invasive Species

The spread of invasive alien species has increasedbecause of increased trade and travel. Whileincreasingly there are measures to control some ofthe pathways of invasive species, for example,through quarantine measures and new rules on thedisposal of ballast water in shipping, severalpathways are not adequately regulated, particularlywith regard to introduction into freshwater systems.

d) Overexploitation

For marine systems, the dominant direct driverof change globally has been overfishing. Demand forfish as food for people and as feed for aquacultureproduction is increasing, resulting in increased riskof major, long-lasting collapses of regional marinefisheries. 50% of the world's commercial marinefisheries are fully exploited whilst 25% are beingoverexploited. For example, the Atlantic cod


stocks off the east coast of Newfoundlandcollapsed in 1992, forcing the closure of thefishery, the depleted stocks may not recover evenif harvesting is significantly reduced oreliminated

e) Pollution (especially nutrient loading)

Since 1950, human mediated increases innitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, and othernutrients (nutrient loading) has emerged as oneof the most important drivers of ecosystemchange in terrestrial, freshwater, and coastalecosystems, and this driver is projected toincrease substantially in the future. For example,humans now produce more biologically availablenitrogen than is produced by all naturalpathways combined. Aerial deposition of reactivenitrogen into natural terrestrial ecosystems,especially temperate grasslands, shrub-lands,and forests, leads directly to lower plantdiversity; excessive levels of reactive nitrogen inwater bodies, including rivers and otherwetlands, frequently leads to algal blooms andeutrophication in inland waters and coastalareas. Similar problems have resulted fromphosphorus, the use of which has tripledbetween 1960 and 1990. Nutrient loading willbecome an increasingly severe problem,particularly in developing countries andparticularly in East and South Asia.

Some case Studies:

� Kailadevi Wildlife Sanctuary - SawaiMadhopur, Rajashtan

While conservation efforts are associatedwith conflicts between villagers and ForestOfficials in most Protected Areas across thecountry, the Kailadevi Wildlife Sanctuary inRajasthan has involved local communityinitiatives for conservation and regeneration. TheSanctuary was initiated in 1983, over 674 sq kmforming a part of the 1334 sq km RanthamboreTiger Reserve. It is located within the Karauliand Sapotra blocks of Sawai Madhopur district.The primary occupation of the predominantMeena and Gujjar communities is pastoralismand subsistence agriculture. Pressures on thesanctuary included migrant grazers known asthe Rabaris, who came from the Mewar regionof Rajasthan with herds of over 150,000 sheep.Other pressures were from exploitation of timber

and fuelwood and mining. The threat posed bythe migrant grazers spurred the formation of the"Baragaon ki Panchayat" in 1990, which in turninitiated a 'Bhed Bhagao Andolan'.

The Forest Department supported thevillagers in the formation of Forest ProtectionCommittees and Van Suraksha Samitis. Thebenefits of involving local people in protectionof their resources were obvious. Illegal felling waschecked. The use of forest resources for local usewas monitored. The Forest ProtectionCommittees (FPCs) were also successful instopping the mining in the Sanctuary. Mining isnow banned in the Sanctuary. The people notonly protect their forests but also use theirresources judiciously.

� Kokkare Bellur - Karnataka: Co-existence(Man and Wildlife)

The pelican, which is an endangered speciesbreeds in large numbers at Kokkare Bellur whichis one of the ten known breeding sites in India.Kokkare Bellur is a village in Karnataka inSouthern India. In December every year,hundreds of spot billed pelicans, painted storks,ibis and other birds migrate to this area toestablish breeding colonies on the tall tamarindtrees in the centre of the village. The local peoplehave protected the birds, believing that they bringgood luck with regard to rain and crops. Thevillagers collect a rich supply of the naturalfertilizer that collects below the nests - the guano.The droppings of fish-eating birds are rich innitrates.

The owners of the trees inhabited by the birdsdig deep pits under the trees, into which theguano falls. Silt from nearby lakes and pondsare mixed with the guano which is used in theirfields and sold as fertilizer. They have nowplanted trees around their homes to encouragenesting.

EFFECTS OF LOSS OF BIO-DIVERSITY

Extinction has become frequent and manyspecies are disappearing without even beingdocumented. Species are generally not beingdescribed as extinct till they have not beenspotted for many years. According to a recentstudy by the zoological survey of India, thecheetah, the pink headed duck and themountain quail have already become extinct in


the last decade and the brown antlered deer,hispid hare etc., are feared to be in a criticalspecies status. The fate of its floral diversityfollows the same suit.

A. Loss of genetic diversity: it imperilsagriculture. The popularity of the hybridsamong growers results in total neglect ofits wild relatives, which finally die out.Some varieties of rice were susceptible tograssy stunt virus. When this diseaseassumed epidemic proportions, searchbegan for its wild relative, seeking resistantgenes. Only a wild variety, oryzanivarafrom U.P., had the necessary genes. Thisproves the significance of conservation ofgenetic resources. Some 492 geneticallydistinct populations of tree species areendangered worldwide.

B. Loss of cultural diversity: the loss of bothgenetic and ecosystem diversities result ina loss of cultural diversity. As new strainsand systems are introduced, they result inan overall change, the extinction of manyspecies embedded in religion, mythologyand folklore etc. Large animals in highertropic levels with slow rates of populationgrowth, with longer gestation period aremore susceptible to extinction due to habitatloss. The alteration of the habitat results inmass extinction of particularly the endemicspecies. Great auck and stellars sea coware examples. Species with less population,whether at higher or low tropic levels, aremore prone to extinction due to habitat loss.Large species with high metabolic demand,occupying large habitat, with highly specificfood and living requirements, species withnarrow dispersal ability and low rates ofreproduction, lesser level of adaptabilityetc., are more prone to extinction.

C. Ecosystem breakdown: the loss of a speciescan have deleterious effects on theremaining species in an ecosystem. The lossof even one species can ruin an entire forestecosystem of plants and animals. Theanimals that depended on this vanishedspecies as prey have now lost their foodsource. In turn, the animals that it fed onhave lost a predator, and these species oftenundergo population explosions which aredevastating for the plants or animals thatthey feed on. This cascade effect occurs

when local extinction of one speciessignificantly alters the population size ofother species. The entire ecosystem cancollapse in this manner, and is thereforeprevented from performing its usual"ecosystem services", a utilitarian term forthe natural processes which provide richsoil, clean water, and the air we breathe.

The species, whose presence or absence hasa profound effect on the rest of a naturalcommunity, is called a key-stone species.While a keystone predator limits its preypopulation, key-stone mutually beneficialinteractions and are affected by thediversity of its partners. Key-stone speciesdo not enjoy equal status in all ecosystems.One serving this role may not be a key-stone in other ecosystems. It is importantto determine the ideal key-stone before anyconservation attempts are employed.

D. Food insecurity: biodiversity underpins thehealth of the planet and has a direct impacton all our lives. Put simply, reducedbiodiversity means millions of people facea future where food supplies are morevulnerable to pests and disease and wherewater is in irregular or short supply.

E. Economic impact : the loss of plant speciesalso means the loss of unknown economicpotential, as extinct plants can hardly beharvested for food crops, fibres, medicines, andother products that forests, especiallyrainforests, provide. Thousands of small plants,insects and other less conspicuous creaturesare vanishing before they are even discovered,but it is often these small, less spectacularspecies which have the greatest potential"usefulness" to humans. Also, loss ofbiodiversity would imply monetary loss interms of decline in natural and wildlife tourism.

F. Impact on marine ecosystems: human-dominated marine ecosystems areexperiencing accelerating loss ofpopulations and species, with largelyunknown consequences. Overall, rates ofresource collapse have increased andrecovery potential, stability and waterquality have decreased exponentially withdeclining diversity. Restoration of


biodiversity, in contrast, would increaseproductivity fourfold and decreasevariability by 21%, on an average. We canconclude that marine biodiversity loss isincreasingly impairing the ocean's capacityto provide food, maintain water quality andrecover from perturbations.

Biodiversity interacts with our life majorly.We would not survive without it. If ourearth's biodiversity gets too damaged wecould lose our fresh water causing largerwater restrictions. There would be morebushfires affecting our lives, home andproperty. It would spread tropical diseasesand parasites. There will be a large spreadof weeds, pests and bugs. It will damageor destroy our coastal areas and beaches.There will be a loss of rainforests andjungles causing more deserts.

BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

The ever increasing loss of bio-wealth hasposed serious threat to the very existence ofmankind. If this trend of bio depletion continues,one quarter of the world's species may be goneby the year 2050. Desertification, collapse infisheries production, tropical deforestation, etc.are some of the ghastly acts threateningbiodiversity.

Biodiversity sounds like it has something todo with the pandas and the tigers and thetropical rain forests. It does, but it is somethingeven bigger and more than that, bigger than asingle species or a single ecosystem. It is thewhole of life-from the microscopic creepy-crawlies to the elephants and condors. It is allthe habitats that support life - the Tundra, thePrairies, the Swamps and the tropical forests.

Biodiversity cannot be maintained byprotecting few charismatic mega fauna in a zoo,or by preserving a few greenbelts or even largenational parks. Biodiversity can maintain itself,however, without human attention or express,without zoo keepers, park rangers, foresters orrefrigerated gene banks. All it needs is to be leftalone. But, as evolutionary process is a slowphenomenon and with the ever increasingpopulation and pressing economic problem,biological impoverishment has become a problemof global dimensions. There is hardly a place lefton earth where people do not log, pave, spray,drain, flood, graze, burn, drill, spill or dump.

One of the most pressing environmentalissues today is the conservation of bio-diversity.The challenge is for nations, governmentagencies, organizations and individuals toprotect and enhance biological diversity, whilecontinuing to meet people's needs for naturalresources. This challenge exists from local toglobal scales. If not met, future generations willlive in a biologically impoverished world andperhaps one that is less capable of producingdesired resources as well.

Conserving biological diversity involvesrestoring, protecting, conserving or enhancing thevariety of life in an area so that the abundanceand distribution of species and communitiesprovide for continued existence and normalecological functioning, including adaptation andextinction. This demands an urgent attention forthe conservation of biosphere.

A productive and stable agriculture requiresgenetic diversity, on-farm. Genetically diversecrop varieties enable farmers to fit their croppingsystem to heterogeneous conditions, to enhancethe food security of their households and toexploit a range of crop products.

The Global Biodiversity Strategy sets out cer-tain principles to guide planning and actionfor conserving biodiversity:

1. Every form of life is unique, and warrantsrespect from humanity.

2. Biodiversity conservation is an investmentthat yields substantial local, national, andglobal benefits.

3. The cost and benefits of biodiversityconservation should be shared moreequitably among nations and among peoplewithin nations.

4. As part of the larger effort to achievesustainable development, conservingbiodiversity requires fundamental changesin patterns and practices of economicdevelopment worldwide.

5. Increased funding for biodiversityconservation will not, by itself, slowbiodiversity loss. Policy and institutionalreforms are needed to create the conditionsin which increased funding can be effective.

6. Priorities for biodiversity conservation differwhen viewed from local, national, and


global perspectives: all are legitimate, andshould be taken into account.

7. Biodiversity conservation can be sustainedonly if public awareness and concern aresubstantially heightened, and if policy-makers have access to reliable informationupon which to base policy choices.

Conservation can broadly be divided into twotypes:

� In-situ: It is on-site conservation or theconservation of genetic resources in naturalpopulations of plant or animal species, suchas forest genetic resources in naturalpopulations of tree species. It is the processof protecting an endangered plant or animalspecies in its natural habitat, either byprotecting or cleaning up the habitat itself,or by defending the species from predators.

� Ex-situ: The conservation of elements ofbiodiversity out of the context of theirnatural habitats is referred to as ex-situconservation. Zoos, botanical gardens andseed banks are all example of ex-situconservation.

In-situ conservation of BIO-DIVERSITYincludes:

a) Biosphere reserves: Biosphere reserves areareas of terrestrial and coastal ecosystemspromoting solutions to reconcile theconservation of biodiversity with itssustainable use. They are internationallyrecognized, nominated by nationalgovernments and remain under sovereignjurisdiction of the states where they arelocated. Biosphere reserves serve in someways as 'living laboratories' for testing outand demonstrating integrated managementof land, water and biodiversity.

Each biosphere reserve is intended to fulfil 3basic functions, which are complementary andmutually reinforcing:

� a conservation function - to contribute tothe conservation of landscapes, ecosystems,species and genetic variation;

� a development function - to foster economicand human development which is socioculturally and ecologically sustainable;

� A logistic function - to provide support forresearch, monitoring, education andinformation exchange related to local,national and global issues of conservationand development.

Biosphere reserves are organized into 3interrelated zones:

i. Core Areas: These areas are securelyprotected sites for conserving biologicaldiversity, monitoring minimally disturbedecosystems, and undertaking non-destructive research and other low-impactuses (such as education).

ii. Buffer Zones: These areas must be clearlyidentified, and usually surround or adjointhe Core Areas. Buffer Zones may be usedfor cooperative activities compatible withsound ecological practices, includingenvironmental education, recreation,ecotourism and applied and basic research.

iii. Transition, or Cooperation, Zones: Theseareas may contain towns, farms, fisheries,and other human activities and are theareas where local communities,management agencies, scientists, non-governmental organizations, culturalgroups, economic interests, and otherstakeholders work together to manage andsustainably develop the area's resources.

b) National parks: A national park is a reserveof natural or semi-natural land, declaredor owned by a government, which isrestricted from most development and isset aside for human recreation andenvironmental protection.

A national park was deemed to be a place


� With one or several ecosystems notmaterially altered by human exploitationand occupation, where plant and animalspecies, geomorphologic sites and habitatsare of special scientific, educative andrecreative interest or which contain anatural landscape of great beauty.

� The highest competent authority of thecountry has taken steps to prevent oreliminate exploitation or occupation as soonas possible in the whole area and toeffectively enforce the respect of ecological,geomorphological, or aesthetic featureswhich have led to its establishment.

� Visitors are allowed to enter, under specialconditions, for inspirational, educative,cultural, and recreative purposes.

c) Wildlife sanctuaries: An area, usually innatural condition, which is reserved (set aside)by a governmental or private agency for theprotection of particular species of animalsduring part or all of the year. An areadesignated for the protection of wild animals,within which hunting and fishing is eitherprohibited or strictly controlled. It ismaintained by the state government. The firstwildlife sanctuary was the Vedanthangal BirdSanctuary near Madras, set up in 1878, whichmerely formalised the traditional protectionafforded by villagers for pelicans, herons andother birds breeding at Vedanthangal. Anothersuch sanctuary was set up at Ranganathittunear Mysore, in 1942, under British rule.

d) Wetlands conservation: Wetlands are sub-merged or water saturated lands, natural andman-made, permanent or temporary, withwater that is static or flowing, fresh, brack-ish, salty, including areas of marine water,the depth of which at low tide does notexceed six metres.

The wetlands maintain conditions vital forecological processes at landscape level,integrating both aquatic and terrestrial habitat(ecotone). In addition to providing critical habitatfor threatened and endangered species forbreeding, feeding and migration, they supportperpetuation of species of medicinal, agriculturaland genetic value. Besides, their role in regulatinghydrological cycles in the area and recharging

underground aquifers has also been wellestablished. They are thus areas of outstandingnatural value for hydrological, geological, scenicand biological resources that should be carefullymanaged to maintain these values. Wetlandhabitats provide protection to or act as sheltersfrom cyclonic storms, protection to slopes,especially along riverine habitats. They regulateand purify water flow and support naturalvegetation on hydric-soils that has significantvalue for migrant and resident wild fauna.

A programme on conservation of Wetlandswas initiated in 1987 with the basic objective ofassessment of wetland resources, identificationof wetlands of national importance, promotionof R&D activities and formulation andimplementation of management action plans ofthe identified wetlands.

e) Mangroves conservation: Mangrove is ageneral term applied to plants that thrive inmuddy, loose, wet soils in tropical tide waters.They are shrubs and trees that grow betweenthe high water mark of spring tides and alimit close to but above mean sea level. Theyare capable of reclaiming land with the helpof their special widespread underground rootsystem, which instead of growing downwardtend to come upwards like shoots and loopsto breathe air when flooded by water andalso for support. Very often these sproutingshoots take firm hold in loose muddy soil priorto seed detachment from the parent plant.This mechanism helps the seed to anchor theloose soil without being washed away. Thisadaptation in root/seed and evolutionmorphology is typical of mangroves, whichhas assisted them to reclaim land. Mangrovesare almost as quick to take root and growover silt deposited by rivers, as the rivers areefficient in providing them silt to grow on.

In India, a legislative framework for theconservation and management of mangroves isalready in place. The Indian Forest Act, 1927 andthe Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 provideprotection to flora and fauna. Although they donot specifically mention mangroves, these Actscan also apply to the conservation of the flora andfauna of mangrove ecosystems. Since 1927, theIndian Forest Act has been applied to themangrove forests of the Sunderbans, which have


been declared as a reserved area. The Governmentof India set up the National Mangrove Committeein the Ministry of Environment and Forests in1976 to advise the government about mangroveconservation and development.

Ex-situ conservation of biodiversity includes:

Ex-situ conservation, using samplepopulations, is done through establishment of'gene banks', which include genetic resourcecenters, zoos, botanical gardens, culturecollections, etc.

a) Botanic Gardens

Botanic gardens can be defined as "publicgardens which maintain collections of live plantsmainly for study, scientific research, conservationand education.

Botanic gardens are able

� to rehabilitate indigenous and threatenedspecies and restore them to protectedportions of their former habitats;

� to exploit commercially those species whichare plentiful;

� to promote wildlife education to a broad rangeof target groups such as politicians, school andcollege students, and communities living inand around wildlife areas.

b) Translocations

Sometimes conservation of faunal speciesinvolves or necessitates translocation of animals.This means the movement of individuals fromits natural habitat, or from captivity, to anotherhabitat. Translocations are carried out in con-nection with introductions or reintroductions,and should be handled with extreme caution.

They are generally justified when:

� Land development will definitely destroywildlife habitat and translocation is the onlyway of preserving the animals in the area.

� Boosting the numbers of a threatened wildpopulation to ensure its survival by addingother individuals of the same species.

� Splitting an existing population that is atrisk, to prevent loosing the entire population.

These operations are carried out often withsupport from international captive breedingprograms and receive the cooperation of zoos,aquaria, etc. Such programmes have to becarefully planned and carried out to ensuresuccess. The success rates of the establishmentof translocated species vary. Overall, thetranslocation of game species (species used forhunting) appears to have been more successfulthan efforts connected with threatened or rarespecies. The success rates of establishment fortranslocated amphibians and reptiles areparticularly low at 19% and 25% respectively.

Shifting of Asiatic lions from Gu-jarat to MP

Asiatic lions will now have a second homein Madhya Pradesh's Kuno wildlife sanctuaryas the apex court permitted their relocation inlimited numbers from Gujarat's Gir forest.Abench of Justices KS Radhakrishnan and CKPrasad has given six months time to the wildlifeauthorities concerned for translocating the lionsfrom Gir sanctuary to Kuno Palpur reserve.

The two State governments have been in atug of war for several years. Gujarat ChiefMinister Narendra Modi claimed Gujaratiasmita (pride) is in its lions, which could not beshared with any other State. Even an offer totranslocate tigers to Gujarat in return could notmove him. Gujarat claimed that MadhyaPradesh had been unable to protect its owntigers in the Panna reserve, and could not betrusted to host the lion as well.

Whereas according to the wildlife expertsGujarat's lions come from a very narrow geneticbase of about 25 animals at the turn of the lastcentury, and that makes them a very vulnerablepopulation. In case there is an epidemic, theycould even be wiped out, and hence it'simportant that they have a second home.

The court has also constituted an expert bodyto decide the number of lions to be relocatedand closely monitor their translocation inMadhya Pradesh.

The court, however, has ruled against theintroduction of African cheetahs in India,saying preservation of critically endangerednative species, like the wild buffalo and theGreat Indian Bustard, should be given primacy.Under its Rs 300 crore Cheetah ReintroductionProgramme, the Ministry of Environment andForests (MoEF) had proposed the introductionof the African Cheetahs in the country.


c) Reintroduction:

The introduction of a species into a habitatin order to increase biodiversity, or to fill anecologicalniche is a fairly widespread practice,which encompasses both in-situ and ex-situconservation philosophies. Reintroductions aregenerally undertaken to increase localbiodiversity, by returning a species to a part ofits former range. Reintroductions are costly andthere are multiple shareholders involved withevery such scheme.

Comprehensive surveys of the area mootedfor reintroductions are vital to determining whether a viable population could be established.

Dudwa rhino reintroduction

The Dudwa forests were home to the onehorned rhino a century and half ago.However, due to rampant poaching for itsvaluable horn and for game hunting, it waswiped out from the area by the late 19thcentury. Rhinos were successfully reintroducedto Dudwa on 1 April, 1984 following asystematic reintroduction effort of captive bredstock. Suitable habitats were first earmarkedprior to their reintroduction. About 27 kmofgrasslandsand open forests with perennialsource of water was earmarked as the rhino-reintroduction area and two monitoringstations established. Currently there are sevenrhinos breeding successfully -4 adult females,1 adult male, and 2 sub-adult males.

d) Artificial Insemination:

Artificial insemination, or AI, is the processby which sperm is placed into the reproductivetract of a female for the purpose of impregnatingthe female by using means other than sexualintercourse or natural insemination.

Artificial insemination is widely used forlivestock breeding, especially for dairy cattle andpigs. Techniques developed for livestock havebeen adapted for use in humans.

Artificial insemination of farm animals isvery common in today's agriculture industry inthe developed world, especially for breedingdairy cattle. (75% of all inseminations).Swine isalso bred using this method (up to 85% of allinseminations). It provides an economical meansfor a livestock breeder to improve their herdsutilizing males having very desirable traits.

e) Somatic Cell Cloning

Somatic Cell Cloning holds some promise forpropagating from one or a few survivors of analmost extinct species. The nucleus of a somaticcell is removed and kept, and the host's egg cellis kept and nucleus removed and discarded. Thelone nucleus is then fused with the'deprogrammed' egg cell. After being insertedinto the egg, the lone (somatic-cell) nucleus isreprogrammed by the host egg cell. The egg, nowcontaining the somatic cell's nucleus, isstimulated with a shock and will begin to divide.After many mitotic divisions, this single cell forms


a blastocyst (an early stage embryo with about100 cells) with almost identical DNA to theoriginal organism. The technique of transferringa nucleus from a somatic cell into an egg thatproduced Dolly was an extension of experimentsthat had been ongoing for over 40 years. In thesimplest terms, the technique used to produceDolly the sheep - somatic-cell nucleartransplantation cloning - involves removing thenucleus of an egg and replacing it with thediploid nucleus of a somatic cell.

f) Seed bank

The preservation of plant germplasm inseedbanks, (or genebanks), is one of thetechniques of ex-suit conservation of plantspecies. Seeds have a natural dormancy feature,which allows for their suspended preservationfor long periods of time with little damage,provided the conditions are favourable. Bankingdormant seeds enables to keep geneticallyrepresentative samples of rare and endangeredplant species as a kind of "genetic insurance".

Storing germplasm in seedbanks is bothinexpensive and space efficient. It allowspreservation of large populations with little geneticerosion. Seedbanks also offer good sources of plantmaterial for biological research, and avoiddisturbance or damage of natural populations.Two types of seeds may be considered.

� The orthodox seed those that can be driedat low humidity and stored at lowtemperatures. These orthodox seeds canremain viable for many years and are rathereasily stored in seedbanks.

� The recalcitrant seeds do not tolerate lowhumidity and temperature, and thus arenot good material for seedbankingconservation.

Preparation for storage is different for eachspecies and has to be assessed before anyconservation planning. Roughly, the differentprocesses imply first collection of the seeds, thendrying to a moisture content of less than 6%. Theseeds are then stored at low temperature (below-18 degree C). As seeds tend to lose germinativepower over time monitoring of viability andregeneration processes must be done frequently.

BIODIVERSITY IN INDIA: BRIEF INTRODUC-TION

India is one of the mega-diverse countries

with 2.4% of the land area, accounting for 7-8%of the species of the world, including about91,000 species of animals and 45,500 species ofplants that have been documented in its ten bio-geographic regions. Of these 12.6% of mammals,4.5% of birds, 45.8% of reptiles, 55.8% ofamphibians and 33% of Indian plants areendemic, being found nowhere else in the world.

Features of India's Biodiversity

a) Major realms of biodiversity in India areIndo-Malayan, tropical humid forests,tropical delicious forests and the warmdeserts.

b) India has ten biogeography regions thatinclude trans- Himalayan, the Himalayan,the Indian desert, the semi-arid Zone (S),the western Ghats, the Deccan peninsula,the Gangetic Plain, North - east India, theislands and the coasts.

c) India is one of the twelve centres ofcultivated plants.

d) India has five world heritage sites, twelvebiosphere reserves and six RamsarWetlands. Amongst the protected areas,India has 88 national parks and 490sanctuaries covering an area of 1.53 lakhSq. Km

e) It is further estimated that about 4,00,000more species may exist in India which needto be recorded and described.

This biodiversity has arisen over the last 3.5billion years of evolutionary history and itssustainable use has always been a part of theIndian culture. The value of this biodiversity forsustaining and nourishing human communitiesis immense. The ecosystem services from theforested watersheds of two great mountainchains, the Himalayas and the Western Ghats,indirectly support several million people in India.

India is rapidly seeing a change in itseconomy from a predominantly agrarian societyinto a diversified one resulting in mountingpressures on land use. A consequence of this hasbeen the loss and fragmentation of naturalhabitats, which has been identified as theprimary threat to biodiversity.

BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS IN INDIA

A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic regionwith a significant reservoir of biodiversity that is


under threat from humans. To qualify as abiodiversity hotspot on Myers 2000 edition of thehotspot-map, a region must meet two strict criteria:

1. It must contain at least 0.5% or 1,500species of vascular plants as endemics, and

2. It has to have lost at least 70% of itsprimary vegetation.

Three regions that satisfy these criteria inIndia are described below:

a) The Western Ghats and Sri Lanka

The Western Ghats are a chain of hills thatrun along the western edge of peninsularIndia. Their proximity to the ocean andthrough orographic effect, they receive highrainfall. These regions have moist deciduousforest and rain forest. The region shows highspecies diversity as well as high levels ofendemism. Nearly 77% of the amphibians and62% of the reptile species found here are foundnowhere else.

There are over 6000 vascular plantsbelonging to over 2500 genera in this hotspot, ofwhich over 3000 are endemic. Much of theworld's spices such as black pepper andcardamom have their origins in the WesternGhats. The highest concentration of species inthe Western Ghats is believed to be theAgasthyamalai Hills in the extreme south. Theregion also harbours over 450 bird species, about140 mammalian species, 260 reptiles and 175amphibians. Over 60% of the reptiles andamphibians are completely endemic to thehotspot. Remarkable as this diversity is, it isseverely threatened today. The vegetation in thishotspot originally extended over 190,000 square kms.Today, it has been reduced to just 43,000 sq. km.

b) The Eastern Himalayas

The Northeast India, (22-30 degree N and89-97 degree E) spread over 2,62,379 sq.km.,represents the transition zone between theIndian, Indo-Malayan and Indo-Chinesebiogeographic regions and a meeting place of theHimalayan Mountains and Peninsular India.

The region is made up of eight states:Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya,Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim andTripura and is endowed with a wide range ofphysiography and eco-climatic conditions. TheState of Assam has extensive flood plains, whileKhangchendzonga in Sikkim stands 8586 m.tall. Cherrapunjee in the State of Meghalaya

holds the record for the highest rainfall in asingle month (9,300 mm) as well as the mostin a year (26,461 mm) in India, while thenearby Mawsynram has the world's highestaverage rainfall (11,873 mm). The forests inthe region are extremely diverse in structureand composition and combine tropical andtemperate forest types, alpine meadows andcold deserts. There are regions, for example,in the State of Sikkim, where the faunalassemblages also change rapidly from tropicalto subtropical, temperate, alpine and finally tocold desert forms.

The Eastern Himalayan hotspot has nearly163 globally threatened species including theOne-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis),the Wild Asian Water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis(Arnee)) and in all 45 mammals, 50 birds, 17reptiles, 12 amphibians, 3 invertebrates and 36plant species. The Relict Dragonfly(Epiophlebia laidlawi) is an endangered speciesfound here with the only other species in thegenus being found in Japan. The region is alsohome to the Himalayan Newt (Tylototritonverrucosus), the only salamander species foundwithin Indian limits.

c) Indo-Burma

The Indo-Burma region encompasses severalcountries. It is spread out from Eastern Bangladeshto Malaysia and includes North-Eastern Indiasouth of Brahmaputra river, Myanmar, thesouthern part of China's Yunnan province, LaoPeople's Democratic Republic, Cambodia, Vietnamand Thailand. The Indo-Burma region is spreadover 2 million sq. km of tropical Asia.

Much of Indo-Burma is characterized bydistinct seasonal weather patterns. During thenorthern winter months, dry, cool winds blowfrom the stable continental Asian high-pressuresystem, resulting in a dry period under clearskies across much of the south, centre, and westof the hotspot (the dry, northeast monsoon). Asthe continental system weakens in spring, thewind direction reverses and air masses formingthe southwest monsoon pick up moisture fromthe seas to the southwest and bring abundantrains as they rise over the hills and mountains. Awide diversity of ecosystems is represented in thishotspot, including mixed wet evergreen, dryevergreen, deciduous, and montane forests. Thereare also patches of shrublands and woodlandson karst limestone outcrops and, in some coastalareas, scattered heath forests. In addition, a wide


variety of distinctive, localized vegetationformations occur in Indo-Burma, includinglowland floodplain swamps, mangroves, andseasonally inundated grasslands.

RULES AND REGULATIONS TO CONSERVEBIODIVERSITY IN INDIA

a) Biological Diversity Act, 2002

The Act covers conservation, use of biologicalresources and associated knowledge occurringin India for commercial or research purposes orfor the purposes of bio-survey and bio-utilisation.It provides a framework for access to biologicalresources and sharing the benefits arising out ofsuch access and use. The Act also includes in itsambit the transfer of research results andapplication for intellectual property rights (IPRs)relating to Indian biological resources.

The Act covers foreigners, non-residentIndians, body corporate, association ororganization that is either not incorporated inIndia or incorporated in India with non-Indianparticipation in its share capital or management.These individuals or entities require the approvalof the National Biodiversity Authority when theyuse biological resources and associatedknowledge occurring in India for commercial orresearch purposes or for the purposes of bio-survey or bio-utilisation.

b) Forest Protection Act, 1980

It was enacted to help conserve the country'sforests.

The 1927 Act deals with the four categoriesof the forests, namely reserved forests, villageforests, protected forests and private forests. Astate may declare forest lands or waste lands asreserved forest and may sell the produce fromthese forests. Any unauthorized felling of treesquarrying, grazing and hunting in reservedforests is punishable with a fine or imprisonment,or both. Reserved forests assigned to a villageCommunity is called village forests. The stategovernments are empowered to designateprotected forests and may prohibit the felling oftrees, quarrying and the removal of forestproduce from these forests. The preservation ofprotected forests is enforced through rules,licenses and criminal prosecutions. Forest officersand their staff administer the Forest Act.

Alarmed at India's rapid deforestation andresulting environmental degradation, CentreGovernment enacted the Forest (Conservation)Act in 1980. Under the provisions of this Act, prior


approval of the Centre Government is requiredfor diversion of forestlands for non-forest purposes.An Advisory Committee constituted under theAct advises the Centre on these approvals. TheAct also lays down the pre-requisites for thediversion of forest land for non-forest purposes.

c) Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

According to the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972,"Wildlife" includes any animal, bees, butterflies,crustacea, fish and moths; and aquatic or landvegetation which forms part of any habitat.

The Act was enacted with the objective ofeffectively protecting the wild life of this countryand to control poaching, smuggling and illegaltrade in wildlife and its derivatives. The Ministryhas proposed further amendments in the law byintroducing more rigid measures to strengthen the Act.

The major task of protecting the wildlifecannot be handled by the Governmentmachinery alone through its limited officials butshould be the duty of every individual. This wasone of the reasons why a new provision, Article51 A (g), was inserted in our Constitution,making it the fundamental duty of every citizento protect and improve the natural environment,including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife, andto have compassion for living creatures.

d) Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act,1960

The Act was enacted to prevent the inflictionof unnecessary pain or suffering on animals andto amend the laws relating to the prevention ofcruelty to animals. As per the provisions of thelaw the government of India formed the AnimalWelfare Board of India. From ensuring thatanimal welfare laws in the country are diligentlyfollowed, to provide grants to Animal WelfareOrganizations and advising the Government ofIndia on animal welfare issues, the Board hasbeen the face of the animal welfare movementin the country for the last 50 years. The Boardconsists of 28 Members. The term of office ofMembers is for a period of 3 years.

NATIONAL LEVEL ORGANIZATIONS TOCONSERVE BIODIVERSITY

a) Compensatory Afforestation FundManagement and Planning Authority

Compensatory Afforestation FundManagement and Planning Authority (CAMPA)are meant to promote afforestation and

regeneration activities as a way of compensatingfor forest land diverted to non-forest uses.

National CAMPA Advisory Council has beenestablished as per orders of The Hon'ble SupremeCourt with the following mandate:

� Lay down broad guidelines for StateCAMPA.

� Facilitate scientific, technological and otherassistance that may be required by StateCAMPA.

� Make recommendations to State CAMPAbased on a review of their plans andprogrammes.

� Provide a mechanism to State CAMPA toresolve issues of an inter-state or Centre-State character.

The Hon'ble Supreme Court also approved theguidelines prepared by the MoEF for utilizingCAMPA funds by an agency to be constituted inthe states and to be known as The State CAMPA.

b) National Biodiversity Authority

The National Biodiversity Authority (NBA)was established in 2003 to implement India'sBiological Diversity Act (2002). The NBA isAutonomous body and that performs facilitative,regulatory and advisory function forGovernment of India on issue of Conservation,sustainable use of biological resource and fairequitable sharing of benefits of use.

The Biological diversity Act (2002) mandatesimplementation of the Act through decentralizedsystem with the NBA focusing on advising theCentral Government on matters relating to theconservation of biodiversity, sustainable use ofits components and equitable sharing of benefitsarising out of the utilization of biologicalresources; advise the State Government in theselection of areas of biodiversity importance tobe notified as heritage sites and measures for themanagement of such heritage sites;

The State Biodiversity Board (SBBs) focuseson advice to the State Government, subject toany guidelines issued by the Central Government,on matters relating to the conservation ofbiodiversity, sustainable use of its componentsand equitable sharing of the benefits arising outof the utilization of biological resources.


It regulates by granting approvals forcommercial utilization or bio-survey and bio-utilization of any biological resource by Indians;and Local Level Biodiversity Managementcommittees (BMCs) responsible for promotingconservation, sustainable use and documentationof biological diversity, including preservation ofhabitats, conservation of land races, folk varietiesand cultivators, domesticated stocks and breedsof animals and microorganisms and chroniclingof knowledge relating to biological diversity.

c) National Afforestation & Eco-DevelopmentBoard

The National Afforestation and Eco-Development Board (NAEB) was set up inAugust 1992. It is responsible for promotingafforestation, tree planting, ecological restorationand eco-development activities in the country,with special attention to the degraded forestareas and lands adjoining the forest areas,national parks, sanctuaries and other protectedareas as well as the ecologically fragile areas likethe Western Himalayas, Aravallis, WesternGhats, etc. The role and functions of the NAEBare given below:

(i) Evolve mechanisms for ecologicalrestoration of degraded forest areas andadjoining lands through systematicplanning and implementation, in a costeffective manner;

(ii) Restore through natural regeneration orappropriate intervention the forest cover inthe country for ecological security and tomeet the fuelwood, fodder and other needsof the rural communities;

(iii) Restore fuelwood, fodder, timber and otherforest produce on the degraded forest andadjoining lands in order to meet thedemands for these items;

(iv) Sponsor research and extension of researchfindings to disseminate new and propertechnologies for the regeneration anddevelopment of degraded forest areas andadjoining lands;

(v) Create general awareness and help fosterpeople's movement for promotingafforestation and eco-development with theassistance of voluntary agencies, non-government organizations, Panchayati Rajinstitutions and others and promote

participatory and sustainable managementof degraded forest areas and adjoining lands;

(vi) Coordinate and monitor the Action Plansfor afforestation, tree planting, ecologicalrestoration and eco-development; and

(vii)Undertake all other measures necessary forpromoting afforestation, tree planting,ecological restoration and eco-developmentactivities in the country.

d) National Green Tribunal

National Green Tribunal Act (NGT) wasestablished in 2010, under India's constitutionalprovision of Article 21, which assures the citizensof India, the right to a healthy environment.

The enactment of the law takes into accountthe (i) United Nations Conference on the HumanEnvironment which took place at Stockholm inJune, 1972 and also the (ii) United NationsConference on Environment and Developmentwhich took place at Rio de Janeiro in June 1992,in both of which India was a participant.

It has been established for effective andexpeditious disposal of cases relating toenvironmental protection and conservation offorests and other natural resources, includingenforcement of any legal right relating toenvironment and giving relief andcompensation for damages to persons andproperty and for matters connected therewithor incidental thereto. NGT is a specializedbody equipped with the necessary expertiseto handle environmental disputes involvingmulti-disciplinary issues. The Tribunal shall notbe bound by the procedure laid down under theCode of Civil Procedure, 1908, but shall beguided by principles of natural justice.

The Tribunal would have four circuitBenches. It would deal with all environmentallaws on air and water pollution, theEnvironment Protection Act, the ForestConservation Act and the Biodiversity Act. Withthis effort, India would join Australia and NewZealand, which have such specializedenvironment tribunals.

The tribunal shall consist of:

(a) a full time chairperson;

(b) not less than ten but subject to maximumof twenty full time Judicial Members as the


central Government may, from time to timenotify;

(c) not less than ten but subject to maximumof twenty full time Expert Members, as theCentral Government may from time to timenotify.

The Chairperson, Judicial Member andExpert members of the Tribunal shall hold officeas such for a term of five years from the date onwhich they enter upon their office, but shall notbe eligible for re-appointment.

The Tribunal is mandated to make andendeavour for disposal of applications orappeals finally within 6 months of filing ofthe same. Initially, the NGT will be set up atfive places of sittings and will follow circuitprocedure for making itself more accessible.New Delhi is the Principal Place of Sitting ofthe Tribunal and Bhopal, Pune, Kolkata andChennai shall be the other 4 places of sittingof the Tribunal.

With the launch of National Green TribunalAct, 2010, the National Environment TribunalAct, 1995 and the National EnvironmentAppellate Authority Act, 1997 have beenrepealed. The cases pending before theNational Environment Appellate Authority atthe time of establishment of the National GreenTribunal have been transferred to the NationalGreen Tribunal.

SPECIAL PROJECTS FOR ENDANGEREDSPECIES IN INDIA

a) Project Tiger

Project Tiger Scheme was launched in 1973as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme of Governmentof India.

The project aims at tiger conservation inspecially constituted 'tiger reserves', which arerepresentative of various bio-geographicalregions falling within the country. An estimateof the tiger population in India, at the turn ofthe century, placed the figure at 40,000.Subsequently, the first ever all India tiger censuswas conducted in 1972 which revealed theexistence of only 1827 tigers.

Various pressures in the later part of the lastcentury led to the progressive decline ofwilderness, resulting in the disturbance of viabletiger habitats. At the IUCN General Assembly

meeting in Delhi, in 1969, serious concern wasvoiced about the threat to several species ofwildlife and the shrinkage of wilderness in thecountry. In 1970, a national ban on tiger huntingwas imposed and in 1972 the Wildlife ProtectionAct came into force.

The project was launched in 1973, andvarious tiger reserves were created in the countryon a 'core-buffer' strategy. The core areas werefreed from all sorts of human activities and thebuffer areas were subjected to 'conservationoriented land use'. Management plans weredrawn up for each tiger reserve, based on theprinciples outlined below:

� Elimination of all forms of humanexploitation and biotic disturbance from thecore area and rationalization of activitiesin the buffer zone.

� Restricting the habitat management onlyto repair the damages done to the eco-system by human and other interferences,so as to facilitate recovery of the eco-systemto its natural state.

� Monitoring the faunal and floral changesover time and carrying out research aboutwildlife.

The main objective of Project Tiger is to ensurea viable population of tigers in India for scientific,economic, aesthetic, cultural and ecologicalvalues and to preserve for all time, areas ofbiological importance as a natural heritage forthe benefit, education and enjoyment of thepeople.

Initially, the Project started with 9 tigerreserves, covering an area of 16,339 sq.km., witha population of 268 tigers. At present there are39 tiger reserves (as in April 2011) covering anarea of 49112 sq.km.

The W.W.F. has given an assistance of US $1 million in the form of equipments, expertiseand literature.

Wireless communication system andoutstation patrol camps have been developedwithin the tiger reserves, due to which poachinghas declined considerably. Fire protection iseffectively done by suitable preventive andcontrol measures, voluntary Village relocationhas been done in many reserves, especially fromthe core area. In Kanha, Bandipur andRanthambhore, all the villages have been shifted


from the core, and after relocation,the villagers have been providedwith alternate agricultural landsand other community benefits.This has resulted in theimprovement of the carryingcapacity of the habitat. Live stockgrazing has been controlled to agreat extent in the tiger reserves.Various compensatorydevelopmental works haveimproved the water regime andthe ground and field levelvegetations, thereby increasing theanimal density. Research datapertaining to vegetational changesare also available from manyreserves. In general, the'restorative management' and'intense protection' under 'ProjectTiger' have saved many of our eco-typical areas from destruction. The area aroundthe buffer is now contemplated as a zone ofmultiple use, to bring compatibility between thereserves and the neighbouring communities.

The effective protection and concertedconservation measures inside the reserves havebrought about considerable intangibleachievements also, viz. arresting erosion,enrichment of water regime thereby improvingthe water table and overall habitat resurrection.Labour intensive activities in tiger reserves havehelped in poverty alleviation amongst the mostbackward sections, and their dependence onforests has also reduced. The project has beeninstrumental in mustering local support forconservation programme in general.

Vision For the Future

The dynamics of forest management andwildlife conservation have been distorted due tothe need for income, lack of awareness, lack ofland use policy and population pressure. Sincethe traditional use systems of people are neitherstatic nor benign, these should not be overlooked.

A regional development approach inlandscapes having Tiger Reserves is of utmostimportance in our country. It should be viewedas a mosaic of different landuse patterns, viz.tiger conservation / preservation, forestry,sustainable use and development, besides socio-economic growth.

Tiger habitats exist in environments ofthousands of indigenous communities which

depend on them. Therefore we cannot view theseprotected areas in isolation from the surroundingsocio-economic realities and developmentalpriorities of the Govt. This calls for a cross-sectoraland cross-disciplinary approach.

Tigers now need a "preservationist"approach. Regional planning is importantaround Tiger Reserves to foster ecologicalconnectivity between protected areas throughrestorative inputs with integrated land useplanning. The management plan of a TigerReserve, therefore, needs to be integrated inlarger regional management plans.

b) Project Elephant

Old literatures indicate that even during theMughal period, elephants were found all overIndia, including many parts of Central India likeMarwar, Chanderi, Satwas, Bijagarh andPanna. However current distribution of wildelephants in India is confined to South India;North East, including North West Bengal;Central Indian states of Orissa, South WB andJharkhand; and North West India inUttarakhand and UP.

Project Elephant (PE) was launched by theGovernment of India in the year 1992 as aCentrally Sponsored Scheme with followingobjectives:

� To protect elephants & their habitats


� To address issues of man-animal conflict

� Welfare of domesticated elephants

Financial and technical support is beingprovided to major elephant-bearing States in thecountry. The project is being mainly implementedin 13 States / UTs , viz. Andhra Pradesh ,Arunachal Pradesh , Assam , Jharkhand ,Karnataka , Kerala , Meghalaya , Nagaland ,Orissa , Tamil Nadu , Uttaranchal , Uttar Pradeshand West Bengal. Small support is also beinggiven to Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh. Mainactivities under the Project are as follows:

� Ecological restoration of existing naturalhabitats and migratory routes of elephants;

� Development of scientific and plannedmanagement for conservation of elephanthabitats and viable population of WildAsiatic elephants in India;

� Promotion of measures for mitigation ofman-elephant conflict in crucial habitatsand moderating pressures of human anddomestic stock activities in crucial elephanthabitats;

� Strengthening of measures taken forprotection of Wild elephants from poachersand unnatural causes of death;

� Research on Elephant management relatedissues;

� Public education and awarenessprogrammes;

� Eco-development;

� Veterinary care.

c) Gir Lion Project

Sasan- Gir or Gir National Park is only homeof pure Asiatic Lion Panthera leon persica. It wasestablished in Saurashtra peninsula of Gujaratin 1965 with a total area of 1412 km sq.

Gir forest was declared as protected area in1900 by the Nawab of Junagarh Princely State.In addition to it, leopards, spotted deers, bluebull, wild boar, chinkara, blackbucks, stripedhyena, jackal are also found in forest area. Gir isa dry scrubland and open deciduous forest.

These lions were once found across northernAfrica, south west Asia and northern Greece.

The census of lions takes place every fiveyears. Of the 411 Asiatic lions counted in 2010,297 were inside the designated Gir National Parkand adjoining areas while others were found inthe neighbouring places of Girnar, Mitiyala andPaniya as well as in the coastal areas of Una,Kodinar, Sutrapada and Chhara. As many as53 Asiatic lions have made their new habitat infar-off places like Savarkundla and Liliya inAmreli district and also in Bhavnagar.

Conservation issues

The lions face the usual threats of poachingand habitat degradation. Three major roads anda railway track pass through the Gir ProtectedArea. Also, there are three big temples inside theProtected Area that attract large number ofpilgrims. This is leading to the devastation ofbiodiversity in the region.

On the other hand, the increased populationof lions has resulted in their spill over the area.Therefore, at present, the most pressing threatto the lion population of the Gir forest comesfrom the increasing hostility toward them fromthe resident human population. Due to theincrease in population, about 100 lions stayoutside the area and face conflicts with humans.

An emerging threat is the number of lionsfalling in the open wells in the fields around GirNational Park. The main reason is that wells inarable fields are unguarded. These wells havebeen made at ground level without anyprotection like parapet walls around them.

Conservation measures by GOI

In 1973, the Gir Lion Project relocated almost600 resident Maldhari families and their livestockand banished hundreds of thousands of cattlethat seasonally grazed in Gir. Easing the pressurefrom domestic animals allowed the vegetationto recover, and as a consequence, wild herbivoresbounced back ten-fold. From living off cattle inthe early days of the Project, the felines changedtheir diets to spotted deer, sambhar and nilgai.

A Project has been initiated to constructbarricades around open wells around the Gir NPto decrease the incidences of lions falling intosuch wells.

The Asiatic Lion Reintroduction Project hasbeen introduced by Government of India. It is aneffort to save the Asiatic lion from extinction inthe wild. The lions are threatened by epidemics,natural disasters and anthropogenic factors. The


project aims to establish a second independentpopulation of Asiatic Lions at the Kuno WildlifeSanctuary in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh.

Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary was selected as thereintroduction site for critically endangeredAsiatic lion because it is in the former range ofthe lions before it was hunted into extinction inabout 1873. It was selected following stringentinternational criteria and internationallyaccepted requirements & guidelines developedby IUCN/SSC Reintroduction Specialist Groupand IUCN/SSC Conservation BreedingSpecialist Group which are followed before anyreintroduction attempt anywhere in the world.

Twenty four villages of the Sahariya tribe,which had lived in the remote core area set asidefor the reintroduction of the Asiatic lions in KunoWildlife Sanctuary in the Indian state of MadhyaPradesh, were moved out of the Sanctuary toprepare it for receiving a lion population. Theywere rehabilitated to a new location on the edgeof the Kuno sanctuary by incurring an expenseequal to millions of dollars under a CentralGovernment of India sponsored scheme. Theplan included expenses on infrastructuredevelopment, so that they can have access tobasic amenities like roads, schools and a hospital.

But the Gujarat government is reluctant to letgo of them as it considers Asiatic Lions a stateproperty and wants to keep its monopoly over thetourism revenue generated by the species which isextinct everywhere else in the world (i.e. over itsentire original range in South West Asia ( TheMiddle East and Near East) including adjoiningparts of Europe (The Balkans and Greece) whereit once was found in good numbers.

d) Crocodile Breeding Project

Crocodile hunting was banned in India in1972, by that time all three species found in thecountry (the Ghariyal, Gavialis gangeticus; thesaltwater crocodile, Crocodylus porosus; and theMugger or marsh crocodile, C. palustris) wereon the verge of extinction. Ironically, it was theGhariyal, which is completely harmless to manand of relatively low value in terms of its hide,which was most endangered. Stabilization ofriver banks and dam construction had greatlyreduced the gharial's natural environment offree-flowing rivers. In 1973, it was estimated thatfewer than 100 Gharials continued to survive.Though relatively larger numbers of saltwatercrocodile and mugger were known to exist, they

were not enough to avoid the total extinction ofthe species in the short-term future.

First priority was therefore given to ensuringcontinuity of the species. With the assistance ofthe United Nations Development Programme(UNDP) and the Food and AgricultureOrganization (FAO), the Government of Indialaunched a crocodile breeding and conservationproject, initially in Orissa in 1975. The projectwas initiated under the guidance of Dr. H RBustard. The scheme was subsequently extendedto Uttaranchal, Rajasthan, West Bengal, TamilNadu, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Kerala,Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andamans,Assam, Bihar and Nagaland. A total of 16crocodile rearing centres have been developedin the country in eight States. Eleven sanctuarieshave been declared under the project.

FAO assisted government wildlife workersto design and construct special rearing stations.FAO also helped to train local villagers in thecollection of gharial eggs from the wild. This wasespecially important since improper collectioncould have resulted in the destruction of the lastremaining gharial nesting sites.

By the time the project ended in 1982, morethan 1000 gharials had been raised and releasedinto protected areas or sanctuaries. Localfishermen living within these sanctuaries havebeen employed as guards. The salary paid to thefishermen is more than that offered by poachersfor assistance in locating crocodiles, and sincepoaching is virtually impossible without thecooperation of local people; this has resulted ineffective protection (FAO, 1983).

Similar schemes were also implemented forcollection and raising of saltwater crocodile andmugger from eggs. As a result the population ofall three species has considerably increased.Presently, due to the overwhelming breedingsuccess, forest departments have concludedcaptive breeding of the mugger.

e) Project Rhino

The greater one-horned rhino is one of thetwo greatest success stories in rhino conservation(the other one being the southern white rhino inSouth Africa). With strict protection from Indianand Nepalese wildlife authorities, greater one-horned rhino numbers have recovered fromfewer than 200 earlier in the 20th century to as


many as 2,850 today. However, even withpopulation increases, poaching pressure hasremained high in both India and Nepal. Thespecies' recovery is precarious without increasedand accelerated support for conservation effortsthroughout its range.

The conservation of the Great Indian Onehorned Rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis) is beingregarded as the epitome of conservationmovement in the country and Assam inparticular. Assam is also regarded as the laststronghold of the Indian Rhino with more than2000 rhinos in the wild. Planned initiative interms of rhino conservation in Assam by theDepartment of Forest with the help andsupport of many agencies including localpopulace made it possible to build up thepopulation of rhinos to 1855 in KazirangaNational Park, 68 in Orang National Park and81 in Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary (Rhinocensus- 2006). While the successes inconservation of rhino was achieved in theabove mentioned three protected areas, lossand subsequent extermination of rhino bypoachers were witnessed in the other rhinobearing areas viz. Laokhowa-Bura ChaporiWildlife Sanctuary during the social unrest inearly 1980's and in Manas National Parkduring the social unrest in 1990's.

For developing a vision and roadmap forlong term conservation of the globally famousone horned rhinoceros in the state, theGovernment of Assam constituted the "TaskForce for Translocation of Rhinos withinAssam" commonly called "Rhino Task Force"in June 2005. The task force receivedimmediate support from the two internationalorganizations World Wildlife Fund for Nature(WWF) and International Rhino Foundation(IRF) to undertake activities for theconservation of rhinos in Assam and also tocreate new populations in Assam throughtranslocation.

The task force set the goal to have a rhinopopulation of 3000 in the wild in Assam in sevenof its protected area by the year 2020 from thepresent population of more than 2000 in threeof its protected areas. The goal set was topopulate the potential rhino habitat areasidentified viz. Manas NP, Dibru Saikhowa WLS,

Laokhowa - Bura Chapori WLS with a viablepopulation of rhino through translocations fromKaziranga NP and Pobitora WLS. With thementioned vision and goal, a joint program wasdeveloped between the Forest Department,Government of Assam, WWF and IRF by theTask Force and was named as the "Indian RhinoVision (IRV) 2020" program. This program waswelcomed by many at the global as well as thelocal level and soon US Fish and Wildlife Services(USFWS) and Bodoland Territorial Council(BTC) extended their full support and co-operation for the success of the program.

f) Snow Leopard Project

Snow Leopard is globally an endangeredspecies as well as the most important flagshipspecies of the mountain region. They are at theapex of ecological pyramid and suffer the moston account of relatively smaller population sizeand also because of man-animal conflict. Thissituation further gets aggravated by the hostilelandscape forming its habitat.

In 1972, the World Conservation Union(IUCN) placed Snow Leopards on theendangered species red list. Further in 1975,under the Convention on International Trade ofEndangered Species (CITES) trafficking of livesnow leopards and their fur or body parts wasmade illegal in much of its native habitat. Today,almost 40 years later, the population of thesebeautiful big cats is still declining dangerously.

Conservation Challenges:

Poaching:

Snow Leopards are poached illegally for theirpelts, which have a huge market in Tibet. Theirbones and other body parts are also in hugedemand for their use in traditional Asianmedicines.

Retribution Killings:

Due to continuous interference andintrusions by humans and domestic cattle, snowleopards at times stray from their habitat to enterthe human territory to prey on domesticlivestock. Herders in these areas live a precariouseconomic life and loss of even a single sheep,causes a real economic hardship. This has causedseveral cases of retaliatory killing of SnowLeopards in the past.


Habitat and Prey loss

As humans continue to push further into themountainous areas with their livestock; the SnowLeopards' habitat is getting boxed-in byincreasing human intrusion. As humans pushfurther into the mountainous areas with theirlivestock, the snow leopard's habitat is gettingdegraded and fragmented. Overgrazing hasdamaged the fragile grasslands, leaving less foodfor the wild sheep and goats that are the SnowLeopard's main prey.

War and related military activites

Some of India's best snow leopard habitat lieswithin the disputed northwestern frontierprovince of Jammu and Kashmir. Militarizationof this region and repeated skirmishes withPakistan over the past several decades put snowleopards in danger and makes scientific studiesand conservation programmes impossible tocarry out.

Other challenges

Much of the Snow Leopards' habitat isextremely difficult to access. Found at very highaltitude, studying the species and its current statusand distribution is an extremely arduous task.

Referring to its globally endangered speciesstatus as well as the most important flagshipspecies of the mountain region, India includedSnow Leopard in the list of species underRecovery Programme to be funded through theumbrella scheme of integrated Development ofWildlife Habitats.

Thus WWF-India initiated the project, "SnowLeopard Conservation: An initiative", in the fiveHimalayan States viz. Jammu & Kashmir,Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, andArunachal Pradesh with active support fromwildlife institute of India and the Mysore basedNature Conservation Foundation.

The project stresses on a landscapeapproach to conservation wherein smallercore zones with relatively conservationvalues are identified and conserved withsupport. The larger landscapes are managedin such a way that it allows necessarydevelopment benefits to the localcommunities. The project thus places greaterimportance to careful and knowledge-basedmanagement planning of the landscapes.The adaptive management planning involves

participation of all key stakeholders so thataction is taken by incorporating local wisdomand support.

For facilitating effective planning andaction, the project set up enablingadministrative mechanisms from the villageduster level to the Central Government. At theCentral level, a Steering Committee chaired byDirector General of Forests & Special Secretaryto the Government of India help in guideingthe project. Each State have a State SnowLeopard Conservation Society that coordinatework by the Landscape-level ImplementationCommittees, which in turn coordinates workby the village Wildlife ConservationCommittees.

The Project Snow Leopard is an Innovativeproject that would help to arrest species declinesin the Indian high altitudes and would lead toconservation based on sound scientific plans andlocal support. Species such as Snow Leopard,Asiatic Ibex, Tibetan Argali, Ladakh Urial, Chiru,Takin, Serow and Musk Deer will particularlybenefit from this project.

COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN BIO-DIVERSITY CONSERVATION

It is being recognized that no legal provisionscan be effective unless local communities areinvolved in planning, management and monitoringconservation programmes. Initiatives taken by thegovernment and NGOs are:

a) Joint Forest Management

Joint Forest Management is a process inwhich protection and management of forests isjointly undertaken by Forest Department and thelocal communities. Joint Forest Management(JFM), a programme of peoples' participation inforestry had been initiated from a small villageArabari in Midnapore district of West Bengal in1972. The objective was to involve the localcommunities in protecting the forests by sharingthe benefits accruing from resources collectedfrom the forest.

However, JFM was formally initiated in June1990 after receiving an endorsement from thegovernment of India on the JFM system. Certainguidelines like formation of Village ForestCommittee (VFC) or Village Forest Protection


Committee (VFPC) and the role and functionsof these committees were framed. All the stategovernments were advised to provide a formalframework for implementation of JFM.

Large financial support have been receivedfor the programme from different fundingagencies like World Bank, OECF-Japan, DFID-UK, and SIDA -Sweden, EEC and UNDP.

The participatory management of forestsenables the communities to understand thecapability of the forests in catering to their needand thus prompts them to have a realisticresource management plan, based on theirrequirements and priorities, for the forestsentrusted with them. The empowerment ofcommunities in planning and managing thecommon property resources in their vicinityevolves a sense of ownership of the forests andthus the responsibility of maintainingsustainability becomes a voluntary commitment.As all the villagers are involved in this process,unity and consensus for taking consciousdecisions about collective (common property)resources along with wholehearted co-operationare evolved. These, as we know, are the crucialattributes for an ideal village society.Participatory management also ensures willinginputs from the communities in optimizing/maximizing the productivity of forests.

The process of micro planning enables thevillagers to understand and appreciate theresource related issues and the importance effortsrequired for conservation of natural resources.

b) Social forestry

The history of exploitation and destructionof forests in India goes back to the British periodwhen the forests wealth was consumed forcommercial gains. The trend continued evenafter independence and the forests were usednot for imperative economic growth but for othervarious reasons. The denudation of forest land,however, has now slowed down in recent yearsdespite human and commercial pressures dueto efforts made by various agencies.

The Government of India and other agencieshave launched promotional scheme "SocialForestry" all over the country for afforestationand fresh plantations to increase the forest coverin which the participation of local people hasalso been encouraged.

Social forestry as an instrument ofsustainable development has the potential ofresolving the three basic issues of rural poorsimultaneously i.e. to provide food security, fuelsecurity and livelihood security with eco-friendlyapproach to development.

Social forestry is a programme governed bythe principle-of the people, for the people, andby the people.

The objectives of the programme are:

� Afforestation in lands outside forest areas.

� Increasing the number of trees in India.

� Promoting the participation of institutionsand people in the field of growing of trees.

� Increasing the yield of timber and othernon-timber forest produce like fruit,firewood, fodder, etc to ensure easy supplyto people.

� Putting less fertile and unproductive landto productive use

� Augmenting the income of people by treeplanting.

� Increasing the employment opportunities ofrural poor.

Social forestry scheme can be categorized as:

I. Farm forestry

Under this programme individual farmersare being encouraged to plant trees on theirown farmland to meet the domestic needsof the family. In many areas this traditionof growing trees on the farmland alreadyexisted. Non-commercial farm forestry is themain thrust of most of the social forestryprojects in the country today. It is not alwaysnecessary that the farmer grows trees forfuelwood, but very often they are interestedin growing trees without any economicmotive. They may want it to provide shadefor the agricultural crops; as wind shelters;soil conservation or to use wasteland.

II. Community forestry

Another scheme taken up under the socialforestry programme, is the raising of trees oncommunity land and not on private land asin farm forestry. All these programmes aim to


provide for the entire community and not forany individual. The government has theresponsibility of providing seedlings, fertilizersbut the community has to take responsibilityof protecting the trees. Some communitiesmanage the plantations sensibly and in asustainable manner so that the village continuesto benefit. Some others took advantage andsold the timber for a short-term individualprofit. Common land being everyone's land isvery easy to exploit. Over the last 20 years,large-scale planting of Eucalyptus, as a fastgrowing exotic, has occurred in India, makingit a part of the drive to reforest thesubcontinent, and create an adequate supplyof timber for rural communities under theaugur of 'social forestry'.

III. Extension forestry

Planting of trees on the sides of roads, canalsand railways, along with planting onwastelands is known as 'extension' forestry,increasing the boundaries of forests. Underthis project there has been creation of woodlots in the village common lands, governmentwastelands and panchayat lands.

IV. Agro- forestry

Planting of trees in and around agriculturalboundaries, and on marginal, private lands,in combination with agricultural crops isknown as agro-forestry.

Social Forestry was conceived as people-centred programme, a programme to empowerthe rural poor for their fuelwood, fodder andother timber needs. Major funds of social forestrywere used in protected and reserved forests, andthe only benefit to the poor was in terms ofemployment; it is sad to observe that even here,in some instance it was found that minimumwages were not paid.

Lack of appropriate policies, regardingaccess of land to the poor for afforestationpurposes, defunctional Acts and laws, whichhinder rather than motivate people, resulted invested interests controlling the social forestryprogramme. Instead of fuelwood and fodder,social forestry has largely provided raw materialsto paper, pulp and building industry, bypassingthe rural poor.

Social forestry and massive afforestation bythe people cannot be a programme of a single

government department. Social forestry must bea people's movement. Schools, colleges,municipalities, government departments, andother identified institutions should share theresponsibility to plant trees and maintain themeither directly or through a contract system withlocal people.

c) Sacred Groves

Sacred groves comprise of patches of forestsor natural vegetation - from a few trees to forestsof several acres - that are usually dedicated tolocal folk deities or tree spirits (Vanadevatais).These spaces are protected by local communitiesbecause of their religious beliefs and traditionalrituals that run through several generations.

The degree of sanctity of the sacred forestsvaries from one grove to another. In some forestseven the dry foliage and fallen fruits are nottouched. People believe that any kind ofdisturbance will offend the local deity, causingdiseases, natural calamities or failure of crops. Forexample, the Garo and the Khasi tribes ofnortheastern India completely prohibit any humaninterference in the sacred groves. In other groves,deadwood or dried leaves may be picked up, butthe alive tree or its branches are never cut. Forexample, the Gonds of central India prohibit thecutting of a tree but allow fallen parts to be used.

Sacred groves are scattered all over thecountry, and are referred to by different namesin different parts of India. Sacred groves occurin a variety of places - from scrub forests in theThar Desert of Rajasthan maintained by theBishnois, to rain forests in the Western Ghats ofKerala. Himachal Pradesh in the north andKerala in the south are specifically known fortheir large numbers of sacred groves. TheKodavas of Karnataka alone maintained over1000 sacred groves in their region.

SOME OTHER INITIATIVES BY GOVERN-MENT OF INDIA

a) People's Biodiversity Register

The People's Biodiversity Register containComprehensive information on the availabilityand knowledge of local biological resources, theirmedicinal or any other use or any othertraditional knowledge associated with them;Data about the local 'vaids' and practitionersusing the biological resources; Details of theaccess to biological resources and traditionalknowledge granted, details of the collection fee


imposed and details of the benefits derived andthe mode of their sharing.

Functions of Peoples' Biodiversity Register:

� Community regulation of access tobiodiversity resources leading to sustainableharvests.

� Promoting knowledge-based sustainablemanagement of agriculture, livestock, fish,forests and public health so as to enhancethe quality of life of the communitymembers.

� Promote biodiversity- friendly developmentin the emerging process of decentralizedmanagement of natural resources.

� Opportunities to generate funds throughimposition of collection fees for access tobiodiversity resources.

� Conserving valued resources.

� Value addition to biodiversity resources.

� Recording of biodiversity relatedknowledge, pertaining to management.

� Recording of biodiversity relatedknowledge, coupled to opportunities togenerate funds through imposition ofcollection fees for access to local knowledge.

� Sharing in the benefits of commercialapplication of local knowledge.

� Perpetuate and promote the developmentof practical ecological knowledge of localcommunities and of traditional sciencessuch as Ayurveda and Unani medicine.

b) Science Express- Biodiversity Special Train

With a view to create awareness amongstmasses in general and youth in particular aboutthe exceptional biodiversity of India , the Ministryof Environment & Forests (MoEF) in collaborationwith Department of Science & Technology ( DST)and Indian Railways launched last year on WorldEnvironment Day from Delhi, an innovativeexhibition on rail called Science ExpressBiodiversity Special (SEBS)Train. It has been re-launched in the 2nd phase of the programme on9 April 2013 from Delhi.

A team of 40 young well trained and highlymotivated post graduates in science, who remainon-board throughout the entire journey, will

facilitate the visitors and explain the content ofthe exhibits and also answer their queries.Thereafter the train will halt at 60 more locationsacross India before returning to its base station-Gandhinagar Capital- on 28 October 2013.

The present run of the train is the 2nd Phasein the two phase programme envisaged to covera minimum of 100 locations on Broad Gaugenetwork of Indian Railways across the entirelength & breadth of the country. Of the 16 coachesof Science Express- Biodiversity Special, 8 aresolely dedicated to showcasing the myriadbiodiversity spread across all the bio-geographicalzones of India through a variety of interactiveexhibits, short films & videos that are shown onPlasma & LED TV screens, large format displays,kiosks, backlit panels, and so on. The rest ofcoaches have interesting & informative exhibitson Climate Change, Energy and Waterconservation and topical issues in science. Thepopular Joy of Science Lab is mounted in anexclusive coach in which students are guided toperform various experiments & activities tounderstand concepts of various themes projectedin the train. In addition, on the railway platformwhere the train is halted, young visitors areencouraged to play several exciting games as wellas participate in quizzes, painting competitions,elocutions, just-a-minute, etc. The window panesof the entire train have also been judiciously usedto put up posters on the numerous species of flora& fauna found in India which keep the visitorsengaged while waiting for their turn.

GLOBAL EFFORTS TOWARDS BIODIVE-RSITY CONSERVATION

a) Convention On Biological Diversity

The Convention on Biological Diversity(CBD) is an international legally-binding treatywith three main goals: conservation ofbiodiversity; sustainable use of biodiversity; fairand equitable sharing of the benefits arising fromthe use of genetic resources. Its overall objectiveis to encourage actions which will lead tosustainable future. The conservation ofbiodiversity is a common concern of humankind.The Convention on Biological Diversity Coversbiodiversity at all levels: ecosystems, species andgenetic resources.

It consists of two main protocols:

� The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to theConvention on Biological Diversity is an


international treaty governing the move-ments of living modified organisms (LMOs)resulting from modern biotechnology fromone country to another. It was adoptedon 29 January 2000 as a supplementaryagreement to the Convention on Biologi-cal Diversity and entered into force on 11September 2003.

� The Nagoya Protocol on Access to GeneticResources and the Fair and EquitableSharing of Benefits Arising from theirUtilization to the Convention onBiological Diversity is an internationalagreement which aims at sharing thebenefits arising from the utilization ofgenetic resources in a fair and equitableway, including by appropriate access togenetic resources and by appropriatetransfer of relevant technologies, takinginto account all rights over those resourcesand to technologies, and by appropriatefunding, thereby contributing to theconservation of biological diversity andthe sustainable use of its components. Itwas adopted by the Conference of theParties to the Convention on BiologicalDiversity at its tenth meeting on 29October 2010 in Nagoya, Japan.

COP-11 in brief:

During the eleventh meeting of theConference of the Parties to the United NationsConvention on Biological Diversity, which washeld in Hyderabad, the developed countriesagreed to double funding to support efforts indeveloping states towards meeting theinternationally - agreed Biodiversity Targets andthe main goals of the Strategic Plan forBiodiversity 2011-20.

The Saragasso Sea, the Tonga archipelagoand key corals sites off the coast of Brazil areamong a range of marine areas to receive specialattention by governments as part of renewedefforts to sustainably manage the world's oceansagreed in Hydrabad. Many of these areas receiveno protection at present.

Other key decisions taken at the 11thConference of the Parties to the Convention onBiological Diversity (CBD COP 11) include newmeasures to factor biodiversity into environmentalimpact assessments linked to infrastructure andother development projects in marine andcoastal areas.

Salient outcomes are:

For the first time, developing countries at COP11, including India and several African states,pledged additional funds above and beyond theircore funding towards the work of the CBD.

The conference also saw the launch of theHyderabad Call for Biodiversity Champions. Theprogramme will accept pledges fromgovernments and organizations in support of theStrategic Plan for Biodiversity. The governmentof India committed over US$ 50 million as partof the programme.

The 193 Parties to the CBD agreed to classifya diverse list of marine areas, some renownedfor containing 'hidden treasures' of the plantand animal world, as ecologically or biologicallysignificant. Parties to the Convention also calledfor more research into the potential adverseeffects of underwater noise from ships onmarine and coastal biodiversity, andhighlighted the growing concern on the adverseeffects of marine litter. It also recognized thegrowing challenge of climate change impactson coral reefs, which, Parties agreed, willrequire significant investment to overcome.There was also a call to fisheries managementbodies to play a stronger role in addressing theimpacts of fisheries on biodiversity.

COP 11 also agreed to a number of measuresto engage the main economic sectors, such asbusiness and development organizations, tointegrate biodiversity objectives in their plansand programmes.

A decision on climate change andbiodiversity called for enhanced collaborationbetween the CBD and UN climate changeinitiatives including Reducing Emissions fromDeforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+)Given that forests are home to more than half ofall terrestrial species, initiatives such as REDD+,where developing countries can receivepayments for carbon offsets for their standingforests, can potentially help achieve internationalbiodiversity targets, as well as those concernedwith cutting carbon emissions. The decisioncovers technical advice on the conservation offorests, sustainable management of forests, andenhancement of forest carbon stocks. Howeverthe COP also noted discussions around the needfor biodiversity safeguards relating to REDD+


and similar incentives. Actions such asafforestation in areas of high biodiversity value,or the conversion of natural forests toplantations, for example, may have adverseimpacts on biodiversity.

Further together with FAO and otherorganizations, the CBD Secretariat will establisha global 'Collaborative Partnership on SustainableWildlife Management' to support developingcountries in the implementation of relevant CBDprovisions.

The Conference welcomed the establish-ment of the Intergovernmental Science-PolicyPlatform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Ser-vices (IPBES) earlier this year and recognizedthe potential contribution it could make toenhance the effectiveness of the Convention.COP requested IPBES to contribute to assess-ments of the achievement of the AichiBiodiversity Targets. It was decided that theConvention's Subsidiary Body on Scientific,Technical and Technological Advice at its nextmeeting would provide additional explanatoryinformation on the tasks requested from IPBESand that it would convey this information toIPBES before the its second plenary meetingat the end of 2013.

b) Convention on the International Trade inEndangered Species of Wild Flora andFauna (CITES)

Annually, international wildlife trade isestimated to be worth billions of dollars and toinclude hundreds of millions of plant and animalspecimens. The trade is diverse, ranging from liveanimals and plants to a vast array of wildlifeproducts derived from them, including foodproducts, exotic leather goods, wooden musicalinstruments, timber, tourist curios and medicines.Levels of exploitation of some animal and plantspecies are high and the trade in them, togetherwith other factors, such as habitat loss, is capableof heavily depleting their populations and evenbringing some species close to extinction. Manywildlife species in trade are not endangered, butthe existence of an agreement to ensure thesustainability of the trade is important in order tosafeguard these resources for the future.

Because the trade in wild animals and plantscrosses borders between countries, the effort toregulate it requires international cooperation tosafeguard certain species from over-exploitation.

The Convention on International Trade inEndangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora(CITES) is an international agreement betweengovernments. Its aim is to ensure thatinternational trade in specimens of wild animalsand plants does not threaten their survival.

CITES was conceived in the spirit of suchcooperation. Today, it accords varying degreesof protection to more than 30,000 species ofanimals and plants, whether they are traded aslive specimens, fur coats or dried herbs.

CITES Resolution

CITES was drafted as a result of a resolutionadopted in 1963 at a meeting of members of IUCN(The World Conservation Union). The text of theConvention was finally agreed at a meeting ofrepresentatives of 80 countries in Washington in1973, and in 1975 CITES entered into force.

CITES is an international agreement to whichStates (countries) adhere voluntarily. States thathave agreed to be bound by the Convention areknown as Parties. Although CITES is legallybinding on the Parties - in other words they haveto implement the Convention - it does not takethe place of national laws. Rather it provides aframework to be respected by each Party, whichhas to adopt its own domestic legislation to ensurethat CITES is implemented at the national level.

How CITES works?

CITES works by subjecting internationaltrade in specimens of selected species to certaincontrols. All import, export, re-exports andintroduction from the sea of species covered bythe Convention has to be authorized through alicensing system. Each Party to the Conventionmust designate one or more ManagementAuthorities in charge of administering thatlicensing system and one or more ScientificAuthorities to advise them on the effects of tradeon the status of the species.

The species covered by CITES are listed inthree Appendices, according to the degree ofprotection they need.

Appendix I

Appendix I includes species threatened withextinction. Trade in specimens of these speciesis permitted only in exceptional circumstances.Any trade in these species requires export andimport permits. Notable animal species include


the red panda, gorilla, the chimpanzee species,tigers, Asiatic lion, Asian elephant, etc.

Appendix II

Appendix II includes species that are notnecessarily threatened with extinction, but maybecome so unless trade in specimens of suchspecies is subject to strict regulation in order toavoid utilization incompatible with their survival.No import permit is necessary for these speciesunder CITES. A non-detriment finding and exportpermit are required by the exporting Party.

Examples of species listed on Appendix II arethe American black bear, Hartmann's mountainzebra, African grey parrot, bigleaf mahogany, etc.

Appendix III

This Appendix contains species that areprotected in at least one country, which has askedother CITES Parties for assistance in controllingthe trade. In all member countries trade in thesespecies is only permitted with an appropriateexport permit and a certificate of origin.

Examples of species are the two-toed slothby Costa Rica, African civet by Botswana, andthe alligator snapping turtle by the USA.

c) The Ramsar Convention

The Convention on Wetlands of InternationalImportance, called the Ramsar Convention, isan intergovernmental treaty that provides theframework for national action and internationalcooperation for the conservation and wise useof wetlands and their resources. The treaty wasadopted in the Iranian city of Ramsar in 1971and came into force in 1975.

The Convention's mission is:

� the conservation and wise use of allwetlands through local and national actionsand international cooperation, as acontribution towards achieving sustainabledevelopment throughout the world.

� uses a broad definition of the types ofwetlands covered in its mission, includinglakes and rivers, swamps and marshes, wetgrasslands and peatlands, oases, estuaries,deltas and tidal flats, near-shore marineareas, mangroves and coral reefs, andhuman-made sites such as fish ponds, ricepaddies, reservoirs, and salt pans.

The Ramsar List of Wetlands of InternationalImportance now includes 1,869 sites (known asRamsar Sites) covering around 1,836,000 km²,up from 1,021 sites in 2000. The nation with thehighest number of sites is the United Kingdomat 168; the nation with the greatest area of listedwetlands is Canada, with over 130,000 km²,including the Queen Maud Gulf Migratory BirdSanctuary at 62,800 km².

d) World Heritage Sites

World Heritage Sites are extremelyexceptional cultural and natural propertiesnominated voluntarily by signatory nations,which have been approved for inclusion in theList by the World Heritage Committee.

In 1972, worldwide concern over the potentialdestruction of the Earth's cultural and naturalheritage led the United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)to establish an international treaty called theConvention Concerning the Protection of theWorld Cultural and Natural Heritage. Morecommonly known as the World HeritageConvention, it aims to identify, celebrate andprotect the Earth's irreplaceable natural andcultural heritage, and to ensure it is conservedfor all people, for all time.

For the purposes of the World HeritageConvention, the following are considered as"cultural heritage":

� Monuments: architectural works, works ofmonumental sculpture and painting,elements or structures of an archaeologicalnature, inscriptions, cave dwellings andcombinations of features, which are ofoutstanding universal value from the pointof view of history, art or science;

� Groups of buildings: groups of separateor connected buildings which, because oftheir architecture, their homogeneity ortheir place in the landscape, are ofoutstanding universal value from the pointof view of history, art or science;

� Sites: works of man or the combined worksof nature and of man, and areas includingarchaeological sites which are ofoutstanding universal value from thehistorical, aesthetic, ethnological oranthropological points of view.


For the purposes of the World HeritageConvention, the following are considered as"natural heritage":

� Natural features consisting of physical andbiological formations or groups of suchformations, which are of outstandinguniversal value from the aesthetic orscientific point of view;

� Geological and physiographical formationsand precisely delineated areas whichconstitute the habitat of threatened speciesof animals and plants of outstandinguniversal value from the point of view ofscience or conservation;

� Natural sites or precisely delineated naturalareas of outstanding universal value fromthe point of view of science, conservationor natural beauty.

Benefits

A key benefit of ratification, particularly fordeveloping countries, is access to the WorldHeritage Fund. Annually, about US$4 million ismade available to assist States Parties inidentifying, preserving and promoting WorldHeritage sites. Emergency assistance may also bemade available for urgent action to repair damagecaused by human-made or natural disasters. Inthe case of sites included on the List of WorldHeritage in Danger, the attention and the fundsof both the national and the internationalcommunity are focused on the conservation needsof these particularly threatened sites.

Sites inscribed on the World Heritage List alsobenefit from the elaboration and implementationof a comprehensive management plan that setsout adequate preservation measures andmonitoring mechanisms. In support of these,experts offer technical training to the local sitemanagement team.

Finally, the inscription of a site on the WorldHeritage List brings an increase in publicawareness of the site and of its outstandingvalues, thus also increasing the tourist activitiesat the site.

The Convention sets out the duties of StatesParties in identifying potential sites and their rolein protecting and preserving them. By signingthe Convention, each country pledges to conservenot only the World Heritage sites situated on itsterritory, but also to protect its national heritage.

The States Parties are encouraged to integratethe protection of the cultural and naturalheritage into regional planning programmes, setup staff and services at their sites, undertakescientific and technical conservation researchand adopt measures which give this heritage afunction in the day-to-day life of the community.

The Convention stipulates the obligation ofStates Parties to report regularly to the WorldHeritage Committee on the state of conservationof their World Heritage properties. These reportsare crucial to the work of the Committee as theyenable it to assess the conditions of the sites,decide on specific programme needs and resolverecurrent problems. It also encourages StatesParties to strengthen the appreciation of thepublic for World Heritage properties and toenhance their protection through educationaland information programmes.

A cluster of sites from the Western Ghats inpeninsular India has been inscribed in theUNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. The clustersof sites are in the landscapes of Agasthyamalai,Periyar, Anamalai, Nilgiris, and Upper Cauveryin Kodagu, Kudremukh, and Sahyadri. Theseconstitute the thirty nine sites in seven sub-clustersof the Western Ghats, identified and proposed asa potential UNESCO World Natural HeritageCluster Site, in 2006. The proposal was made bythe Ministry of Environment and Forests basedon expert inputs from ATREE, NatureConservation Foundation, Mysore and WildlifeInstitute of India, Dehra Dun.

The Western Ghats are a biological hotspotharbouring 60 Important Bird Areas (IBA), 325globally threatened species, many endemicspecies and sacred groves, across six states(Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, TamilNadu and Kerala).

The area of 150,000 km2 boasts a variedecosystem with a historical Gondwanalandorigin and significant global value. The Ghatscan lay claim to a unique landform andbiodiversity; however they are also under threatof increased developmental pressure fromenergy needs. Coffee, tea and rubber plantationstoo have grown over the years, leaving the areawith less undisturbed space.

Under the title of a Natural Heritage Site, itis expected that areas of the Western Ghatspronounced World Natural Heritage sites willbe able to restrict some development, allowingthese areas to be better conserved.


e) Convention on the Conservation ofMigratory Species of Wild Animals

Migration is a natural phenomenon by whichindividuals of a given species moves betweenareas which they inhabit at different times of theyear. Migratory species of animals not only needgood habitats for reproduction but also duringtheir non-breeding and all along their migratoryroutes. In an ever-changing world, humanpressure is high on some of those habitats, andalso often on the animals themselves (hunting,incidental catch, etc). To conserve species whosemovements regularly cross national borders,international cooperation is of vital importance.

The Convention on the Conservation ofMigratory Species of Wild Animals (BonnConvention or CMS) was adopted in Bonn,Germany in 1979 and came into force in 1985.Contracting Parties work together to conservemigratory species and their habitats by providingstrict protection for endangered migratoryspecies ; concluding multilateral Agreements forthe conservation and management of migratoryspecies which require or would benefit frominternational cooperation and by undertakingcooperative research activities.

To avoid any migratory species becomingendangered, the parties must endeavour:

� to promote, cooperate in or supportresearch relating to migratory species;

� to provide immediate protection formigratory species included in Appendix I;and

� to conclude Agreements covering theconservation and management ofmigratory species listed in Appendix II.

� To protect endangered migratory species,the parties to the Convention willendeavour:

� to conserve or restore the habitats ofendangered species;

� to prevent, remove, compensate for orminimise the adverse effects of activities orobstacles that impede the migration of thespecies; and

� to the extent feasible and appropriate, toprevent, reduce or control factors that areendangering or are likely to furtherendanger the species.

��


ENVIRONMENTALPOLLUTION & DEGRADATION


Environment is the value of every ambientfactor and influence that concerns thedevelopment and life of a human being and otherorganisms. It includes air, water, land anddynamically the inter-relationship that existsbetween these and other living creatures, plants,micro-organisms and property.

Today, the world is aware about how humanbeings dominate the operation or conservationof natural resources and how changes inecological structure affect human beings. Thenatural environmental resources of air, water,soil, plant and animal life constitute the naturalcapital on which man depends to satisfy hisneeds to achieve his aspirations for development.The wise management of these resourcesdemands positive and realistic planning thatbalances human needs against the potential theenvironment has for meeting them.

That is the reason why decision-makers,scientists, social workers and even laymen arebecoming increasingly conscious of a variety ofissues-global warming and its corollaries suchas ozone-layer depletion, desertifiation, etc. airand water pollution, hazards of chemical andradiation toxicity, lifestyle characteristic ofexcessive and wasteful consumerism, etc, thatnot only results in unsustainable exploitation ofnatural resources, but also have a cumulative,disastrous and adverse effect on the ecology.

Thus this chapter concentrates on all formsof environmental crisis that are created by manand in turn affect his survival.

CAUSES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CRISIS

Population Explosion: The world populationis growing by 92 million people annually withan addition to the Indian population everysecond. The greatest threat to the environmentalcrisis in India is the rapid growth of population.There is a direct relationship between increasein population and its impact on the environment.More people require more food, utilizing moreland for cultivation, more minerals, more waterand more energy, etc. The side effects includeenhanced use of chemicals, chemical fertilizers,

insecticides, pesticides, deforestation, increasedpollution, heavy load on transportation, etc.

Poverty: The poor are the hardest hit by theloss of natural resources and pollution. They arealso the people who cause most damage to theenvironment.

Industrialisation: Today, India has becomethe 10th largest industrial nation of the world.But, at the same time, it is one of the mostpolluted countries of the world as far as industrialpollution and hazardous wastes are concerned.The general indifference of industries, on aspectsof environmental safety and protection, has ledto the spread of air, water and soil pollution. Thereal problem faced by us is from unregulatedindustrial development. Moreover, a majority ofindustrial units are producing wastes in liquid,gaseous and solid forms, some of which are toxicand hazardous. The current methods oftreatment and disposal of hazardous wastesneed closer monitoring and follow up, withinstances of untreated industrial waste releasedby several industrial houses.

Energy-Crisis: Population and economicgrowth has necessitated a correspondingexpansion in energy requirements for variouspurposes. The energy usage in the country is suchthat India has been listed as the fifth biggestcontributor of green-house gases by the WorldResources Institute Washington D.C. andfurther, we are on the verge of running out ofour fossil-fuel resources.

Illiteracy & Ignorance: Mass illiteracy andignorance is yet another cause of environmentaldegradation not only in our country but globally.The low level of environmental literacy amongpeople has impacted their limited comprehensionof the future effects of environmentaldegradation.

Inequality: The chasm of inequality is amajor cause of environmental deterioration inthe entire world. Global inequality is graduallybecoming more sharpened, as inequitous growthhas promoted over consumption at the top andworsened starvation at the bottom. People at


either end of the income spectrum are more likelythan those in the middle to damage the ecologicalhealth of the planet. It is believed that the needof the poor and the greed of the rich are moreresponsible for the environmental crisis.

TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CRISIS

POLLUTION

Pollution is the introduction of contaminantsinto the natural environment that causesinstability, disorder, harm or discomfort to theecosystem i.e. physical systems or livingorganisms. Pollution can take the form ofchemical substances or energy, such as noise,heat, or light. Pollutants, the elements ofpollution, can be foreign substances, energies ornaturally occurring constituents. When occurringnaturally, they are considered contaminants onexceeding their natural levels.

Types of Pollution

a) AIR POLLUTION

Air, which is a mixture of gases, moistureand some inert materials, controls life on earth.It is a reservoir of oxygen needed by man andother animals and of carbon dioxide which isessential for plants. Any contamination in airmay disturb the entire atmospheric system,which is an insulating blanket around the earth.Air pollution may be defined as an imbalance inthe quality of air so as to cause ill effects. Theindustrial, automotive and domestic activitieshave resulted in increasingly outrageous injuriesto the atmosphere. The different types ofpollutants are continuously introduced into theatmosphere and are removed by naturalprocesses of cleansing. But when pollutionexceeds the atmosphere’s self-purifying capacity,accumulation of pollutants occurs, causingserious harm to every living being.

Normal composition of clean air (by volume)is as follows:

Gases Per cent

Nitrogen 78%

Oxygen 21%

Argon 0.93%

Carbon dioxide 0.03%

Other gases Negligible

But due to air pollution, the composition ofthe air is changing all over the world, particularly

in most industrialized countries. Air pollutionresults from gaseous emission from industry,thermal power stations, domestic combustion, etc.Most of the gaseous and particulate air pollutantsare products of burning of fuels. Burning of coalmainly produces carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxideand fly-ash. Lead, carbon monoxide and nitrogenoxides are added to the atmosphere fromautomobile exhaust.

The most conspicuous cause of environ-mental degradation is air pollution. As the airgrows perceptibly darker and respiratorydiseases increase in Indian metros, the presenceof air pollution cannot be ignored. A recent studyby the Centre for Science and Environment(CSE) has revealed that air pollution in India hasbeen killing nearly 52,000 people every yearprematurely while hospitalizing about 26million. Premature deaths are the results ofinfection in respiratory system, cardio-vasculardiseases, asthma, bronchitis, eye irritation,hypertension, neurological damage, loss of IQin children, heart diseases, etc. These diseasesare more common among women, the agedpeople and children below five years.

Common Air Pollutants

Contaminants in the air are present either ingaseous form or as particles.

Gaseous Pollutants:

� Sulphur oxides, Hydrogen sulphide: Theseare released by the biological decompositionand from volcanic eruptions, smelting ofsulphide-containing ores, combustion ofsulphur containing fuels such as coal andoil, petroleum refining and geothermalenergy sources are some of the importantcontributors.

While high concentrations of sulphurdioxide cause interveinal damage, necrosisof leaves and cellular collapse, loweramounts result in chlorosis of the leavesand still lower quantity suppresses theoverall vegetative as well as reproductivegrowth and yield. Exposure to hydrogensulphide results in leaf lesions, mottling,defoliation and reduced growth. Sulphurdioxide paralyzes or destroys bronchial ciliain air passages of man, constricts bronchi,damages lungs, lowers resistance topneumonia and influenza and causes


bronchitis, emphysema and irritation of themucous membranes. Sulphur dioxide andother pollutants also bring aboutcoalescence of alveoli and reduce theamount of surface area available for thetransport of oxygen. Constrictions in thebranches of bronchial tubes also reduce therate at which air is exchanged betweenalveoli and the external environment.

� Hydrogen fluoride: Active volcanoes arenatural sources of fluorides in theatmosphere. These are also emitted fromaluminium, steel and electrochemicalreduction plants, blast furnaces, brick, tileand superphosphate fertilizer industries andfrom the combustion of coal.

Fluoride burns the tip of leaves, low amountsimpair plant growth, result in excessivedropping of bloom and young fruits,development of small, partially or completelyseedless fruits and premature formation ofsoft red flesh and splitting of peach.

� Nitrogen oxides: Anaerobic breakdown ofnitrogenous compounds by bacteria, forestfires and lightning constitute the naturalcauses. Chief sources however are powergenerators and motor vehicles, burning oforganic wastes and manufacture ofexplosive and nitrogenous fertilizers furtheradd to this problem.

Nitrogen dioxide brings about bifacialnecrosis leading to collapse of leaves,enhancement of green colour followed bychlorosis and extensive leaf drop, as wellas increase in fruit drop and decrease infruit yield. In man it produces general andpulmonary edema and haemorrhage.

� Hydrogen chloride: It is infrequentlyexpelled by accidental spills from chemicalmanufacturing plants. Besides, it is releasedfrom combustion of coal, paper, plastics andchlorinated hydrocarbons and ignition ofsolid-fuel rocket engines.

� Hydrocarbons: Biological decomposition oforganic matter seepage from natural gasand oil-fields and volatile emissions fromplants are major causes for the release ofhydrocarbons such as methane, ethyleneand aniline. Incomplete combustion of fu-

els, motor vehicle exhaust, petroleum refin-eries, agricultural burning, manufacture ofexplosives and cracking of natural gas inpetrochemical plants constitute the anthro-pogenic sources that emit hydrocarbons.

� Ammonia: Refrigerator, cooler systems ofcold storages, manufacture of ammoniumfertilizers and nitric acids, domesticincineration are the prime sources ofammonia.

It induces bleaching of leaves, rusty spotson leaves and flowers, reduction of rootand shoot growth, browning and softeningof fruits, development of dark, corkylenticels in apples and reduction in the rateof seed germination.

� Carbon-monoxide: It is released chiefly fromautomobile engines and defective furnaces.It produces headache, dizziness, inability todistinguish time intervals and otherobservable physical effects and cardiac andpulmonary changes. It forms carboxyhaemoglobin in RBC which prevents themfrom carrying oxygen to all parts of the body.

� Photochemical Oxidant: These aresecondary pollutants which are mainlyformed by photochemical reactions betweenprimary pollutants and hydrocarbons. Themajor oxidants are ozone and peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN). Minor amounts of ozone arealso added to the atmosphere by electricaldischarges such as lightning flashes byvertical flux of stratospheric ozone and bytropospheric electric storms.

In human beings oxidants cause stingingof eyes, coughing, headache, severe tiredfeeling, oedema haemorrhage, dry throat,disorientation and altered breathing.

� Tobacco smoke: It is mainly produced bysmoking cigarettes. It is gradually becominga potent pollutant especially in closedatmosphere. It causes lung cancer andpulmonary and coronary heart diseases. Itbrings about thickening of bronchialepithelial layer, loss of ciliated cells andappearance of cells with bizarre nucleiwhich are probably the precursors ofcancerous cells.


Particulate Pollutants

� Fluorides: The particulate fluorides originatein the same way as the gaseous fluorides.However, these are less phyto-toxic. Theycause an increase in the fluoride content ofthe leaves and occasional tip burn but thegrowth and yield are not greatly affected.The ingestion by cattle of various fluorinecompounds falling on forage causesabnormal calcification of bones and teethcalled fluorosis, eventually resulting in lossof their weight, and in lameness.

� Lead: Its chief source is tetraethyl lead usedas an antiknock additive in fuels of motorvehicles.

That is why its concentration is higher inurban areas, where automotive andindustrial exhausts are more, significantdeposition also comes from smeltingcomplexes, ceramic paints, pesticides andsolder used for sealing lead accumulatesin considerable amounts in the leaf tissuesas also in the tissues of human bodywhere it interferes with the developmentand maturation of RBC. Chronic exposureleads to damage to red cells. Being acumulative poison it disrupts thefunctioning of cells and organs of themuscular, circulatory and nervoussystems by binding with the cellularenzymes also causing coagulation ofproteins. It damages liver, kidney andgastro-intestine and induces abnormalitiesin fertility and pregnancy.

� Sodium Chloride: The de-icing salts mainlysodium chloride used to remove ice andsnow in winters have been recognized tocause damage to the road side trees in theform of leaf necrosis, defoliation andsuppression of flowering.

� Agricultural Chemicals: Several chemicalssuch as insecticides, herbicides, fungicidesand pesticides used widely in agricultureare known to produce foliar lesions,chlorosis and abscission of leaves andreduction in fruit set.

Sources of Air Pollution

1. Urbanisation: Urbanisation has unveiledbefore us an alarming situation. Expandingurbanisation has influenced the atmosphere in

different ways, such as growth of vehiclepopulation, sanitation, multiplying industria-lisation, power consumption, etc. Urbanisationleads to development of industrial centreswithout a corresponding development in civicamenities and pollution control mechanism.

Vehicular pollution accounts for nearly 70per cent of the total air pollution in India.

Urbanisation has spelt out greater comfortsin luxurious living with dramatic improvementsin the technology used. However, thisdevelopment in technology accentuates theproblem of indoor air pollution. Scientificevidence has indicated that air within homes andother buildings can be more seriously pollutedthan the outdoor air, particularly in the largestand the most polluted cities. Similarly, researchindicates that women spend nearly 90 per centof their time indoors. Thus, for many people,risks to health may be greater due to exposureto indoor air rather than to air outdoors. Thereare many sources of indoor air pollution:

Environmental Tobacco Smoke (ETS) is amajor source of indoor air pollution because itcontains carbon monoxide, formaldehyde andmany other harmful gases. ETS is often referredto as ‘second hand smoke’ and the exposure toETS is called ‘passive smoking. Some buildingmaterials like asbestos, furnishings andhousehold products like aerosol sprays,adhesives, paints, etc. release volatile organicpollutants continuously which cause diseasesranging from scamming of lung tissues to visualdisorder, abdominal cancer and memoryimpairment. Other sources include, use ofunvented stoves or space heater, solvents forcleaning products and housekeeping whichrelease pollutants intermittently.

2. Industrialisation and other Develop-mental Activities: The rapid rate of indust-rialisation has resulted in more and more airpollution. Various industrial processes releasealmost all types of pollutants into the air. Someindustries like cement, iron and steel, fertilizer,petrochemical, etc. are of great concern becauseof the difficulty in controlling the emission ofpollutants from them. Acid rain has become agreat threat to the environment. The use ofsolvents is increasing with the growing use ofpaints, spray, polish, etc. Due to the presence ofhydrocarbons in these materials, air pollution iscaused which is dangerous for health. Similarly,


the use of pesticides in agriculture is alsoresponsible for air pollution in rural areas.

In India around 60 per cent of energy needsare met by conventional energy sources, whilenon-conventional and renewable fuels meet theremaining 40 per cent. Energy consumption inthe Indian industrial sector accounts for 74 percent of total commercial energy consumption.Similarly, energy related carbon emission in Indiahas grown nine-folds over the past four decades.

India’s reliance on low-grade coal with highcarbon content is the prime cause for large-scalecarbon emission. Carbon emission has beenexacerbated by the low energy efficiency of coal-based plants. Chemical industries, includingmanufacturers of cement, fertilizers, textiles, ironand steel, non-metal products, paper, foodproduction, printing and publishing, leatherindustry, pesticides, etc. release a host of harmfulgases and compounds into the atmosphere.

3. Deforestation: The burning of fire woodis one of the major source of air pollution in India.Intense use of fire wood, mainly for domesticchores contributes to high level of air particulatematter and has caused the depletion of forestresources. Besides, deforestation is aided by anever increasing urban infrastructural demands,such as metalled highways, better places ofdwelling, etc. As a result, large-scale utilisationof forest resources cause serious economical,environmental and social hazards. It is now aserious national problem and has invited theattention of national planners andenvironmental advisers. The statistics of forestcoverage in India give a clear picture of how farIndia lags behind the minimum standard offorestation. The destruction of forest resources,the presence of harmful gases like sulphurdioxide and monoxide and dioxides of carbonin the atmosphere are increasing steadilyresulting in acid rain, global warming and othersuch dreaded phenomena.

4. Vehicular Exhaust: The automobile isman’s greatest achievement in minimizingdistances. The number of automobiles isincreasing day by day and has become a causeof air pollution and degradation of theenvironment. The automobile, with its internalcombustion engine, emits poisonous gases thatare harmful to human health and is the mostserious polluter of the technological age.

Exhaust emissions from diesel engines includecarbon monoxide, hydrocarbon oxides, organicacids, etc. The two primary pollutants are carbonmonoxide and nitrogen dioxide, both of whichare extremely poisonous gases. Lead is a toxiccompound and its main source in the environmentis believed to be from leaded gasoline used as fuelfor internal combustion engines. The presence oflead in the atmosphere is a threat to theenvironment as well as for all living organisms.

5. Poverty: A closer look at the statisticsreveals that more than two thirds of the totalpopulation in India still lives below the poverty line,striving hard to make both ends meet. Since theirnumber is considerably large, their contribution toair pollution cannot be ignored. These people mostlyuse cow dung cakes, leaves, twigs and wood asfuel which being solid fuels emit more smoke incomparison to gaseous fuels. Improper disposal ofgarbage in the open causes decay of organicwastes, liberating harmful gases like methane andcarbon monoxide into the atmosphere.

It becomes clear from the above analysis thatthe problem of air pollution is increasing withthe growth and expansion of industries andautomobiles. It is high time we know the harmfuleffects of air pollution and analyse ourtechnology to control it.

Effects of Air Pollution

Pollution and smog unveil before us a list ofdreaded diseases wrecking havoc on our health.Prolonged exposure to toxic pollutants fromvarious sources affects the normal functioningof life. Growing level of nitrogen dioxide andother corrosive gases have caused multiplicationof the incidence of allergic diseases like nausea,vomiting and chronic skin and eye irritations.The toxic elements in the atmosphere areresponsible for asthma, bronchitis and relatedrespiratory disorders. Nearly 80 per cent ofcancer cases are attributed to environmentalpollution especially due to contamination causedby toxic and hazardous chemicals. Organic leademitted from automobiles gets absorbed in brain,liver, kidney and blood, causing convulsions,muscular paralysis, brain damage and evendeath. Radon gas introduced into theatmosphere from Uranium-containing soil canresult in lung cancer after long exposure. Moreand more people are falling prey to digestiveailments and weakening of the body’s immunesystem. The victims of airborne pollutants aremostly infants and children.


1. Effects on Human Health, Animals andPlants: Some environmental poisons can causeimmediately and acute illness and even death.Others may be harmful, but the disease may takeyears or even decades to appear. Air pollutionmainly affects the respiratory system. Bronchitis,emphysema, asthma and lung cancer are someof the chronic diseases caused due to exposureto polluted air. It is feared that lung cancer iscaused mainly due to polluted air becausecarcinogens are found in the polluted air. Itsmortality rate is higher in urban areas.

Sulphur dioxide is the most serious andwidespread air pollutant. Its lower concentration isa cause of spasms in the smooth muscle ofbronchioles and its higher concentration inducesincreased mucus production. Sulphur dioxide is alsoconsidered to cause cough, shortness of breath,spasm of the larynx and acute irritation to themembranes of the eyes. SO2 also acts as an allergenicagent. When it reacts with certain compounds,sulphuric acid is formed which may damage lungs.

Generally speaking susceptibility to the effectsof air pollution is great among infants, the elderlyand the infirm. Those with chronic diseases ofthe lungs or heart are thought to be both sensitiveand specifically reactive to air pollution's healtheffects. Another point to be noted is that theeffect of air pollution's on human health is worstduring the winter season, when pollution levelsreach a maximum.

Carbon monoxide often affects the oxygencarrying capacity of blood. Nitric oxide isreported to be a pulmonary irritant and its excessconcentration may cause pulmonaryhaemorrhage. Hydrogen sulphide is also toxic.Lead emitted from automobile exhausts is acumulative poison, dangerous particularly tochildren and may cause brain damage.

2. Global Warming: The temperature at thesurface of the earth is maintained by the energybalance between the sun’s rays that strike theplanet and the heat that is radiated back intospace. Some of the heat is absorbed and retainedby the earth or objects on the surface. Much ofthis does not pass through the air envelope toouter space but is absorbed by the carbon dioxideand water vapour in the atmosphere and addsto the heat already present. Thus, carbon dioxideacts like the glass of a greenhouse, on a globalscale, which tends to warm the air in the lowerlevels of the atmosphere. This is called the

greenhouse effect which is also responsible forthe increase in temperature over the earth’ssurface. Volcanic eruptions are also responsiblefor the increase of carbon dioxide.

3. Depleting Ozonosphere: Ozone isnormally present in the atmosphere at about 0.05ppm at sea level. It is produced naturally in theatmosphere by the action of electric dischargeson oxygen. Until 1974, atmospheric scientistswere proceeding in their research on the possibleimpact of nitrogen oxide jet engine exhausts onthe ozone layer. But later it was found that anew threat to the ozone layer had emerged fromsynthetic chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons.Recent scientific studies indicate that ifchlorofluorocarbon production continues togrow at the present rate, the compound will enterthe stratosphere in quantities capable of seriouslydepleting the ozone layer, normally termed as‘holes’ in the ozone layer.

The use of chlorofluorocarbon is increasingbecause of the demand of ‘personal careproducts’ such as deodorants, hair sprays,shaving creams and countless other consumercosmetic products, as well as refrigeration. Theozone layer serves as a shield protecting thetroposphere and the earth’s surface from mostof the ultra violet radiation found in the sun’srays. If these ultra violet rays reach the earth’ssurface in full intensity, all exposed bacteriawould be destroyed; plants and animal tissueswould be severely damaged. In this protectiverole, the presence of the ozone layer is an essentialfactor in the environment.

4. Acid Rain: Pronounced as the mostdreaded effect of air pollution, acid rain, as thename suggests refers to the precipitation ofcarbonic, sulphuric and nitric acids duringrainfall. Acidic fumes of sulphur dioxide andtrioxide, carbon dioxide and nitrogen dioxideemitted from industrial establishments combinewith rain water and snow in the atmosphere toform corresponding acids which come down asrain. The analysis of rain water in pollutedregions would confirm acidic character with pHvalue less than 7.

Acid rain pollutes the drinking water sources,such as wells, ponds and lakes. It causes fertilelands to grow barren since excessive acidity isdeterrent to plant growth. Acid rain is highlycorrosive and causes blisters and burns, on contactwith human skin. The Taj Mahal at Agra wasprone to corrosion due to sulphuric acid rain.


5. Smog: ‘Smog’ is the name given for‘smoke fog’. The most irritating and injuriouscomponents of smog are the products of reactionsin the atmosphere between oxygen, ozone andemission pollutants. The mixture of theseproducts is called photo-chemical smog. Theseare reactions in which oxygen, ozone, nitrogenand hydrocarbons produce those compoundswhich are toxic and irritating.

The constituents of smog are quite toxic andare responsible for respiratory and cardiacdifficulties. Eye irritation is the most commonsymptom of smog injury. It is also injurious toanimals and plants and is one of the main causesof environmental degradation

Controlling Air Pollution

The following steps should be taken to controlair pollution:

1. The forest cover should be protected byrestricting deforestation and throughadoption of afforestation programmes.Trees are the best controllers of air pollution.It must be ensured that 33 per cent of theland area remains under forest cover. Itwill help in controlling air pollution and alsohelp in maintaining the ecological balance.

2. There must be a ‘green belt’ around everytownship and village. Similarly, industrialareas should be surrounded by green belts.

3. The main source of air pollution areautomobiles. Therefore, their engines shouldbe redesigned in such a way that theiremissions cause minimum pollution. Severalsteps have been taken and some technologyhas also been developed, but it is still in apreliminary stage.

4. In developing countries traditional use ofwood fuel should be controlled.

5. In industries, arrangements for pollutioncontrol should be made. Only afterarrangements for effluent treatment are made,should permission for production be given.

Air Fingerprinting: Technique to MeasurePollution

A technique that revolutionizes the speedand accuracy by which air composition can betested and has potential applications in theenvironmental, industrial and medical worldshas been developed. The new air fingerprintingtechnique can detect in less than a minute, the

ingredients of air, including that of anindividual’s breath. The new development mayhave application in the forensic field.

A new method for fingerprinting thecharacteristic signature of volatile organiccompounds (VOCs) in air has been developed.VOCs are produced naturally in the body and someare expelled in our breath. The presence or absenceof specific VOCs may be a rapid indicator of certainillness. A wide range of VOCs are also emitted fromman-made sources and these can have a damagingeffect on the environment and on human health.Chemical plants, oil refineries, gas platforms,vehicle and aircraft emissions, are all major sourcesof atmospheric VOCs. Many of the hundreds ofdifferent VOCs emitted by these man-madeproducts are toxic and/or carcinogenic and,although usually present in very small quantities,their constant emission into poorly ventilatedbuildings mean that human safety levels are oftenexceeded. This technique is also used as a methodfor urban pollution monitoring.

Asian Brown Cloud

The United Nations EnvironmentProgramme (UNEP) had published a reportabout the presence of a 3km thick layer ofpollutants dubbed “Asian Brown Cloud” overSouth Asia. In order to notice this environmentalhazard the Govt. of India has decided to launcha study to determine how far India and othercountries are responsible for it. The study wouldinvolve the deployment of a network of what iscalled sky scanner radiometers across the country.

Meanwhile, the thick brown haze which tillnow was largely seen in the South Asian skies isspreading to newer areas like the Gulf region. Ithas been revealed that the West Asian region,too, is being sucked into the global pollution circuitmoving several kilometres above the ground.

The haze is a cocktail of ash, aerosols and blacksoot that result mainly from diesel, dirty coal andbiomass burning. This could be coming locallyor from several hundred kilometres away. Theimpact of oil refineries along the Gulf coastlinemight prove an accelerating factor for this.

The United Nations Environment Progra-mme (UNEP)-supported research efforts havecome in for severe criticism from the Indiangovernment. Consequently, the blanket ofpollution, originally termed the ‘Asian BrownCloud,’ has now been given the name‘Atmospheric Brown Cloud’ by the UNEP.


b) WATER POLLUTION

Water pollution is a phenomenon that ischaracterized by the deterioration of the qualityof land water (rivers, lakes, marshes and groupwater) or sea water as a result of various humanactivities. Water pollution is any physical orchemical change in water that can adverselyaffect organisms. It is a global problem, affectingboth the industrialised and the developingnations. The water pollution problems in the richand the poor nations, however, are quitedifferent in many respects. Heat, toxic metals,acids, sediment, animal and human wastes andsynthetic organic compounds foul thewaterways of developed nations. Human andanimal wastes, sediments and pathogenicorganisms head the list in the non-industrialisednations. In these countries, unsanitary water andmalnutrition account for most instances of illnessand death.

Sources of Water Pollution

i) Agriculture

Agriculture has been a victim of waterpollution in many instances, but sometimes it isalso responsible for polluting water. Waterpollution caused by agricultural activity ismainly an outcome of fertilizers and agriculturalchemicals such as insecticides and herbicides.

(1) Water Pollution by Fertilizers

Fertilizers given to crops are not always fullyconsumed. and part of them remain in the soil bybeing absorbed by soil colloid, which influencesthe quality of underground, river and sea waterswhen it is dissolved. Chemical fertilizers mainlyconsist of relatively simple compound of nitrogen,phosphorus and potassium which are thenutritive elements of plants. Their runoffcoefficients vary depending on the solubility ofthe fertilizer itself, the rate of absorption by plants,and rate of decomposition. It is generally believedthat the runoff coefficient of nitrogen is 5-30 percent and that of phosphorus is 0.05-5 per cent.Especially, nitrogen having a high runoffcoefficient tends to cause the eutrophication oflakes and enclosed sea areas.

Organic fertilizers such as compost,farmyard manure, human waste and fish mealproduce nitrogen and phosphorus when they

are decomposed, and also become the source ofpollution. These organic fertilizers do notcontain, in general, any toxic substance.

(2) Water Pollution by Agricultural Chemicals

Agricultural chemicals are considered as asource of peculiar pollution which cannot beoverlooked. Agricultural chemicals comprise avariety of chemicals such as insecticides,sterilizers and weed killers, that have played animportant role in the operation of modernagriculture, but have also caused seriousenvironmental pollution.

The characteristics of agriculturalchemicals as water-polluting substances lie inthat (1) almost all of them are specialcompounds not occurring at all in nature, andmany of the behaviours and change of suchchemicals at the time of discharge into thenatural environment are known;(2) theirinfluence on the human body because oftheir inherent characterist ics ; (3) whenthey are ingested into the human body,they tend to accumulate or concentrate init ; (4) they are available in a variety ofkinds, and new products are developedconstantly;(5) some of them are extremelystable as chemicals, and remain in natureor in the human body for a long time therebyeventually afflicting the human body;(6) it iscommon to all such chemicals to containadditives that can continue to affect theenvironment through they do not have astrong toxicity; (7) many of them require aspecial method of analysis.

ii) Mining Industry

In many countries, water pollution relatedto the mining industry can be tracked to oldentimes compared with those caused by otherindustries. The characteristics of wastewaterfrom mining industries vary greatly dependingon the kind of mine.

The characteristics of industrial pollution ofmining industries can be summarized as follows:

(1) In many instances, the development of amine itself changes its natural environmentartificially, and such a change first affectsthe quality of water of the environmenteven if any kind of wastewater is notdischarged from mining activities.


(2) In areas where mines can be developed,very often, even before the development ofthe mine, the quality of river water orunderground water is different from that ofother areas. For instance, river water orunderground water in such areas containspecial metals of high concentration and isstrongly acidic. Thus, it is rather difficult tomeasure the direct influence of mining activitieson the quality of water. Moreover, geologicalfeatures and the ways of land use are usuallyvery peculiar in mining areas. These conditionsshould be taken into consideration prior tosurveying the quality of water.

(3) Mining activities generate large quantitiesof solid wastes in most cases, and suchwastes form large heaps. These waste notonly pollute water by exudation of toxicsubstances, but also cause, the rapidgeneration of suspended solids in waterwhen the heap is washed away by a heavyrainfall or a flood.

iii) Urban Activities

In a sense, the existence of human beingsitself is a source of water pollution. In primitiveages, the purifying of nature was much greaterthan the rate of water pollution caused byhuman living. But as time passed, men began tosettle near water areas for the convenience ofliving; then they developed various industries,which provided them with the foundation ofcivilized life. The emergence of various industriescoupled with the development of civilization hasconstantly increased the quantity of wastewatercontaminations . The rate of environmentalpollution has exceeded the rate of naturalpurification.

The type of water pollution in a city varieslargely depending on the characteristics of thecity, life style of the inhabitants and degree ofcivilization, degree of development of sewagetreatment plants or sewerage systems. Although,it is very difficult to investigate these conditionsin detail, they can be estimated by investigatingthe following:

(1) Population of the city: This is the mostessential datum to be obtained first.

(2) Consumption of water and quantity ofwastewater: where a city water system iswell established, it is relatively easy to obtaindata concerning the consumption of water.

For example, the consumption of city waterin a modern civilized city is said to be about500 litres per man per day. However, it isusually difficult to know the quantity ofwastewater even if it is only an estimate.

(3) Condition of sewage treatment: This canbe measured in terms of the availability ofsewage treatment plants and sewage worksincluding their capacities and efficiency.

(4) Condition of municipal or public facilitiesand private facilities: In a large city, thereare a number of public facilities and all thesefacilities can be the sources of water pollution,such as: (public facilities) government andmunicipal offices, schools, hospitals, publicbath houses, public lavatories, markets, ports,power plants, city gas facilities, sewagetreatment plants, etc. and (Non-publicfacilities) Factories, stores, offices, gas stations,restaurants, bars, hotels, etc.

(5) Condition of sewage: Municipal sewagemainly consists of a mixture of humanwaste, household sewage and wastes fromother facilities, and its condition variesdepending on the characteristics of the city,degree of civilization, precipitation and thecondition of road surface.

The quantity and condition of wastewaterresulting from human activity, mainly consistingof household wastewater, generally varydepending on the time of the day; however, the“product of the concentration multiplied by thequantity” tends to remain within a relativelyfixed range. Such a value is defined as “pollutionloading amount,” and is used as the basic datafor the sewage treatment planning.

The most conspicuous characteristics ofmunicipal sewage are that the organic content(indicated as BOD) is extremely high; the contentof ammoniacal and organic nitrogen, phosphatesand sulphides are considerably high; and normally,hazardous substances are not contained.

Industrial wastewater tends to containhazardous substances; therefore, its dischargeinto the municipal sewerage system should bestrictly controlled. This is necessary becauseordinary sewage treatment plants not only donot have an equipment to remove hazardoussubstances, but also there is a possibility of gettingits activated sludge processing function damagedby such hazardous substances.


The modern sewage treatment technique iscapable of removing organic pollutants veryefficiently, but it is difficult economically toremove nitrogen and phosphorus contentsefficiently with existing facilities. For example,only about 30% of the nitrogen and phosphorouscontents can be removed through the currentlyemployed two-step treatment method, whichmainly applies the activated sludge method, andthe remainder of such contents causes theeutrophication of water areas.

iv) Other Human Activities

Aside from the various human activitiesalready discussed in previous sections, there areother types of human activities which also causewater pollution. These activities sometimesbecome social problems as sources ofenvironmental pollution. These types of humanactivities are as follows:

(1) Construction Work / Infrastructuredevelopement

Construction works, especially those large-scale land development projects or forestryconservation and flood control projects aimedat preventing natural disasters, can sometimescause water pollution. Water pollution causedby such construction projects can be divided intothose occurring incidental to the progress ofconstruction works and those occurring due tothe change in natural conditions as a result ofthe construction works. The latter is moreimportant than the former. Construction worksfor a dam, river improvement (including thosefor the alteration of basins), port facilities,creation and reclamation of land and gravelgathering from river-bed are enumerated asexamples of the above-mentioned causes.

(2) Various Tertiary Industries

Various Tertiary industries can be consideredto cause water pollution such as cleaning andlaundry businesses, public bath houses, hotels,printing businesses, photographic filmdevelopment businesses, hospitals, laboratoriesor research institutes, tourist businesses,transportation facilities and so forth. An increasein the load of municipal wastewater as a resultof the increase in the working population of citiesalso has become one of the factors directly relatedto water pollution. Of various transportations,ships, especially tankers which discharge waste

cleaning water, have come to the fore as sourcesof water pollution in coastal regions.

(3) Errors, Accidents and Disasters

Accidental damages to public sewage worksor drainage of industrial effluent, as well as poorplanning of sewage treatment plants anderroneous operations of these facilities can alsocause water pollution. Speaking of waterpollution caused by accidents, pollution of theocean due to oil- spills resulting from the collisionof tankers on the high seas has become an objectof public attention in recent years.

Measures to Prevent Water Pollution

(i) All domestic and municipal effluents shouldbe drained in water bodies only after propertreatment.

(ii) As far as possible domestic waste water beused for irrigation, it is very useful forhorticulture.

(iii)There must be strict regulations forindustrial effluents, that they must notdischarge highly toxic water into waterbodies. Every industry should develop itsown effluent treatment plant.

(iv)Only standard quality pesticides should beused.

(v) There should be a complete ban on thedisposal of dead bodies in rivers. The bankof water bodies are often used as publiclatrines. This should be strictly checked.

(vi)Algae and other water borne vegetationshould be cleaned regularly.

(vii)Chemicals such as potassium perman-ganate should be spread regularly in orderto protect water from micro organisms.

(viii)In order to avoid the release of night soilinto the city drains which eventually jointhe river, the unsewered areas should besewered forthwith.

(ix)The existing laws for the prevention andcontrol of water pollution need to beimplemented forcefully.

c) OIL POLLUTION

Human activities on the environment haveresulted in pollution of environment. Pollutants


are stored and transported through theatmosphere, the hydrosphere and thelithosphere and influence biotic communities.Pollution of environment especially marinepollution is a worldwide phenomenon.Spectacular oil spills and conspicuous acts ofdumping hazardous wastes e.g. radioactivematerial into the sea have attracted greaterattention in recent years to the dangers of oceanicpollution. Some of the major marine pollutantsare mercury, lead, pesticides, petroleum, andradioactive elements.

Marine pollution is a worldwidephenomenon. Most marine pollutants originateon the continent and reach the oceans via theatmosphere and rivers. Marine pollution cannotbe separated from global pollution generally. Itis an avoidance of reality which will assurefailure of any such effort. To turn one’s back onthe land to ignore the atmosphere and then totry to develop effective means for theinternational control of pollution of the marineenvironment is bound to result in failure.

Oceanic pollution cannot be controlled unlessthe release of the materials that pollute the oceansis controlled. These materials are generatedmainly by activities entirely within the boundariesof states and they are transported primarily bythe atmosphere, secondarily by rivers and onlytertiarily by specific acts of man. Thus, pollutioncontrol requires the control of human pollutingactivities everywhere. The importance ofcontrolling oil pollution at sea lies not only in itsshort-term effects but also the long-term effectson marine life and environment. Crude oil is oneof the most complex mixtures of natural productwith different degrees of toxicity.

The short term effects of an intact cohesivefilm of crude oil over the water surface aredetrimental for the following reasons:

� Marine fowl are particularly vulnerable tooil spills and it is estimated that about10,000 birds were killed as a result ofgrounding of Torrey Canyon.

� Shore properties and beaches can beextensively contaminated.

� Slow moving crustaceans and inter-tidalmarine life can be physically damaged byheavy spills of oil.

� The oil film forms a barrier to the transfer ofoxygen into the water to support marine life,

particularly planktonic species that resides lessthan a half to one meter below the surface.

The long term effects of oil pollution are two-fold. Once incorporated into a particular marineorganism, hydrocarbons are stable and passthrough many members of the marine foodchain without alteration eventually reachingorganisms that are harvested for humanconsumption. One consequence of this may bethe incorporation into food of materials whichproduce an undesirable flavour. Far moreserious is the potential accumulation in humanfood of long term poisons derived from crudeoil, for instance carcinogenic compounds.

Measures to Prevent oil Pollution

Today a number of methods have been evolvedto combat oil spills - with varying degrees ofefficacy. Some of them are:

� The first course of action in containing thespill is generally to prevent it from hittingthe shoreline, where it threatens the wildlife.Mechanical booms or barriers are generallyspread around the oil slick to check itsprogress. But high waves can always splashthe oil over the boom. Or the oil may evenpass below the boom, after piling up againstthe barrier. So once the oil is contained, itis scooped up from the surface by vesselsknown as skimmers. This is a slow processand useful only in the early stages.

� Dispersants are chemicals that break up oil -are used routinely on small spills. Dispersantsare similar to soap in their action on oils, andcan disperse oil through large volume ofwater. Dispersants reduce the surface tensionbetween oil and water and break up the oilin small droplets, which then disperse in thewater body. But though highly visibledamage is prevented, toxic components liketoluene and benzene linger on and enter thefood chain with disastrous effects.

� Absorbents, like polystyrene, polypropyleneand polyurethane are often used to absorbthe oil and prevent it from spreading. Butagain it has had limited success.

� Burning oil slicks has also been tried.Unfortunately, water removes heat fasterthan it can be created to supportcombustion. Also, it creates air pollution.


� Perhaps, the safest method of degradingoil spills is by using microbial surfactants.They mix with the oil, emulsify it anddisperse it. This speeds up the process ofevaporation and degradation of oil throughother natural means.

Remedies: It is essential to have sewagetreatment plants for every town and city so thatthe biodegradable as well as non-biodegradablepollutants can be removed from it and pure waterobtained for recirculation.

Currently water hyacinth, an otherwisepernicious weed has come into prominence forpurifying domestic and industrial waste waters.The plant regenerates rapidly and has atremendous capacity to accumulate heavy andeven radioactive metals. It is efficient in adsorbingnitrogen, phosphorus and other similar chemicalpollutants. The polluted water fed into reservoirsor lagoons with water hyacinth becomes markedlyclean and free from 75-90 per cent of its pollutants.Besides, this plant has been used as a new sourceof food, fertilizer and energy (biogas).

Although the enactment of Water PollutionControl Act has helped to a certain extent toprevent water pollution in the country, adequatelegislative measures by every state are a must toensure:-

(a) Proper disposal of sewage and industrialwastes.

(b) Prevention of abuse of water resources.

(c) Recycling of waste waters through propermethods of purification.

(d) Punishment to erring industries which donot install effluent devices in their factories.

Synthetic herbicides and pesticides pose achallenge to the natural degradation process,therefore judicious, efficient and optimum use oforganic manures requires to be encouraged. Theuse of microbes for the breakdown of thesesynthetic compounds is another answer to thisproblem.

As per the Geneva Convention (1958) everystate must draw its regulation to preventpollution of seas through discharge of oil fromships, pipelines, and from exploitation andexploration of the sea-bed and its sub-soil. It musttake measures to prevent pollution of seas fromthe dumping of radioactive waste and other

harmful agents. The coastal state is obliged toundertake in the safety zones (around island/installations) all appropriate measures for theprotection of living resources of the sea fromharmful agents.The oceans are in a certain sensemankind’s last frontier. We know so little aboutthem yet we feel that if we could but exploit thevarious resources of the sea for food, for energyand for raw materials, the development of theworld could be accelerated.

d) NOISE POLLUTION

The planet earth is unique because it isperhaps the only known human habitat so far.Man’s environment is the basis of humanexistence and survival. Rapid technologicaldevelopments no doubt have helped civilizationbut at the same time have led to environmentaldegeneration. This in turn has threatened humansurvival. Noise is one of the constituents ofoverall environmental pollution. The menacingproportion in which it is growing in ourenvironment these days is becoming a matter ofconcern for all of us. It has been established thatexcessive noise is not only adversely affecting thehealth of human beings but is also a healthhazard to all living beings. Even non-living thingsare not left unaffected by the high intensity ofnoise. Noise pollution is something which manhas added to his miseries himself, by not properlyunderstanding the effects which noise has onpublic health. The necessity of a healthyenvironment is well recognized for humanhealth and happiness. Galbraith has rightly said,“In the world into which economics was bornthe four most urgent requirements were food,clothing, shelter and an orderly environment inwhich the first three might be provided.” It istrue it is difficult to have an orderly environmentin the technologically advanced modern age.

Noise as pollutant has become a greatnuisance these days. It is a shadowed publicenemy whose growing menace has increased inthe modern age of industrialisation. Noise isunwanted or undesired sound. Pollution is ‘anyman induced change in the environment as aresult of his activities, which has a measurableand generally detrimental effect upon theenvironment’. Pollution from a legal point of viewis the wrongful contamination of the atmosphere.or of water or of soil, to the material injury of theright of an individual. Thus, noise as pollutant


contaminates the environment which affectsadversely the health of a person and produces illeffects on living, as well as on non-living things.

Sources of Noise Pollution

The Sources of noise pollution can be dividedinto two categories:

Industrial Sources

In Industries noise is a by-product of energyconversion. Cotton, mills, foundries and manyother industries where big machines are workingat a high speed have high noise pollution levelswhich require our urgent attention in itsminimization.

Non-Industrial Sources Non-industrial noisepollution sources can further be divided into thefollowing categories.

(a) Loudspeakers: One of the common factorscreating noise pollution is indiscriminateuse of loudspeakers. In India no functionor ceremony is complete without aloudspeaker which has all thecharacteristics of creating public nuisance.The recent spate in 'Jagrans' and 'Jagratas'and completion of religious ceremonies intemples or in private, which go on for wholenights, mark the unabated use ofloudspeaker without a moment’s pause.The situation at the time of Ram Lilas orelectioneering is much more shocking. Oneis forced to hear the discourses whetherone likes it or not. Most people bear it andare reluctant to lodge a complaint for fearof unpleasant neighbourhood relations andfears of bringing the wrath of the users onthem. Is this competitive religious fervorfrom every place of worship necessary? Isit not torturous for a person who wants torest and sleep, for a student who wants tostudy? The agony of a patient in such asituation is beyond imagination.

(b) Automobiles: Automobiles constitute thelargest single group of noise menace. In acity, 60 to 70 per cent of noise may comefrom road traffic. Slow speed of five to tenkmph during peak hours increase theemission rate of atmospheric and noisepollution. In India in cities road lengths aremuch less than desired, being 7 per cent ofthe total area, instead of 20 to 30 per cent.So the vehicle densities become alarminglyhigh resulting in increased noise level.

(c) Trains: The impact of noise pollution bytrains is maximum in those areas whererailway tracks are situated in residentialareas. With the introduction of fast trains,the noise pollution has been substantiallyincreased.

(d) Aircrafts: Higher the speed of an aircraft,greater is the noise pollution. Thesupersonic aircrafts have added more noiseespecially for living beings who live nearaerodromes. The noise of these planes canbreak windowpanes, crack plaster andshake buildings. By evaluating these effectsof noise one can easily understand theeffects of such noise on the human body.Major cities around the world have bannedflights at night to prevent citizens havingto put up with the deafening roar of jets.As our geographical position does notpermit banning of night internationalflights, we will have to wait till we canenforce this legislation.

(e) Construction Work: Demolition andconstruction for urban renewal andexpansions always make the urban man avictim of noise pollution. During demolitionof old sites and construction of new buildings,huge machines which produce a lot of noiseare commissioned and have become acommon scene in every big city whereconstruction work is in progress. Constructionwork may be unavoidable for social needs butthe resultant noise produced may be hazardousfor the health of persons subjected to the noise.

(f) Projection of Satellites in Space: A newsource of noise pollution is Satellites projectedinto the space with the aid of high explosiverockets. Application and use of these rocketsproduce deafening noise at the time of ‘liftoff’. Tons of TNT and other explosives areused in these operations, which create noisepollution as well as air pollution.

(g) Radio, Microphones: Radio and micro-phonescan cause noise pollution if they are switchedon, on a high volume. Present day interest ofyougsters in western music and dance withhigh volume causes noise pollution.

Effects of Noise Pollution

Noise is one of the main pollutants of theenvironment causing various hazardous


consequences for human life. Noise not onlyimpairs our sensibility to auditory stimuli bymasking effects, but has other consequences too.

Researchers have proved that a loud noiseduring peak marketing hours creates tiredness,irritation and impairs brain activities so as toreduce thinking and working abilities. Noisepollution was previously confined to a fewspecial areas like factories or mills, but today itengulfs every nook and corner of the Universe,reaching its peak in urban areas. Industries,automobiles, rail engines, airplanes, radios,loudspeakers, tape recorders, lottery ticket sellers,hawkers, etc. are the main ear contaminators ofthe city area. The regular rattling engines andintermittent blowing of horns emanating fromthe caravan of automobiles do not allow us tohave any respite from irritant noise even insuburban zones. However, the most apparentvictims of noise pollution today are the residentsof neighbourhoods near larger airports. Theintroduction of jet planes has considerablyincreased their misery.

Its general effect on human beings is that itcauses disturbances in sleep which lead to otherside effects. It also has auditory effects like lossof hearing. Broadly speaking it has:

a) Physiological Effects

This form of environmental degradation hasimplications on health, as serious as air or waterpollution. It can change man’s physiological stateby speeding up pulse and respiratory rates. Itcan impair hearing either permanently ortemporarily. Millions of industrial workersare threatened with hearing damage.Medical evidence suggests that noises cancause heart attacks in individuals withexisting cardiac injury, and that continuedexposure to loud noise could cause chroniceffects such as hypertension or ulcers, and ofcourse deafness. Audiograms of pop musiciansshow typical hearing loss in both the ears. Forthe connoisseur of this music, it takes 20 to 50hours of silence to make the loss of hearing causedby a four-hour-rock concert.

The adverse effects of noise pollution on thehuman beings are manifested throughphysiological indications such as loss of hearing,occupational deafness and noise induceddiseases. Empirical research conducted onpregnant female mice revealsed that aircraft takeoff which records 120 to 160 decibels caused

miscarriages in them. If the findings on mice aremade applicable to human beings, high noise isequally capable of creating similar disturbancesin human beings also.

Several birds have been observed to havestopped laying eggs. Apart from this animalschange their places. It has been observed thatless and less number of migratory birds move toa particular place if the noise level at that placeincreases. Prolonged chronic noise can alsoproduce stomach ulcers as it may reduce the flowof gastric juice and change its acidity. It may leadto abortions and other congenital defects inunborn children.

b) Psychological Effects

Many behavioural changes are recorded asa result of exposure to high noise in human beingsas well in animals. Certain symptoms can beobserved outrightly. The undesired sound maycause annoyance. Intolerable agony may resultwhen the source of the sound is not known.Interruptions in speech communications mayimpair performance, lead to errors and loweroutput and efficiency. Noise can cause tensionin muscles, nervous irritability and strain. Nodoubt the noise reaction varies to large extent indifferent individuals.

Noise Control: Noise exposure reductionmay be achieved by the application of engi-neering control techniques, or by the regulationof exposed personnel. Engineering controlmethods are usually preferred. This refers to thealteration of design, changes in the mounting oroperation of a noise source, or the constructionof sound barriers, sound absorbers, etc.

The control of noise is most economicallyachieved in the planning stage. Avoiding aproblem in this manner presupposes aknowledge of the noise characteristic of eachmachine or process activity while “on thedrawing board”. When noise potentialinformation is available, or can be obtained withjudicious investigation, it may be applied toengineering design, process development orplant layout. At this time, equipment or processnoise specifications can be stipulated to suppliers.The design of quieter equipments by means ofplant planning can be evaluated.

Equipment is designed primarily for theproductive task to be performed. There are no“standard methods” by which a noise-freemachine can be fabricated. Building in a quiet


operation requires knowledge of the mechanicsof sound generation and the path of soundtransmission. Regardless of the equipmentinvolved, the fundamental mechanics of soundwave generation may be classified as either avibrating surface or as turbulence in a fluidmedium. Generated sound may be transmittedby several paths other than direct radiation tothe atmosphere. A moving part may set upvibrations in some adjacent solid that could, inturn, become a noise generator. Likewise, air-borne sound waves may induce vibrations insolid surfaces that could, reradiate noise into theair. The control method applied will bedependent upon the paths of “noise flow”, andthe sound energy being carried by each path.Application of fundamentals regarding soundgeneration and transmission could prevent anoisy design. A similar application offundamentals to plant layout could avoidobjectionable noise. Even with the most carefuldesign, certain equipment may create anobjectionable condition. Isolation of the potentialproblems during the planning stages couldprevent costly renovations.

Noise problems resulting from equipment thathas been installed and in operation may be solvedby the substitution of quieter equipment, or thesubstitution of quieter process activities andquieter materials. A few examples of thesemethods include the use of a centrifugal fan,where it is practical to replace an axial flow fan(such as a propeller fan which produces, morehigh frequency noise); the use of welding toreplace a noisier riveting process; the substitutionof rubber tyres to replace steel wheels on vehicles.

Engineering control methods may beimaginatively applied to reduce noise by makingsome modifications to an existing noise source.The fundamentals of sound generation andtransmission are again applied. Control of avibrating surface can be achieved by dampingor isolation of the forces responsible for thevibration. A common example is the isolation ofvibrating parts by the use of resilient materials.Using springs or rubber cushions to isolatevibrating equipment from their mountingsurfaces will reduce the noise that result fromthe continuous impact of vibration.

Relatively large vibrating surfaces, such assheet metal sections, are frequent noise sources.Control may be achieved by reducing thevibrational response by such means as dampingthe material, improving its support or increasing

its mass. This type of material may be subject toresonance (vibration at its natural frequency).In this condition the driving forces are “inphase” with the member's vibration and largesurface displacements are common. Damping ofsurface vibrations is achieved by dissipatingvibratory energy, thereby reducing the amplitudeof motion. This may be achieved by covering thearea from the surface to the member with felt,mineral wool, etc.

Prevention and Control of Pollution

There are about 30 major enactments relatedto protection of environment, now beingadministered by the central and stategovernments. Prominent among these are: TheWater (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,1974, The Air (Prevention and Control ofPollution) Act, 1981, the Factories Act and theInsecticides Act. Taking into account, thewidespread concern regarding danger toenvironment from hazardous substances, theGovernment has enacted The Environment(Protection) Act, 1986, to provide a single focusfor environmental issues in the country.

Its salient features are-

(a) Conferring powers on Central Government to:(i) Take all necessary measures for

protecting quality of environment.(ii) Coordinate actions of states, officers and

other authorities under this Act orunder any actions of states, officers andother authorities under this Act.

(iii) Plan and execute a nationwideprogramme for prevention, control andabatement of environmental pollution.

(iv) Lay down standards for discharge ofenvironmental pollutants.

(v) Establish or recognize environmentallaboratories.

(vi) Lay down standards for quality ofenvironment.

(vii) Restrict areas in which any industry,operations or processes may not becarried out or shall be carried outsubject to certain safeguards.

(b) It confers powers on persons to complain tocourts regarding any violation of theprovisions of the Act, after a notice of 60days to prescribed authorities.

(c) The Act makes it obligatory for the personin charge of a place to inform the prescribed


authorities regarding any accidentaldischarge or apprehended discharge of anypollutant in excess of prescribed standards.Authorities, on receipt of such information orotherwise, shall take remedial measures toprevent or mitigate pollution caused by suchaccidents and expenses incurred by theauthorities in respect of remedial measures arerecoverable with interest from the polluter.

(d) It prescribes stringent penalties for violationof the provisions of the Act.

(e) Jurisdiction of civil courts is barred underthe Act.

The Policy Statements on Abatement of Pol-lution, adopted in 1992, provides instrumentsin the form of legislation and regulation, fiscalincentives, voluntary agreements, educationalprogrammes and information campaigns toprevent and control pollution of water, air andland. Since the adoption of the policy statement,the focus of activities has been on issues suchas promotion of clean and low waste technolo-gies, waste water minimization, reuse/recy-cling, improvement of water quality, environ-ment audit, natural resource accounting, devel-opment of mass-based standards, institutionaland human resource development, etc. Thewhole issue is dealt with by a combination ofcommand and control methods as well as vol-untary regulations, fiscal measures, promotionof awareness and involvement of public.

Eco-Mark Scheme

The adoption of eco-mark scheme marks thebeginning of a new phase in environmentallegislation in India. So far, environmentalmeasures have been mostly confined to saving ourflora and fauna and checking pollution. This hasat best limited or delayed the catastrophe, for“legal loopholes and conniving officials saw to itthat the exploitation of natural resources“continues unabated. The prospects of quickprofit conveniently suppressed nagging “ethicaland rational consideration for a better ecology”.

Eco-Mark is an eco-labelling scheme whichwas constituted by the Government of India in1991 for easy identification of environment-friendly products. An “Eco-mark” label hasbeen introduced to label consumer productsthat are environment friendly. So far, theGovernment has issued 18 notifications on

different products criteria. To facilitateindustries in preparing environmentalstatements, sector-specific environmental auditmanuals have been prepared. WasteMinimization Circles (WMCs) are beingestablished to promote group efforts inincreasing productivity and improving theenvironmental conditions in small and mediumscale industries through adoption of wasteminimization techniques.

Objectives of the Scheme:

The specific objectives of the scheme are as follow:

� To provide an incentive for manufacturersand importers to reduce adverse environ-mental impact of products.

� To reward genuine initiatives by companiesto reduce adverse environmental impact oftheir products.

� To assist consumers to become environ-mentally responsible in their daily lives byproviding information to take account ofenvironmental factors in their purchasedecisions.

� To encourage citizens to purchase productswhich have less harmful environmentalimpacts.

� Ultimately to improve the quality of theenvironment and to encourage thesustainable management of resources.

Central Pollution Control Board

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB),statutory organisation, was constituted inSeptember, 1974 under the Water (Prevention andControl of Pollution) Act, 1974. Further, CPCB wasentrusted with the powers and functions underthe Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,1981. The CPCB is the national apex body forassessment, monitoring and control of water andair pollution. The executive responsibilities forenforcement of the Acts for Prevention and Controlof Pollution of Water (1974) and Air (1981) andalso of the Water (Cess) Act, 1977 are carried outthrough the Board. The CPCB advises the CentralGovernment on all matters concerning theprevention and control of air, water and noisepollution and provide technical services forimplementing the provisions of the Environment


(Protection) Act, 1986. Under this Act, effluent andemission standards in respect of various categoriesof industries have been notified.

Air Quality Monitoring

Air Quality Monitoring is an important partof the air quality management. The National AirMonitoring Programme (NAMP) has beenestablished with objectives to determine thepresent air quality status and trends and tocontrol and regulate pollution from industries andother sources to meet the air quality standards. Italso provides background air quality data neededfor industrial setting and town planning.

Besides this, CPCB has an automatic moni-toring station in New Delhi. At this station Re-spirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM),Carbon Monoxide (CO), Ozone (O3), SulphurDioxide (SO2), Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) and Sus-pended Particulate Matter (SPM) are being moni-tored regularly.

Water Quality Monitoring

Fresh water is a finite resource essential foruse in agriculture, industry, propagation ofwildlife & fisheries and for human existence. Indiais a riverine country. It has 14 major rivers, 44medium rivers and 55 minor rivers besidesnumerous lakes, ponds and wells which are usedas primary source of drinking water even withouttreatment. Most of the rivers being fed bymonsoon rains, which are limited to only threemonths of the year, run dry throughout the restof the year often carrying wastewater dischargesfrom industries or cities/towns endangering thequality of our scarce water resources. TheParliament of India in its wisdom enacted theWater (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,1974 with a view to maintaining and restoringwholesomeness of our water bodies. One of themandates of CPCB is to collect, collate anddisseminate technical and statistical data relatingto water pollution. Hence, Water QualityMonitoring (WQM) and Surveillance are ofutmost importance.

Heavily polluting industries

Seventeen categories of heavily pollutingindustries have been identified. They are: cement,thermal power plant, distilleries, sugar, fertilizer,integrated iron and steel, oil refineries, pulp andpaper, petrochemicals, pesticides, tanneries, basic

drugs and pharmaceuticals, dye and dyeintermediates, caustic soda, zinc smelter, coppersmelter and aluminium smelter.

Laws enforced by of Pollution Control Boards

The Central and State Pollution ControlBoards were set up for enforcement of the Water(Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.Over the years, the Boards have been assignedadditional responsibilities which include thefollowing:

� Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution)Cess Act, 1977.

� Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act,1981.

� Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 andRules made thereunder.

� Hazardous Waste (Management &Handling) Rules1989.

� Manufacture, Storage and Import ofHazardous Chemicals Rules, 1989.

� Bio-medical Waste (Management &Handling) Rules, 1998.

� Municipal Solid Waste (Management &Handling) Rules, 2000.

� Plastics wastes Rules, 1999 and CoastalRegulation Zone Rules, 1991.

� Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991.

LAND DEGRADATION

Land is the most important basic naturalresource. It is a dynamic and complexcombination of geology, topography, hydrology,soil and influences every sphere of humanactivity. Land degradation is the decrement inthe fertility of soil which leads to poorproductivity.

Soils have been degraded by human activitieslike intensive irrigated agriculture, overgrazing,deforestation, industrial growth andcontamination which has lead to soil compaction,salinisation, loss of nutrients and toxicityproblems.

Some factors for land degradation areexplained below.

a) Salinisation of Soil:

Salinisation refers to a buildup of salts in soil,eventually to toxic levels for plants. Salt level of


3000-6000 ppm results in trouble for mostcultivated plants. Salt in soils decreases theosmotic potential of the soil so that plants can’ttake up water from it. When soils are salty, thesoil has greater concentration of solute than doesthe root, so plants can’t get water from soil.

As we know that the water contains somesalts, in dry areas evaporation of water leavesthe salt behind. These salts start accumulatingand lead to salinisation. Salinisation is likely tobecome a problem on poorly drained soils whenthe groundwater is within 3 m or less of thesurface (depending on the soil type). In suchcases, water rises to the surface by capillaryaction, rather than percolating down throughthe entire soil profile, and then evaporates fromthe soil surface.

Salinisation decreases the crop yield andconverts fertile land to barren with passageof time.

Over irrigation is also the cause of salinisationas found in Punjab and Haryana. Over irrigationleading to water logging and by capillary actionsalts start moving towards the top and afterevaporation salts are left behind ultimately leadsto salinisation of soil which decreases soil fertility.

The “treatment” for salinisation is to flushthe soil with lots of water. However, this resultsin salinization of the river and groundwaterwhere the flush water goes.

b) Acidification of Soil:

Soil acidification is a process by which soilpH decreases. Acidification can occur undernatural conditions over thousands of years, withhigh rainfall areas the most affected. However,rapid acidification can occur over a few yearsunder intensive agricultural practices.

Acidification can affect either the surface soilonly or the subsoil as well. Surface acidity can berelatively simple to treat, and brings considerablebenefits in plant growth and yield. Sub-surfaceacidity is difficult and costly to correct.

Factors that accelerate acidification include:

� Applying ammonium-based nitrogenfertilizers to naturally acid soils at rates inexcess of plant requirements.

� Leaching of nitrate nitrogen, originallyapplied as ammonium-based fertilizers, outof the root zone.

� Continual removal of plant and animalproduce and waste products from thepaddock.

� Growing plants remove alkalinity from thesoil. When harvested products are removed,the soil becomes more acidic.

Acidification of soils causes followingproblems:

� Reduction in the amount of nutrients beingrecycled by soil micro-organisms (e.g.nitrogen supply may be reduced);

� Phosphorus in the soil may become lessavailable to plants ;

� Induced deficiencies of calcium, magnesiumand molybdenum;

� The ability of plants to use subsoil moisturemay be limited;

� Aluminum, which is toxic to plants andmicro organisms, may be released from thesoil;

� Manganese may reach toxic levels;

� Uptake of cadmium (a heavy metalcontaminant) by crops and pastures mayincrease.

c) Overgrazing:

Overgrazing occurs when plants areexposed to intensive grazing for extendedperiods of time, or without sufficient recoveryperiods. Overgrazing reduces the usefulness,productivity and biodiversity of the land and isone of the causes of desertification and erosion.

Overgrazing typically increases soil erosion.Reduction in soil depth, soil organic matter andsoil fertility impairs the land’s future natural andagricultural productivity. Soil fertility cansometimes be mitigated by applying theappropriate lime and organic fertilizers. However,the loss of soil depth and organic matter takescenturies to correct. Their loss is critical indetermining the soil’s water-holding capacity.

It is the main cause of land degradation inRajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, etc.

Types of Land Degradation:

1. Desertification:

These are the manifestations of theenvironmental deterioration in semi-arid and


arid regions. The causes include the loss ofregenerative capacity of the soil resulting from(i) extreme depletion or absence of moisture orwater, (ii) alkalinisation-salinisation, (iii) waterlogging and deep erosion that divests the soil oftheir nutrients. Although climate is one of themost important factors, the abuse of land andover exploitation of its vegetation and waterresources are primarily responsible for theexpansion of deserts.

In Asia, more than 16,500 sq km area isaffected with arid to semi-arid conditions. 5.7percent of the landmass of India is desert. Morethan one fifth of the population living in 63countries of Asia and Africa are threatened withthe consequences of the march of the desert at arate of 600 million hectares per year. The landlost annually due to desertification is about equalto the land brought under irrigation each year.In Sudan, the Sahara desert has expanded by100 km in the last 20 years. New areas incountries like Senegal, Ethiopia and Tunisia havebeen threatened with desertification. In all about20 million sq. km area (equal to the combinedarea of USA and Australia) is now on the brinkof severe desertification. If this rate ofdesertification continues, one-third of the world’scropland would disappear in the near future.

In India the drylands, comprising the hot arid,semi-arid and the dry sub-humid climate zones,account for 203 million hectares or 61.9 per centof the total geographical area. Ironically theseregions are undergoing a steep rise in population,with attendant demands from the limited landand water resources, and attracting many newindustries, which release toxic elements into itsatmosphere, soil and water. The net result isdegradation of more land, as well as a gradualdeterioration of the production potentials of theseclimatically handicapped fragile regions.

Causes

Some studies have been carried out at theCentral Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI),Jodhpur to understand the processes and theirmanifestations in the arid western part of India,using remote sensing and field information.

a. Water Erosion: Soil erosion through fluvialprocesses affects large areas in theSaurashtra and Kuchchh uplands, andalong the eastern margin of the Thar desertwhere the average annual rainfall variesfrom 350 to 500 mm.

The manifestations can be deciphered fromthe pattern of sheet, rill and gully erosionalfeatures. Increased ploughing and destructionof vegetation cover for fuelwood, overgrazingand other destructive uses, have acceleratedthe erosion in recent decades.

b. Wind Erosion/Deposition: The mostvulnerable landforms to wind erosion/deposition are the sand dunes and othersandy landforms in the Thar. A closer look,however, indicates that the sandy landformsin the east are more stable than the similarlandforms in the west.

The introduction of tractors for deepploughing, instead of the traditional animal-driven wooden plough, has increased thesand load manifold for the aeolian processesin large parts of the desert and hasaccelerated the mobility of sand.

Increased destruction of the natural plantcover in grazing lands for fuel and fodderand enlarging the frontiers of cultivationto less suitable sandy areas are also theresponsible factors.

c. Industrial Effluents: In recent yearsindustrial effluents have become a majorsource of land and water pollution in thearid western India. Use of toxic water forirrigation has also degraded the land.

STATE WISE AREA IN GULLY EROSION

State Area (Lakh Hect.)Uttar Pradesh 12.30Madhya Pradesh 6.63Bihar 6.00Rajasthan 4.52Gujarat 4.00Himalaya foothills regions 1.93Punjab 1.20Orissa 1.13W. Bengal 1.04Tamil Nadu 0.60Maharashtra 0.20TOTAL 39.55

d. Mining: In western Rajasthan about twentymajor minerals and nine minor minerals arebeing mined. More than 90 per cent of the


mine owners have open cast mining. The restare underground mines. The area occupiedby the mines is increasing constantly.

The surface mining activity causesimmediate degradation of land. The miningsites are abandoned after the excavationwork is over, without adopting anyreclamation measure.

Mining activity restricts the subsurfacemovement of water. With the removal ofvegetation, the rate of evapotranspirationis reduced. As a result, there is a change inthe hydrological balance in the area. Dueto this change, the water table rises andcauses salinity.

e. Vegetation Degradation: One of the firstreasons of desertification is destruction ofnatural vegetation. With increasingpressure on land vegetation degradation isincreasing at an alarming rate. The commongrazing lands around the villages are nowsome of the most severely degraded sites,as these have been highly exploited andneglected. Many good grazing lands havealso been encroached upon for agriculture.Some studies in the Rajasthan part of thedesert suggests that vegetation cover inareas with good grass species in the lessthan 300 mm average annual rainfall zonehas declined from about 7 per cent to 1per cent. Based on these studies, and usinglarge-scale satellite imagery and ground-based information, it has been found that32 per cent area in western Rajasthan isslightly affected by desertification, while 40per cent is severely affected.

f. Climatic Changes: A belt of highatmospheric pressure, which prevailsbetween 15° and 30° North and Southlatitudes, prevents the entry of moisturebearing winds into this region. Since thesky over the dryland remains clear ofclouds, solar radiation heats the groundsurface excessively and causes very highpotential evaporation at a rate of 6 mmper day. This inhibits the formation of rains.It also explains the deficiency or absence ofrains in the low latitude subtropical belts.The drought in many parts of the world isconcerned in some ways with theanomalies of surface water temperature.The very small amount of rainfall over the

Thar is also connected with the surfacetemperature anomalies over the ArabianSea. Mountain barriers, such as theHimalayas and the Andes induce localizedsubsidence of most air across the barriersand inhibit condensation of moisture. Thisis the cause behind the desertification inCentral Asia, Chile, Peru and Atacama. TheHimalayas prevent the moist humid airstreams from reaching the Tibetan plateau.As a consequence, “the roof of the world”has become a cold desert.

The present climate of the world is theresult of the rapid warming up of the earthabout 11,000 years back. At that time theSahara and Thar deserts probably hadmoist climate. Subsequently, the land wasoverwhelmed by the process ofdesertification which began around 3500-1500 year’s back. Even at present thearidity is increasing and the atmospherictemperature is rising as a result of increasein dust, aerosols, hydrocarbons and carbondioxide in the lower atmosphere and thereflection of heat from deforested land. Thismakes the threat of desertification very realin the dry arid and semi-arid tracts.

Measures to Control Desertification

a. Preparation of a Desertification HazardMap: The first step towards controllingdesertification is the preparation ofdesertification hazard map. This includesthe identification of areas vulnerable todesertification on the basis of prevalentenvironmental stress and regularmonitoring of changes occurring in thedesert-prone eco-system. The map depictsdegree of vulnerability and the extent ofdesertification in terms of injury ordestruction of vegetal cover, erosion ofland, decrease in surface flow or dischargeof sub-surface water, decline or loss ofproductivity of soils, etc. The monitoring ofeco-system provides early warning of thetrend of changes taking place and helps inidentifying areas of maximum distress. Themost suitable way for monitoring is theremote sensing technique. The map shouldbe supplemented by surveys related tosocio-economic condition of the people.

b. Changes in Grazing Practices: Livestockshould be prevented from grazing freely in


order to allow the soil to regenerate andnurture vegetation. The cattle should bepermitted to graze only in the speciallyfenced reserves. Planting of fodder treesinside and around the fencing of thegrazing land would save the pastures andwould lead to growth of protective andbeneficial vegetal cover on the loose soil.

c. Water Harvesting: In this, the rainwater isgathered by converging channels on the hillslopes and diverted to settlement areas.Flood waters are also diverted. The storedwater is covered with a film to preventevaporation. This technique has been usedin various rainfed areas especially inRajasthan and Gujarat.

d. Sand Dune Stabilization: About 58 percent of arid Rajasthan is under differenttypes of sand dunes. CAZRI has nowdeveloped appropriate technology for sanddune stabilisation. These include:

(i) Protection of dunes from biotic interference,

(ii) Development of micro windbreaks from thecrest to the base of the dunes in the formof parallel or chessboard pattern and

(iii) Reseeding of grass and creeper seed inbetween the micro windbreaks andtransplanting of nursery-raised trees.

e. Shelterbelt Plantation: Considerable soilerosion takes place from the flat cultivatedareas due to sandy nature of the soil and highwind velocity which during summer monthsis sometimes as high as 70-80 km/hr. The soilloss is sometimes as much as 5 tonnes perhectare. If shelterbelts with 3-5 rows of treesare planted across the land in the winddirection, soil erosion can be minimized.

f. Aerial Seeding: Due to sandy nature ofthe soil, the water holding capacity is verylow, with the result that sowing of seedsneeds to be completed within 2-3 days tofavour germination. Conventional methodsof afforestation are inadequate forrevegetation of such a large andinaccessible tract having low moisture,erratic rainfall and lose sandy soil.Therefore, aerial seeding could be practised.

g . Silvipasture Systems: Indiscriminatecutting of vegetation for meeting fuel andfodder requirements is accentuating

desertification. In order to control it, thereis a need to follow a systematic approach.This helps in reducing salinisation and winderosion and thus increases productivity onlong term basis, besides conservingresources and providing economic stability.

h. Minimum Tillage: Tillage of agriculturalland is necessary, particularly from thepoint of view of seed bed preparation,moisture conservation and weed control.Excessive tillage under dry conditions,however, breaks unstable clouds andexposes the soil to wind action.

i. Strip Cropping: Strip cropping for winderosion control is alternate plantation oferosion-susceptible and erosion tolerant crops,perpendicular to the prevailing winddirection. The main advantage of the systemis that erosion tolerant strips reduce thevelocity of the prevailing wind, trap sandparticles and thereby control soil avalanching.Therefore, narrow strips are more effectivein reducing wind erosion in lighter soils.

j. Judicious use of Irrigation Water:Irrigation plays a significant role in arrestingdesertification through its effects inpromoting the establishment and growthof vegetation. In highly sandy and dunecovered areas, sprinkler system of irrigationcould be effectively used for raising cropsand other vegetation. This has been found toeconomize water and increase the production.

Global Environmental Facility: CombatingDeser tification

The GEF unites 183 countries in partnershipwith international institutions, civil societyorganizations (CSOs), and the private sector toaddress global environmental issues whilesupporting national sustainable developmentinitiatives. Today the GEF is the largest publicfunder of projects to improve the globalenvironment. An independently operatingfinancial organization, the GEF provides grantsfor projects related to biodiversity, climate change,international waters, land degradation, the ozonelayer, and persistent organic pollutants.

Since 1991, the GEF has achieved a strongtrack record with developing countries and countrieswith economies in transition, providing $11.5billion in grants and leveraging $57 billion in co-financing for over 3,215 projects in over 165


countries. Through its Small Grants Programme(SGP), the GEF has also made more than 16,030small grants directly to civil society and communitybased organizations, totaling $653.2 million.

The GEF also serves as financial mechanismfor the following conventions:

� Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

� United Nations Framework Convention onClimate Change (UNFCCC)

� Stockholm Convention on PersistentOrganic Pollutants (POPs)

� UN Convention to Combat Desertification(UNCCD)

The GEF, although not linked formally to theMontreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete theOzone Layer (MP), supports implementation of theProtocol in countries with economies in transition.

UN Convention to Combat Desertification(UNCCD)

Desertification, along with climate change andthe loss of biodiversity, were identified as thegreatest challenges to sustainable developmentduring the 1992 Rio Earth Summit. The UnitedNations Convention to Combat Desertification(UNCCD) in those countries experiencing seriousdrought and/or desertification, particularly inAfrica is an agreement to combat desertificationand mitigate the effects of drought throughnational action programmes that incorporate long-term strategies supported by internationalcooperation and partnership arrangements. Tohelp publicize the Convention, 2006 was declaredas “International Year of Deserts and Desertification”.

The Convention addresses specifically thearid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas, knownas the drylands, where some of the mostvulnerable ecosystems and peoples can be found.In the 10-Year Strategy of the UNCCD (2008-2018) that was adopted in 2007, Parties to theConvention further specified their goals: "to forgea global partnership to reverse and preventdesertification/land degradation and to mitigatethe effects of drought in affected areas in order tosupport poverty reduction and environmentalsustainability".

In a concerted effort to help over 900 millionpeople around the world fight the life and death

battle against the degradation of their fragiledrylands, the process known as desertification,more than 100 Governments concludednegotiations on 18 June 1994 in Paris on a globallegal agreement to address the situation. TheConvention is an important step forwardtowards improving life in the drylands, in that itestablishes a framework for national, sub-regionaland regional programmes to counterdesertification, which is occurring worldwide atan accelerated rate, affecting some 2 5 per cent ofthe Earth’s land area. Caused by overgrazing,over-cropping, poor irrigation practices,deforestation and other unsustainable socio-economic practices, as well as by climatevariations, this is especially serious in Africa,where 66 per cent of the continent is desert ordry land. The treaty was opened for signature onOctober 14, 1994 and entered into force onDecember 26, 1996. At present there are 195parties (194 states + EU) of the convention,including India.

As the dynamics of land, climate andbiodiversity are intimately connected, theUNCCD collaborates closely with the other twoRio Conventions; the Convention on BiologicalDiversity (CBD) and the United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC), to meet these complex challengeswith an integrated approach and the best possibleuse of natural resources.

Indian Scenario

Serious research and development work tocombat desertification of the Thar Desert has beengoing on for several decades. Remote sensingtechniques have been utilized for delineatingvulnerable areas, sand-piling and salinityencroachments and to monitor bioticdisturbances. The Central Arid Zone ResearchInstitute (CAZRI), Jodhpur, has prepared mapsof Rajasthan desert indicating the pattern of soil,sand form, vegetation, pattern of human activitiesand the resources potential of an area fordevelopment planning.

Natural resource survey in Rajasthan desert,part of Haryana, Gujarat and Andhra Pradeshare being extensively used by various developmentagencies for natural resources and land usemanagement. In NW India, serious efforts havebeen made to generate technologies forrevegetating the desert. CAZRI has developed


viable and feasible strategies for sand dunefixation, soil-conservation & pasturemanagement, large areas are being covered byfarm forestry, silvipastoral plantation, village fuelwood plantation and shelter-belt cum road-side& canal bank plantation.

These massive programmes are beingimplemented through the Drought Prone AreaProgramme (DPAP), the Desert DevelopmentProgramme (DDP) and the Rural DevelopmentProgramme (RDP), co-ordinated by the DesertDevelopment Commissioner.

Agricultural practices adopted in low rainfallarid areas are injurious to land and aggravates sandmovement. As a consequence emphasis has beenlaid on high yielding forage grass and legumes,improved grassland and livestock production.

Over exploitation of ground water in the dryzone as well as unplanned use of the surfacewater pose serious problems. The Thar desert casestudy in the Luni-Development block revealedthat the discharge potential of over 83 per cent ofthe wells had greatly dropped over a decade. Mostof the wells, moreover, had been highly saline andirrigation with such water had wasted large tractsof land. Likewise excessive irrigation alongRajasthan Canal has caused water logging. Thenumber of technologies have been developed byCAZRI to improve the irrigation system.

Early maturing high yielding seeds with lowwater requirements have been released byCAZRI for cultivation in North-West desert ofIndia. These includes millet, minor millet,sorghum, moong, sesame (oil seed), etc. Anumber of techniques for harvesting andconserving rain water are being used verysuccessfully for raising orchards which havebeen developed by CAZRI to provide the farmersan assured income even in years of drought.

The drip irrigation system standardized atCAZRI for vegetable crops and orchards has notonly increased production but it also made it possibleto use saline water without serious hazards.

Better grazing practices have been introducedthrough DDAP and DDP and in the RajasthanCanal Command Areas which have helped in theincrease of livestocks. Now it is the main stay ofthe desert people, provides employment to about2/3 rd of Rajasthan’s population. Yet it producesonly 12 per cent of the State’s income. CAZRI and

its sister institutions, the Central Seed ResearchInstitute of Avikanagar near Jaipur have takenup extensive cross breeding of sheep forproduction of better carpet and apparel wool.

In order to combat desertification, it isessential to have comprehensive, phased actionplan of development with clear priorities backedby people’s participation and political andadministrative will.

Desert Development Programme

The Desert Development Programme wasstarted in 1977-78 in hot desert areas as wellas in cold desert areas like those of Jammu &Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. From 1995-96, the coverage has been extended to a fewmore districts in Andhra Pradesh andKarnataka. At present 232 blocks in 40 districtsin seven states are covered under the saidprogramme. This programme aims atmitigating the adverse effects of desertificationand adverse climatic conditions on crops,human and livestock population, and combatdesertification and restore ecological balancein the area.

2. Soil Erosion

The term erosion simply means the looseningand removal of soil from its previous resting-place by the action of water and wind. Therapidity with which modern developments havetaken place, often led to the employment ofagricultural methods conducive to erosion and,in consequence, large tracts of land have alreadybeen rendered unproductive, while much largertracts are threatened.

Soil erosion is almost universallyreorganised as a serious threat to man’s well-being. The two main agents of erosion are windand water. In the case of erosion by water, themajor erosive agents are impacting raindropsand run-off water flowing over the soil surface.Erosion and sedimentation embody theprocesses of detachment, transportation anddeposition of soil particles. Detachments are thedislodging of soil particles from the soil massby erosive agents.

Erosion occurs in agricultural lands,construction sites, road-ways, disturbed lands,surface mines and in areas where natural orgeological disturbances take place. Erosion maybe classified as:


(i) Sheet erosion- the removal of a thin,uniform layer of particles.

(ii) Rill erosion- erosion in numerous smallchannels that is small enough to be alteredby normal tillage.

(iii)Gully erosion- larger upland channels.

(iv)Stream channel erosion- erosion caused bystream flow.

(v) Mass erosion- mass movement takes placeat the base of concave slopes.

Extent of Soil Erosion

Most of the land area in the country showsevidence of degradation thus affecting theproductive base of economy. Out of the totalgeographical area of 329 million hectares, 175million hectares are considered degraded.

Although soil-erosion is frequent throughoutthe country, it occurs most intensely in the hillyregions. The precipitation often occurs intorrents which instead of sinking into the groundas the light drizzles, wash away the top layersof the soil. The steep slopes of the hills furtherstimulate the eroding power of the rain water.The soils are very thin and all exposed slopes aresusceptible to serious sheet erosion or gullying.

Erosion may be of little consequence for hillytracts, but is of great significance to the plains.The whole basin of Kosi river is threatened bythis erosion, as a result of which the rivers bringwith them millions of tonnes of sand and debrisannually. When the rivers reach the plains andbelow and the stream flow slackens the load isdropped and gets deposited in their beds. Thisleads to choking of river channels, which in turnincrease the flood danger and induces shiftingof the course which brings disaster in train tothe whole countryside.

Both surface erosion and deep gullying are con-siderably influenced by the type of soil in India,although a given soil type may not behave con-sistently under all conditions and no type of soilis entirely safe from erosion. Thus, sandy po-rous soil in the country are in general least sub-ject to gradual weathering down by water ac-tion, since they are capable of absorbing a greatamount of water in ordinary rains. On the otherhand, if the rate of percolation is prevented byfrost or by even thin strata of clay, the very lackof “binding” qualities in the sandy soils permit

them to be moved at a very rapid pace. Again,however, the coarseness of the material may causeit to be deposited before it has been carried to anygreat distance.

The most potent and common causes oferosion in India are deforestation andovergrazing. Throughout the country, aspopulation has increased, more and more forestshave been destroyed, mainly by grazing cattlefeeding on grass, herbs and green bushes.

Under a natural vegetative cover, a certainamount of erosion takes place; but the rate ofsoil formation largely balances the loss. “Undera cover natural vegetation erosion is restrictedto the geologic norm,” that is, the rate of soilformation is generally at least as great as that atwhich it is washed away.

Conservation Methods

Control runoff: One of the most commonmethods of reducing runoff velocity is to breaka slope by terracing.

Contour cultivation: Ploughing along thecontours on the sloping lands reduces the soil loss.

Crop-rotation: The aim of the farmers in croprotation should be to keep the land underprotection cover for as great a proportion of thetotal time as possible, lessening thereby the soilloss by erosion.

Increased use of manure: Throughmanuring, the Indian farmers can check thedeflection of soil nutrients, which takes placewith continous cropping. Manures can beanimal and plant residues. They ensure yetanother aspect of soil conservation viz, thebuilding up of soil productivity.

Keeping the soil covered: Grasses are evenmore firm protectors of soil than the trees.

River embankments: By making riverembankments, soil erosion can be reduced alongthe bank of the rivers.

3. Deforestation:

It is a matter of serious concern that thepresent economic man has forgotten theenvironmental and ecological significance ofnatural vegetations mainly forests and grasslandsand has destroyed the forests so rapidly andalarmingly that the forest areas at global, regionaland local levels have so markedly decreased that


several serious environmental problems such asaccelerated rate of soil loss through rain splash,sheet wash, rill and gully erosion; increase in thefrequency and dimension of floods; greaterincidence of drought due to decrease inprecipitation, etc. have plagued the modernhuman society. From ecological point of view, atleast one third of the total geographical area of acountry should be under rich forest cover but thisgeneral rule of environmental significance hasbeen flouted in many of the countries.Deforestation has immediate adverse effects onsoils and land because of exposure of groundsurface to high intensity-rainfall.

Many of the developing countries of thetropical and subtropical regions have lostsubstantial portions of their forest covers due toconversion of forested land into agricultural landin order to feed the teeming millions. Accordingto the Report of the Forest Survey of India, thefollowing is the present status of different landused under forest covers in India.

Number of tree species in IUCN red list

� Critically endangered: 50

� Endangered: 98

� Vulnerable: 98

Causes of Deforestation

The major causes of deforestation at globaland regional levels are -

a) CONVERSION OF FOREST LANDINTOAGRICULTURAL LAND:populationgrowth increment at fast rate mainly in thedeveloping countries have put enormous pressureon forested land because it became necessary toclear the virgin forest covers and convert theminto agricultural land so that agriculturalproduction can be substantially increased andfood security may be provided to hungry humanpopulation.

b) SHIFTING OR JHUMING CULTI-VATION is a major cause of forest loss in thehilly and mountainous areas of north-easternstates. The loss of virgin forest cover due to shift-ing cultivation is increasing every year. In shift-ing cultivation forest dwellers clears a patch ofland and start cultivation. Once the productiv-ity of land decreases they shift to new place. Theland left behind becomes a patch which cannotsupport any vegetation.

c) TRANSFORMATION OF FORESTSINTO PASTURES has been responsible for rapidrate of loss of virgin forests. The main factorbehind large-scale conversion of woodland intopasture land is expanding dairy farming andcattle ranching for meat.

d) OVERGRAZING of forests of moderatecover by animals mainly in the tropical andsubtropical and arid and semi-arid areas hasresulted into large-scale degradation of naturalvegetation of not the complete destruction offorests. Very low yielding (low per capital yieldof both meat and milk) but large numbers of cattlein the country have consumed most part of theground cover and bushes and herbaceous plants.The deforested areas have been worst affected bygrazing animals because no fresh regeneration ofplant has been allowed by large herds of grazinganimals.

e) FOREST FIRES whether natural ormanmade, are effective destroyers of forestcovers. Atmospheric lightning is the majorsource of natural forest fires. Besides, man causesforest fires through his intentional/advertentand unintentional actions. He burns forests andgrasses in the next season. Deliberate burningof vegetation to get rich and fresh grasses in thenext season leads to several types of changes inthe surface materials. The herdsmen also throwburning 'bidies' inadvertently which causes forestfires. Besides destroying vegetations, forest firesharden the ground surface which decreases theporosity of the soils and consequently there islittle infiltration of rainwater. Thus most of therainwater becomes effective surface runoffwhich accelerates the rate of soil erosion.Secondly, the frequent forest fires destroy the leaflitters on the ground and thus the soil nutrientsand humus contents are markedly reduced andsometimes are completely destroyed. Besides,forest fires kill all of the micro-organisms livingin the leaf litters mainly decomposers and in thesoils and plant roots. Thus forest fires not onlydestroy natural vegetation and retard and tabooregeneration of trees but also cause tremendousdamage of the biological communities and thuscause ecological imbalance.

f) LUMBERING for domestic andcommercial purposes is the real cause of large-scale destruction of forest covers. Ever increasingdemand of timber for various purposes due toindustrial expansion, urban growth and rapidly


increasing human population has done greatdamage to natural forest covers all over the world.The reckless felling of trees from the very beginningof the present century without caring forenvironmental and ecological consequences toassure regeneration of forests has depleted theforest resources to such an extent that the possiblegruesome consequences of deforestation arelooming large over the human society all over theglobe and even the existence of human beingsstands threatened. Collection of fodder andfirewood by rural populations from the depletedand poor forest covers mostly in the developingcountries has further degenerated alreadyimpoverished forest covers.

In spite of the provision of Forest Policy inforce since 1894 and implementation ofNational Forest Policy since 1952 and despitethe guidelines issued by the Union Governmentof India for not diverting the forest area to non-forestry uses there has been remarkable loss of91,70,000 hectares of good forest area in Indiabetween 1972 and 1980. This colossal loss ofprecious ecological resource despite theguidelines issued by the Government of Indiathat forest area should not be converted intoother forms of land uses and in case of anyinescapable diversion (of forest land to non-forestry uses) it should be done with theconcurrence of the states and the loss of forestsbe adequately compensated by providing, as faras possible, equivalent alternative land forafforestation and reforestation, clearly indicatesthe noncompliance of the government directivesby the government officials and greedy andselfish contractors. Developmental projects suchas construction of dams, reservoirs and canalsand mining operations are damaging even thedense forests.

g) MULTI-PURPOSE RIVER PROJECTSrequire larger areas to be submerged for thereservoirs constructed behind the dams. Thussubmergence of forested riverine areascompletely destroys the natural forests. TehriDam Project on the headwaters of the Gangaand Narmada River Project in Madhya Pradeshand Gujarat, are under serious public protests.Tehri Dam on the headwaters of the sacredGanga River, in Garhwal Himalaya, UttarPradesh, India, is meant to generatehydroelectricity to meet out the growing demand

of power in Uttar Pradesh the adjoining statesand Union Territory of Delhi but its constructionis frequently stopped because of protest by notedenvironmentalist and CHIPKO MOVEMENTleader, Sunder Lal Bahuguna. It is feared thatstorage of millions of acre feet of water in thereservoirs behind the Tehri Dam will submergehundreds of square kilometres of forested landwhich will destroy rich forest cover and displacelocal inhabitants. It is also feared that if the dambreaks in, for which there is every likelihoodbecause the Tehri Dam is being constructed inthe lower Himalayas which come undermaximum seismic intensity zone, Rishikesh (animportant holy pilgrim centre on the bank of theGanga) will be flooded in 57 minutes andHardwar (another important holy pilgrimcenter) in just 63 minutes. It is believed that iscase of sudden breach in Tehri Dam major citieson either side of the Ganga in its downstreamsection in the alluvial plants of Uttar Pradeshwill be submerged within 72 hours. Similarly,there is strong protest from general public toabandon the proposed projects of SardarSarovar and Indira Sagar on Narmada River isthe states of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. Theecologists believe that the submergence ofthousands of square kilometres of areas willdestroy regional forest covers and animalcommunity and thus will cause seriousenvironmental and ecological problems.

Adverse Effects of Deforestation on Environ-ment

Deforestation gives birth to several problemsencompassing environmental degradationthrough accelerated rate of soil erosion, increasein the sediment load of the rivers, siltation ofreservoirs and river beds, increase in thefrequency and dimension of floods and droughts,changes in the pattern of distribution ofprecipitation, intensification of greenhouseeffects, increase in the destructive force of theatmospheric storms etc; economic loss throughdamages of agricultural crops due to increasedincidence of floods and drought, decrease inagricultural production because of loss of fertiletop soils, decrease in the supply of raw materialsto the industries are building materials (timber)to the urban and rural areas, marked decreasein fodder to animals, etc. and social problems inthe form of economic poverty, crimes andincreased legal litigation.


As already stated forests are natural umbrellafor ground surface because these protect theground surface from erosion caused by fallingraindrops and control radiation balance of theearth and the atmosphere by consumingincreased amount of carbon dioxide released fromever-increasing 'human volcanoes' (chimneys ofthe factories) and thus prevent the earth frombecoming too hot. Removal of forest cover exposesthe ground surface to the atmospheric processes.It may be pointed out that forests intercept fallingraindrops and thus split them and reduce their(of raindrops) kinetic energy. Intercepted rainfallreaches the ground surface slowly in the form of'AERIAL STREAMLETS' through the leaves,branches and stems of trees. Thick leaf litters onthe ground surface alter decomposition providehumus content to the soils and also make the soilsfriable. Thus the ground surface allows maximuminfiltration of rainwater and minimum surfacerunoff. On the other hand deforestation exposesthe ground surface to falling raindrops with fullkinetic energy. This results into maximum erosionof soils because the infiltration of rainwater ismarkedly reduced and surface runoff is increased.Thus deforestation causes a chain of effects whichadversely affect the natural environmentalconditions as given below.

Accelerated rate of soil erosion, through rainsplash, rain-wash, sheet wash, rill erosion and gullyerosion, consequent upon deforestation, increasessediment load of the rivers. Increased suspendedand bed loads of the rivers cause rapid rate ofsiltation of alluvial rivers which results in gradualrise of the river beds. Thus increased surface run-off and reduced water accommodation capacityof the river valleys due to siltation increase thefrequency and dimension of floods of alluvial riversas flood waters easily overtop the river banks andspread over large areas.

It is supposed that decrease in vegetation covermainly forest cover reduces precipitation but nosignificant studies at global and regional levels havedemonstrated positive correlation betweendeforestation and decrease in the amount ofaverage annual precipitation. Deforestation alsoresults in the increase of the concentration ofcarbon dioxide in the atmosphere because forestsconsume carbon dioxide during the process ofphotosynthesis for the manufacturing of their foodbut absence of forests allows more concentrationcarbon dioxide in the atmosphere because of its

non-consumption. It is, thus, obvious thatdeforestation increases greenhouse effect of theatmosphere which raises the temperature of theearth's surface and the atmosphere.

Increased rate of soil erosion caused due todeforestation results in colossal loss of fertile topsoiland agricultural land which ultimately causesmarked reduction in agricultural production.Rapid rate of rill and gully erosion in theintervening zone between the Ganga plains andthe northern foreland of Indian peninsula hasresulted into the conversion of thousands ofhectares of good land into ravenous land whichhas displaced the affected inhabitants from theiragricultural land. The development of circuitousnetwork of dense mesh of gullies ranging in depthfrom a few metres to 80 m has rendered vastexpanse of agricultural and forest land into wasteland on the one hand and has deprived millionsof people of their livelihood on the other hand.Thus the increased rate of soil erosion consequentupon deforestation and destruction of grasslandhas been responsible for social pollution in additionto land degradation. The zigzag network of deepgullies of the riverine tract of the Yamuna, theChambal, the Betwa rivers etc. (Fatehpur, Etawah,Agra, Banda, Jhansi, Jalaun districts of UttarPradesh and Bhind, Morena, Gwalior, Tikamgarh,Chhatarpur districts of Madhya Pradesh, India)offers easy and safe shelter to dacoits and bandits.This has alarmingly increased the rate of crimes,including theft, dacoity and murder in the saidareas and thus has social implications.

Deforestation has also increased the rate ofaeolian erosion through deflation anddesertification through desert spreads. Many ofthe tribal areas of the forested land of India havelost the forest stands in their immediatesurroundings and thus are facing the acuteproblem of fuels and fodder. The destruction andalteration of habitats due to deforestation causesecological imbalance in the region concerned.

Conservation Measures

The protection and conservation of forestresources are not only desirable but are alsonecessary for the economic development of anation and maintenance of environmental andecological balance from local through regional toglobal levels. Forest conservation measures include(i) increasing productivity of remaining forestcovers, (ii) increase in the forest cover so as to


cover 33 percent of the total geographical area ofa country by forests through afforestation in theopen wasteland and reforestation of alreadydeforested areas particularly in those deforestedareas which are not suitable for cultivation suchas mountainous and hilly areas

Selective felling instead of mass felling of treesaccording to the justified demand may saveunnecessary destruction of valuable forestresources. It is very interesting to note thatgenerally main cause of the rapid rate ofdestruction of tropical rainforest is assigned to theincreasing demand of timber by industrializedcountries but according to UNESCO's report onlyabout fifteen percent of the felled trees areexported to the developed and industrializedcountries. Through the demand is more forcertain species of trees only but unfortunatelyhundreds of species of trees of lesser values aredestroyed to get access to the desired expensivetrees. In the process the building of roads andclearance of forests for having spaces for loadingareas and logging camps destroy larger tracts offorests without any use.

The National Forest Policy of India has alsolaid down certain basic principles for propermanagement and conservation of the forestresources of the country such as (i) classificationof forests according to functional aspects intoprotected forests, reserved forests, village forestsetc., (ii) expansion in the forest cover by planningtrees in order to ameliorate the physical andclimate conditions for the welfare of the people,(iii) provision for ensuring progressive increasingsupplies of fodder for animal and timber foragricultural implements and firewood to localinhabitants nearer to the forests, (iv) oppositionto reckless extension of agricultural land at thecost of forest land, (v) extension of forested areaby massive plan of tree plantation on a large-scaleat war-footing so as to bring 33 percent of thecountry's geographical area under forest etc.Though there is strict guideline from theGovernment of India that forest should not bediverted to non-forestry uses and in case if thediversion of forested area to other forms of landuses is necessary and unavoidable (such asconstruction of dams and reservoirs, installationof industrial plants, construction of houses, roadsetc.) it should be done with the approval andconcurrence of the state government and the lossof forests due to their diversion to other forms of

land uses should be suitably compensated byplanting trees in other proportionate areas but thisguideline is seldom followed either by thegovernment machinery or private sector. Recently,the government has banned the cutting of greentrees by the public without having priorpermission of the government. This law does notallow a person even to cut down his own trees inthe premises of his house or in his agriculturalfarm without the permission from appropriategovernment authority.

Thus the movement against the destructionof natural forests undertaken by the women ofReni of Uttarakhand division of U.P. Himalayas(India) has awakened the general public of Indiaand of the world towards the importance ofnatural forests for maintaining the environmental(natural) and ecological balance. They startedplantation of oak trees in their deforested landbecause they knew that oak trees would providethe basis for water, fodder and fertilizers andwould help in maintaining the environmentalbalance and ecosystem stability of their hill region.Small MAHILA MANDALS (Women's groups)are now organizing the tree-planting in hundredsof villages and protecting trees on communitylands. They are introducing improved cookingstoves and biogas programmes are beingimplemented for fuel conservation. The messagesof the movement started by the women of Reniand the popular CHIPKO MOVEMENT of notedenvironmentalist Sunderlal Bahuguna and hisfollowers have reached different parts of India.Similar movements are being organized byseveral groups of environmentalists of voluntaryorganizations and some forceful and effectiveenvironmental slogans have awakened the localpublic such as 'Save the Western Ghats', 'Save theGanga and the Himalayas' (launched bySunderlal Bahuguna against the construction ofTehri Dam on the upper reaches of the Ganga atTehri town). 'Save the Narmada watersheds andtheir ecology' (launched by Baba Amte) against theimplementation of Narmada Valley Project and theconstruction of Sardar Sarovar (reservoir) andIndira Sarovar in Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat,India. The messages of the movement have crossedthe Indian border and reached the African andLatin American women folk who have many ofthe problems and hardship similar as experiencedby the women of Reni. They have also startedmovement against the destruction of naturalforests. For example, widespread movement has


been started against the destruction of foreststhrough the expansion of mining activities, giantmulti-purpose project in the rainforests of theAmazon basin. It is evident that the peoplethemselves may become environmental mediators,guardians and protectors of natural forests if theirsentiments are aroused for the conservation andprotection of natural forests.

The second important measure of effectiveconservation of natural forest is to adapt scientificand judicious method of cutting of trees byfollowing selective approach. In other words, onlymature and desired trees should be cut andunwanted trees of low economic value should beavoided. It may be pointed out that cutting ofmature trees is also ecologically desirable becausethe old saying 'use them or lose them' holds goodbecause if mature trees are not removed they willautomatically perish and may damage other trees.

The third significant measure of forestconservation is to cover more and more wastelandand already deforested land with forests throughvigorous planning of afforestation. Theafforestation programme must be based on theprinciple of plantation of multi-species of treesrather than single species of trees because bioticdiversity is ecologically more significant thanmono-culture. Secondly, ecologically sound treesshould be given more preference than thecommercial trees at least in the areas of fragileenvironment. For example, deforested areas of theHimalayas are being planted with more pinesaplings than oak because of commercialpurposes. The main purpose behind vigorousplanting of pine trees is to obtain resin but oak isenvironmentally more sound than pine becauserelatively larger leaves of oak trees make thickground leaf litters which after being decomposedenrich the soils by producing humus and moreorganic content. Thus the humus-rich soilsbecome friable and contain more moisture. Suchsoils allow rich undergrowth of other varieties ofplants and thus provide habitats for numerousvarieties of animals and microorganisms. Thirdly,only those trees should be given preference underthe scheme of afforestation that are suitable forthe local environmental conditions. For example,planting of eucalyptus trees (an exotic species) onlarge-scale almost in all parts of India is notadvisable because eucalyptus is suitable for certaincombinations of environmental conditions onlysuch as 'Terai' region of India. Furthermore,eucalyptus is not of much ecological and

environmental significance because of lessbranching, small size of leaves, less number ofleaves and long roots. Fourthly, forests should notbe replaced by commercially important fruitorchards. For example, cultivation of apples inmany parts of the Himalayas in general andHimachal Pradesh (India) in particular has donegreat damage to the original stands of naturalforests. Apple cultivation causes deforestation intwo ways viz. (i) Apple cultivation requiresclearance of land from vegetal cover and (ii) Hugequantity of wood is required for packing of applesevery year. According to an estimate the clearanceof forest for apple cultivation accelerates the rateof soil erosion by 250 times of normal rate of soilerosion. It has been estimated that one hectare ofapple farm damages 7 to 10 hectares of forests.

4. Wastelands

Wastelands are those lands where theproduction of biomass is less than its optimumproductivity. These waste lands are economicallyunproductive and ecological unstable. Here thelife supporting systems are under tremendouspressure. The increasing deterioration of land dueto soil erosion, injudicious use of chemicalfertilizers, water logging, salinity, shiftingcultivation, etc. are causing concern. The NationalRemote Sensing Agency, Department of Space,Hyderabad, on the basis of satellite pictures hasreported 75.5 million hectare of land as wasteland.

The rapid expansion of wastelands in thecountry poses a big threat to the productiveresource base and vital life support systems. Toovercome it, an integrated interdependent landmanagement system is to be developed with aview to increasing productivity, restoring fertilityand generating more employment opportunities.

Land water and biological resources whichsupport agriculture and animal husbandry andprovide essential requirements of food, drinking waterand fuel have come under severe pressure whilemeeting the requirements of increasing population.The non-forest public lands like pastures, grazinglands, etc. which were expected to meet therequirements of fuel wood and fodder of the ruralpeople have suffered degradation, encroachment anddepletion with the result that one-third of the totalland mass of the country stands badly degraded.

This rapid expansion of wastelands in thecountry is seriously undermining the productive


resource base and endangering vital life supportsystems. Even the available land is being erodedat an average rate of 16.35 tonnes per ha per yearwhich is far more than the highest tolerance limitof 12.5 t/ha/yr.

National Wasteland Development Board

The National Wasteland Development Board(NWDB) was established in May 1985 under theMinistry of Forests and Environment with theprimary objective of undertaking wastelandsdevelopment through a massive programme ofafforestation and tree planting with the people’sparticipation. During the Seventh Plan period anequivalent of 88 lakh hectare of public and privatelands was covered under various schemesimplemented through the state governments andnon-government organizations. In the year 1992,the new Department under the Ministry Of RuralDevelopment (now Ministry of Rural Areas andEmployment) was created and the NationalWasteland Development Board was placed underit. The Board was reconstituted in August 1992and was made responsible for mainlydevelopment of wastelands in non forest areas intotality by involving local people at every stage ofdevelopment. It aims at creating a scenario wherethe Government acts as a facilitator and the peopleat the grass roots level become the real executionerof the programme. Major programmeimplemented for improving the productivity ofwaste & degraded lands keeping in view thepoverty, backwardness, gender & equity isIntegrated Wasteland Development Programme.

The wasteland development programme wasrevised towards the end of the Seventh Five YearPlan. It was found that the programme did notadequately address the issues with regard todeveloping a thrust in favour of fuelwood andfodder production. Also, problems of landdegradation and deforestation had not beenadequately addressed and people’s participationremained limited. Accordingly, the NationalMission on Wasteland Development waslaunched with the goal of checking landdegradation and helping to restore the ecologicalbalance on the one hand and putting wastelandsto sustainable use, especially to increase bio-massavailability, in particular fuelwood and fodder,on the other hand. The National Wasteland

Development Board was given the responsibilityfor the Wasteland Development Programme witha mandate of enlisting people’s participationharnessing the inputs of science and technologyand achieving the requisite inter-disciplinarycoordination in the planning and implementationof the programme.

The NWDB also functions as a nodal agencyfor bilateral and multilateral cooperation in the fieldof Forestry Development Programmes. As such,financial assistance is being received from the WorldBank, European Economic Community (EEC),Swedish International Development Agency(SIDA), Overseas Development Agency (ODA)and Overseas Economic Cooperation Fund (OECF)for implementing forestry projects in various states.

HAZARDOUS WASTES

As more and more new products andprocesses are developed, new chemicalsproduced, and materials created, more and moresuch waste is generated which could behazardous. The term hazardous waste wasinitially used to differentiate highly toxic oroffensive wastes from the familiar wastes suchas sewage and household garbage. With the passageof time and continual increase in the quantitiesand types of toxic wastes, it became necessaryto define the term. More importantly it becomesnecessary to develop ways and means ofanalyzing, handling and treating hazardous wastes.

Definition

The task of realistically defining hazardouswaste is extremely complex, presenting the firststumbling block in hazardous waste controlprogrammes. As per the definition of the ResourceConservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) of USA,“hazardous waste is a solid, liquid or gaseouswaste, or combination of wastes, that because ofits quantity, concentration or characteristics, maycause or significantly contribute to an increase inmortality or an increase in serious irreversible orincapacitating reversible illness and pose asubstantial present or potential hazard to humanhealth or the environment when improperlytreated, stored, transported, disposed of orotherwise managed. In short a hazardous wasteis one which is potentially harmful to the eco-system unless properly managed.

The US Environmental Protection Agency(EPA) has defined a waste to be hazardous


under the legislation if it:i) exhibits characteristics of ignitability,

corrosivity, reactivity and/or toxicity);ii) is a specific source waste (from specific

industries);iii) is a specific commercial chemical product;iv) is a mixture containing a listed hazardous

waste or,v) is a substance that is not excluded from

regulation under RCRA (Wentz 1989).

Hazardous materials are those which aretoxic, persistent, ignitable, corrosive, bio-accumulative, infectious or pathogenic.Examples include wastes from plastic, pesticide,herbicide, medicine, paint and petroleumindustries.

Impact of hazardous wastes on the ecosystem-acute and chronic

A few classic cases in point, highlighting thedanger posed by hazardous wastes, areenumerated below:

Love Canal: An area of about 16 acres inNiagra Falls was used from 1942 to 1953 asdump-site for approximately 22,000 tonnes ofchemicals. The area was capped with clay andlater houses and a school were built up to theedge of the site.

In 1978-79 over 200 families were evacuatedas potential teratogenic, mutagenic andoncogenic chemicals were identified from the arealeading to increased abortion and birth defects.

Times Beach: In the winter of 1982-83, over2,200 people were evacuated from Time Beach,Missouri, owing to the presence of toxic wastein the soil and water. The toxins belonged toDioxin (TCD) group, a class of over 75 chemicals,known for their hazardous nature. They areunwanted by-products of organic compounds-chlorinated phenols, widely used in themanufacture of plastic, herbicides and pesticides.

Another group of hazardous wastes foundthere were PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls)used as coolant liquids in the electrical industry.PCBs are known to damage skin, eyes and lungsand cause birth defects and cancer.

Hardeman County: In Tennessee, 60 milesnorth of Memphis, is a 200-acre hazardouswaste dump, which was operational between1964 and 1972. Up to 25 million gallons of solidand liquid wastes were deposited, which

eventually contaminated surface and groundwater with chlorinated organic compounds andother chemicals.

Delhi: Nearer home, a noxious nightmareassailed the residents of Kardampuri colonyin East Delhi in the wee hours of 13 November1994. Toxic fumes from a heap set aflame by alocal junk dealer created the panicky exodus.The people complained of severe breathingdistress, irritation and pain in the throat,vomiting and dizziness. Many people,including infants, were seriously affected anda few succumbed to the poisoning. Testsrevealed that the chemicals responsible werecyanide, cadmium, selenium and arsenic.Traces of lead, aluminum and copper were alsofound. It is widely suspected that the burningof metals like cobalt and manganese alongwith pesticides like organophosphates andcarbonates caused the noxious fumes.

Gujarat: The catalogue of disasters will beincomplete without the inclusion of the recentSurat plague epidemic. The bubonic plagueepidemic, which descended on the city ofSurat in 1994, owed its origin to the woefullyinadequate waste-management strategies. Thewaste heaps which were allowed to rotresulted in the proliferation of rodents andvermin, which ultimately triggered off thepestilence of plague which had been thoughtof as having been eradicated long back. As thepeople were caught unaware, the diseasewrought wide-spread havoc. This episodeillustrates the fact that, at times, even thosesolid wastes, which do not come under thedefinition of ‘hazardous wastes’, can becomeextremely hazardous!

Health Hazards

The evaluation of the health effects ofhazardous wastes depends upon three basicproblems:

i) availability of toxicological data onchemicals;

ii) toxicity of mixtures of chemical wastes andthe physical, chemical and biological factorsthat influence toxicity; and

iii) estimation of the level and duration ofexposure to the population.

The toxic effects induced by hazardouswastes can be differentiated into two different


groups: responses that result from genetic effectsand those associated with target organs. Inaddition to epidemiological methods used inassessing health effects, several basic issues needto be reconciled prior to data interpretation.These include latency period, multiple causativefactors, population diversity and mobility, andsocioeconomic and urbanization conditions.

If the expected baseline frequency of specifichealth effect is low, a large population base willbe needed, especially for risk assessment.

Secondary (Health) Hazards

The wastes in the natural environmentalconditions can become toxic, explosive or evenbecome the breeding ground for disease germsand vectors. For example, cooked meat canbecome a lethal source of pathogens within afew hours. Vectors like house flies, mosquitoes,rats, etc. are indicators of conversion of normalwastes into hazardous ones.

When organic materials are amassed even lessflammable materials undergo spontaneouscombustion, e.g. hay, saw dust, coal, etc.Anaerobic decomposition of organic wastesproduces methane (CH4), hydrogen sulphide (H2S),carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), etc.They may form explosive mixtures. The recentexplosion due to leakage of gas accumulated in achoked sewage in Mexico is noteworthy.

Leachate from even normal municipalitywastes can assume gigantic proportions. The Bio-chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) of leachatesfrom landfill may exceed 20,000 mg per litre, i.e.100 times stronger than raw waste. Thus,secondary hazards of normally safe wastes arealso studies as a special case of hazardous wastes.

Hazardous Waste Generation

A review of the available literature points tofour major pathways for hazardous wastegeneration and their escape into theenvironment. The first and most significantpathway is the continuous discharge ofhazardous wastes onto land which include:

� Wastes which, due to environmentalrestrictions, have been removed from air orwater effluent streams;

� Wastes generated by industry as losses oras by-products of various processes;

� Products which become wastes as a resultof governmental regulations or restrictions;

� Wastes from government or other institu-tional operations.

The second source is the accidental spilling ofhazardous substances resulting in damage to theenvironment. Another source is the discharge ofhazardous wastes in small quantities leading to itsconcentration, from numerous sources, includingwaste effluent and air emission streams that arenot subject to pollution control procedures. Thefourth pathway consists of mine tailings andabandoned dumping and disposal sitescontributing to slow environmental degradation.The problem is looming large as its deleteriouseffects are slowly being manifested globally.

The International Scenario

In 1984, the US alone produced over 260million metric tonnes of hazardous wastesequivalent to over 70 billion US gallons. Therewere about 1400 installations that generatedwaste and the majority (96 per cent) managedthem onsite. The industrial sector produced 92per cent of all hazardous material with 68 percent of the total from chemical industries alone.99 per cent of the material is liquid at the time ofgeneration. The machinery and transportationindustries, each contribute about 6 per cent. By1986 USA had over 22,000 hazardous wastesites. More than 500 have been identified asposing serious long-term hazards to publichealth and the environment.

Accurate determination of the amount ofwaste produced by other countries are generallynot available. In the Netherland there are almost3000 known abandoned dumps, of which 300pose imminent threat to human health. In GreatBritain some counties have been hesitant toaccept waste whereas others operate at a moreliberal policy. Britain has been estimated to haveproduced 11 metric tonnes waste during 1980.France produces almost 2-3 million metric tonnesof toxic wastes annually and ships 4000 tonnesof chlorine to be burned at sea. In China,medium to large industries generateapproximately 80 million tonnes of solid waste.

Hazardous Waste Management

Appropriate management techniques haveto take into account the various options basedon the nature, quantity and location of the waste.The desirable options for managing hazardouswastes are listed below, on priority basis. The


figure given below is a schematic representationof the prioritized options.

i) Minimization of the amount generated bymodifying the industrial processes involved.

ii) Transfer of the waste to another industrythat can utilize it.

iii) Reprocessing of the waste to recover energyor materials.

iv) Separation of hazardous waste from non-hazardous waste at the source and itssubsequent concentration, which reduces thehandling, transportation and disposal costs.

v) Incineration of the waste or its treatmentto reduce the degree of hazard, and

vi) Disposal of the waste in a secure landfill,one that is located, designed, operated andmonitored in a manner that protects lifeand environment.

Let us examine the different disposal andtreatment methods currently in use.

Landfill

Landfills for the disposal of hazardouswastes evolved from sanitary landfills.

Site Selection

The selection of a site for waste disposal isgoverned by climatic, geologic and hydrologicalfactors. Arid conditions are favourable as littleleaching occurs. Sites made up of impermeablematerial, such as clay till, are preferable because suchmaterial retards the movement of contaminantsfrom the site and attenuates the effect by adsorptionand filtration. On the other hand, a site close to therecharge zone is not suitable because the groundwater gets affected. Likewise, if the discharge flowsinto a stream because of a high water table, theground water gets contaminated.

Design and Construction

The design and construction of a hazardouslandfill incorporates an impermeable cover, animpermeable bottom liner, a system of drainagepipes to collect and remove any leachate thatmay accumulate, and a system of monitoring wells.

The cover prevents infiltration ofprecipitation into the landfill. The bottom linerserves to reduce the rate of leachate migration.The leachate collection and recovery systemchecks leachate migration and hydrostaticpressure. This is accomplished by a system of

perforated pipes buried in the lower part of thelandfill, from where the liquid is pumped out.Regular monitoring of the wells can detect, beforehand, the effects of groundwater contamination.The NAS (National Academy of Sciences) hasdecided that at least 500 years is realistic as aperiod of concern for wastes in landfills.

Landfill gas generation is a major concern inorganic waste dumping. The emission rate fromlandfill depends on a number of factors, such asvapour pressure, diffusion coefficient, masstransfer coefficient and solubility. Several controltechniques have been proposed regarding toxicgas emission from landfills.

Wastes that are explosive or have high vapourpressure, such as organic sludges, volatileorganic wastes and liquids, should not belandfilled. Many types of waste should be pre-treated to make them more innocuous and lessvolatile. Gas collection device should be installed.The site should be capped.

Hazardous wastes are now stored in separatecells i.e. discrete storage areas, which are highlysuitable for incompatible wastes. Also, when acell is full, it can be quickly sealed andrevegetated. The Office of TechnologyAssessment has concluded that completeprotection from migration, even for the operatinglife of the fill, is probably unattainable.

Land treatment

This is a biological method in which,hazardous wastes are deposited either on theland or injected just beneath it and degradednaturally by aerobic organisms. Oxygen levelsmay be maintained by periodic ploughing.

Although the basic concept of land treatmentis simple, its planning and implementation areexceedingly complex, involving anunderstanding of microbiology, soil science,chemistry, hydrology, geology and climatology.In order for organic constituents to be suitablefor land treatment, they must degrade at a ratefaster than volatization, leaching or runoff. Themobility, toxicity and accumulation of heavymetals must also be considered in facility design.

Acceptable sites for landfill may also provemost acceptable for land treatment. If bio-degradable hazardous wastes are eliminated,and toxic metals and other hazardous materialsimmobilized in surfacial material, land treatmentcould prove to be superior to landfill.


Selection of the kind of hazardous waste treatedby this technique, combined with careful sitemonitoring, will reduce the danger of environmentalcontamination by the biodegradable fraction of thewaste. The ultimate fate of toxic materials thatremain in the treated ground is more questionable.

Deep-well Injection

The use of injection wells for industrial wastedisposal began around 1950. In a typicalinjection well, depths to the disposal zonecommonly range between 600 to 1800 m but mayby shallower or deeper.

The major difference between an injectionwell and a normal well is the closed annularspace between the injection tubing and the inneror long string casing. This space is filled with afluid under pressure which preserves the casingand tubing, and which is monitored by apressure gauge at the surface. On completion,the well is plugged to prevent the release ofliquids and also any change in reservoir pressure.

Underground injection of hazardous wastesrequires a very careful appraisal of factors,including subsurface stratigraphy, lithology,subsurface structure, fresh-water geohydrology,extent of disposal zone area, pressure conditionsof disposal zone, density, toxicity, chemistry andreactivity of wastes, etc.

An ideal disposal reservoir has a thick,porous and permeable blanket of sandstoneunderlying an entire basin and confined fromabove and below by impermeable beds. A wastethat is lighter than the interstitial water wouldbe effectively contained in an anticline. Incontrast, a fluid denser than the interstitial waterwould be best contained in a syncline.

Another important factor in undergrounddisposal is the selection of an injection pressurehigh enough to displace the interstitial fluidswith the waste but is not so high that thecontaining impermeable beds are fractured.

Incineration

The safest and most effective alternative toland-based disposal of hazardous wastes isincineration. This process is widely used inEurope, chiefly in Germany.

About 240 facilities in the US incinerate 17million metric tonnes of waste. Another 3-5million metric tonnes are burned in industrialboilers and 3, 50,000 metric tonnes by othermeans like cement kilns.

Many incinerators have been shut down asthey failed to meet air pollution standards. Toobtain a permit for an incinerator, the companymust demonstrate a removal efficiency of 99.99 percent for PCBs and 9.99 per cent for other pollutants.

Many organic toxic wastes are broken down toharmless CO2 and H2O at high temperatures. Smallamounts of HCl, SO2, dioxins etc, may be produceddepending on the efficiency of the incinerator. Thesecan be removed using special equipment.

The effectiveness of incineration dependsupon temperature, turbulence and residencetime. PCBs can be incinerated with 99.99 percent efficiency at 750° C. The chief breakdownproduct, hexachlorobenzene (HCB), decomposesafter 800° C and persists at low levels even at1000° C. Fine particulate matter, metal aerosolsand hydrogen halide gases that escapeincineration also pose a problem. New methodslike ionizing wet scrubbers, supersonic steaminjection and electrostatic precipitation will leadto an increased treatment of these wastes.

A new experimental method involves heatinga mixture of water and organic wastes to 400°Cat high pressure. Air is passed through thismixture. All organic compounds, includingdioxins, break into water and CO2. Highincinerator temperatures result in an increasedemission of heavy metals. An increase in vapourpressure of cadmium, copper, lead andchromium with temperature, has been shown.

Incineration at sea: This is attractive becauseof its low cost, roughly half that of incinerationon land. Interest in sea disposal began in the early1970s when Volvanus-I went into operation inthe North Sea. The largest amount to beincinerated was 1.5 million gallons of PCB in theGulf of Mexico. To date, incineration at sea canbe described as a cheap and effective method.

Other treatment methods

In many instances, these methods are stillunder development and are not presently costeffective. Heavy metals, if not recycled, poses apotentially long-term toxicologic problem forwaste disposal. They can be solidified intogranular form, mixed with cement-based groutsand pumped into underground disposal caverns.

Thermoplastic techniques using poly-ethylene, paraffins and bitumen are popular asthe wastes are tightly bound and the leachingrate is low due to the water resistant media.


Several other waste treatment processes thatare either under research or in use include:

Physical treatment: Physical treatment ofhazardous wastes includes a number ofseparation processes commonly used in industry.For a waste containing liquids and solids,physical separation is of great value as it is simpleand very economical. The physical processes forthe separation of liquids and solids are :

The selection of a particular treatment processdepends upon the nature of the constituents andtheir amenability to the technique.

Biological treatment: This method is nowincreasingly being used as an efficient, cost-effective way to remove hazardous substancesfrom waste water effluent.

Aerobic organisms (microbes which utilizeoxygen directly) are commonly used to treat wastestreams and anaerobic organisms (microbes whichuse oxygen present in chemical combination withother elements) are used in the treatment of strongorganic wastes or organic sludges.

1. Screening

2. Sedimentation and clarification

3. Centrifugation

4. Floatation

5. Filtration

6. Sorption

7. Evaporation and distillation

8. Reverse osmosis

9. Stripping

The ability of bacteria to consume organicmatter is measured by the bio-chemical oxygendemand which is the quantity of oxygen utilizedby micro-organisms in the aerobic oxidation oforganics at 20° C. Hazardous waste materialsare toxic to some of the micro-organisms. But asubstance that is toxic to one group of organismsmay be an essential nutrient for another. Byachieving the proper distribution of organisms,biological treatment can be effectively harnessed.

e- WASTE DUMPING

What is e-dumping?

The export of e-wastes to developing countrieswithout adequate environmental regulations isnot recycling but dumping. It is a way for the

electronics industry of industrialized countries topass on downstream costs to those living indeveloping countries.

A separate Directorate on Anti-Dumping wasset up in the Ministry of Commerce in April 1998to deal expeditiously with investigations ofdumping cases. In addition to infrastructuresupport to anti-dumping mechanism, afacilitation cell was also created to assist thedomestic industry.

What is e-waste?

� Electronic waste, e-waste, e-scrap, or wasteelectrical and electronic equipment (WEEE)describes discarded electrical or electronic devices.

� As for example computers, televisions,VCRs, stereos, copiers, and fax machinesare common electronic products.

� All electronic scrap components, such asCRTs, may contain contaminants such aslead, cadmium, beryllium, or brominatedflame retardants.

Even in developed countries recycling anddisposal of e-waste may involve significant riskto workers and communities and great care mustbe taken to avoid unsafe exposure in recyclingoperations and leaching of material such as heavymetals from landfills and incinerator ashes.

e- Waste (Management & Handling) Rules,2011

The e-waste (Management & Handling) Rules,2011 came into effect from May 1, 2012. The ruleswere notified in May 2011 and aim at reductionin the use of hazardous substances in electricaland electronic equipment by specifying thresholdfor use of hazardous materials, including lead,mercury and cadmium. The rule is applicable toevery producer, consumer or bulk consumer,collection centre, dismantler and recycler of e-waste involved in the manufacture, sale, purchaseand processing of electrical and electronicequipment or components. The rules place themain responsibility of e-waste management onthe producers of the electrical and electronicequipment by introducing the concept of“extended producer responsibility” (EPR).

As per the guidelines of hazardous wastemanagement division of Central Pollution ControlBoard, an arm of the Union Environment


Ministry, there is a need to encourage recyclingof all useful and valuable material from e-wasteso as to conserve the ever depleting naturalresources.

The e-waste (Management & Handling) Rules,2011 will not apply to :

� Lead acid batteries as covered under thebatteries (Management and Handling)Rules, 2001,

� Micro and small enterprises as defined inthe Micro, Small and Medium EnterprisesDevelopment Act, 2006 (27 of 2006)

� Radio-active wastes as covered under theprovisions of the Atomic Energy Act, 1962(33 of 1962).

e-Waste Mining

Electronic waste is a valuable source forsecondary raw materials, if treated properly,however if not treated properly it is a majorsource of toxins. Rapid technology change, lowinitial cost and even plan obsolescence haveresulted in a fast growing problem around theglobe. Technical solutions are available but in mostcases a legal framework, a collection system,logistics and other services need to be implementedbefore a technical solution can be applied.

Due to lower environmental standards andworking conditions in China, India, Kenya, andelsewhere, electronic waste is being sent to thesecountries for processing - in most cases illegally.Delhi and Bangalore in India and Guiyu inShantou region of China have electronic wasteprocessing areas. Uncontrolled burning,disassembly, and disposal are causingenvironmental and health problems, includingoccupational safety and health effects amongthose directly involved, due to the methods ofprocessing the waste. Trade in electronic waste iscontrolled by the Basel Convention.

Electronic waste is of concern largely due tothe toxicity of some of the substances if processedimproperly. The toxicity is due to lead, mercury,cadmium and a number of other substances. Theunsustainability of discarded electronics andcomputer technology is another reason for theneed to recycle - or perhaps more practically, reuse- electronic waste.

Electronic waste processing systems havematured in recent years following increased

regulatory, public, and commercial scrutiny, anda commensurate increase in entrepreneurialinterest. Part of this evolution has involved greaterdiversion of electronic waste from energyintensive, down-cycling processes whereequipment is reverted to a raw material form. Thisdiversion is achieved through reuse andrefurbishing. The environmental and socialbenefits of reuse are several: diminished demandfor new products and their commensuraterequirement for virgin raw and larger quantitiesof pure water and electricity for associatedmanufacturing, less packaging per unit,availability of technology to wider swaths ofsociety due to greater affordability of products,and diminished use of landfills.

e-Waste Recycling: E-waste is one of thefastest growing forms of waste around the world.The UN Environment Programme estimates thatup to 50-million tonnes of e-waste is generatedworldwide every year. Despite the fact that thetrade in e-waste is controlled by the BaselConvention, a global environmental agreementon the transboundary movement of hazardouswastes, e-waste from developed countries is beingshipped to Asia or Africa, where it often ends upas a dangerous toxic waste problem.

Potential in India: E-waste is often richer inrare metals than their ores, containing 10 to 50times higher copper content than copper ore. Acell phone contains five to 10 times higher goldcontent than gold ore. One tonne of scrap fromdiscarded computers contains more gold than canbe produced from 17 tonne of gold ore. Mumbaialone throws away 19,000 tonne of electronicwaste a year, excluding the large e-waste importsfrom developed nations through its port. Thetrend is likely to increase manifold in proportionto the growth in the electronics industry. Theprojected growth for the e-waste generation forIndia is about 34 per cent year per year. Theindustry seems to be waking up. Domestic andinternational entrepreneurs are interested insetting up plants in the country. Multinationalssuch as HP and Sony Electronics are also showingkeen interest in setting up plants in the country.

CHRONIC METALLIC POISONING

Poisoning may be acute or chronic. Actuatepoisoning is the poisoning having a short andrelatively severe course. Poisoning persisting overa long period of time is known as chronicpoisoning.


Common metallic poisons include Arsenic,Mercury and Lead. These metals have extensiveuses in industries, agricultural, commercial and fordomestic purposes. As exposure to these metals isunavoidable, particularly in urban, semi- urbanand industrial areas, some amounts are constantlyabsorbed and remain accumulated in the body.Thus, incidents of chronic poisoning by these arefar more than the incidents of acute poisoning.

Arsenic: Arsenic is a persistent, bio-accumulative and toxic substance also classifiedas a carcinogen and is among the top 20 mosttoxic substances. WHO guideline value for arsenicin drinking water is 0.01 mg/1. Arsenic has beendiscovered in ground water in several countriesin all five continents, but the worst is recordedfrom West Bengal in India and Bangladesh. Thishappens because arsenic is also a natural part ofthe Earth’s crust in some parts of the world andseeps into water, which has flowed througharsenic-rich rocks.

Arsenic poisoning is common in personsworking in industries manufacturing sheep-dips,weed killers, insecticides, dyes, paints, cosmeticsand in those using these products.

The commonly encountered signs andsymptoms of chronic arsenic poisoning are lossof appetite, indigestion, nausea, vomiting,constipation, diarrhoea, loss of weight andbrownish pigmentation of skin. It also causeshypertension and neurological effects. It can alsocause about half a dozen types of cancers,including cancer of the skin, bladder, lung, liverand kidney. In China it has been found to causea severe disease of the blood vessels leading togangrene. It is called ‘black foot disease’.

Chronic arsenic poisoning is very differentfrom acute poisoning. Immediate symptoms ofacute poisoning include vomiting, Oesophagaland abdominal pain and bloody ‘rice water’diarrhoea. Chelation therapy may be effective inacute poisoning.

Lead: Lead is a highly toxic metal that wasused for many years in products found in andaround our homes. Lead may cause a range ofhealth effects from behavioral problems andlearning disabilities, to seizures and death.Children of 6 years old and under are most atrisk, because their bodies are under quick growthphase. The Primary sources of lead exposure aredeteriorating lead based paint, lead-contaminated

dust and lead-contaminated residential soil. If notdetected early lead poisoning can lead to damageto the brain and nervous system, behavioral andlearning problems (such as hyperactivity), delayedgrowth and impaired hearing in children. Leadis also harmful to adults and may causereproductive problems in both men and women.Symptoms of poisoning also include, high bloodpressure, digestive problems, nervous systemdisorders, memory loss and muscle and joint pain.

Mercury: Mercury occurs naturally and is alsoreleased by human activities. Mercury has beencommonly used in dental amalgam, and othermedical devices, light switches, fluorescent lights,batteries and paints. Mercury is also used inindustrial process such as chlorine production,cement manufacturing and copper and leadsmelting. Because there is such devastating healthrisk associated with mercury and organic mercurycompounds, widely used in industry as catalystsand in agriculture, the WHO has placed limits onthe allowed mercury content in food. Importantsigns and symptoms of chronic mercury poisoningare : gingivitis, salivation, constipation, diarrhoea,anaemia, loss of weight, loosening of teeth,restricted field of vision, insomnia, anxiety,irritability and tremors of hand and tongue.Mercury chelating compounds remain the firstline of treatment.

Phytofiltration

Recent research reveals that ‘Pteris vittata’, afern, can readily purify water poisoned witharsenic. In other words water contaminated witharsenic can be cleaned by growing ferns in it. Thisparticular fern species reduces the concentrationto below the safety limit. The procedure, called‘phytofiltration’, could provide a cheap way toremove arsenic from water supplies. The fernswould be grown directly in the water, similar tothe reed-bed systems currently used to removeorganic waste.

Arsenic pollution of drinking and irrigationwater has emerged as a massive health threat inIndia and Bangladesh, where wells drilled intoaquifers have turned out to be tapping poisonedwater. When the water is used to irrigate ricepaddies, arsenic also accumulates in the crops.According to one estimate, 3000 people may bedying in Bangladesh each year because of arseniccontamination.


Bioremediation

It is often used to describe a variety of quitedifferent microbial processes that occur in naturalecosystems, such as mineralization, detoxification,co-metabolism or activation. It can be defined asbreakdown of organic compounds in nature bythe action of micro organisms, such as bacteria,actinomycetes and fungi. Since bioremediationuses naturally occurring microorganisms totransform harmful substances to non-toxiccompounds, its role in restoring the contaminatedsoils to their original health and thus serving theenvironment from pollution is highly significant.Some of the more common genera involved inbioremediation of oil products include Nocardia,Pseudomonas, Acetobacter, Flavobacterium,Micrococcus and Arthrobacter.

Features of Bioremediation

Remediate means to solve a problem, and "bio-remediate" means to use biological organisms tosolve an environmental problem such ascontaminated soil or groundwater. In a non-polluted environment, bacteria, fungi, protists, andother microorganisms are constantly at workbreaking down organic matter.

� An ecologically sound, natural process;residues are usually harmless products.

� Instead of merely transferring contaminantsfrom one environmental medium to another(e.g. from water to the air or to land)bioremediation completely eliminates thetarget chemicals.

� Bioremediation is far less expensive thanother technologies that are often used toclean up hazardous waste.

� Bioremedition can often be accomplishedwhere the problem is located (in-situ). Thiseliminates the need to transfer largequantities of contaminated waste off-site,and the potential threats to human healthand the environment that can arise duringsuch transportation.

RADIOACTIVE WASTES

Liquid, solid and gaseous wastes are producedin the mining of or in the production of reactorfuel materials, reactor operation, processing ofirradiated reactor fuels and numerous other relatedprocesses. Wastes also result from the use ofradioactive materials in research laboratories,industries and medical treatment.

Based on radioactivity, the radioactivewastes can be classified as-

Mildly radioactive: residues from filter andpurification processes, contaminated equipment,gloves, sewage sludge from wastewaterseparation.

Moderately radioactive: component parts ofnuclear power stations rendered active byneutrons, radioactive residues from purificationplants.

Highly radioactive: includes decaying fissilematerials e.g. those of strontium (90Sr), Caesium(137Cs), Iodine (129 I.). The half-life periods ofthese radioactive isotopes are 26, 30 and17,200,000 years, respectively.

For disposal purposes, nuclear wastes areseparated into two groups:

High- level Radioactive wastes (HLRW) whichinclude:

i) Spent nuclear fuel after irradiation, fissionproducts and TRU (Trans Uranic);

ii) Trans Uranic wastes which are x-emittingTRU isotopes, with half lives of over a year;

iii) High-level wastes (HLW) which are by-products of spent-fuel reprocessing,especially to extract plutonium forwarheads.

Low level Radioactive Wastes (LLRW)includes:

i) Low level wastes, defined as wastescontaining less than 10 nCig-1 (nCig-1=nanocuries/gm) of trans-uranic elements;

ii) Uranium (U) and Thorium (Th) by-productmaterials are the tailings produced by theextraction or concentration of U or Th fromprocessed ore.

Until recently, a criterion of 10 nCi g-1 servedas a cutoff between shallow land burial and othermodes of disposal for TRU high-level wastes.Proposed standards define concentration limits forspecific radio-nuclides. For x-emitting TRU nuclideswith half-life of over 20 years, the limit is 100 nCi g-1. All other radio-nucleides with a half-life of over20 years have a maximum of 1 nCig-1.

Treatment of Radioactive Wastes

Approximately one-third and one-fourth ofthe spent fuel rods in Pressurized Water Reactors


(PWR) and Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)respectively, is removed and replaced. The mainobjectives of fuel reprocessing are the removalof HLW and TRU from fuel rods and theseparation of plutonium. After the initial stages,a nitric solution of the fuel is put in contact withan immiscible solvent, like tributyl phosphatepresent in an organic diluent. This solution,Raffinate, is highly radioactive and isconcentrated by evaporation. Raffinate is storedin special stainless steel containers.Approximately 10 cubic metres of concentratedwaste is produced from each GW of electricity.

Reprocessing produces both solid and liquidwastes. Liquids can be solidified by spraycalcinations and fluidized-bed calcinations. Influidized-bed calcinations, liquid waste iscontinuously fed into a calciner containing a bedof small nucleation particles. The bed is heatedto 500-600° C by kerosene combustion. A streamof air is passed through the particles so that theyflow like a liquid contact between the liquid andparticles, causing drying and calcinations. .

In spray calcination, the liquid waste issprayed into the top of a tower that is heated inthe furnace. At about 700° C, water is driven offresulting in calcinated solids, which is collectedat the bottom of the tower. Heating them to 900°C drives off the remaining nitrates, whereas, ifit is to be vitrified, the powder is heated to 1000-10000°C to form a mass of glass. The‘supercalcine’ process produces a calcine withup to 23 per cent additional constituents like lime.

Radioactive Wastes Disposal

Storage in tanks above ground: The US hasbeen practising this for over 20 years. There areover 200 steel and concrete tanks having over 3million litres of highly radioactive liquid. Theseradioactive wastes generate heat, besidesradiation and hence require constant cooling.The heat is transferred to the condenser by pipescarrying steam. Mixing of contents withcompressed air ensures uniform heating anddoes not allow settling of solids.

A few serious loopholes in this method arelisted below:

1. Strong radiation from wastes might lead tocorrosion of the tanks and a consequentleakage of radioactive wastes e.g. Hanford,Washington, the prime deposit site in theUS experienced seepage of 4,90, 000 litres

of radioactive waste;

2. Fuming wastes require constantrefrigeration. They produce 9 kW/m3 ofhighly radioactive waste. In case of arefrigeration failure, temperatures can easilyshoot over 1000°C resulting in the explosionof the tank and a calamity. The Universityof California has estimated that if a storagetank containing 3 million litres of highlyradioactive liquid were to explode, an areatwice that of Switzerland would berendered uninhabitable for several decades.

Radiolytic water disintegration produces H2and O2 at a fast rate. If proper ventilation is notprovided, the H2 produced, in the absence ofdilution, will reach the lower explosion limit of4 per cent in a few hours, resulting in anexplosion by combining with the O2.

Packaging of spent fuel: If spent fuel werethe primary form of waste, the anticipatedpackaged waste through the year 2000 wouldbe 2.2x106 cubic feet (68,000 cubic metres). Ifthis were stacked as a solid cube, each side wouldmeasure nearly 40 metres. About 38,000megacuries and 175 MW of heat would beproduced by this mass of spent fuel.

According to a Swedish project (KBS 1977),spent fuel should be stored in a water pool in agranite cavern 30 metres below the surface.

After 40 years of storage to dissipate heat,bundles of 500 fuel rods would be loaded incopper canisters with lead and copper covers.Each canister, weighing 18 tonnes, will betransferred to the granite cavern 500 metresbelow the ground in holes 7.7 metres deep and1.5 metres in diameter, lined with 40 centimetresof isostatically compressed bentonite.

Radioactive wastes reveal radical changes afterfew hundred years. First, the heat generation ratedecreases by an order of magnitude in the period of10-100 years and by another order of magnitude in100-1000 years (the decrease in the heat generationrate depends on the half-life period of the particularradioactive waste). Secondly, the toxicity of HLWneeded for 1 GW per year electricity decreases byabout three orders of magnitude in the first 300-400years due to the decay of short-lived fissionproducts (1 Giga Watt=109 watts; a measure ofconsumption of electricity). Toxic levels drop tothe level of average ores of toxic elements. Afterthis time, toxicity diminishes slowly, a million years


being required for another two orders ofmagnitude. Thus, the first 300-400 years representthe most critical phase of disposal.

Use of salt mines: The idea originated inWest Germany, as salt mines have very littleconnections with groundwater, thus conferringa high degree of storage security. Asse II,Germany, stores many small and large cavernsfilled and sealed with mild radioactive wastes.By AD 200, Asse II is expected to store upto 2,50,000 cubic metres of mildly radioactive wastes.

Recent reports of ground watercontamination questions the vulnerability of thesystem. Besides salt; granite, basalt and shalehave been extensively studied. As a repositoryshould contain and isolate these wastes, siteselection involves the consideration of theproperties of the host rock, the hydrologicproperties of the site, its tectonic stability, itsresource potential and the capability of the sitegeohydrology, to provide natural barriers to themovement of the waste.

Turning to the sea: UK deposits 80,000-90,000 Ci of LLRW into the ocean each year,

which constitutes 90 per cent of the total wastedeposited by Europe. Although US abandonedthis method in the 1960s, it had deposited about1, 00,000 Ci by then.

Sub-seabed geologic disposal: The abyssalhill regions in the centres of sub-ocean tectonicplates underlying large ocean surface currents,are vastly remote from human settlements,biologically unproductive, have weak andvariable bottom currents and are covered withred clays to a depth of 50-100 metres. The clayhas a high cation retention capacity, lowpermeability, vertical and lateral uniformity; andit becomes increasingly rigid and impermeablewith depth. Only about 0.006 per cent of the areaof central North Pacific would enable thedisposal of HLW by the US till 2040.

Conclusion

Hazardous wastes should be disposed of asearly as possible and with as little damage to theenvironment as possible. Currently cost-efficienttechnology for handling a large number ofhazardous wastes is lacking.

��


CLIMATIC CHANGECHRONICLEIAS ACADEMYA CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

A planet’s climate is decided by its mass, itsdistance from the sun and the composition of itsatmosphere. Earth’s climate is unstable andrather unpredictable as compared to otherplanets. Over the last 400,000 years the Earth’sclimate has been unstable, with very significanttemperature changes, going from a warm climateto an ice age in as rapidly as a few decades. Theserapid changes suggest that climate may be quitesensitive to internal or external climate forcingand feedbacks.

According to recent reports of theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,the global average surface temperature over the20th century has increased by around 0.60°C.This value is about 0.15° C more than theprevious estimates. Global average land and seasurface temperatures in May 2003 were thesecond highest since 1880.

To date, the 10 hottest years in the 143 yearold global temperature record have all been after1990, with the three hottest being 1998, 2001 and2002. Extreme weather events also increasedduring this period — there were 63 weather-related disaster declarations in 1998, far morethan the average 21.7 disaster announcementsmade per year during the 1980s. For instance,there were 26 flood disasters worldwide in the1990s, but just 21.7 per year during the 1980s.The frequency and intensity of extreme weatherevents increases due to a change in thedistribution of heat, which disrupts the flow ofenergy through the climate system, altering thecirculation patterns of the atmosphere andoceans, and modifying the Earth’s hydrologicalcycle. Higher temperatures increase evaporationand transpiration, and raise the air’s capacity tohold moisture, making more of it available to fallas rain and snow.

GREENHOUSE EFFECT

The earth’s climate is driven by a continuousflow of energy from the sun. This energy arrivesmainly in the form of visible light. About 30 percent is immediately scattered back into space,

but most of the remaining 70 per cent that isabsorbed passes down through the atmosphereto warm the earth’s surface. The earth sends thisenergy back out into space in the form of infraredradiation.

Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere blockinfrared radiation from escaping directly fromthe surface to space. Infrared radiation cannotpass straight through the air like visible light.Instead, most departing energy is carried awayfrom the surface by air currents and clouds,eventually escaping to space from altitudes abovethe thickest layers of the greenhouse gas blanket.

The main greenhouse gases are water vapour,carbon dioxide, ozone, methane, nitrous oxide,halocarbons and other industrial gases. Apartfrom the industrial gases, all of these gases occurnaturally. Together, they make up less than 1per cent of the atmosphere. This is enough toproduce a “natural greenhouse effect” that keepsthe planet some 30ºC warmer than it wouldotherwise be essential for life as we know it.

The level of key greenhouse gases (with thepossible exception of water vapour) is rising asa direct result of human activity. Emissions ofcarbon dioxide (mainly from burning coal, oil,and natural gas), methane and nitrous oxide(mainly due to agriculture and changes in landuse), ozone (generated by automobile exhaustfumes and other sources) and long-livedindustrial gases such as CFCs, HFCs, and PFCsare changing the absorption pattern ofatmosphere. Water vapour levels may also berising because of a “positive feedback.” This isall happening at an unprecedented speed. Theresult is known as the “enhanced greenhouseeffect.”

Meanwhile, industrially-generated “sulphateaerosols” may have an overall local cooling effect.Sulphur emissions from coal- and oil-firedpower stations and the burning of organicmaterial produce clouds of microscopic particlesthat can reflect sunlight back out into space andalso affect clouds. The resultant cooling partlycompensates for greenhouse warming. These


sulphate aerosols, however, remain in theatmosphere for a relatively short time comparedto the long-lived greenhouse gases, so theircooling effect is localized. They also cause acidrain and poor air quality, problems that need tobe addressed. This means we cannot relyindefinitely on the cooling effect of sulphateaerosols to keep the climate cool indefinitely.

Carbon dioxide is currently responsible forover 60% of the “enhanced” greenhouse effect.This gas occurs naturally in the atmosphere, butburning coal, oil, and natural gas is releasing thecarbon stored in these “fossil fuels” at anunprecedented rate. Likewise, deforestationreleases carbon stored in trees. Current annualemissions amount to over 23 billion metric tonnesof carbon dioxide, or almost 1% of the total massof carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Methane from past emissions currentlycontributes to 20 per cent of the enhancedgreenhouse effect. The rapid rise in methanestarted more recently than the rise in carbondioxide, but methane’s contribution has beencatching up fast. However, methane has aneffective atmospheric lifetime of only 12 years,whereas carbon dioxide survives much longer.

Nitrous oxide, a number of industrial gases,and ozone contribute to the remaining 20 percent of the enhanced greenhouse effect. Nitrousoxide levels have risen by 16 per cent, mainlydue to intensive agriculture. Whilechlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are stabilizing dueto emission controls introduced under theMontreal Protocol to protect the stratosphericozone layer, levels of long-lived gases such asHFCs, PFCs and sulphur hexafluoride are

increasing. Ozone levels are rising in someregions in the lower atmosphere due to airpollution, even as they decline in the stratosphere.

Rich countries generally emit more perperson than do poor countries. However,countries of similar wealth can have verydifferent emission rates depending on theirgeographical circumstances, their sources ofenergy, and the efficiency with which they useenergy and other natural resources. If nothingis done to reduce emissions, current climatemodels predict a global warming of about 1.4 –5.8°C between 1990 and 2100.

Measurement records indicate an increase of0.6±0.2°C in global average temperature sincethe late 19th century. In the NorthernHemisphere (where there sufficient data to makesuch analysis), it is likely that the rate andduration of the 20th century warming has beengreater than any other time during the last 1,000years. In addition, the 1990s are likely to havebeen the warmest decade of the millennium inthe Northern Hemisphere, and 1998 is likely tohave been the warmest year. The mean sea levelhas risen by 10 to 20 cm. Snow cover has declinedby some 10% since the late 1960s in the mid-and high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere.In recent decades, the extent of Arctic sea-ice inthe spring and summer has decreased by about10–15%, and the Arctic sea-ice has thinned by40% during late summer and early autumn. Theway climate has changed over the 20th centuryis consistent with what we would expect as aresult of increases in greenhouse gases and aerosols.Overall, there is new and stronger evidence thatmost of the warming observed over the last 50years is attributable to human activities.

MAIN GREENHOUSE GASES

Green House Pre-Industrial Concentration Anthropogenic Global WarmingGases Concentraton in 1994 Source Potential (GWP)

Carbon-dioxide 278,000 ppbv 358,000 ppbv Fossil fuel combustion, Land use 1conversion, Cement production

Methane 700 ppbv 1721 ppbv Fossil fuels, Rice paddies, 21Waste dumps, Livestock

Nitrous oxide 275 ppbv 311 ppbv Fertilizer, industrial processes, 310

combustion

CFC-12 0 0.503 ppbv Liquid Coolants, Foams 6200-7100

HCFC-22 0 0.105 ppbv 1300-1400

Perfluoromethane 0 0.070 ppbv Production of Aluminium 6,500

Sulphur Hexafluoride 0 0.032 Dielectric fluid 23,900

PPbv: Parts Per billion by Volume


CONSEQUENCES OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Agriculture and Food Security

Global agriculture will face many challengesover the coming decades. Degrading soil andwater resources will place enormous strain onachieving food security for the growingpopulation. These conditions may be worsenedby climate change. While a global warming ofless than 2.5°C could have no significant effecton overall food production, a warming of morethan 2.5°C could reduce global food supplies andcontribute to higher food prices.

Higher temperatures will influenceproduction patterns. Plant growth and healthmay benefit from fewer freezes and chills, butsome crops may be damaged by highertemperatures, particularly if combined withwater shortages. Certain weeds may expandtheir range into higher-latitude habitats. Thereis also some evidence that the polewardexpansion of insects and plant diseases will addto the risk of crop losses. The productivity ofrangelands and pastures would also be affected.For example, livestock would become costlier ifagricultural disruption leads to higher grainprices. In general, it seems that intensivelymanaged livestock systems will adapt moreeasily to climate change than crop systems.

Sea levels, Oceans and Coastal Areas

The global average sea level has risen by 10to 20 cm over the past 100 years. The rate ofincrease has been 1 – 2 mm per year – some 10times faster than the rate observed for theprevious 3,000 years. It is likely that much of thisrise is related to an increase of 0.6±0.2°C in thelower atmosphere’s global average temperaturesince 1860. Related effects now being detectedinclude warming sea-surface temperatures,melting sea ice, greater evaporation, andchanges in the marine food web.

Models project that sea levels will rise another9 to 88 cm by the year 2100. This will occur dueto the thermal expansion of warming oceanwater and an influx of freshwater from meltingglaciers and ice. Coastal zones and small islandsare extremely vulnerable. Flooding and coastalerosion would worsen. Salt-water intrusion willreduce the quality and quantity of freshwatersupplies. Higher sea levels could also causeextreme events such as high tides, storm surges,and seismic sea waves (tsunami) to reap more

destruction. Rising sea levels are alreadycontaminating underground fresh watersupplies in Israel and Thailand, in small atollsscattered across the Pacific and Indian Oceanand the Caribbean Sea, and in some of theworld’s most productive deltas such as China’sYangtze Delta and Vietnam’s Mekong Delta.

Sea-level rise could damage key economicsectors making fisheries, aquaculture andagriculture particularly vulnerable. Other sectorsmost at risk are tourism, human settlements, andinsurance (which has already suffered recordlosses recently due to extreme climate events).The expected sea-level rise would inundatemuch of the world’s lowlands, damaging coastalcropland and displacing millions of people fromcoastal and small-island communities. Valuablecoastal ecosystems will be at serious risk. Coastalareas contain some of the world’s most diverseand productive ecosystems, including mangroveforests, coral reefs, and sea grasses. Low-lyingdeltas, coral atolls and reefs are particularlysensitive to changes in the frequency andintensity of rainfall and storms. Corals generallygrow fast enough to keep pace with sea-level risebut may be damaged by warmer seatemperatures.

Biological Diversity

Biological diversity – the source of enormousenvironmental, economic and cultural value willbe threatened by rapid climate change. Thecomposition and geographic distribution ofecosystems will change as individual speciesrespond to new conditions created by climatechange. At the same time, habitats may degradeand fragment in response to other humanpressures. Species that cannot adapt quicklyenough may become extinct – an irreversible loss.

Forests play an important role in the climatesystem. They are a major reservoir of carbon,containing some 80 per cent of all the carbonstored in land vegetation, and about 40 per centof the carbon residing in soils. Large quantitiesof carbon may be emitted into the atmosphereduring transitions from one forest type to anotherif mortality releases carbon faster thanregeneration and growth absorbs it.

Deserts, and arid and semi-arid ecosystemsmay become more extreme. With few exceptions,deserts are projected to become hotter but notsignificantly wetter. Higher temperatures couldthreaten organisms that now exist near their heat-


tolerance limits. Rangelands may experiencealtered growing seasons. Grasslands supportapproximately 50 per cent of the world’s livestockand are also grazed by wildlife. Shifts intemperatures and precipitation may reshape theboundaries between grasslands, shrublands, forestsand other ecosystems. In tropical regions suchchanges in the evapo-transpiration cycle couldstrongly affect productivity and the mix of species.

Mountain regions are already underconsiderable stress from human activities. Theprojected decline in mountain glaciers,permafrost and snow cover will further affectsoil stability and hydrological systems (mostmajor river systems start in the mountains). Asspecies and ecosystems are forced to migrateuphill, those limited to mountain tops may havenowhere to go and become extinct. Agriculture,tourism, hydropower, logging, and othereconomic activities will also be affected.

Water Resources

Climate change will not only lead to moreprecipitation but also to more evaporation. Ingeneral, this acceleration of the hydrological cyclewill result in a wetter world. Precipitation willprobably increase in some areas and decline inothers. Making regional predictions complicatedby the extreme complexity of the hydrologicalcycle: a change in precipitation may affectsurface wetness, reflectivity, and vegetation,which would then affect evapo-transpirationand cloud formation, which in turn would affectprecipitation. In addition, the hydrologicalsystem is responding not only to changes inclimate and precipitation but also to humanactivities such as deforestation, urbanization,and the over-use of water supplies.

Many climate models suggest thatdownpours will in general become more intense.This would increase runoff and floods whilereducing the ability of water to infiltrate the soil.Changes in seasonal patterns may affect theregional distribution of both ground and surfacewater supplies. At the local level, the vegetationand physical properties of the catchment areawill further influence how much water isretained. High-latitude regions may see morerunoff due to greater precipitation. Runoff wouldalso be affected by a reduction in snowfall, deepsnow and glacial ice, particularly in spring andsummertime when it is traditionally used forhydroelectricity and agriculture. Reservoirs and

wells would be also affected. Surface waterstorage could decline as extreme rainfall andlandslide encourage siltation and thus reducesreservoir capacity. An increase in extremerainfall and flooding could also lead to morewater being lost as run-off. In the longer termthis could also affect aquifers. Reduced watersupplies would place additional stress on people,agriculture, and the environment. Climatechange will exacerbate the stress caused bypollution, the growing population and theeconomy. The most vulnerable regions are aridand semi-arid areas, some low-lying coasts, deltasand small islands.

Gangotri is Shrinking Every YearA new study conducted by World Wide Fundfor Nature (WWF) reveals that carbon dioxide,blamed for global warming, is not onlyaffecting our population area but alsoadversely changing the mountain glacialpattern. Himalayan glaciers, including theGangotri, are receding at among the fastestrates in the world 10 to 15 meters per year onaverage. Particularly, the Gangotri glacier isreceding at an average rate of 23 meters peryear. Himalayan glaciers are among the fastestretreating glaciers globally due to the effect ofglobal warming. This will eventually result inwater shortage for hundreds of millions ofpeople who rely on glacier-dependent riversin India, China and Nepal. Himalayan glaciersfeed seven of Asia’s greatest rivers - Ganga,Indus, Brahmaputra, Salween, Mekong,Yangtze and Huang Ho. The rapid melting ofHimalayan glaciers will first increase thevolume of water in rivers using widespreadflooding, but in a few decades this situationwill change and the water level in rivers willdecline meaning massive economic andenvironmental problems for people inNorthern India, Western China and Nepal.

Corals in Trouble

By increasing the acidity levels of oceans,global warming could spell doom for corals by2065. The level of carbon dioxide (CO2) - the mainculprit behind global warming - is very high.Most of this will eventually be absorbed by seawater, where it will react to form carbonic acid.The normal acidity of the ocean is around pH8,but because of the above process it will become74. This increased acidification could have aparticularly detrimental effect on corals and


other marine organisms, because it reduces theavailability of carbonate ions in the water, whichis used by corals to build coral reefs. There are78,000 gigatonnes of carbon locked up in theocean sediments compared with 750 gigatonnesof carbon in the atmosphere. Global warmingcould have very serious implications for thewater bodies, but unfortunately the climatechange research has primarily concentrated onits impact on land and atmosphere.

Infrastructure, Industry and Human Settle-ments

Climate change will affect humansettlements. Settlements that depend heavilyon commercial fishing, subsistenceagriculture or on natural resources areparticularly vulnerable. Though climatechange will have less impact on this sectorthan on economic development, echnologicalchange and other social and environmentalforces, it is likely to exacerbate the total stresson settlements. Infrastructure will becomemore vulnerable to flooding and landslides.Tropical cyclones are expected to becomemore destructive in some areas.

Warming, dryness and flooding couldundermine water supplies. Settlements in regionsthat are already water-deficient – includingmuch of North Africa, the Middle East,Southwest Asia, portions of western NorthAmerica and some Pacific islands, can beexpected to face still-higher demands for wateras the climate warms. There are no obvious low-cost ways to obtain increased freshwatersupplies in many of these regions. In someregions, repeated flooding could create problemswith water quality.

Sea-level rise will affect coastalinfrastructure and resource-based industries.Many coastlines are highly developed andcontain human settlements, industry, portsand other infrastructure. Many of the mostvulnerable regions include some small islandnations, low-lying deltas, developing countriesand densely populated coasts that currentlylack extensive sea and coastal defense systems.Several industries such as tourism andrecreation – the principal earners for manyisland economies, are particularly dependenton coastal resources.

Islands in Danger

The pacific island nations of Tuvalu, Kiribati,Nauru, Niue, the Marshall islands and the Cookislands may all be wiped out in 50 years due toglobal warming. The rise in world temperaturemeans a higher melting rate of glaciers and thusrelease of more water which had hitherto beentrapped in the from of ice in the continents. Thisrelease of more water from glaciers has led to arise in sea level and is threatening the veryexistence of these tiny islands.

The precarious position of these islands canbe gauged from the fact that Tuvalu is just fivemetres above sea level at its highest point.

The six island nations met at the AnnualPacific Islands Forum and came down heavilyon the US for not signing the Kyoto Protocol.The issue was discussed at the Earth Summitheld in Johannesburg from August 26, toSeptember 4, 2002. Tuvalu is contemplatingsuing the US and Australia over their failure toratify the Kyoto Protocol.

Climate Disasters and Extreme Events

Climate change is expected to increase thefrequency and severity of heat waves. Morehot weather will cause more deaths andillnesses among the elderly and the urbanpoor. Together with increased summer drying,it will lead to greater heat stress for livestockand wildlife, more damage to crops, more forestfires and more pressure on water supplies.Other likely impacts are a shift in touristdestinations and a boost in demand for energy.More intense rainfall events may lead togreater flooding in some regions. In additionto floods, this could contribute to morelandslides, avalanches and soil erosion.

Major climate patterns could shift. Althoughcentered in the Southern Pacific, the El Nino/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenonaffects the weather and climate in much of thetropics. Climate change could intensify thedroughts and floods that are associated with ElNiño events in these regions. Similarly, newpatterns could emerge for the Asian summermonsoon, which affects large areas of temperateand tropical Asia. Likely impacts would includea greater annual variability in the monsoon’sprecipitation level, leading to more intense floodsand droughts.


WORLD RESPONSE

The First World Climate Conferencerecognized climate change as a serious problemin 1979. This scientific gathering explored howclimate change might affect human activities. Itissued a declaration calling on the world’sgovernments “to foresee and prevent potentialman-made changes in climate that might beadverse to the well-being of humanity.” It alsoendorsed plans to establish a World ClimateProgramme (WCP) under the joint responsibilityof the World Meteorological Organization(WMO), the United Nations EnvironmentProgramme (UNEP) and the InternationalCouncil of Scientific Unions (ICSU).

A number of intergovernmental conferencesfocusing on climate change were held in the late1980s and early 1990s. Together with increasingscientific evidence, these conferences helped toraise international concern about the issue. Thekey events were the Villach Conference (October1985), the Toronto Conference (June 1988), theOttawa Conference (February 1989), the TataConference (February 1989), the HagueConference and Declaration (March 1989), theNoordwijk Ministerial Conference (November1989), the Cairo Compact (December 1989), theBergen Conference (May 1990), and the SecondWorld Climate Conference (November 1990).

The Intergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange (IPCC) released its First AssessmentReport in 1990. Established in 1988 by UNEPand WMO, the Panel was given a mandate toassess the state of existing knowledge about theclimate system and climate change; theenvironmental, economic, and social impacts ofclimate change; and the possible responsestrategies. In December 1990, the UN GeneralAssembly approved the start of treatynegotiations. The Intergovernmental NegotiatingCommittee (INC) for a Framework Conventionon Climate Change (FCCC) met for five sessionsbetween February 1991 and May 1992. Facing astrict deadline – the June 1992 Rio “EarthSummit” negotiators from 150 countries finalizedthe Convention in just 15 months. The 1992 UNFramework Convention on Climate Change wassigned by 154 states (plus the EC) at Rio deJaneiro. Twenty years after the 1972 StockholmDeclaration first laid the foundations ofcontemporary environmental policy, the EarthSummit became the largest-ever gathering ofHeads of State. Other agreements adopted at Riowere the Rio Declaration, Agenda 21, the

Convention on Biological Diversity and ForestPrinciples. The Convention entered into force on21 March, 1994.

The Conference of the Parties (COP) held itsfirst session in Berlin from 28 March - 7 April,1995. They agreed that the commitmentscontained in the Convention for developedcountries were inadequate and launched the“Berlin Mandate” talks on additionalcommitments. They also reviewed the firstround of national communication and finalisedmuch of the institutional and financialmachinery needed to support action under theConvention in the years to come. COP-2 washeld at the Palais des Nations in Geneva from 8- 19 June 1996. The Kyoto Protocol was adoptedat COP-3 in December 1997. Because there wasnot enough time to finalize all the operationaldetails of how the Protocol would work inpractice, COP-4, held in Buenos Aires from 2-13November 1998, agreed a two-year Plan ofAction for completing the Kyoto rulebook. Theagenda of COP-5, which took place in Bonn from15 October – 5 November, 1999, was based onthis Plan. A political agreement on theoperational rulebook for the Protocol wasreached at COP-6. Meeting from 6 to 25November, 2000, COP-6 made good progress butcould not resolve all the issues in the timeavailable. The meeting was suspended and thenresumed from 16 to 27 July 2001 in Bonn. Theresumed session reached agreement on thepolitical principles of operational rulebook forthe Kyoto Protocol. This agreement addressedthe emission trading system, the CleanDevelopment Mechanism, the rules for countingemission reduction from carbon “sinks.” and thecompliance regime. It also outlined a package offinancial and technological support to helpdeveloping countries contribute to global actionon climate change. The work of translating theBonn Agreements into detailed legal texts wasfinalized at COP-7, which was held inMarrakech, Morocco, from 29 October to 9November, 2001.

COP - 8 on climate change concluded in NewDelhi on 1 November, 2002. After lots of effortsand several rounds of negotiations, theparticipating countries arrived at a nearconsensus to announce the Delhi Declaration.The issues on which there was no consensuswere left out. Among the important points whichwere left out of Delhi Declaration were the issuesof providing economic aid to countries most


severely affected by the global climate change.The emphasis on application of new technologyin the field of energy was also left out due to theprotests of the oil exporting countries. The DelhiDeclaration is also noteworthy for its emphasison the need for the United States, Russia andother developed countries, which are yet to ratifythe Kyoto Protocol, on reduction of GHG emissions,at the earliest.

UNCONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE

WARSAW MEET

The United Nations Climate ChangeConference, COP19 or CMP9 was held inWarsaw, Poland from 11 to 23 November 2013.

The key outcomes of the Warsaw Conven-tion are:

1. Advancing the Durban Platform, being thecommitment to enter into a new climateagreement by 2015; The conference led to anagreement that all states would start cuttingemissions as soon as possible, but preferablyby the first quarter of 2015. It has set apathway for governments to work on a drafttext of a new universal climate agreementso it appears on the table at the next UNClimate change conference in Peru.

In the context of 2015, countries decided toinitiate or intensify domestic preparation fortheir intended national contributionstowards that agreement, which will comeinto force from 2020. Parties ready to do thiswill submit clear and transparent plans wellin advance of COP 21, in Paris, and by thefirst quarter of 2015.

Countries also resolved to close the pre-2020ambition gap by intensifying technical workand more frequent engagement of Ministers.

2. Establishing the Warsaw Mechanism forloss and damage associated with climatechange impacts the conference also decidedto establish an international mechanism toprovide most vulnerable populations withbetter protection against loss and damagecaused by extreme weather events and slowonset events such as rising sea levels.

3. The Warsaw REDD+ Framework. Underthis the decisions have also been made onways to help developing countries reducegreenhouse gas emissions from deforestation

and the degradation of forests, whichaccount for around one fifth of all human-generated emissions. The WarsawFramework for REDD+ is backed by pledgesof 280 million dollars financing from the US,Norway and the UK.

4. Climate Financing Arrangements,

� Climate Finance

In addition to those financial decisionsrelating to the REDD+ Framework,developments were also made in relation to theGCF and long term finance. Parties urged thatpredictable, adequate, sustainable andtransparent funding was required to protectdeveloping countries from the adverse effects ofclimate change.

� GCF

The GCF is an independent body that is anoperating entity of the financial mechanism ofthe UNFCCC. The aim of the fund is to providefinancial resources to mitigation and adaptationactivities in all developing countries.

At COP 17 in Durban, parties agreed thatthey would mobilise US$100 billion per year forthe purposes of the GCF, yet no assurance ordetails were provided as to how this level offinance would be raised. The negotiations atWarsaw resulted in a commitment to mobilisethese funds from a variety of public, private,bilateral and multilateral sources. The GCFdecision calls for "ambitious and timely"contributions from developed countries that"should reach a very significant scale".

� Long-term Finance

In relation to long-term finance, developedcountry parties are requested to prepare biennialsubmissions on their updated strategies andapproaches for scaling up climate finance from2014 to 2020.

� Adaptation Fund

An Adaptation Fund was established as amechanism under the Kyoto Protocol to financeconcrete adaptation projects and programs indeveloping countries. At COP19, the UNFCCCacknowledged the progress made in building upthe Adaptation Fund, with Austria, Belgium,Finland, France, Germany, Norway, Sweden andSwitzerland having either paid or pledgedUS$100 million.


DOHA MEET

The 18th session of the COP to the UNFCCCheld in Doha, Qatar which resulted in a set ofdecisions aimed at advancing theimplementation of the UNFCCC and its KyotoProtocol (KP) after 2012.

The key issues for the Doha conference were:amending the KP to implement the secondcommitment period under the Protocol;successfully concluding the work of the BaliAction Plan (BAP) within which there wasurgent need for a clear path to climate finance;and planning the work under the DurbanPlatform (DP) for enhanced action.

The key outcomes are discussed below:

� It has been agreed that the KP, as the onlyexisting and binding agreement underwhich developed countries commit tocutting emissions of GHGs, will enter asecond commitment period that will run foreight years as of 1 January 2013. Thisdecision has ensured that there will be nogap between the first commitment periodunder the KP ending on 31 December 2012and the second one commencing on 1January 2013.

� With the exception of Russia, New Zealand,Japan, and Canada, all other countries haveentered into the second round, with somenew countries joining as well. It has beenagreed that the KP Parties will revisit theirtargets in 2014 with a view to increasingtheir ambition.

� Governments have agreed to speedily worktowards a climate change agreement underDP applicable to all countries from 2020, tobe adopted by 2015. Further governmentshave decided to find ways to scale up effortsbefore 2020 to meet the gap in globalambition for emissions reduction.

� The Work Programme on Long term Financelaunched last year has been extended foranother year to contribute to the ongoingefforts to scale up mobilization of climatefinance.

� Developed countries have reiterated theircommitment to deliver on promises ofmobilizing US$100 billion both foradaptation and mitigation by 2020.

� Finance pledges of about $ 6 billion for period

upto 2015 announced by Germany, the UK,France, Denmark, Sweden and the EUCommission.

� The EU will reduce its emissions by 20 percent by 2020 compared to 1990.

DURBAN MEET 2011

All the countries at the UN climate changetalks in Durban agreed to a work towards andadopt a new global pact, that would bring allmajor emitters-developed and developing-in itsfold.

The agreements focus on four key areas:

1. The Kyoto Protocol (KP)

2. Green Climate Fund

3. A new agreement or treaty to come into effectin 2020 and

4. Technology Mechanism

The deal known as the Durban Platform forEnhanced Action requires that countries beginin 2012 to negotiate a new global regime forclimate change. The new legal framework mustbe in place by 2015, and will be implementedfrom 2020. Most crucially, the Durban Platformdoes away with the differentiation betweendeveloped and developing countries, a move thatIndia strongly opposed.

Kyoto Protocol: Second Commitment

African governments, the European Unionand the G77 plus China argued in favour ofmaking a second commitment to the KyotoProtocol (KP) which expired at the end of 2012.They are in favour of KP because first of all, itimposes no obligations on developing nationsand secondly because it is the only legally bindingclimate change treaty currently in effect.

European leaders have claimed the secondcommitment period to KP as one of their majorsuccesses, but as the world's biggest polluters,China and the United States, have not ratifiedthe agreement.

The United States, Canada, Japan andseveral other industrialized countries rejected thesecond KP commitment period because they sayit is based on the state of world economies in1992 and is therefore out of date. These countriessay they are fully committed to addressing theproblems of global warming, but prefer to do so


in terms of the Cancun Agreements whichrequire voluntary cut-backs of greenhouse gasemissions rather than the legally bindingdemands of the Kyoto Protocol.

Green Climate Fund (GCF)

Green Climate Fund consists of $100 billionannually from 2020. The GCF is aimed atchanneling substantial sums of money fromdeveloped countries to those that are stilldeveloping. Much of this funding is directed athelping the poorer nations to adapt to changingclimatic conditions brought on by climatechange.

The GCF was agreed on in principle at theCOP16 meetings held in Cancun, Mexico.

An agreement for 2020

The most difficult element of the DurbanPlatform was the negotiating process around anew treaty or agreement which is set to comeinto effect in 2020. Delegates agreed that the textof the new document would be ready for signingby 2015 and this would give the parties enoughtime to ratify the new agreement to come intoeffect in 2020.

Carbon Capture and Storage

The Durban talks ended six years of debateover whether and how the technology of carboncapture and storage could qualify for carbonoffsets under the Clean DevelopmentMechanism.

The Kyoto scheme rewards governments orcompanies who invest in clean energy projectsin developing countries with carbon credits,which they can trade and sell for profit.

The new rules force project developers to putfive percent of the carbon credits earned in areserve, to be awarded to them only after sitemonitors have proved that no carbon dioxide hasleaked from the underground store 20 years afterthe end of the crediting period.

Reduced Emissions from Deforestation andDegradation (REDD)

Delegates agreed to consider private fundingand market-based mechanisms as options tofinance the programme on reducing emissionsfrom deforestation and forest degradation,paving the way for billions of dollars of privateinvestment.

Technology Mechanism

The Durban Platform includes an agreementto create a Technology Mechanism. The purposeof this mechanism is to provide developingcountries with appropriate technology to enablethem to cope with the effects of climate change.The terms of reference for the operational armof the Mechanism - the Climate TechnologyCentre and Network - are agreed, along with aclear procedure to select the host.

The future deal will replace the KyotoProtocol, an existing legal framework that wasenacted in 2007. Governments that are part ofKyoto, including the EU, agreed to a secondcommitment period to the protocol that willlast five to eight years, though Russia, Japanand Canada have rejected the deal. Theconference did not produce any immediatepromises to further cut emissions blamed forclimate change.

The Durban Platform as it stands now isclearly not a final document in the form usuallyproduced at high level United Nations meetings,but it certainly provides a solid set of agreementsthat will enable the UNFCCC to continue to fightglobal warming.

The problem with the document is thatonly 35 countries have accepted limited legalobligations in terms of the secondcommitment to KP - and then only until 2017.Between 2017 and the expectedimplementation of a replacement for theKyoto Protocol in 2020 - there will beabsolutely no legally binding treaty in placeto constrain the world's polluters.

The Durban meet on climate change seemsto work out fine for India. The conference hasdecided on a roadmap to curb emissions ofgreenhouse-causing gases by both developingand advanced economies; the actual accord isto be firmed up by 2015 and take effect in2020. The plan to fund green technologies forlow-income economies also makes perfectsense. It would be impossible for India to cutabsolute levels of emissions, but it is eminentlypossible and desirable for India to reduce thecarbon intensity of its growth and curbemissions that cause global warming.Adopting green, environment-friendlytechnologies and practices would improvecompetitive advantage and shore up energyefficiency.


CANCUN SUMMIT 2010

The Cancun Agreements are a set ofsignificant decisions by the internationalcommunity to address the long-term challengeof climate change collectively andcomprehensively over time and to take concreteaction now to speed up the global response.

The agreements, reached on December 11 inCancun, Mexico, at the 2010 United NationsClimate Change Conference represent key stepsforward in capturing plans to reduce greenhousegas emissions and to help developing nationsprotect themselves from climate impacts andbuild their own sustainable futures.

There was progress in several key areas inCancun, which enabled decisions on core issues.In particular, the Cancun Agreements bringcountries' greenhouse gas (GHG) emissionsreduction targets under the UNFCCC process,ensure greater transparency in emissionsreporting by all countries, and establish a "GreenClimate Fund" to help facilitate financial supportto developing countries.

What made Cancun summit successful?

� In contrast to Copenhagen, the majority ofcountries described the process run by theMexican presidency as transparent, enablinga basis of trust to underpin the negotiations.Countries felt they were consulted in aninclusive manner throughout 2010 and werenot worried that a "secret text" would emergeand trump their work in Cancun. This trustwas fundamental to reaching agreement.

� A year after the decisions made by heads ofstate and government in Copenhagen,negotiators and ministers were able,throughout 2010 and in Cancun, to buildon the political guidance they received tofocus on operational details. This was mostevident regarding the targets and actionsthat had been put on the table inCopenhagen, thus making Cancun abouthow to incorporate those targets and actionsrather than what they would be.

� Major negotiating blocks and key countrieswere able to see at least one of their toppriorities in the final agreement whileremaining flexible on other pieces to findcommon ground. The Conference of theParties (COP) Presidency managed to puttogether a package that required everyone

to compromise, but not so much that acountry could not agree to the final package.

� With other international priorities in thebackground, China and the United Stateswere in a much more cooperative mode,avoiding blame games in the media andfocusing on getting the job done.

� India tabled proposals that became centralto the agreement, putting its Minister in akey leadership position in the lead-up to andduring the meeting.

Cancun Agreements

The Cancun Agreements are made up of aset of decisions under two tracks, the KyotoProtocol (KP track) and the UNFCCC, knownas the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-termCooperative Action (or LCA track). Success wasonly possible when progress was shown underboth tracks.

a) The Kyoto Protocol

With the first commitment period of theKyoto Protocol on course to end in 2012, manycountries wanted a second commitment periodagreed to in Cancun. The Kyoto Protocol,adopted in 1997, includes economy-wide targetsfor Annex I Parties (i.e. all developed countries,except for the United States). Although Cancundid not reach agreement on a secondcommitment period, there were a number ofsteps taken that demonstrated progress underthe Kyoto track and signal a way forward.

Annex I Parties as a group would have toreduce emissions in a range of 25-40 percentbelow 1990 levels by 2020. Urges developedcountries to increase their level of ambition inreducing their greenhouse gas emissions.

b) Shared Vision

A shared long-term vision for the CancunAgreements includes a goal to limit averageglobal temperature warming below 2ºC incomparison to pre-industrial levels. It furtherrecognizes the need to strengthen this goal, basedon scientific advancements, and to consider a1.5ºC goal at a future date.

c) Developed Country Emission ReductionTargets:

All developed countries put forward"pledges" of GHG emission reduction targets.


The COP decision in Cancun takes note ofdeveloped country, or Annex I Party, quantifiedeconomy-wide emissions reduction targets. Thedecision further urges Parties to increase theirambition on emission reductions.

The Cancun decision also sets in motion aprocess "for international assessment ofemissions and removals related to quantifiedeconomy-wide emission reductions targets" forAnnex I Parties. This should be done in a"rigorous, robust and transparent manner, witha view to promoting comparability and buildingconfidence." The text goes on to focus on theissues of land-use, land-use change and forestry(LULUCF) and carbon credits from market-based mechanisms as key issues, taking intoaccount international experience, i.e. the KyotoProtocol and other agreements.

d) Developing Country Actions:

Developing countries were invited to submitinformation related to the estimated costs andemission reductions related to nationallyappropriate mitigation actions. Developingcountries were encouraged to develop low-carbon strategies or plans in the context ofsustainable development.

e) Transparency and Reporting:

The Cancun Agreements create a newstandard for transparency in which all majoreconomies, including the United States andChina, as countries will report on the progressthey are making in meeting their national climatetargets or actions.

In addition to the accounting provisionsaround the targets and the internationalassessment provisions and work plan for AnnexI Parties noted above, developed countries haveagreed to enhance reporting of their support todeveloping countries in the form of finance,technology and capacity building. Suchcontributions will be submitted through commonreporting formats.

In return, developing countries have agreedto strengthen reporting on their mitigationactions and to accept "international consultationand analysis" of these actions. This will includenot just reporting on the list of mitigation actionsthey wish to undertake, as was presented in theCopenhagen Accord, but also a review of theeffect of these actions, along with the domestic

provisions and timeline for implementation ofthese actions.

f) Finance:

In a major step forward for climate finance,the COP formalized the commitment made bydeveloped countries in Copenhagen to mobilize$100 billion a year by 2020 to address themitigation and adaption needs of developingcountries. The Cancun Agreements include theestablishment of a "Green Climate Fund," whichwill manage a portion of this funding. It wasagreed that the Climate Fund will be composedof a Board with equal representation ofdeveloped and developing countries, thoughmany details still remain.

g) Adaptation:

The Cancun Agreements create a newClimate Adaptation Framework and anassociated Adaptation Committee. Together,these committees raise the importance ofadaptation within the UNFCCC, and shouldmake possible a more coherent, action-orientedtreatment of adaptation.

More specifically, the Cancun AdaptationFramework identifies a broad set of priority areasfor action on adaptation by Parties, including:

a) The development of plans, projects andprogrammes;

b) Strengthening institutions;

c) Improving research, observation andinformation management systems;

d) Impact, vulnerability and financial needsassessments; and

e) Adaptation technology.

h) Technology Mechanism:

The Cancun Agreements create a newTechnology Mechanism, which is a significantstep forward for international technologycooperation. It underlines that countries intendto elevate the importance of development anddeployment of the clean technologies within theclimate framework.

The mechanism will have two components,the Technology Executive Committee (TEC) andthe Climate Technology Center and Network(CTCN). While the TEC can start its workimmediately, negotiators will still need to


determine the detailed modalities for the CTCNnext year.

The new TEC will consist of 20 experts - 11from developing and 9 from developed countries- who will identify technology needs, coordinateinternational efforts, and make recommenda-tions to make them more effective. To show theyare serious about this new body, parties nowneed to nominate high-level experts for the com-mittee. As they further refine the technologymechanism in 2011, they could also developstronger qualification criteria to ensure TECmembers have the expertise needed.

The CTCN will consist of a small center andlarge network, probably including regional units.This reflects the negotiators intent to create amechanism that is nimble, builds on existinginitiatives and coordinates them better. Wherethe center will be, what the network will looklike, and how they will operate and interact stillneeds to be defined in 2011. Technologynegotiators have put these questions in theirwork plan for next year, but it will be challengingto resolve them all.

COPENHAGEN SUMMIT 2009

The 15th session of the Conference of theParties to the UNFCCC and the 5th session ofthe Conference of the Parties serving as theMeeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol tookplace in Copenhagen and was hosted by theGovernment of Denmark.

The Copenhagen Climate ChangeConference raised climate change policy to thehighest political level. The CopenhagenConference marked the culmination of a two-year negotiating process to enhanceinternational climate change cooperation underthe Bali Roadmap, launched by COP 13 inDecember 2007.

COP 15 / CMP 5 was a crucial event in thenegotiating process as:

� It significantly advanced the negotiations onthe infrastructure needed for effective globalclimate change cooperation, includingimprovements to the Clean DevelopmentMechanism of the Kyoto Protocol.

� Significant progress was made in narrowingdown options and clarifying choices neededto be made on key issues later on in thenegotiations.

� It produced the Copenhagen Accord, whichexpressed clear a political intent to constraincarbon and respond to climate change, inboth the short and long term.

Key points of the Copenhagen Accord

The Copenhagen Accord contained severalkey elements on which there was strongconvergence of the views of governments.

� A commitment "to reduce global emissionsso as to hold the increase in globaltemperature below 2ºC" and to achieve "thepeaking of global and national emissions assoon as possible"

� Developed countries must makecommitments to reduce greenhouse gasemissions, and developing countries mustreport their plans to curb greenhouse gasemissions to the UN by 31 January 2010.

� New and additional resources "approaching$30bn" will be channelled to poorer nationsover the period 2010-12, with an annual sumof $100bn envisaged by 2020.

� A Copenhagen Green Climate Fund will beestablished under the UN convention onclimate change, to direct some of this moneyto climate-related projects in developingcountries.

� Projects to reduce greenhouse gas emissionsin developing countries will be subject tointernational monitoring if they areinternationally funded.

� Programmes to provide developing countrieswith financial incentives to preserve forests- REDD and REDD-plus - will beestablished immediately.

� Implementation of the accord will bereviewed in 2015 and an assessment will bemade of whether the goal of keeping globaltemperature rise within 2ºC needs to bestrengthened to 1.5ºC.

On the positive side, the CopenhagenAccord, for the first time, unites the US, Chinaand other major developing countries in an effortto curb global greenhouse gas emissions. TheKyoto Protocol called on developed countries toreduce emissions but did not demand reductionsfrom developing countries. Major pollutingdeveloping countries, including China, India,South Africa, and Brazil, are now poised tomake transparent emissions reductions or


reductions in pollution rates. This is the first timethat developing countries have agreed to bindingemission reductions in an internationalagreement. This represents a major shift fromthe schism between developed and developingcountries that blocked progress in the past. Theaccord also says developed countries will aim tomobilize $100bn per year by 2020, to addressthe needs of developing countries.

On the other hand, the summit did not resultin a legally binding deal or any commitment toreach one in future. The accord calls on countriesto state what they will do to curb greenhousegas emissions, but these will not be legally bindingcommitments. Furthermore, there is no globaltarget for emissions reductions by 2050 and theaccord is vague as to how its goals - such as the$100bn of funds annually for developingcountries - will be achieved.

The leading voices of opposition to theAccord came from Venezuela, Sudan, Bolivia,Nicaragua, and Cuba. The first three nations areoil-producing states that would lose majorrevenue if countries reduce their global warmingpollution by using less oil. The latter two nationsare clients of Venezuela that must carry favourwith their patron. The ability of a handful ofpetro-states to block the Accord from beingendorsed by the entire U.N. FrameworkConvention on Climate Change at Copenhagensuggests the flawed nature of the United Nationsprocess that requires unanimity among 193nations. Their opposition will not stop thosesigning onto the Accord from moving forwardand carrying out its mandate, but many observersbelieve that the outcome of this meeting suggeststhat alternative venues, such as the MajorEconomies Forum, which includes the world'slargest developed and developing nationspolluters, can and should play a larger role inthe design and implementation of futureagreements.

BALI ROAD MAP 2007

The Bali Road Map was adopted at the 13thConference of the Parties and the 3rd Meetingof the Parties in December 2007 in Bali. COP13and COP/MOP3 succeeded in establishing aframework for negotiations to create anagreement that would replace the Kyoto protocolas of 2012 that is essential to reaching a secureclimate future.

The Bali Road Map includes the Bali ActionPlan, which charts the course for a newnegotiating process designed to tackle climatechange. The Bali Action Plan is a comprehensiveprocess to enable the full, effective and sustainedimplementation of the Convention through long-term cooperative action, now, up to and beyond2012, in order to reach an agreed outcome andadopt a decision.

The Convention track included theestablishment of an Ad Hoc Working Group onLong-Term Cooperative Action which willprovide its conclusions on the "full, effective andsustained implementation of the Convention."The Kyoto Protocol track signed the continuationof the work of the AWG which is required toprovide recommendations to COP/MOP5 foradoption of new commitments for Annex IParties.

The Bali Action Plan did not introducebinding commitments to reduce greenhouse gasemissions but included the request for developedcountries to contribute to the mitigation of globalwarming in the context of sustainabledevelopment. In addition, the Bali Action Planenvisaged enhanced actions on adaptation,technology development and on the provisionfinancial resources, as well as measures againstdeforestation.

The Bali Action Plan was divided into fivemain categories: shared vision, mitigation,adaptation, technology and financing. Theshared vision refers to a long-term vision foraction on climate change, including a long-termgoal for emission reductions. The main focus ofthe negotiations under the KP is to decide whatto do when its first commitment period expired.

KYOTO PROTOCOL

The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto,Japan, on 11 December 1997. Due to a complexratification process, it entered into force on 16February 2005.

It commits industrialized countries tostabilize greenhouse gas emissions based on theprinciples of the Convention.

Kyoto Protocol has set binding emissionreduction targets for 37 industrialized countriesand the European community. Overall, thesetargets add up to an average five per centemissions reduction compared to 1990 levels overthe five-year period 2008 to 2012.


It was structured on the principles of theConvention. It only binds developed countriesbecause it recognizes that they are largelyresponsible for the current high levels of GHGemissions in the atmosphere, which are the resultof more than 150 years of industrial activity. Itplaced a heavier burden on developed nationsunder its central principle: that of "common butdifferentiated responsibility".

� Monitoring Emission Targets

The targets cover emissions of the six maingreenhouse gases, namely:

� Carbon dioxide (CO2);

� Methane (CH4);

� Nitrous oxide (N2O);

� Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs);

� Perfluorocarbons (PFCs); and

� Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)

Country Target

(1990 - 2008/2012)

EU-15, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, -8%

Estonia, Latvia, Liechtenstein,

Lithuania, Monaco, Romania,

Slovakia, Slovenia, Switzerland

US -7%

Canada, Hungary, Japan, Poland -6%

Croatia -5%

New Zealand, Russian Federation,

Ukraine 0

Norway +1%

Australia +8%

Iceland +10%

The goals of Kyoto were to see participantscollectively reducing emissions of greenhousegases by 5.2% below the emission levels of 1990by 2012.

While the 5.2% figure is a collective one,individual countries were assigned higher orlower targets and some countries werepermitted increases.

Under the Protocol, countries' actualemissions have to be monitored and preciserecords have to be kept of the trades carried out.This included:

Registry system tracks and recordstransactions committed by Parties. The UNClimate Change Secretariat, based in Bonn,Germany, keeps an international transaction logto verify that transactions are consistent with therules of the Protocol.

Reporting is done by Parties by way ofsubmitting annual emission inventories andnational reports under the Protocol at regularintervals.

A compliance system ensures that Parties aremeeting their commitments and helps them tomeet their commitments if they have problemsdoing so.

• The Kyoto Mechanisms

Under the Treaty, countries must meet theirtargets primarily through national measures.However, the Kyoto Protocol offers them anadditional means of meeting their targets by wayof three market-based mechanisms.

The Kyoto Protocol has put in place threeflexibility mechanisms to reduce emission ofGreen House Gases. Although the Protocolplaces maximum responsibility of reducingemissions on the developed countries bycommitting them to specific emission targets, thethree mechanisms are based on the premise thatreduction of emissions in any part of the globewill have the same desired effect on theatmosphere, and also that some developedcountries might find it easier and more costeffective to support emissions reductions in otherdeveloped or developing countries rather thanat home.

The three mechanisms are Jointimplementation, Emissions Trading and CleanDevelopment mechanisms

Joint Implementation

Through the Joint Implementation, anyAnnex I country can invest in emission reductionprojects (referred to as joint implementationproject) in any other Annex I country as analternative to reducing emissions domestically.

Two early examples are change from a wetto dry process at a Ukraine cement works,reducing energy consumption by 53 per cent by2008-2012; and rehabilitation of a Bulgarianhydropower project, with a 267,000 tonreduction of CO2 equivalent during 2008-2012.


Emissions Trading

Emissions trading are a market-basedapproach used to control pollution by providingeconomic incentives for achieving reductionsin the emissions of pollutants.

Under Kyoto protocol a limit or cap on theamount of a pollutant that can be emitted waslimited for the countries. The limit or cap isallocated or sold to firms in the form of emissionspermits which represent the right to emit ordischarge a specific volume of the specifiedpollutant. The total number of permits cannotexceed the cap. Firms that need to increase theiremission permits have to buy permits from thosewho require fewer permits.

The transfer of permits is referred to as atrade. In effect, the buyer is paying a charge forpolluting, while the seller is being rewarded forhaving reduced emissions.

Clean Development Mechanism

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)allows developed country with an emissionreduction or emission-limitation commitmentunder the Kyoto Protocol to implement anemission reduction project in developingcountries as an alternative to more expensiveemission reductions in their own countries. Inexchange for the amount of reduction in emissionthus achieved, the investing gets carbon creditswhich it can offset against its Kyoto targets. Thedeveloping country gains a step towardssustainable development.

To get a CDM project registered andimplemented, the investing country' has to firsttake approval from the designated nationalauthority in the host country, establish."Additionally", define baselines and get theproject validated by a third party agency, calleda Designated Operational Entity (DOE). TheExecutive Body of CDM registers the project andissues credits, called Certified EmissionReductions (CERs) or carbon credits, where eachunit is equivalent to the reduction of one metrictonne of CO2 or its equivalent. There are morethan 4200 CDM projects in the pipeline as on14.3.2010. The expected CERs till the end of 2012was 2,900,000,000

The "Additionality" clause in a CDM project

The feature of "additionality" is a crucialelement of CDM project it means that theindustrialized country that is seeding to establish

the CDM project in the developing country andearns carbon credit from it has to establish thatthe planned carbon reductions would not haveoccurred on its own, in the absence of the CDMproject. They have to establish a baseline of theproject. Which is the emission level that wouldhave been there in the absence of the project? Thedifference between this baseline level and the(lower) emission level achieved as a result of theproject is the carbon credit due to the investingcountry i.e. CER units generated under the CDMwill only be recognized when the reductions ofgreenhouse gas emissions are additional to anythat would occur in the absence of the certifiedproject activity.

The risk of "false Credits" is a cause forconcern with regard to CDM projects i.e. aproject does not actually offer an additionalityand the reduction in emission would havehappened anyway even without the project.

The mechanisms help stimulate greeninvestment and help Parties meet their emissiontargets in a cost-effective way.

• Adaptation

The Kyoto Protocol, like the Convention, isalso designed to assist countries in adapting tothe adverse effects of climate change. It facilitatesthe development and deployment of techniquesthat can help increase resilience to the impactsof climate change.

The Adaptation Fund was established tofinance adaptation projects and programmesin developing countries that are Parties to theKyoto Protocol. The Fund is financed mainlywith a share of proceeds from CDM projectactivities.

The Kyoto Protocol is generally seen as animportant first step towards a truly globalemission reduction regime that will stabilizeGHG emissions, and provide the essentialarchitecture for any future internationalagreement on climate change.

By the end of the first commitment period of theKyoto Protocol in 2012, a new internationalframework needs to have been negotiated and ratifiedthat can deliver the stringent emission reductions, theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC) has clearly indicated, are needed.

While almost every country in the world hassigned the Kyoto Protocol, the signature alone issymbolic; a token gesture of support. Ratification


carries legal obligations and effectively becomesa contractual arrangement.

Australia negotiated hard when the KyotoProtocol was being developed; in fact it was tobe allowed an 8% increase in emissions. Theexcuse - it will be bad for Australia's economy,the same reasoning the USA uses.

Annex I, Annex II countries and DevelopingCountries

Parties to UNFCCC are classified as:

Annex I countries - industrialized countriesand economies in transition.

Annex II countries - developed countrieswhich pay for costs of developing countries.

Annex I countries which have ratified theProtocol have committed to reduce their emissionlevels of greenhouse gases to targets that aremainly set below their 1990 levels. They may dothis by allocating reduced annual allowances tothe major operators within their borders. Theseoperators can only exceed their allocations if theybuy emission allowances, or offset their excessesthrough a mechanism that is agreed by all theparties to UNFCCC. Annex II countries are asub-group of the Annex I countries. Theycomprise the OECD members, excluding thosethat were economies in transition in 1992.

Developing countries are not required toreduce emission levels unless developedcountries supply enough funding andtechnology. Setting no immediate restrictionsunder UNFCCC serves three purposes:

it avoids restrictions on their development,because emissions are strongly linked toindustrial capacity

they can sell emissions credits to nations whoseoperators have difficulty meeting theiremissions targets

they get money and technologies for low-carbon investments from Annex II countries.

Developing countries may volunteer tobecome Annex I countries when they aresufficiently developed.

RIO EARTH SUMMIT 1992

The United Nations Conference onEnvironment and Development (UNCED) tookplace in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

Government officials from 178 countries andbetween 20,000 and 30,000 individuals fromgovernments, NGOs and the media participatedin this event to discuss solutions for globalproblems such as poverty, war or the growinggap between industrialised and developingcountries. It emphasises that economic and socialprogress depends critically on the preservationof the natural resource base with effectivemeasures to prevent environmental degradation.

The UN summit focused on three broadconcepts: An "Earth Charter" covering a numberof principles aiming at development and theprotection of the environment. Secondly,"Agenda 21" was intended to be a global actionplan for sustainable development; thirdly,developing countries demanded a substantialincrease in new funding from developedcountries to contribute to sustainabledevelopment in the South.

Negotiations attempted to reach agreementsat least on the broad outlines of severalconventions covering climate change, biologicaldiversity, forests, etc. Especially representativesfrom developing countries emphasised at Rio theimportance of their right to economicdevelopment, which goes together with growingimpacts on the environment, so thatindustrialised countries have a specialresponsibility for the realisation of the globalenvironmental goals stated at UNCED.

Outcomes of the Rio Earth Summit

Generally, Rio 1992 gave a good impulse tothe further development of internationalenvironmental law. Six conventions came out ofRio 1992 some of which have been convertedinto the next and more decisive phase, namelyprotocols, from which point they would becomeratified in their respective countries.

The Rio Declaration - a set of 27principles designed to commit government toensure environmental protection andresponsible development and intended to bean Environmental Bill of Rights. It establishedthe "Precautionary principle" and theprinciple of "common but differentiatedresponsibilities".

The United Nations Framework Conven-tion on Climate Change (UNFCCC), includingthe Kyoto Protocol from 1997 -- an internationalagreement aimed at the stabilization of atmo-spheric concentrations of global greenhouse


gases to prevent dangerous climate change as aresult of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emis-sions.

The United Nations Convention onBiological Diversity, including the CartagenaProtocol on Bio-safety -- an internationalagreement to conserve biological species, geneticresources, habitats and ecosystems; to ensure thesustainable use of biological materials; and toprovide for the fair and equitable sharing ofbenefits derived from genetic resources.

The Rio Forestry Principles - Fifteen non-binding principles for the protection andsustainable use of global forest resourcesproposed. These principles have often beenregarded as a foundation for a process to negotiateand agree an International Forestry Convention.

The United Nations Convention to CombatDesertification - to combat desertification andmitigate the effects of drought in countriesexperiencing serious drought and/ordesertification. The convention was actually nota direct result of UNCED but was added afterthe conference. To date this convention has beenineffective for lack of a financing mechanism. Arevitalisation could take place by expanding thethematic coverage of the Global EnvironmentalFacility (GEF)

Agenda 21 - Undoubtedly it was the mostimportant and complete document that came outof the Earth Summit. It has become the blueprintfor sustainability and forms the basis forsustainable development strategies. Itsrecommendations range from news ways toeducate, to new ways to care for natural resourcesand new ways to participate in shaping asustainable economy. The overall objective ofAgenda 21 was very ambitious for it was nothingless than designing a safe and just world withpeople in the South and North alike would livean equitable life within Earth's capacities.

The institutional result of the UNCED was theCommission on Sustainable Development (CSD).Agenda 21 called for the creation of the CSD toensure effective follow-up of UNCED and furtherthe process of constituting sustainable development.CSD was also meant to be the international body tomonitor the implementation of Agenda 21. Inaddition, many countries set up sustainabledevelopment commissions and to develop nationalstrategies for sustainable development.

Also in the wake of the Rio Earth summitprocesses were:

� The Convention on Persistant OrganicPollutants (POPs) which was signed byGermany and the USA on May 23, 2001; thePOPs convention takes the lead on the banof at least 8 of these dangerous organicsubstances including the insecticide DDT.The implementation of this ban in southerncountries is faltering due to lack of financialmeans.

� The Convention on Straddling and HighlyMigratory Fish Stocks

� The Convention on the Prior InformedConsent (PIC) Procedure for CertainHazardous Chemicals and Pesticides inInternational Trade.

The Earth Summit succeeded in presentingnew perspectives on economic progress. It waslauded as the beginning of a new era and itssuccess would be measured by theimplementation - locally, nationally andinternationally - of its agreements.

Carbon Credit

A Carbon credit is a generic term meaning thata value has been assigned to a reduction oroffset of greenhouse gas emissions. One carboncredit is equal to one ton of carbon dioxide, orin some markets, carbon dioxide equivalentgases. Carbon trading is an application of anemissions trading approach.

Carbon Footprint

Carbon footprint is a measure of the impactof our activities on the environment, and inparticular on climate change. It relates to theamount of greenhouse gases we are producingin our day-to-day lives through burning fossilfuels for electricity, heating, transportation etc.Our 'carbon footprint' is a measurement of allgreenhouse gases we individually produce. Itis measured in units of tonnes (or kg) of carbondioxide equivalent. A carbon footprint is thetotal set of greenhouse gases (GHG) emissionscaused by an organization, event or product.For simplicity of reporting, it is often expressedin terms of the amount of carbon dioxide, orits equivalent of other GHGs, emitted.

A carbon footprint is made up of the sum oftwo parts, the primary foot print and thesecondary footprint.


1. The primary footprint is a measure of ourdirect emissions of CO2 from the burningof fossil fuels, including domestic energyconsumption and transportation (e.g. carand plane). We have direct control of these.

2. The secondary footprint is a measure of theindirect CO2 emissions from the wholelifecycle of products we use - thoseassociated with their manufacture andeventual breakdown. To put it very simply- the more we buy the more emissions willbe caused on our behalf. Our decisions onthe following add up to our secondaryfootprint.

OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES

a) Basel Convention

The Basel Convention on the Control ofTransboundary Movements of HazardousWastes and their Disposal is the mostcomprehensive global environmental agreementon hazardous and other wastes. The Conventionhas 172 Parties and aims to protect humanhealth and the environment against the adverseeffects resulting from the generation,management, transboundary movements anddisposal of hazardous and other wastes. TheBasel Convention came into force in 1992.

In the late 1980s, a tightening ofenvironmental regulations in industrializedcountries led to a dramatic rise in the cost ofhazardous waste disposal. Searching for cheaperways to get rid of the wastes, 'toxic traders'began shipping hazardous waste to developingcountries and to Eastern Europe. When thisactivity was revealed, international outrage ledto the drafting and adoption of the BaselConvention.

A central goal of the Basel Convention is'environmentally sound management' (ESM), theaim of which is to protect human health andthe environment by minimizing hazardous wasteproduction whenever possible. ESM meansaddressing the issue through an integrated life-cycle approach, which involves strong controlsfrom the generation of a hazardous waste to itsstorage, transport, treatment, reuse, recycling,recovery and final disposal. Many companieshave already demonstrated that cleanerproduction methods, which eliminate or reducehazardous outputs, can be both economicallyand environmentally efficient.

Hazardous wastes comprise solid, liquid, orgas wastes that can cause death, illness orinjury to people or destruction of theenvironment if improperly treated, stored,transported, or discarded.

The Strategic Plan for the implementation ofthe Basel Convention is the blueprint adoptedby Parties in 2002 to give effect to the 1999 BaselDeclaration on Environmentally SoundManagement. It established priorities in termsof policy and programmes, selected prioritywaste streams and projects.

b) Stockholm Convention on PersistentOrganic Pollutants

Stockholm Convention on Persistent OrganicPollutants is an international environmentaltreaty that aims to eliminate or restrict theproduction and use of persistent organicpollutants (POPs).

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) areorganic chemical substances. They possess aparticular combination of physical and chemicalproperties such that, once released into theenvironment, they:

remain intact for exceptionally long periodsof time (many years);

become widely distributed throughout theenvironment as a result of natural processesinvolving soil, water and, most notably, air;

accumulate in the fatty tissue of livingorganisms, including humans, and are found athigher concentrations at higher levels in the foodchain; and are toxic to both humans and wildlife.

POPs concentrate in living organismsthrough process of bioaccumulation. Though notsoluble in water, POPs are readily absorbed infatty tissue, where concentrations can becomemagnified up to 70,000 times the backgroundlevels. Fish, predatory birds, mammals, andhumans are high up the food chain and soabsorb the greatest concentrations. Specificeffects of POPs can include cancer, allergies andhypersensitivity, damage to the central andperipheral nervous systems, reproductivedisorders, and disruption of the immune system.Some POPs are also considered to be endocrinedisrupters, which, by altering the hormonalsystem, can damage the reproductive andimmune systems of exposed individuals as wellas their offspring; they can also havedevelopmental and carcinogenic effects.


The Stockholm Convention, which wasadopted in 2001 and entered into force on 2004,requires Parties to take measures to eliminate orreduce the release of POPs into the environment.The Convention is administered by the UnitedNations Environment Programme and based inGeneva, Switzerland.

c) The Ramsar Convention

The Convention on Wetlands of InternationalImportance, called the Ramsar Convention, isan intergovernmental treaty that provides theframework for national action and internationalcooperation for the conservation and wise useof wetlands and their resources. The treaty wasadopted in the Iranian city of Ramsar in 1971and came into force in 1975.

The Convention's mission is being:

� the conservation and wise use of allwetlands through local and national actions andinternational cooperation, as a contributiontowards achieving sustainable developmentthroughout the world.

� uses a broad definition of the types ofwetlands covered in its mission, including lakesand rivers, swamps and marshes, wet grasslandsand peatlands, oases, estuaries, deltas and tidalflats, near-shore marine areas, mangroves andcoral reefs, and human-made sites such as fishponds, rice paddies, reservoirs, and salt pans.

The Ramsar List of Wetlands of InternationalImportance now includes 1,869 sites (known asRamsar Sites) covering around 1,836,000 km²,up from 1,021 sites in 2000. The nation with thehighest number of sites is the United Kingdomat 168; the nation with the greatest area of listedwetlands is Canada, with over 130,000 km²,including the Queen Maud Gulf Migratory BirdSanctuary at 62,800 km².

What are wetlands?

Wetlands are areas where the water table is at ornear the surface of the land, or where the land iscovered by water. The Ramsar Convention takesa broad approach in determining the wetlandswhich come under its aegis.

Five major wetland types are generallyrecognized:

Marine (coastal wetlands including coastallagoons, rocky shores, and coral reefs);

Estuarine (including deltas, tidal marshes, andmangrove swamps);

Lacustrine (wetlands associated with lakes);

Riverine (wetlands along rivers and streams); and

Palustrine (meaning "marshy" - marshes,swamps and bogs).

Why to conserve wetlands?

Wetlands are among the world's mostproductive environments. They are cradles ofbiological diversity, providing the water andprimary productivity upon which countlessspecies of plants and animals depend forsurvival. They support high concentrations ofbirds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, fish andinvertebrate species. Wetlands are alsoimportant storehouses of plant genetic material.

Wetlands provide tremendous economicbenefits, for example: water supply (quantityand quality); fisheries (over two thirds of theworld's fish harvest is linked to the health ofcoastal and inland wetland areas); agriculture,through the maintenance of water tables andnutrient retention in floodplains; timberproduction; energy resources, such as peatand plant matter; wildlife resources; transport;and recreation and tourism opportunities.

d) Convention on the International Trade inEndangered Species of Wild Flora andFauna (CITES)

CITES (the Convention on InternationalTrade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna andFlora) is an international agreement betweengovernments. Its aim is to ensure thatinternational trade in specimens of wild animalsand plants does not threaten their survival.

A specimen of a CITES-listed species may beimported into or exported (or re-exported) froma State party to the Convention only if theappropriate document has been obtained andpresented for clearance at the port of entry or exit.There is some variation of the requirements fromone country to another and it is always necessaryto check on the national laws that may be stricter.

Roughly 5,000 species of animals and 28,000species of plants are protected by CITES againstover-exploitation through international trade.They include some whole groups, such asprimates, cetaceans (whales, dolphins andporpoises), sea turtles, parrots, corals, cacti andorchids.


e) Vienna Convention (adopted in 1985,entered into force in 1988)

The Vienna Conference was the firstinternational conference on ozone layerdepletion. It aims at:

1. Protect human health and the environmentagainst adverse effects resulting from humanactivities: The ultimate objective of theConvention is to protect human health andthe environment against adverse effectsresulting from human activities whichmodify or are likely to modify the ozone layerand urges the Parties to take appropriatemeasures in accordance with the provisionsin the Convention and its Protocols whichare in force for that Party.

2. Cooperate for better understanding: To achievethe aforementioned objectives, the Parties,within their capabilities, are expected to:cooperate to better understand and assess theeffects of human activities on the ozone layerand the effects of the modification of the ozonelayer; adopt appropriate measures andcooperate in harmonizing appropriate policiesto control the activities that are causing themodification of the ozone layer; cooperate inthe formulation of agreed measures for theimplementation of this Convention; andcooperate with competent international bodiesto implement effectively this Convention andprotocols to which they are party.

What is Ozone?

Ozone is a form of oxygen. Oxygen occurs inthree different forms in the atmosphere; asoxygen atoms (O), as oxygen molecules (O2)and as zone (O3). Ozone's unique physicalproperties allow the ozone layer to act as ourplanet's sunscreen, providing an invisiblefilter to help protect all life forms from thesun's damaging UV (ultraviolet)rays. Mostincoming UV radiation is absorbed by ozoneand prevented from reaching the Earth'ssurface. Without the protective effect ofozone, life on Earth would not have evolvedthe way it has.

What is Ozone Depletion?

Ozone depletion occurs when the naturalbalance between the production anddestruction of stratospheric ozone is tipped infavour of destruction.Although naturalphenomenon can cause temporary ozone loss,

chlorine and bromine released from syntheticcompounds is now accepted as the main causeof a net loss of stratospheric ozone in manyparts of the world since 1980.There is strongevidence that global ozone depletion isoccuring. The evidence is in the observationsof the Antratic ozone "hole"and atmosphericrecords indicating seasonal declines in globalozone levels.

f) The Montreal Protocol on Substances thatDeplete Ozone Layer (adopted, 1987;entered into force, 1989)

The Montreal Protocol on Substances thatDeplete Ozone Layer is a protocol under theVienna Convention. The Montreal Protocolstipulates that the production and consumptionof compounds that deplete ozone in thestratosphere--chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),halons, carbon tetrachloride, and methylchloroform--are to be phased out.

Further the 'Multilateral Fund for theImplementation of the Montreal Protocol'provides funds to help developing countries tophase out the use of ozone-depleting substances.Funds are used, for example, to finance theconversion of existing manufacturing processes,train personnel, pay royalties and patent rightson new technologies, and establish nationalozone offices.

g) Convention On Biological Diversity

The Convention on Biological Diversity(CBD) is an international legally-binding treatywith three main goals: conservation ofbiodiversity; sustainable use of biodiversity;fair and equitable sharing of the benefitsarising from the use of genetic resources. Itsoverall objective is to encourage actions whichwill lead to sustainable future. The conservationof biodiversity is a common concern ofhumankind. The Convention on BiologicalDiversity Covers biodiversity at all levels:ecosystems, species and genetic resources.

It consists of two main protocols:

� The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to theConvention on Biological Diversity is aninternational treaty governing themovements of living modified organisms(LMOs) resulting from modernbiotechnology from one country to another.It was adopted on 29 January 2000 as asupplementary agreement to the


Convention on Biological Diversity andentered into force on 11 September 2003.

� The Nagoya Protocol on Access to GeneticResources and the Fair and EquitableSharing of Benefits Arising from theirUtilization to the Convention on BiologicalDiversity is an international agreementwhich aims at sharing the benefits arisingfrom the utilization of genetic resources ina fair and equitable way, including byappropriate access to genetic resources and

��

by appropriate transfer of relevanttechnologies, taking into account all rightsover those resources and to technologies,and by appropriate funding, therebycontributing to the conservation ofbiological diversity and the sustainable useof its components. It was adopted by theConference of the Parties to the Conventionon Biological Diversity at its tenth meetingon 29 October 2010 in Nagoya, Japan.


HUMAN IMPACT ON THE

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT


Man’s relation with his natural environment is acomplex one. While he is subject to certain naturalcontrols and events, he also acts as the dominantforce in many of the Earth’s physical and biologicalsystems. The relationship has changed with time.For thousands of years, the direction and extent ofhis progress were to a considerable measure dictatedby his physical environment such as adverse climate,frequent disasters, food shortage, etc. Increasingly,man has become capable of altering his physicalenvironment to suit himself. Although the object ofthese alterations was to improve his livingconditions, in some cases they have created majorlong-term problems, and in still others they havebeen catastrophic, both for the natural environmentand himself.

In some parts of the world, the environmenthas been so transformed that few elements of itsoriginal nature are detectable. Even extremehabitats such as the tundra or hot deserts onlysparsely populated by man have not escapeduntouched, since they are often the most sensitiveto the slightest interference.

MODIFICATION OF LANDFORMS

Mining and quarrying, deforestation, theintroduction of exotic plants and animals, the useof agricultural machinery, the building and use oftracks and roads, and the overgrazing of pastures,have all, singly and in combination, profoundlyaltered landforms and caused accelerated erosionand deposition to occur. Where man excavates orpiles up material himself, he can be regarded as adirect agent of change; where he causes naturallandform processes, such as wind and wateraction, to accelerate or diminish, he is acting in anindirect manner. Indirect effects are by far the mostwidespread. Much of this influence occursaccidentally or secondarily to some other purpose;conscious attempts to influence landformprocesses—for example, by building coastalgroynes or by reforestation—are inevitablyexpensive and limited in extent.

Alteration of Landforms due to:

a) Mining

Mining, world over, has become an importantinput in the economic development of a mineral richcountry. In addition to the general value-addingbenefits of mining, a quality which it shares withmany other businesses, mining has some specialqualities which enable it to serve as a springboardfor countries seeking to industrialise. Mining is atthe beginning of the value chain and has a capacityto kick start economic development that few otherbusinesses offer. It does not require a sophisticatedsupply chain in the country in which it takes place,as manufacturing so often does, and it does notrequire developed local markets.

The process of mining from discovery of anore body through extraction of minerals andfinally to returning the land to its natural stateconsists of several distinct steps.

The first is discovery of the ore body, which iscarried out through prospecting or exploration tofind and then define the extent, location and valueof the ore body. This leads to mathemati-cal resource estimation to estimate the sizeand grade of the deposit. This estimation is usedto conduct a pre-feasibility study to determine thetheoretical economics of the ore deposit. This iden-tifies, early on, whether further investment in esti-mation and engineering studies is warranted andidentifies key risks and areas for further work.

The next step is to conduct a feasibility study toevaluate the financial viability, technical and finan-cial risks and robustness of the project. This includesmine planning to evaluate the economically recov-erable portion of the deposit, the metallurgy and orerecoverability, marketability and pay ability of theore concentrates, engineering concerns, milling andinfrastructure costs, finance and equity requirementsand an analysis of the proposed mine from the ini-tial excavation all the way through to reclamation.The proportion of a deposit that is economically re-coverable is dependent on the enrichment factor ofthe ore in the area.


Once the analysis determines a given orebody is worth recovering, development beginsto create access to the ore body. The minebuildings and processing plants are built. Theoperation of the mine to recover the ore beginsand continues as long as the company operatingthe mine finds it economical to do so. Once allthe ore that the mine can produce profitably isrecovered, reclamation begins to make the landused by the mine suitable for future use.

Each phase of mining is associated withdifferent sets of environmental impacts.

Exploration: Step 1

Information about the location and value ofthe mineral ore deposit is obtained during theexploration phase. This phase includes surveys,field studies, and drilling test boreholes and otherexploratory excavations.

The exploratory phase may involve clearingof wide areas of vegetation (typically in lines),to allow the entry of heavy vehicles mountedwith drilling rigs. Many countries require aseparate EIA for the exploratory phase of amining project because the impacts of this phasecan be profound and because further phases ofmining may not occur if exploration fails to findsufficient quantities of high-grade mineral oredeposits.

Development: Step 2

If the mineral ore exploration phase proves thatthere is a large enough mineral ore deposit, ofsufficient grade, then the development of the mineoccurs. This phase of the mining project includes

Construction of roads and houses for employees

The construction of access roads either toprovide heavy equipment and supplies to the minesite or to ship out processed metals and ores, canhave substantial environmental impacts,especially if access roads cut through ecologicallysensitive areas or are near tribal areas.

If a mine site is located in a remote,undeveloped area, the housing project for thesettlement of employees will be needed. This willlead to clearing of vast ecological site and thusin return will affect environment.

Active mining: Step 3

Once a mining company has constructedaccess roads and prepared houses for personnel

and equipment, mining may commence.Different mining methods have differentenvironmental impacts.

Open-pit mining is a type of strip mining inwhich the ore deposit extends very deep in theground, necessitating the removal of layer uponlayer of overburden and ore. The use of heavymachinery, usually bulldozers and dump trucks,is the most common means of removingoverburden. Open-pit mining often involves theremoval of natively vegetated areas, and istherefore among the most environmentallydestructive types of mining, especially withintropical forests.

Placer mining is used when the metal ofinterest is associated with sediment in a streambed or floodplain. Bulldozers, dredges, orhydraulic jets of water are used to extract theore.

In underground mining, a minimal amountof overburden is removed to gain access to theore deposit. Access to this ore deposit is gainedby tunnels or shafts. Tunnels or shafts lead to amore horizontal network of undergroundtunnels that directly access the ore. Althoughunderground mining is a less environmentally-destructive means of gaining access to an oredeposit, it is often more costly and entails greatersafety risks than open-pit mining.

Ore extraction: Step 4

After a mining company has removedoverburden, extraction of the mineral ore beginsusing specialized heavy equipment andmachinery, such as loaders, haulers, and dumptrucks, which transport the ore to processingfacilities using haul roads. This activity createsa unique set of environmental impacts, such asemissions of fugitive dust from haul roads, theproduction of large quantities of waste,sedimentation etc.

By nature, mining involves the productionof large quantities of waste. The amount of wasteproduced depends on the type of mineralextracted, as well as the size of the mine. Goldand silver are among the most wasteful metals,with more than 99 percent of ore extractedending up as waste. By contrast, iron mining isless wasteful, with approximately 60 percent ofthe ore extracted processed as waste.


Disposing of such large quantities of wasteposes tremendous challenges for the miningindustry and may significantly impact theenvironment. The impacts are often morepronounced for open-pit mines than forunderground mines, which tend to produce lesswaste. Degradation of aquatic ecosystems andreceiving water bodies, often involvingsubstantial reductions in water quality, can beamong the most severe potential impacts ofmetals extraction.

Pollution of water bodies results from threeprimary factors: sedimentation, acid drainage,and metals deposition. Erosion from waste rockpiles or runoff after heavy rainfall often increasesthe sediment load of nearby water bodies. Inaddition, mining may modify streammorphology by disrupting a channel, divertingstream flows, and changing the slope or bankstability of a stream channel. These disturbancescan significantly change the characteristics ofstream sediments, reducing water quality.Higher sediment concentrations increase theturbidity of natural waters, reducing the lightavailable to aquatic plants for photosynthesis.In addition, increased sediment loads cansmother benthic organisms in streams andoceans, eliminating important food sources forpredators and decreasing available habitat forfish to migrate and spawn. Higher sedimentloads can also decrease the depth of streams,resulting in greater risk of flooding during timesof high stream flow.

Acid drainage is one of the most seriousenvironmental impacts associated with mining.It occurs when sulfide-bearing minerals, such aspyrite or pyrrhotite, are exposed to oxygen orwater, producing sulfuric acid. Acidic water maysubsequently leach other metals in the rock,resulting in the contamination of surface andgroundwater. Waste rock piles, other exposedwaste, mine openings, and pit walls are oftenthe source of acidic effluents from a mine site.The process may occur rapidly and will continueuntil there are no remaining sulfides. Aciddrainage impacts aquatic life when acidic watersare discharged into nearby streams and surfacewaters. Many fish are highly sensitive to evenmildly acidic waters and cannot breed at pHlevels below 5. Some may die if the pH level isless than 6.

Most mining operations use metals, reagents,or other compounds to process valuable minerals.Certain reagents or heavy metals, such as

cyanide and mercury, are particularly valued fortheir conductive properties and thus arefrequently used. The release of metals into theenvironment can also be triggered by aciddrainage or through accidental releases frommine tailings impoundments. While smallamounts of heavy metals are considered essentialfor the survival of many organisms, largequantities are toxic. Few terrestrial and aquaticspecies are known to be naturally tolerant ofheavy metals, although some have adapted overtime. In general, the number of plant and animalspecies decreases as the aqueous concentrationof heavy metals increases.

Few examples

� Rainforests: Gold Mining

Gold, copper, diamonds, and other preciousmetals and gemstones are important resourcesthat are found in rainforests around the world.Extracting these natural resources is frequentlya destructive activity that damages the rainforestecosystem and causes problems for people livingnearby and downstream from miningoperations.

In the Amazon rainforest most mining todayrevolves around alluvial gold deposits. Due tothe meandering nature of Amazon Rivers, goldis found both in river channels and on thefloodplains where rivers once ran. These depositsare actively mined by large-scale operators andinformal, small-scale miners. Both operators relyheavily on hydraulic mining techniques, blastingaway at river banks, clearing floodplain forests,and using heavy machinery to expose potentialgold-yielding gravel deposits.

Studies have found that small-scale minersare less efficient with their use of mercury thanindustrial miners, releasing an estimated 2.91pounds (1.32 kg) of mercury into waterways forevery 2.2 pounds (1 kg) of gold produced.Elemental or inorganic mercury can betransformed (methylated) into organic forms bybiological systems and enter food chains. Notonly are methylated mercury compounds toxic,but highly bio-accumulative, meaning thatmercury concentrations increase up the foodchain. Top predators, including otters, birds ofprey, and humans, will have the highest levelsof mercury in their systems. Those who eat largeamounts of fish are at the greatest risk.

Other toxic compounds are used andgenerated in the mining process as well. Mining


exposes previously buried metal sulfides toatmospheric oxygen causing their conversion tostrong sulfuric acid and metal oxides, which runoff into local waterways. Cyanide, a highly toxiccompound, is also often used to separate goldfrom sediment and rock. While cyanide issupposed to be carefully monitored to preventits escape into the surround environment, spillsdo occur—especially when there’s no onearound to enforce mining regulations. The effectsof poisoning can be widespread, especially whena waste-holding pool overflows or breaks, as itdid in Guyana in August 1995.

Large-scale mining operations, especiallythose using open-pit mining techniques, canresult in significant deforestation through forestclearing and the construction of roads whichopen remote forest areas to transient settlers,land speculators, and small-scale miners. Thesesettlers and miners are probably a greater threatto the tropical rainforest environment thanindustrial mining operations. Wildcat minersenter regions rumored to have gold deposits andclear forest in search of riches. They hunt wildlife,cut trees for building material and fuelwood, andtrigger erosion by clearing hillsides anddetonating explosives. Miners can also bringdiseases to local indigenous populations (wherethey still exist) and battles over land rights.

While deforestation and chemical pollutionfrom mining can impact the rainforestenvironment, downstream aquatic habitats fareworse. Increased sediment loads and reducedwater flows can seriously affect local fishpopulations.

� Mining in Goa

Mining has been a very important elementin the economic history of modern Goa and asignificant foreign exchange earner for the state.Recently, it has been designated as the industryat par with tourism. It has provided the triggerto boost economy of the mining talukas.

Mining in Goa is mostly concentrated in fourtalukas namely, Bicholim in North Goa districtand Salcete, Sanguem and Quepem in South Goadistrict. Some 400 mining leases had beengranted in Goa till 2002-03, coveringapproximately 30,325 ha – this works out toalmost eight per cent of the total geographicalof the state.

Number of mines is increasing every year;especially during last one year it has shownsignificant growth. Assuming that total miningproject that came to expert committee since June2007, gets cleared then another 8.4 per cent and5.3 per cent geographical area of SanguemTaluka and Quepem Taluka respectively will getconverted into mine. Since June 2007, 120 miningprojects came up for clearance with ministryrecommending clearance for overwhelming 48per cent of the projects

Large number of clearance also means thata large areas of fertile agricultural land gettingdiverted for mining. Since June 2007, the totalnumbers of mining projects, which have beensubmitted for clearance, cover a huge area of9,404 ha. This is only a year’s data. No data isavailable as to how much land was diverted formining between 2002-03 and 2006-07. Addingthis 9,404 ha to the total land under mining inGoa (till 2002-03), it works out to be 10.5 percent of the total area leased out for mining majorminerals in the state.

Therefore, if projects are cleared, it willsignificantly alter the forest cover in thesetalukas. Other than the forest, the proposedprojects also cover a lot of agricultural land andwere one of the major causes of concern.

The commonly used practice of “open cast”mining creates up to 3 tons of waste for eachton of ore produced. This waste pollutes riversand lakes – many of which run red with ore.Mining practices also pollute the land, disruptinganimal life and flowing onto farms and damagingland fertility. Large dumps of earth dislodgedby mining litter the landscape.

The environmental impact is exacerbated bythe coincidence of India’s iron ore belt with theWestern Ghats, a fragile eco-system ranked asone of the world’s 12 ecological hotspots. Richin biological diversity of plant and animal life,the highland area stretches 1,600 kilometers,running just inland along the length of India’swest coast, through the states of Goa,Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu andKerala.

The effects of mining in the state go beyondthe direct pollution released. The industry is alsotaking a toll on infrastructure, air quality andpublic safety. Every day, up to 12,000 trucks raceto and from the mines and Goa’s main port,Marmugao, spreading dust and exhaust fumes.


Although the maximum legal load is 10 tons pertruck, most vehicles are overloaded, carrying 15or 16 tons, and damaging Goa’s narrow roads.With the drivers paid per load, they need to packin as many trips as they can per day and havelittle incentive to drive slowly and with care.“There are many accidents because of thetrucks,” Anthony Da Silva told an anti-miningrally in Goa in February 2009.

Mining has also created a degradedenvironment and is also a matter of concern.Damage to the environment is mainly done bythe reject dumps, pumping out of muddy watersfrom the working pits including those where themining operations have gone below the watertable, and slimes from the beneficiation plant.The damage is more evidenced during monsoonwhere the rain water carries the washed outmaterial from the waste dumps to the adjoininglow-lying agricultural fields and water streams.It is stated that the slimes and silts, which enterthe agricultural field are of such character thatthey get hardened on drying. The washed outmaterial from the dumps and the flow of slimesfrom the beneficial plants besides polluting thewater causes Siltation of waterways, especiallyduring monsoon. Such silting of water ways overthe years may trigger years even flooding of theadjacent fields and inhabitated areas, especiallyduring monsoon.

EIAs of mining projects often underestimatethe potential health risks of mining projects.Hazardous substances and wastes in water, air,and soil can have serious, negative impacts onpublic health. The World Health Organization(WHO) defines health as a “state of completephysical, mental and social well-being, and notmerely the absence of disease or infirmity.” Theterm ‘hazardous substances’ is broad andincludes all substances that can be harmful topeople and/or the environment. Because of thequantity, concentration, or physical, chemical orinfectious characteristics, hazardous substancesmay (1) cause or contribute to an increase ofmortality or an increase in serious irreversible orincapacitating illness; or (2) pose a substantialpresent or potential hazard to human health orthe environment when improperly treated,stored, transported, disposed of, or otherwisemanaged.

b) Deforestation and Desertification

Deforestation involves the deliberateremoval of vegetation to create new agriculturalor urban land, to provide wood for building andmanufacturing, for the exploitation of mineralsand fossil fuels, to create reservoirs for watersupplies and hydroelectric generation, for fuel,or as a result of the use of defoliants duringwars. Boreal, temperate and tropical forestshave all suffered deforestation at different timesand to different degrees. Deforestation givesbirth to several problems encompassingenvironmental degradation through acceleratedrate of soil erosion, increase in the sediment loadof the rivers, siltation of reservoirs and river beds,increase in the frequency and dimension offloods and droughts, changes in the pattern ofdistribution of precipitation, intensification ofgreenhouse effects, increase in the destructiveforce of the atmospheric storms etc; economicloss through damages of agricultural crops dueto increased incidence of floods and drought,decrease in agricultural production because ofloss of fertile top soils, decrease in the supply ofraw materials to the industries are buildingmaterials (timber) to the urban and rural areas,marked decrease in fodder to animals etc. andsocial problems in the form of economic poverty,crimes and increased legal litigation.Currentlythe world’s annual deforestation rate isestimated to be about 13.7 million hectares ayear, that’s about the land area of Greece.Roughly half of this area gets reforested to adegree, though new growth forests don’tfunction in the same way, support the samebiodiversity, nor do they provide the manybenefits that old-growth forests do. In additionto these numbers, forests have been becomingmore and more affected by climate change, withincreasing drought, forest fires, increased andmore powerful storms, diseases, and an explosionin insect numbers.Forests are natural umbrellafor ground surface because these protect theground surface from erosion caused by fallingraindrops and control radiation balance of theearth and the atmosphere by consumingincreased amount of carbon dioxide releasedfrom ever-increasing ‘human volcanoes’(chimneys of the factories) and thus prevent theearth from becoming too hot. Removal of forestcover exposes the ground surface to theatmospheric processes. It may be pointed outthat forests intercept falling raindrops and thussplit them and reduce their (of raindrops) kinetic


energy. Intercepted rainfall reaches the groundsurface slowly in the form of ‘AERIALSTREAMLETS’ through the leaves, branches andstems of trees. Thick leaf litters on the groundsurface alter decomposition provide humuscontent to the soils and also make the soils friable.Thus the ground surface allows maximuminfiltration of rainwater and minimum surfacerunoff. On the other hand deforestation exposesthe ground surface to falling raindrops with fullkinetic energy. This results into maximumerosion of soils because the infiltration ofrainwater is markedly reduced and surfacerunoff is increased. Thus deforestation causes achain of effects which adversely affect thenatural environmental conditions as givenbelow.Accelerated rate of soil erosion, throughrain splash, rain-wash, sheet wash, rill erosionand gully erosion, consequent upondeforestation, increases sediment load of therivers. Increased suspended and bed loads of therivers cause rapid rate of siltation of alluvial riverswhich results in gradual rise of the river beds.Thus increased surface run-off and reducedwater accommodation capacity of the rivervalleys due to siltation increase the frequencyand dimension of floods of alluvial rivers as floodwaters easily overtop the river banks and spreadover large areas.Increased rate of soil erosioncaused due to deforestation results in colossalloss of fertile topsoil and agricultural land whichultimately causes marked reduction inagricultural production. Rapid rate of rill andgully erosion in the intervening zone betweenthe Ganga plains and the northern foreland ofIndian peninsula has resulted into the conversionof thousands of hectares of good land intoravenous land which has displaced the affectedinhabitants from their agricultural land. Thedevelopment of circuitous network of densemesh of gullies ranging in depth from a fewmetres to 80 m has rendered vast expanse ofagricultural and forest land into waste land onthe one hand and has deprived millions ofpeople of their livelihood on the other hand. Thusthe increased rate of soil erosion consequent upondeforestation and destruction of grassland hasbeen responsible for social pollution in additionto land degradation. The zigzag network ofdeep gullies of the riverine tract of the Yamuna,the Chambal, the Betwa rivers etc. (Fatehpur,Etawah, Agra, Banda, Jhansi, Jalaun districts ofUttar Pradesh and Bhind, Morena, Gwalior,Tikamgarh, Chhatarpur districts of MadhyaPradesh, India) offers easy and safe shelter to

dacoits and bandits. This has alarminglyincreased the rate of crimes including theft,dacoity and murder in the said areas and thushas social atmosphere.Deforestation has alsoincreased the rate of aeolian erosion throughdeflation and desertification through desertspreads. Many of the tribal areas of the forestedland of India have lost the forest stands in theirimmediate surroundings and thus are facing theacute problem of fuels and fodder. Thedestruction and alteration of habitats due todeforestation causes ecological imbalance in theregion concerned.Whereas Desertification is theprocess by which fertile land is transformed intodesert, usually as a result of deforestation,drought, and agriculture use/practices.Desertification played a significant role in thecollapse of many large empires and civilizations;such as the Roman Empire, Carthage, theHarappan civilization, and Greece. Most of thedesertification that these civilizationsexperienced was as a result of agriculture,deforestation, and associated changes in aridityand the climate.The process occurs primarily indryland ecosystems, which are already veryfragile, and simply can’t support the pressuresthat result from significant human populations.Drylands currently occupy about 40% of theworld’s land area. As these lands are cultivatedthe limited nutrients that are available in themare quickly depleted. Often times the land is alsoimproperly irrigated, leading to salty soils, andemptied aquifers. The limited natural vegetationthat is present is also often overgrazed, leadingto large-scale soil erosion and increased runoff/decreased rainfall retention.The Sahara iscurrently expanding south at a rate of up to 48kilometers per year.

Case study of Gadchiroli District:Gadchiroli in Central India is one of the mostforested districts in India with a predominantlytribal population. In recent years there has beenan accelerated process of deforestation in thedistrict of Gadchiroli. As in most cases it is thelocals and the tribals who get blamed for thedeforestation that is happening here whereas acloser look at the situation reveals that one ofthe major cause is without doubt policies of thegovernment. In one such village isMendha.Mendha is a significant case becauseof the initiatives of the villagers, and theirdecisions which have contributed immensely inthe conservation of the forests of the area. Thevillage has established a very strong communityorganization of its own. It has various


institutional structures like the Van SurakshaSamiti (VSS) or the Forest Protection Committeewhich takes the forest related decisions. Thevillage has also been successful in establishinggood relations with some sensitive governmentofficials and Non Governmental Organizationsand succeeded in facilitating inter-departmentalco-operation among the various governmentagencies working in the area. In the last sevenyears the villagers have taken up a number ofsoil and water conservation programs, built awater hole for wild animals, controlled forestfires to an extent and framed regulations for thecontrolled extraction of biomass from the forest.They have also succeeded in stopping theindiscriminate and destructive extraction by thepaper mill. They carry out daily patrolling andwith the help of the Forest Department havepunished those who have been caught violatingthe rules. The village has also brought its forestsunder the Joint Forest Management (JFM)scheme of the state government. This has notonly formalized their position as the custodiansof the forests but has also opened up thepossibilities for negotiating benefits from theofficial forest related activities. In anothersignificant move the village council has made itmandatory for all government andnongovernmental agencies to seek its permissionbefore carrying out any forest related activity inthe village and the surrounding forests and thisincludes the powerful external commercial forceslike the paper industry.

c) Overgrazing and ploughing

Overgrazing occurs when plants are exposedto intensive grazing for extended periods oftime, or without sufficient recovery periods.Overgrazing reduces the usefulness,productivity, and biodiversity of the land and isone cause of desertification and erosion.

Overgrazing typically increases soilerosion. Reduction in soil depth, soil organicmatter and soil fertility impair the land’s futurenatural and agricultural productivity. Soilfertility can sometimes be mitigated by applyingthe appropriate lime and organic fertilizers.However, the loss of soil depth and organicmatter takes centuries to correct. Their loss iscritical in determining the soil’s water-holdingcapacity.

The phenomenon of the dustbowl in theGreat Plains region of America in the 1930s is awell-known example of man-induced land

erosion. The area was former grasslandunderlain by rich brown and chestnut soils, butboth overgrazing and ploughing contributed tothe catastrophe which caused the widespreadabandonment of farms. A great expansion inwheat cultivation in the early years of the decadewas followed by a series of droughts; the soil,largely exhausted of its natural fertility, wassubject to deflation and particle drifting ofdisastrous proportions.

The dustbowl situation is by no meansunique. In the marginal areas around today’s hotdeserts, such as the Thar desert of Pakistan andIndia, and the Egyptian desert, a great deal ofdeflation is initiated by grazing animals. In otherdeserts, as in the central Sahara and the south-west United States, desert pavements (ChapterEight) normally contribute little coarse dust, butthis protective layer is easily destroyed bywheeled vehicles, exposing finer-texturedmaterials.

In Britain, coastal dunes are highlysusceptible to deflation when interfered with byman. Constant trampling or vehicular trafficquickly destroys the protective grass vegetation,initiating blowouts or landward migration of thedunes. On the Dutch coast, protection of thedune systems from degradation by man is vitalas these give protection to large inland areas lyingbelow sea-level.

d) Salinization and Acidification of Soil

Salinity occurs naturally, even in healthycatchment areas. Salt borne from the sea by windand rain is deposited across the landscape.Naturally occurring salts are leached downwardsinto groundwater where they are concentratedby the transpiration of plants. This naturally-occurring salinity is known as primary salinity.

Secondary salinity is the salinisation of landand water resources due to the impacts of humanactivities. Secondary salinity takes the form ofirrigated salinity due to rises in groundwaterresulting from irrigation, and dryland salinitycaused by the removal of vegetation thatotherwise keeps saline groundwater at levelsbelow the root zone.

Of particular concern is the condition ofriparian vegetation, which is severely affectedas it occupies the lowest parts of the landscapewhere much of the saline groundwater isreleased to the surface; but there has been nosignificant increase in vegetated stream length


since 1989. This is of major concern as riparianvegetation plays a key function in stopping themovement of salt through river systems.

At the farm level, salinity will result in theloss of production and income. Other effectsinclude the decline in capital value of land,damage to infrastructure, salinisation of waterstorages, loss of farm flora and fauna, and lossof shelter and shade. These effects are magnifiedat the regional scale. Salinity will have asubstantial impact on resources such asbiodiversity, water supplies and infrastructure.

Acidic soils are those with a pH less than 5.5and they are usually found in areas of highrainfall. Acid soils are toxic to plants because theycan release toxic levels of aluminium and othermineral elements. Acid soil conditions alsorestrict the availability of nutrients and traceelements vital to plant growth. The four maincauses of soil acidity are:

� removal of product from the farm

� leaching of nitrogen below the plant rootzone

� inappropriate use of nitrogenous fertilisers

� build-up in organic matter (NSWAgriculture 1999).

e) Soil Erosion

Soil erosion is the detachment or breakingaway of soil particles from a land surface bysome erosive agent, most commonly water orwind, and subsequent transportation of thedetached particles to another location. Erosionis a natural process and is a critical factor in soilformation from rock parent material. Humanactivities are responsible for greatly acceleratingerosion rates, usually by reducing or eliminatingplant and residue cover.

However, once productive agricultural soilshave been formed over periods of thousands ormillions of years, erosion of the soil material isthen usually very low or negligible because of theimpacts of protective natural plant and residuecover. This exposes the soil to wind and watererosion forces, weakening the soil cohesive forcesby tillage disturbance, and increasing the erosiveagents, particularly by activities that increasesurface runoff. Soil erosion is a serious problemand major cause for the declining productivity,particularly in the rainfed areas world over.

If we consider the case of India, almost theentire rainfed area in the country, covering anarea of about 70 m ha, is affected by severe sheetand rill erosion. Loss of topsoil is one of the majorfactors for the low and unstable crop yieldsobtained in the semi-arid and sub-humidsubtropics of India Gullies and ravines are alsocommonly seen in these areas. Wind erosion isdominant in the western regions of the countryand to some extent in the coastal areas. It causesloss of topsoil, terrain deformation, over blowingand shifting of sand dunes. It is estimated thatmore than 45 per cent of India’s geographicalarea is already affected by serious soil erosionand this proportion is increasing year by year.

It is estimated that the soil forming processneeds hundreds of years for the formation of fewinches of agriculturally productive soils. Undernatural condition, undisturbed by man,equilibrium gets established between the climateof a place and the cover of vegetation thatprotects the soil layer. A certain amount oferosion does take place even under this naturalcover, but it is slow and very limited in naturewhich is balanced by the soil that is formed bycontinuous weathering and other soil formingprocesses. When this balance is upset because ofthe cultural operations followed or any otherreason, the removal of soil takes place at a fasterrate than its renewal. In sheet erosion, themovement of runoff water and eroded soil occursin thin sheets continuously. When this movingsheet assumes sufficient velocity, its cutting actionon the soil gets increased and results in theformation of rills, trenches or gullies. If thevelocity of the runoff water is doubled, its energyincreases fourfold and its erosive action on thesoil is correspondingly increased and its capacityto carry soil particles is increased by 64 times.The gullies tend to get deeper and wider withevery succeeding rain and eventually cut up theagricultural lands into fragments and making itunfit for cultivation. Gully erosion is moreevident and spectacular at the surface but sheeterosion is more dangerous as it is insidious andis seldom noticed before it is too late to remedyits destructive effects on heavy soils.

Some examples on Human induced acceler-ated land degradation

The excessive demand for constructionmaterials like bricks and sand for infrastructureprojects in developing countries like India arecausing huge soil degradation in peri-urban


environment at an alarming rate. A studyconducted at Bangalore, India revealed that sandsupply from riverbeds to Bangalore is not able tomeet the demand of booming construction sector.Enterprising farmers have taken up extraction ofsand by washing surface soils of agriculturalfields. Nearly 25 percent of sand supplied is fromthis source. Study revealed that significantemployment and economic gains are realized atan ecological cost. Loss of surface soils, nutrientlosses, crop yield losses, siltation of tanks, excessiveground water exploitation and soil erosion aretaking place due to sand extraction. Nearly 18000ha of land which was usually used for growingthe staple food of the region, i.e., Finger millet isgoing out of cultivation for few years to come.

Damage to the environment is mainly doneby the reject dumps, pumping out of muddywaters from the working pits including thosewhere the mining operations have gone belowthe water table, and slimes from the beneficiationplant. The damage is more evidenced duringmonsoon where the rain water carries thewashed out material from the waste dumps tothe adjoining low-lying agricultural fields andwater streams. It is stated that the slimes andsilts, which enter the agricultural field are of suchcharacter that they get hardened on drying. Thewashed out material from the dumps and theflow of slimes from the beneficial plants besidespolluting the water causes siltation of water-ways, especially during monsoon. Such siltingof water ways over the years may trigger yearseven flooding of the adjacent fields andinhabitated areas, especially during monsoon.

Desurfacing of farm lands for brick industryis another source of soil degradation. Thousandof ha of lands are losing their productivepotential due to unscientific extraction of soils.Recently technology of using fly ash for brickproduction has been evolved which may help inreducing the soil degradation to some extent.

Purposeful conversion of productive farminglands in to shrimp farming or urban developmentis taking place at a very large scale on coastalzones. In India, Goa a tiny state is a worldfamous tourist place. The state has low lying18000 ha of vary productive paddy farminglands called Kazan lands. Slumping revenuesfrom agriculture in Goa has led to breaching thebunds to allow saline water into the fields to raisefish, as this is far more profitable than cultivatingpaddy has become rampant. It is reported that

khazan lands are extensively inundated for asmany as 15 years and used for shrimp farming.The growing density of population poses anotherthreat to the khazan lands. Goa’s population isconcentrated in the Mandovi-Zuari basin, whichis also where the khazan lands are situated andalmost all urban expansion has taken place atthe expense of these lands. Threats to the khazanlands include those arising from generalenvironmental degradation. Deforestation in theupper river catchment areas and mining activityhave added to the silt load of the rivers. Thesediment that gets deposited in the estuarineregion have resulted in many acres of khazanlands now getting flooded during the monsoon.

The rivers have become heavily polluted nearthe towns and much of the waste material theycarry flows into the khazan lands with the tides.And, this problem is compounded by thepetroleum residues from barges, tankers andtrawlers in the rivers.”The problem is that anyexpansion that takes place in Goa has to be atthe cost of the khazan lands. Comprehensivepolicy is needed to make these enterprisesecologically tolerable.

Vicious cycle of population, poverty and landdegradation

A chain of cause and effect links direct andindirect causes of land degradation. The drivingforce is an increase in population dependent onlimited land resources base. This produces landshortage leading to small farms, low productionper person, increasing landlessness and inconsequence, poverty. Land shortage andpoverty together lead to non-sustainable landmanagement practices, the direct causes ofdegradation. Poor or landless farmers are led toclear forest, cultivate steep slopes, overgrazevillage common lands like pastures or makeshort-term unbalanced fertilizer applications.These non-sustainable management practiceslead to land degradation, causing lowerproductivity and lower responses to inputs.

This has the effect of increasing the landshortage, thus completing the cycle.

Irresponsible rich farmers sometimes exploitthe land, but by and large farmers with securetenure and capital are more likely to conservenatural resources. When natural disasters occur,rich farmers can turn to alternative sources ofincome, or borrow and repay in better years.These alternatives are not open to the poor.


In the past, rural populations had access toadequate land to meet their needs. When adisaster occurred, whether of natural origin orwar, there were spare resources to fall backupon. They could take new land into cultivation,kill livestock, which fed upon natural pasturesor go into forest and extract roots or huntwildlife. Because of land shortage, these optionsare no longer available. Farmers are surroundedby other farmland, such common rangeland asexists is often degraded, and overlarge areas noforest remains. The options open are to work onthe farms of others, non-agriculturaloccupations, enforced migration to the cities orultimately dependence on famine relief.

If we consider the case of India, the limitedland area which is equal to only 2.5 per cent ofthe world’s geographical area. It supportsapproximately 17.5 per cent of the world’s humanpopulation and 20 per cent of the world’s livestockpopulation. The population of India has alreadycrossed one billion marks and is still growing atthe rate of about two per cent. This exponentialgrowth of population and dependence of morethan 60 per cent of the population for theirlivelihood on agriculture and allied activities exertstremendous pressure on the limited land resourcesof the country. At present, the per capitaavailability of land is only 0.15 ha, which will befurther reduced to less than 0.07 ha in 2050 withan expected population of about two billion.Hence the stress on limited land resources is goingto increase day by day. Governments need toaddress the issues with all the seriousness. Thelink between population, poverty and soildegradation is now widely recognized. FAOreports ‘A lack of control over resources,population growth and inequity are allcontributing to the degradation of the region’sresources. In turn, environmental degradationperpetuates poverty, as the poorest attempt tosurvive on a diminishing resource base’.

Through force of circumstances, it is the poorwho take the major role in the causal nexusbetween land shortage, population increase andland degradation. Thus rapid population growthcan exacerbate the mutually reinforcing effectsof poverty and environmental damage of whichthe poor are both victims and agents. Hence, insuch nations population control needs to be takenon top priority to protect the natural resourcesbase besides other socio-economic conflicts.

MODIFICATION OF OCEANS

The ocean absorbs a great amount of carbondioxide and pollutants, but pollution levels of

our whole Earth system are reaching beyondcarrying capacity. As human population hasincreased, so has the deterioration of the world’socean ecosystems.

Two thirds of the major cities in the worldare situated along coasts, and millions of peoplevacation at shorelines. Pollution from developedareas drains into the ocean killing marine life,threatens human health, causes toxic algaeblooms, and forces beach closures. Humanpollution is destroying coral reefs and coastalhabitat which are vital for breeding, food andshelter for marine species. Vast amounts ofpollution are draining into our ocean watersdaily from human-related activities. Oceancurrents can carry pollutants far from the sourceof entry, and species consume and absorb them. Pollutants have caused major declines in species,and are threatening the planet’s ecologicalstability; and therefore, our life support system.

Sewage, toxic chemicals, pulp mill andmanufacturing wastes, fertilizers, soaps,detergents, litter and refuse disposal, radioactivewastes, plastics, oil spills and leaks, runoff, andinsecticides are contaminating our ocean andfreshwater sources on a daily basis - far in excessof what the natural filtering and recyclingsystems can sustain. As some hazardouschemicals are banned worldwide and/or locally,many other new chemicals are developed thatcontinue the harm.

Alteration in oceans due to:

a) Ocean Acidification

When carbon dioxide (CO2) is absorbed byseawater, chemical reactions occur that reduceseawater pH, carbonate ion concentration, andsaturation states of biologically importantcalcium carbonate minerals. These chemicalreactions are termed “ocean acidification”.Calcium carbonate minerals are the buildingblocks for the skeletons and shells of many marineorganisms. But excessive carbon in theatmosphere from the burning of fossil fuels overthe last two centuries has caused increasedacidity in the oceans, which is threateningecosystems, sea creatures and their foodsupplies. These rising levels of acidity, along withthe effects of global warming, could affect theability of the oceans to absorb greenhouse gases.


Since the beginning of the IndustrialRevolution, the pH of surface ocean waters hasfallen by 0.1 pH units.

Ocean acidification is expected to impactocean species to varying degrees. Photosyntheticalgae and seagrasses may benefit from higherCO2 conditions in the ocean, as they require CO2to live just like plants on land. On the otherhand, studies have shown that a more acidicenvironment has a dramatic effect on somecalcifying species, including oysters, clams, seaurchins, shallow water corals, deep sea corals,and calcareous plankton.

The Biological Impacts on

Pteropods

The pteropod, or “sea butterfly”, is a tiny seacreature about the size of a small pea. Pteropodsare eaten by organisms ranging in size from tinykrill to whales and are a major food source forNorth Pacific juvenile salmon. Pteropod’s shellwhen placed in sea water with low pH the shellslowly dissolves after 45 days.

Shellfish

In recent years, there have been near totalfailures of developing oysters in both aquaculturefacilities and natural ecosystems. These larvaloyster failures appear to be correlated withnaturally occurring upwelling events that bringlow pH waters under-saturated in aragonite aswell as other water quality changes to nearshoreenvironments. Lower pH values occur naturallyduring upwelling events, but recent observations

indicate that anthropogenic CO2 is contributingto seasonal undersaturation.

Coral

Many marine organisms that producecalcium carbonate shells or skeletons arenegatively impacted by increasing CO2 levelsand decreasing pH in seawater. For example,increasing ocean acidification has been shownto significantly reduce the ability of reef-buildingcorals to produce their skeletons.

b) Ozone depletion

Continued depletion of theozone layer in the upper atmosphere(from chemicals released by humanactions on Earth) could cause adrastic decline in the world’s oceanicplankton. Planktons are tinyorganisms floating in vast numbersin the ocean which are the first linkin providing food supportingmarine/sea life. With lessprotection provided by the ozonelayer, more harmful ultravioletradiation reaches the Earth. Adecrease in plankton would lead toa domino effect throughout theaquatic food chain, and severelyimpact all aquatic species andmarine wildlife.

c) Flow of waste materials in ocean

Wildlife is dying from litter and uncontainedtrash improperly discarded by humans. The fishesget entangled in the holders of canned drinks, suchas sodas and beer. These should be cut up beforeproperly disposing of them. It is best to removethem and not take them out into nature.

Marine animals sometimes mistake debris forfood and swallow it or become caught in it anddie. Debris and trash can be carrieddownstream in rivers endangering all aquatic lifeon its way to the sea where it will drift throughthe ocean currents for years and years. Plasticfloating in the ocean can resemble jellyfish. Many leatherback turtles die from ingestingplastic bags which they mistake for their favoritefood, jellyfish. The leatherback is listed on theU.S. Endangered Species List as endangeredworldwide.


Of the approximately 7 billion tons of litterthat enters the world’s oceans each year, about60 percent is of a plastic composition (Plasticsinclude bags, bottles, strapping bands, sheeting,synthetic ropes, synthetic fishing nets, floats,fibreglass, piping, insulation, paints andadhesives). These items can last for 10-20 yearsbefore finally decomposing. It is estimated that1 million seabirds and 100,000 other marineanimals, including endangered species, die as aresult of having swallowed plastic litter or beencaught in it.

Lost and discarded fishing lines and nets alsocause terrible wounds and suffocation to seaanimals. Huge “wall of death” driftnets haveentrapped mammals as large as whales and cutinto them down to the bone, causing a longpainful death from wounds and suffocation. Millions of dolphins have drowned in fishing netsthat are set out to catch other fish. These hugefishing nets capture, injure and kill an enormousamount of sealife of all varieties which can’t besold for human food, and the bodies are justtossed back into the ocean.

d) Coral bleaching

Coral reefs are found in circum-tropicalshallow tropical waters along the shores ofislands and continents. The reef substrate ismainly composed of calcium carbonate fromliving and dead scleractinian corals. Many otherinvertebrates, vertebrates, and plants live in closeassociation to the scleractinian corals, with tightresource coupling and recycling, allowing coralreefs to have extremely high productivity andbiodiversity, such that they are referred to as ‘theTropical Rainforests of the Oceans’.

Corals live in very nutrient poor waters andhave certain zones of tolerance to watertemperature, salinity, UV radiation, opacity, andnutrient quantities.

Zooxanthellae live symbiotically within thecoral polyp tissues and assist the coral in nutrientproduction through its photosynthetic activities.These activities provide the coral with fixedcarbon compounds for energy, enhancecalcification, and mediate elemental nutrientflux. The host coral polyp in return provides itszooxanthellae with a protected environment tolive within, and a steady supply of carbondioxide for its photosynthetic processes. Thesymbiotic relationship allows the slow growingcorals to compete with the faster growing

multicellular algaes because the tight couplingof resources and the fact that the corals can feedby day through photosynthesis and by nightthrough predation.

The tissues of corals themselves are actuallynot the beautiful colors of the coral reef, but areinstead clear. The corals receive their colorationfrom the zooxanthellae living within theirtissues.

Bleaching, or the paling of zooxanthellateinvertebrates, occurs when (i) the densities ofzooxanthellae decline and / or (ii) theconcentration of photosynthetic pigments withinthe zooxanthellae fall. If the stress-causingbleaching is not too severe and if it decreases intime, the affected corals usually regain theirsymbiotic algae within several weeks or a fewmonths. If zooxanthellae loss is prolonged, i.e. ifthe stress continues and depleted zooxanthellaepopulations do not recover, the coral hosteventually dies.

Coral reef ecosystems world-wide have beensubject to unprecedented degradation over thepast few decades. Disturbances affecting coralreefs include anthropogenic and natural events.Recent accelerated coral reef decline seems to berelated mostly to anthropogenic impacts(overexploitation, overfishing, increasedsedimentation and nutrient overloading. Naturaldisturbances which cause damage to coral reefsinclude violent storms, flooding, high and lowtemperature extremes, El Nino SouthernOscillation (ENSO) events, subaerial exposures,predatory outbreaks and epizootics. Forexample 95% of the coral reefs in GalapagosIsland were destroyed due to this wave of climateextremity. El Niño events are found to occur every7 to 8 years, research indicates that they nowoccur much more frequently at anywhere from


every 3 to 5 years. This increase in frequency isattributable to climate change. Global warmingis the cause of an increasing number of cases ofcoral bleaching all over the world.

e) Oil spill

A major source of ocean pollution is fromoil. Oil spills and leaks come from oil tankers,oil wells, runoff from land spills and leaks intorivers and underground watersheds fromindustry, oil refineries and storage facilities. Therecent case has been oil spill in Gulf of Mexico(The total discharge is estimated at 4.9 millionbarrels). Some oil spills are accidental, but it’snot accidental when they come from rusted-outgasoline tanks and inadequate old oil tankers orfrom careless and uncaring humans.

Oil coats the ocean surface, seabirds, fish, andmarine mammals. It washes onshore anddestroys shoreline habitat. Vast numbersof plants and animals die, and entire fishingindustries have been destroyed. Coastalcommunities suffer economic damage. Oildamage cleanup costs run into the millions ofdollars. Recovery takes years, and some areaswill never recover fully. The greatest loss is tothe environment and life forms. Since thedevastating and widespread Exxon/Valdez spill,improved ship hull designs and additional safetyprocedures have been implemented for oil-carrying vessels.

MODIFICATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Human activities are increasingly altering theEarth’s climate. Human impacts on the climatesystem include increasing concentrations ofatmospheric greenhouse gases (e.g., carbondioxide, chlorofluorocarbons and their substitutes,methane, nitrous oxide, etc.), air pollution,increasing concentrations of airborne particles,and land alteration. A particular concern is thatatmospheric levels of carbon dioxide may be risingfaster than at any time in Earth’s history, exceptpossibly following rare events like impacts fromlarge extraterrestrial objects.

Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrationshave increased since the mid-1700s throughfossil fuel burning and changes in land use, withmore than 80% of this increase occurring since1900. Moreover, research indicates thatincreased levels of carbon dioxide will remain inthe atmosphere for hundreds to thousands ofyears. It is virtually certain that increasing

atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxideand other greenhouse gases will cause globalsurface climate to be warmer.

Atmospheric changes induced by man may begrouped as:

a) Pollutants in the Atmosphere

To city-dwellers the most obvious way inwhich man has affected the atmosphere isthrough pollution. Pollutants include particulatematter, both solid and liquid particles, andgaseous substances such as sulphur dioxide(SO2), oxides of nitrogen (NO, NO2, NO3),carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarboncompounds. But not all man-made pollutioncomes from cities. Isolated industrial activitiesfrequently create a footprint of atmosphericpollution in areas of countryside downwindfrom the industrial site: particularly infamousexamples in Britain include smelters andbrickworks. Mining and quarrying activities alsosend large amounts of mineral dust into the air.Even man-induced forest and grass fires as wellas bonfires, can greatly add to particulatepollution at certain times of year.

Atmospheric pollutants are conductedupward from the emission sources by rising aircurrents as part of the normal convectiveprocesses. Larger particles settle under gravityand return to the ground as fallout. Smallersuspended particles are brought to the Earth byprecipitation as washout. By a combination ofthe two processes the atmosphere tends to becleaned of pollutants, and in the long run abalance is achieved between the input andoutput of pollutants, although there are largefluctuations in the quantities stored in the air ata given time. Pollutants are also eliminated fromthe air over their source areas by winds whichdisperse the particles into large volumes of cleanair in the downwind direction. Smoke stacks areintended to take as much advantage of this aspossible. The passage of a cold frontaccompanied by strong winds is usually veryeffective in sweeping away pollutants from anurban area, but during stagnant anticyclonicconditions concentrations may rise to highvalues, sometimes producing a smog.

Once in the atmosphere, the primary pollutantsundergo a number of chemical reactions, generatinga secondary group of pollutants. For example,sulphur dioxide combines with oxygen and


suspended water droplets to produce sulphuric acid.This acid is harmful to organic tissues and is alsovery corrosive. Photochemical reactions are broughtabout by the action of sunlight: for example, sunlightacting on nitrogen oxides and organic compoundsproduces ozone. Another toxic chemical producedby photochemical action is ethylene.

The harmful effects of atmospheric pollutionon plant and animal life are manifold. Forexample, there are many technologies or devicesburn wood, coal, or oil inside buildings such aswoodstoves, boilers, furnaces, ovens and heaters.When these devices are used, they must beprobably vented to the outside because the gasesthat result from combustion can have a seriousimpact on the ability of humans to breathe.

Carbon monoxide is one such gas that oftenresults from combustion and it is becoming morecommon for carbon monoxide monitors oralarms to be installed within homes andbuildings. Carbon monoxide, or CO, is acolorless, odorless gas that results fromincomplete combustion or burning of fuel.Normally, the atmosphere contains a very smallamount of carbon monoxide, about 200 parts perbillion (ppb), or .02 parts per million (ppm). Ifthe concentration of carbon monoxide in the aira person breathe increases slightly to 9 parts permillion, the person may begin to have difficultybreathing. A healthy person may be just barelyaffected by CO exposure of 9 ppm, but olderindividuals and asthmatics, whose lung functionmay be already compromised, are likely to feel agreater level of effect. Carbon monoxide reducesthe ability of the body’s blood to absorb oxygen.It is also colorless and odorless making detectiondifficult. Inhaling low levels of carbon monoxidecan result in fatigue and chest pain, particularlyin individuals with chronic heart disease.Increased exposure to CO can result inheadaches, dizziness, sleepiness, nausea,vomiting, and disorientation. At very high levels,inhalation of carbon monoxide can cause loss ofconsciousness and death. An increase from .02to 9 ppm in carbon monoxide may seem like alarge relative increase, but a change of thismagnitude is a change of only 0.000088% in thetotal concentration of gases in the air we breathe.

In addition to carbon monoxide, there aremany other chemicals, substances, and gaseswhich can be harmful to human health. Thesechemicals, substances, or gases as a group arecalled indoor air pollutants. Indoor pollutants are

not as easily dispersed or diluted as outdoorpollutants are. As a result, concentrations canoften be many times higher than outdoors. Indoorpollution occurs in a wide range of indoorenvironments including homes, schools, factories,office buildings, and commercial workplaces.Excessive noise, dust, odors and fumes can allserve to lower worker productivity and adverselyaffect human health. Pollutants found indoorinclude asbestos, biological contaminants,formaldehyde, fumes from household products,lead, nitrogen dioxide, particulates, pesticides,radon, and tobacco smoke.

Environmental Tobacco Smoke (ETS) is a majorsource of indoor air pollution because it containscarbon monoxide, formaldehyde and many otherharmful gases. ETS is often referred to as ‘secondhand smoke’ and the exposure to ETS is called‘passive smoking’. Some building materials likeasbestos, furnishings and household productslike aerosol sprays, adhesives, paints etc. releasevolatile organic pollutants continuously whichcause diseases ranging from scamming of lungtissues to visual disorder, abdominal cancer andmemory impairment. Other sources includes, useof unvented stoves or space heater, solvents forcleaning products and housekeeping also releasepollutants intermittently.

Further the number of automobiles isincreasing day by day and has become a causeof air pollution and degradation of theenvironment. The automobile, with its internalcombustion engine, emits poisonous gases thatare harmful to human health and is the mostserious pollution of the technological age.Exhaust emissions from diesel engines includecarbon monoxide, hydrocarbon oxides, organicacids etc. The two primary pollutants are carbonmonoxide and nitrogen dioxide, both of whichare extremely poisonous gases. Lead is a toxiccompound and its main source in theenvironment is believed to be from leadedgasoline used as fuel for internal combustionengines. The presence of lead in the atmosphereis a threat to the environment as well as for allliving organisms.

The rapid rate of industrialization hasresulted in more and more air pollution. Variousindustrial processes release almost all types ofpollutants into the air. Some industries likecement, iron and steel, fertilizer, petrochemical,etc. are of great concern because of the difficultyin controlling the emission of pollutants fromthem. Acid rain has become a great threat to the


environment. The use of solvents is increasingwith the growing use of paints, spray, polish,etc. Due to presence of hydrocarbons in thesematerials, air pollution is caused which isdangerous for health. Similarly, spray ofpesticides in agriculture is also responsible forair pollution even in rural areas.

b) Changes in Atmospheric Gas Levels

Of the main natural constituent gases in theatmosphere, carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen(O2) are the most critical from an environmentalviewpoint; both are inextricably involved in thebiochemical cycles between atmosphere and thesurface of the Earth. Although nitrogencomprises four fifths of the atmosphere, its inertchemical nature relegates it to a minor role inthis respect. Oxygen and carbon dioxide arenaturally added to the atmosphere by‘outgassing’ from the Earth’s interior. The workof plants has been essential in removing carbondioxide from the atmosphere and storing it ascoal and other fossil organic substances. Beforethe Industrial Revolution, carbon dioxide levelsappear to have been about 290 parts per million(p.p.m.) in the atmosphere. But in the lasthundred years or so, this amount has increasedby about ten per cent, largely because of man’suse of fossil fuels. It has been suggested that, incontrast to the effect of solid particles, anincreased level in carbon dioxide content willincrease the temperature of the atmosphere,since the gas is an absorber of long-wave radiationand will lead to global warming.

It has been pointed out also that man’s large-scale combustion of hydrocarbon fuels requiresa large quantity of oxygen to be withdrawn fromthe atmosphere and converted into carbondioxide and water vapour. There is therefore thepossibility of a lowering of the oxygen contentof the atmosphere to levels which might have adetrimental effect on animal life.

Changes in water vapour levels broughtabout by man through combustion andalterations to the vegetation cover could in theorymarkedly affect global radiation and heatbalances in the same manner as changes incarbon dioxide levels. But water vapour contentvaries greatly from place to place and it is difficultto measure global changes. It seems unlikely thatthere would be a general build-up of excessatmosphere water vapour through combustion,as it would rapidly return to the oceans as

precipitation. A special case, however, is theemission of water vapour and various othersubstances by jet aircraft. These emissions occurin the stratosphere, where the water vapourcontent is normally very small. The condensationtrails (contrails) of aircraft can often be observedto spread laterally and develop into cirrus clouds.These clouds are highly reflective and can havean effect on the Earth’s albedo.

Gases that contribute to the greenhouse effectinclude:

� Water vapour: The most abundantgreenhouse gas, but importantly, it acts asa feedback to the climate. Water vapourincreases as the Earth’s atmosphere warms,but so does the possibility of clouds andprecipitation, making these some of themost important feedback mechanisms to thegreenhouse effect.

� Carbon dioxide (CO2): A minor but veryimportant component of the atmosphere,carbon dioxide is released through naturalprocesses such as respiration and volcanoeruptions and through human activitiessuch as deforestation, land use changes,and burning fossil fuels. Humans haveincreased atmospheric CO2 concentrationby a third since the Industrial Revolutionbegan. This is the most important long-lived“forcing” of climate change.

� Methane: A hydrocarbon gas producedboth through natural sources and humanactivities, including the decomposition ofwastes in landfills, agriculture, andespecially rice cultivation, as well asruminant digestion and manuremanagement associated with domesticlivestock. On a molecule-for-molecule basis,methane is a far more active greenhousegas than carbon dioxide, but also one whichis much less abundant in the atmosphere.

� Nitrous oxide: A powerful greenhouse gasproduced by soil cultivation practices,especially the use of commercial and organicfertilizers, fossil fuel combustion, nitric acidproduction, and biomass burning.

� Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): Syntheticcompounds of entirely of industrial originused in a number of applications, but now


largely regulated in production and releaseto the atmosphere by internationalagreement for their ability to contribute todestruction of the ozone layer. They arealso greenhouse gases.

c) Ozone Depletion

Ozone is formed in the stratosphere whenoxygen molecules photo-dissociate afterabsorbing an ultraviolet photon whosewavelength is shorter than 240 nm. This convertsa single O2 into two atomic oxygen ions. Theatomic oxygen ions then combine with separateO2 molecules to create two O3 molecules. Furtherthese ozone molecules absorb UV light between310 and 200 nm, following which ozone splitsinto a molecule of O2 and an oxygen atom. Theoxygen atom then joins up with an oxygenmolecule to regenerate ozone. This is acontinuing process which terminates when anoxygen atom “recombines” with an ozonemolecule to make two O2 molecules.

O + O3 → 2O2 chemical equation

The overall amount of ozone in thestratosphere is determined by a balance betweenphotochemical production and recombination.

But because of increasing man-madepollution and the release of gases like CFCs(chlorofluorocarbons) the natural balance isbroken and the amount of ozone destroyed isfar higher than the amount naturally formed.

The average amount of ozone in theatmosphere is about 300 Dobson Units, ozoneholes are the areas where the concentration dropsto an average of about 100 Dobson Units.

The Antarctic ozone hole is an area of theAntarctic stratosphere in which the ozone levels

drops to as low as 33% of their pre-1975 values.The ozone hole occurs during the Antarcticspring, from September to early December, asstrong westerly winds start to circulate aroundthe continent and create an atmosphericcontainer.

Before the initiation of Antarctica Springseason the Polar winters are dark, consisting ofthree months without solar radiation (sunlight).The lack of sunlight decreases the temperaturearound or below “80 °C. These low temperaturesform cloud particles polar stratospheric clouds(PSCs).

There are three types of PSC clouds — nitricacid trihydrate clouds, slowly cooling water-iceclouds, and rapid cooling water-ice (nacerous)clouds — that provide surfaces for chemicalreactions that lead to ozone destruction.

Usually most of the chlorine in thestratosphere resides in stable “reservoir”compounds, primarily hydrochloric acid (HCl)and chlorine nitrate (ClONO2). But during theAntarctic winter and spring, reactions on thesurface of the polar stratospheric cloud particlesconvert these “reservoir” compounds intoreactive free radicals (Cl and ClO). However thereactions are slow due to absence of sunlightduring winters.

During the spring season, the sun energydrives photochemical reactions and melts thepolar stratospheric clouds, releasing the trappedcompounds which lead to ozone depletion at itsmaximum.

Whereas as the temperature increases withtime the polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) aredestroyed, the ozone depletion process shutsdown, and the ozone hole closes.

��


EIA & ENVIRONMENTAL

AUDIT


CONCEPT OF EIA

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)means a formalised procedure for examination,analysis and assessent of planned activities witha view to ensuring environmentally sound andsustainable development. The principal goalsof EIA practices are:

� To establish that before decisions are takenby the competent authority to undertakesome project, the environmental effects ofthose activities should be taken fully intoaccount.

� To promote the implementation ofappropriate procedures in all countriesconsistent with national laws and decision-making processes.

� To encourage the development of reciprocalprocedures for information exchange,notification and consultation between stateswhen proposed activities are likely to havesignificant transboundary effects on theenvironment of those states.

PROCESS OF EIA

There are nine major stages of EIAprocess—Screening, Preliminary assessment,Orga-nisation, Scoring, Identification,Prediction, Evaluation, Mitigation andDocumentation in the form of EnvironmentImpact Statement (EIS).

In the process of environmental impactstatement (EIS) preparation, there are four areaswhich need to be reviewed properly. These are:

1. Description of the development, the localenvironment and the baseline conditions.

2. Identification and evaluation of keyimpacts.

3. Formulation of alternatives and mitigatorymeasures.

4. Impact interpretation and communicationof results.

The purpose(s) of the development shouldbe described as should the physicalcharacteristics, scale and design. Quantities of


UN ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME (UNEP)

Principles of EIA

1. States (countries, including their competent authorities) should not undertake or authorise activitieswithout prior consideration, at an early stage, of their environmental effects. Where the extent, natureor location of a proposed activity is such that it is likely to significantly affect the environment, acomprehensive environmental impact assessment (EIA) should be undertaken in accordance with thefollowing principles.

2. The criteria and procedure for determining whether an activity is likely to significantly affect theenvironment and is therefore subject to an EIA should be defined clearly by legislation, regulation,or other means, so that subject activities can be quickly and surely identified and EIA can be appliedto the activity as it is being planned.

3. In the EIA process, the relevant significant environmental issues should be identified and studied.Where appropriate, all efforts should be made to identify these issues at an early stage in the process.

4. An EIA should include, at a minimum :(a) A description of the proposed activity;(b) A description of the potentially affected environment, including specific information necessary foridentifying and assessing the environmental effects of the proposed activity;(c) A description of practical alternatives, as appropriate;(d) An assessment of the likely or potential environmental impacts of the proposed activity andalternatives, including the direct, indirect, cumulative, short-term and long-term effects;(e) An identification and description of measures available to mitigate adverse environmental impactsof the proposed activity and alternatives and an assessment of those measures;

(f) An indication of the gaps in knowledge and uncertainties which may be encountered in compilingthe required information;

(g) An indication of whether the environment of any other State or areas beyond national jurisdictionis likely to be affected by the proposed activity or alternatives;

(h) A brief, non-technical summary of the information provided under the above headings.

5. The environmental effects in an EIA should be assessed with a degree of details commensurate withtheir likely environmental significance.

6. The information provided as part of an EIA should be examined impartially prior to the decision.

7. Before a decision is made on an activity, government agencies, members of the public, experts inrelevant disciplines and interested groups should be allowed appropriate opportunity to commenton the EIA.

8. A decision as to whether a proposed activity should be authorised or undertaken should not betaken until an appropriate period has elapsed to consider comments pursuant to principles sevenand twelve.

9. The decision on any proposed activity subject to an EIA should be in writing, state the reasonstherefore and include the provisions, if any, to prevent, reduce or mitigate damage to the environment.This decision should be made available to interested persons and groups.

10. Where it is justified, following a decision on an activity which has been subject to an EIA, the activityand its effects on the environment or the provisions (pursuant to principle nine) of the decision onthis activity should be subject to appropriate supervision.

11. States should endeavour to conclude bilateral, regional or multilateral arrangements, as appropriate,so as to provide, on the basis of reciprocity, notification, exchange of information and agreed-uponconsultation on the potential environmental effects of activities under their control or jurisdictionwhich are likely to significantly affect other States or areas beyond national jurisdiction.

12. When information provided as part of an EIA indicates that the environment within another Stateis likely to be significantly affected by a proposed activity, the State in which the activity is beingplanned should, to the extent possible:

(a) Notify the potentially affected State of the proposed activity;

(b) Transmit to the potentially affected State any relevant information from the EIA, the transmissionof which is not prohibited by national laws or regulations.


materials needed during construction andoperation should be included and whereappropriate, a description of the productionprocesses. In addition, the site landrequirements of the development should bedescribed and the duration of each land use.As and where practicable, specific mitigationmeasures should be put forward. Mitigationmethods considered should includemodification of the project, compensation andprovision of alternative facilities as well aspollution control. Clear details of how themitigation measures will be implemented andfunction over the time span for which they arenecessary should be described in depth.

Each EIS should have an executive summary.

The summary should be comprehensive,containing, at least, a brief description of theproject and the environment, an account of themain mitigation measures to be undertaken bythe developer and a description of any remainingor residual impacts. A brief explanation of themethods by which these data were obtainedand an indication of the confidence which canbe placed in them, should also be included.

In every project formulation, EIApreparation is one of the mandatory aspects asit forms an integral part of the project cycle(Fig. 1). On the whole the purpose of EIA is togive the environment its due weightage of thedecision making process by clearly evaluatingthe environmental consequences of a proposed


CURRENTLY USED IMPACT EVALUATION METHODS

Types Detailed Methodologies

I Ad hoc These methodologies provide minimal guidance for impactassessment beyond suggesting broad areas of possible impacts (e.g.,impacts upon flora and fauna, lakes and forests), rather thandefining the specific parameters within the impact area which shouldbe investigated.

II Simple check-lists These methodologies present a specific list of environmentalparameters to be investigated for possible impacts, or a list of agencyactivities known to have caused environmental concern. They mayhave considerable value when many repetitive actions are carriedout under similar circumstances. They do not, in themselves, establisha direct cause-effect link, but merely suggest lines of examination.

III Overlays These methodologies rely upon a set of maps of project area'senvironmental characteristics (physical, social, ecological, aesthetic).These maps are overlaid to produce a composite characterisation ofthe regional environment. Impacts are identified by noting thecongruence of inherently antagonistic environmental characteristicswithin the project boundaries. The Geographic Information System(GIS), is a modern development of this method.

IV Matrices The matrix methodologies incorporate both a list of project activitiesand a checklist of potentially impacted environmental characteristics.In a way, the matrix presents both alternatives from the check-listapproach (i.e., both attributes and activities) to be consideredsimultaneously. The two lists are then related in a matrix whichidentifies cause and effect relationships between specific activitiesand impacts. Matrix methodologies may either specify which actionsimpact which environmental characteristics or may simply list therange of possible actions and characteristics in an open matrix to becompleted by the analyst.

V Networks These methodologies work from a list of project activities to establishcause condition-effect relationships. They are an attempt to recognisethat a series of impacts may be triggered by a project action. Theirapproaches generally define a set of possible networks and allowthe user to identify impacts by selecting and tracing out theappropriate project actions.

VI Combination These methodologies use a combination of matrices, networks,computer-aided analytical models and a computer-aided systematic approach:

– Identify activities associated with implementing major federalprogrammes;

– Identify potential environmental impacts at different user levels;

– Provide guidance for abatement and mitigation techniques;

– Provid analytical models to establish cause-effect relationshipsto quantitatively determine potential environmental impacts;

– Provide a methodology and a procedure to utilise thiscomprehensive information in responding to requirements of EISpreparation.


activity. A simplified flow chart for theprocedure of EIA is given in Fig. 2.

EVALUATION METHODOLOGY

Different methods currently used for EIAevaluation are summarised below with respectto their criteria suitability in Table 1.

Among these, four methods are often usedfor their various criteria suitability. Quiteconsiderable number of matrix systemapplication were known in recent years.Among these, Leopold and Lohani and Thanh'sprocedure is often applicable in most cases.

In recent years, however, a new type of'Environmental evaluation system' is oftenimplemented, this is called "Battelle EnvironmentalEvaluation System" (BEES). This process involvesidentification of environmental parameters likelyto be affected by project implementation,estimation of resulting changes in the selectedparameters and aggregating the changes indetermining resultant environmental quality.

Thus this process necessitates trans-formationof parameter estimates into EnvironmentalQuality (EQ) on a scale ranging from zero toone. Such a transformation is achieved throughvalue function graphs which provide functionalrelationships between the parameter estimatesand environmental quality scale. In addition aseach of the selected parameter represents only apart of the total environment, weights areassigned to the parameters to reflect their relativeimportance for ascertaining impact of the projecton natural and socio-economic environment.These weights are derived by an interdisciplinaryexpert team using ranked pair-wise comparisiontechnique and expressed as Parameter Importance

Units (PIU). A total of 1,000 'PIU's are allocatedamongst the selected parameters.

For evaluation of impact of project onenvironment, an index expressed asEnvironmental Impact Units (EIU) has beenestimated for three alternative environmentalconditions, viz., the baseline without project,without environmental management plan(EMP) and project with EMP.

The impact scaling in this process has been,accomplished through the use of value functionalrelationships of identified 45 typical parameters.Functional relationships refer to transformingparameter measurements (baseline or predictedvalues) into subjective evaluations through graphicalmeans. The typical functional relationships of someselected parameters are depicted in Fig. 3. Objectivemeasurements are transformed into subjectiveinterpretation of environmental quality (EQ) on ascale representing, a value of 1.0 for good qualityand 0.0 for poor quality.

It is observed that the estimated change inEIU from baseline, due to the project withoutEMP is – 111. The recommended EMP for theproject charges the EIU value is + 131. Theoverall change in EIU due to project over thebaseline is + 20.

Though Battelle Environmental EvaluationSystem (BEES) has been considered to be thebest aavailable evaluation technique in EIAevaluation, yet it suffers from inherentuncertainty in assigning relative weights, or PIUto different environmental parameters andsubjectivity in formulation of Value FunctionGraphs (VFG).


1. Provides a procedure for the fullconsideration of the possible adverseenvironmental impacts of policies,programmes, activities and projectsbefore any decision to proceed; itprecludes 'behind closed doors' decisionmaking in the public and private sectors;

2. There is an opportunity to presentrecommendations to the decision-makeron the suitability of the policy,programme (groups of projects, eithersequential or concurrent), activity, orproject, to proceed or not, onenvironmental grounds;

3. For proposals which proceed, there is theopportunity to present the incorporationof conditions of consent that shouldmitigate some of the adverseenvironmental effects;

4. It is an avenue for the public to contributeto the decision-making process, throughwritten and oral contributions to thedecision-maker(s) appearances at publicinquiries and hearings and possibleparticipation in mediation processes;

5. The whole process of development isopen to scrutiny for the benefit of all thekey players : proponent (applicant),government and public, resulting inbetter projects more carefully thought-out.

6. Basically unsatisfactory projects(including otherwise satisfactory projectson the wrong site) tend to weed

themselves out before advancing far intothe EIA process and certainly beforereaching a public enquiry stage;

7. Conditions of approval may ensuremonitoring, annual reporting by theproponent, post-project analyses (PPA)and independent auditing;

8. Alternative approaches, mixes oftechnology, and sites, can be thoroughlyexamined;

9. EIA is seen, however, as the servant ofdevelopment: promoting betterdevelopments, at best, but basicallysupporting economic growth;

10. The process endorses waste discharges,the emission of greenhouse gases in manycases and the profligate use, mining,extraction, and processing of naturalresources;

11. The whole process as a creature ofgovernment, is subject to politicalpressures; key players within governmenthave no security of employmentwhatever;

12. Officers of integrity have little chancewhen confronted by a combination ofhostile interests at a political level;

13. On the other had, a vigilant public,skilled objectors and organisations witha range of legal rights to object, access tothe courts, and a supportive media withsome political sympathy, can exercisecountervailing power and influence.

THE ROLE OF EIA IN SOCIETY

ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT

1. CONCEPT

Environmental auditing is a managementtool designed to provide information onenvironmental performance to the right peopleat the right time.

An environmental audit is a systematicmeans of providing environmental managementinformation:

(a) to all levels of management;

(b) for a variety of purposes.

The term 'environmental audit' is, therefore,used to refer to a number of different informationand assessment activities. These can becategorised as :

(a) A technical review : Such an audit willinvolve the systematic collection ofinformation about the existing and potentialimpact of the organisation's activities onthe environment; it will normally covercompliance with pollution control andwaste management legislation. It will notcover management practices.


(b) A management review : This will focusmore on the management procedures andrecord keeping and will also gatherinformation on compliance with legislation.It may also review procedures in thecontext of company policies, programmesand other requirements. It will not examinethe existing or likely impact of the operationon the surrounding environment from atechnical standpoint.

(c) Due diligence review : This will examinethe likely cost of implementing pollutioncontrol and site remediation actions andwill take account of existing and futurelegislation. Such liability reviews arenormally carried out in the context ofmergers, acquisitions and long rangecompany planning.

An environmental audit thus represent amanagement tool comprising a systematic,documented, periodic and objective evaluationof the performance of the organisation,management system and processes designed toprotect the environment with the aim of:

(i) facilitating management control of practiceswhich may have an impact on theenvironment;

(ii) assessing compliance with companyenvironmental policies.

Fig. 1: Environmental management cycle

The Regulation specifies that an audit shouldinclude at least the following steps :

– Planning of the audit activities, includingdefinition of responsibilities for the audit;

– Review of the environmental protectionpolicy of the company;

– Assessment of the organisation,management and equipment;

– Gathering of data and of all relevantinformation;

– Evaluation of the overall performance;

– Identification of areas for improvement;

– Internal reporting to the top management;

An outline of environmental managementcycle is shown in Fig. 1.

SETTING UP AN AUDIT PROGRAMME

Developing an audit programme requiresdecisions to be taken on :

– the scope of the audit : what informationis to be collected;

– the frequency with which each site (or issue)is to be audited;

– who is to carry out the audit;

– what, if any, information is to be madeavailable to the public.

It is also necessary to develop an auditprotocol : that is, the detailed plan to be used byeach auditor when carrying out the audit.

SCOPE AND FREQUENCY OF THE AUDIT

The scope of the audit will depend on theinformation that is required by management tomonitor environmental performance. A fullenvironmental audit will cover:

(i) compliance with environmental regulations,

(ii) implementation of company's environmen-tal policies and procedures,

(iii) good environmental management practiceand

(iv) past activities.

In so far as it provides the information todetermine an organisation's environmentalperformance it may be expected to cover not onywaste streams from plants but also widermanagement and operational issues.


The Eco-Management and Audit Regulationsuggests that the following should be coveredwithin the framework of the widerenvironmental protection system:

– assessment, control and prevention of theimpact of the activity concerned on thevarious sectors of the environment;

– energy management, savings and choice;

– raw materials, management, savings, choiceand transportation; water management andsavings;

– waste avoidance, recycling, reuse,transportation and disposal;

– selection of production processes;

– production planning (design, packaging,transportation, use and disposal);

– prevention and limitation of accidents;

– staff information, training and participationin environmental issues;

– external information, public participationand handling of public complaints.

In their guidance on environmental auditingthe CBI (Confederation of British Industries)includes a similar listing, amplified into moredetailed questions (CBI, June 1990). So, forexample, on wastes and transport the detailedquestions include the following:

Wastes : How and where is waste of all typesgenerated? Can it be minimised/eliminated/recycled? Where production of waste isunavoidable, would it provide a suitable rawmaterial for another organisation, either businessor voluntary group? Are you losing recyclingopportunities or increasing disposal costs by notsegregating different types of waste? Whoremoves your waste—is it carried and disposedof responsibly.

Transport : Are you using the most efficientand environmentally sound systems fortransporting your goods and materials? Wouldalternative systems make less demands on theenvironment? Do staff traveling on business usethe most efficient system or merely the most'convenient'? Would use of public transport bringabout cost savings without significant increasein traveling times? Do you encourage staff to

travel to work by public transport and could youincrease availability of communal transport byproviding additional company funded services?

WHO SHOULD CARRY OUT THE ENVIRON-MENTAL AUDIT?

To be of maximum value an environmentalaudit should be objective and the environmentalauditor should be free from pressure from withinthe organisation; in other words it is importantthat the audit report should be objective and theauditor should be able to make critical commentswithout fear of the effect of such comments onhis future career within the organisation.

A number of major companies have establihsedaudit teams within their corporate environmentalhealth and safety department. In some cases, thestaffing of these teams relies on secondment fromdifferent departments within the company. In sofar as individuals are then auditing different partsof the company this has a benefit that theyunderstand the business but have no internal lineof responsibility to the activity being audited.

Some organisations have used externalconsultants to carry out some or all of the audits;in this case it is often valuable for the externalauditor to work with the company's team.

Environmental auditing requires anunderstanding of the activity to be audited (thismay be a plant, an abandoned site or a corporateheadquarters); an understanding of manage-ment systems, environmental regulations andpermitting procedures; and also a broadunderstanding of environmental impacts. Aqualified auditor will, in addition, need to besystematic, able to deal in a constructive waywith a range of management and technical staff.

THE AUDIT PROTOCOL

The protocol represents the plan to be usedby auditors in conducting an audit. It establisheswhat information is to be collected, it provides asystematic basis to the audit; and it also gives astep-by-step guide to the environmental auditoron how evidence is to be collected. The protocolis an important tool in so far as it not only servesas the auditor's guide to conducting the auditbut also acts as a record of the audit proceduresand the notes completed by the team. In addition,a completed audit protocol provides a record forthe rationable for any changes in audit


procedures or deviations from plan if these provenecessary during the audit.

SPECIFICALLY THE PROTOCOL

(a) contains a basic questionnaire covering eachenvironmental topic;

(b) provides the hard copy record to assist theauditors as the work progresses andprovides a basis for referencing workingpapers and copies of documentationcollected during the audit;

(c) the completed protocols with the supportingdocuments are the record of the audit andform the basis for the formal audit report.

The protocol is therefore the key step inestablishing the audit programme in so far as itinforms managers and others about the scope ofthe audit and provides the opportunity to requestthat the changes are made either to collectadditional information or to delete informationthat will not be used.

TYPICAL AUDIT PROCESS

The following typical audit process reviewsthe work required prior to the audit; activities ata site; and post-audit activities. It is specificallyapplicable to a manufacturing site rather than,for example, a corporate headquarters. Theissues that are likely to be addressed in the auditare shown in Table 1.

ITEMS TO BE ADDRESSED IN AUDITS

Environment Safety Occupational health Product safety

Site history Safety policy/procedures Employee exposure to Product safetyair contaminants programme

Process materials Accident reporting Exposure to physical Product qualityused Accident investigation agents e.g. noise, control

radiation, heat etc.Storage of materials Accident recording Measurements of Product packaging,

above ground below employee exposure storage and shippingground

Air emissions Permit to work systems Exposure records Product recallwithdrawalprocedures

Water discharges Special procedures for: Ventilation Customer informationengineering controls on product

handling and qualitySolid wastes confined space entry

Liquid hazardous work on electrical Personal protective Regulatorywastes equipment equipment compliance

Asbestos, PCBs breaking into Information and Labellingpipelines, etc. training on health

hazardsWaste disposal Emergency response Specifications for

on site Fire fighting Medical surveillance purchased materialsoff site programme products packaging

Oil/chemical spill Job safety analysisprevention Safety training Hearing conversation Material safety data

Permits, licences First aid Vendor qualificationProgramme

Pollution control Safety communications RegulatoryContractors on site promotion requirements QA testing and

inspectionsHousekeeping Record keeping

Past incidents Regulations compliance Product literatureProcess control


PRE-AUDIT ACTIVITIES

(a) Select and schedule facility to audit basedon :

– selection criteria

– priorities assigned.

(b) Select audit team members

– confirm their availability

– make travel and lodging arrangements

– assign audit responsibilities.

(c) Contact facility and plan audit

– discuss audit programme

– obtain background information

– administer questionnaire (if necessary)

– define scope

– determine applicable requirements

– note priority topics

– modify or adapt protocols

– determine resource needs

– identify facility staff to be interviewed,confirm availability.

ACTIVITIES AT SITE

Step 1: Identify and understand managementcontrol systems

– review background information

– opening meeting

– orientation tour of facility

– review audit plan

– confirm understanding of internalcontrols.

Step 2: Assess management control systems

– identify strengths and weaknesses ofinternal controls

– adapt audit plan and resource allocation

– define testing and verification strategies.

Step 3: Gather audit evidence

– apply testing and verification strategies

– collect data

– ensure protocol steps are completed

– review all findings and observations

– ensure that all findings are factual

– conduct further testing if required

– liaise with regulatory authorities.

Step 4: Evaluate audit findings

– develop complete list of findings

– assemble working papers anddocuments

– integrate and summarise findings

– prepare report for closing meeting.

Step 5: Verbal report of findings to facility

– present initial findings at closingmeeting

– discuss findings with plant personnel.

POST-AUDIT ACTIVITIES

(a) Issue draft report

– corrected closing report

– determine distribution list

– distribute draft report

– allow time for corrections

(b) Issue final report

– corrected draft report

– distribute final report

– highlight requirement for action plan

– determine action plan preparationdeadline.

(c) Action plan and preparation andimplementation

– based on audit findings in final report.

(d) Follow-up in action plan.


CARRYING OUT THE AUDIT

COLLECTING INFORMATION

Environmental auditing requires the auditorto develop a full understanding of the controls,procedures and practices; that are in place orare thought to be in place. They are likely toinclude formal procedures and practices; allforms of records (including monitoring); existinginspection and maintenance programmes;physical controls and other measures to containspills and other incidents, etc. The auditor willneed to understand how responsibilities aredefined; how personnel are trained and howcompetent those on the site appear to be; howprocedures are carried out and other standardmanagement issues. In addition to the use of thedetailed questionnaire (forming part of theprotocol) the auditor will gain informationthrough observation, interviewing individualstaff, reviewing specific documentation andspeaking to the appropriate regulatoryauthorities.

AUDIT INTERVIEWS

Since interviewing is one of the primarytechniques used in gathering audit information,good interviewing skills are essential to thesuccessful completion of the audit. Attention tothe following elements of interviewing skillsduring the audit process will assist in establishinga good rapport with the facility personnel as wellas obtaining the information required.

Take notes during the interview and recordthe name, title and job description of the personinterviewed; be alert and responsive to theinterviewee when asking questions and listeningto responses; control the interview, but ensurethat you appear relaxed and that yourinterviewee feels relaxed; go to the interviewee'sworkplace/office where possible; plan theinterview so that you introduce yourself, explainthe purpose of the interview and gather theappropriate information; know when to end theinterview and thank the interviewee; end theinterview on a positive note.

DOCUMENTATION

It is a central principle that the audit shouldbe fully documented; there should, therefore, bea clear, written, audit trail. The working papersfrom an audit will include completed protocols,associated questionnaires, auditor notes and

copies of documents collected during the audititself. It is important that each auditor ends theaudit with a complete set of field notes andpapers for each protocl step assigned to thatauditor; that there is documentaiton (1) to ensurethat an adequate audit was conducted and,(2) to substantiate compliance and non-compliance issues, both with respect to regulatoryrequirements and company procedures; thatthere is a record of reference copies of documentscollected during the audit; and there is the datato support the audit report, which may be helpfulin subsequent follow-up.

The working paper should, contain all theinformation that the auditor believesmanagement and control sysems—includingflow charts, diagrams, copies of documents, etc.;a description of the action taken to complete eachstep of the audit protocol; details of answers toquestions in the protocol and otherquestionnaries used; details of any 'tests'conducted during the audit (e.g., checking thatconsignments of hazardous waste had therelevant documentation for each disposal).

PUBLIC DISCLOSURE

Unlike financial audits, environmentalaudits are not carried out for the purposes ofproviding information to the regulatoryauthorities or the public at large. They areintended to assist management understand theimpact their operations are having upon theenvironment and to provide a basis for takingaction to remedy any problems. To this extentcompanies are likely to be unwilling to makethe results of their environmental audits public;or, if the audit is carried out with this objective,it is likely that it will be a far less valuablemanagement tool. The ICC (Indian Chamberof Commerce) has noted that if environmentalaudits are to be successfully used as part ofcompany policy 'it is essential that theprocedure should be seen as the responsibilityof the company itself, should be voluntary andfor company use only'.

The Eco-Audit proposal does howeverpropose that certain information should bemade available to the public on theenvironmental performance of the company.This would be an 'environmental statement'specific to each site audited and prepared withthe same frequency as the environmental audits.


Such a statement would :

— describe the company's activities at the site;

— provide a detailed assessment of all thesignificant environmental issues ofrelevance;

— summarise the figures on pollutantemissions, waste generation, raw material,energy and water consumption and othersignificant environmental aspects;

— include the company's environmentalpolicy programme as well as the specificobjectives for the site considered;

— include an evaluation of the environmentalperformance of the environmentalmanagement system and note the date forthe submission of the next statement;

– publish the name of the accreditedenvironmenta l verifier for the Statement:this requirement for external, independentevaluation is a crucial component of theRegulation.

Simplified statements must be drawn up forthe intervening years in the audit cycle. Thesemust draw attention to significant changes fromthe previous statement and include details ofpollutant emissions.

Where no significant changes have occurred,no further statement is required until thecompletion of the next audit.

It will be appreciated that for many plantsand processes within the UK information onemissios, wastes and environmental effects isalready on the public register (through theprovisions of the Environmental Protection Act,1990) and increasingly the larger companies areproviding a clear statement of theirenvironmental policies and programmes inorder to make it clear to the public that theyare aware of their environmentalresponsibilities.

So while the environmental audit remains theinternal document (like management accounts)companies may wish to provide a generalsummary in order to demonstrate to the publicthat they are carrying out audits and are happlyto make some of the information more widelyavailable. It should perhaps be noted that suchinternal systematic reviews may also become

public that, should there be a serious pollutionincident at the plant or a civil action with the resultthat the documents are placed before an inquiryor any other form of legal hearing.

BENEFITS OF ENVIRONMENTAL AUDITING

A properly implemented environmentalaudtit plan provides a range of benefits for anorganisation. These are:

(i) It provides a framework for measuring (andtherefore managing) environ-mentalperformance.

(ii) It reinforces accountability for theenvironmental dimension of the business:the audit process requires managers to beclear about their responsibilities and howthese are being implemented.

(iii) It raises awareness of the importance ofprofessional environment managementthroughout the organisation.

(iv) To the extent that external reporting willbe required, it provides a sound basis thatenables companies to feel sure that what isincluded in the reports is an accurate record.

(v) It provides valuable information for futureplanning. This includes the future designof processes and products as well as inputsinto future financial plans where pollutioncontrol and other investments are to bemade.

(vi) It allows senior managers to feel secure thatall environmental aspects of their businessare being professionally managed: it willnot remove all possibility of environmentalincidents but will at least reduce theirlikelihood.

ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT PROGRAMME ININDIA

The concept of environmental auditing inindustrial facilities in India, appears to have firstgot into meaningful discussions in the beginningof the nineties. Efforts were initiated to see thepracticability of this programme before it couldbe mandatory. This process finally resulted inthe issuing of a gazette notification on 13thMarch 1992 through which submission of theenvironmental audit reports has been mademandatory. The industries are now required to


submit their audit reports to the concerned statepollution control boards on or before 15th dayof May every year beginning 1993.

A good number of polluting industries wereidentified for submission of regular environ-mental audit report. These are :

1. Cement factories (above 200 tonnes per dayproduction capacity)

2. Thermal power plants

3. Fermentation/Distillery factories

4. Sugar factories

5. Fertiliser and sulphuric acid plants

6. Integrated iron and steel plants

7. Pulp & paper Industries (above 30 tonnesper day production)

8. Oil refineries

9. Caustic soda plants

10. Petrochemicals plants

11. Pesticide formulation and manufacturingplants

12. Leather processing industries, includingtanneries

13. Basic drugs and pharmaceuticalsmanufacturing plants

14. Dye and Dye intermediates

15. Zinc smelting industries

16. Copper smelting industries

17. Aluminium smelting industries

18. Lead smelting industries.

On the whole, the environmental auditstudies were not intended for completing anyregulatory requirements, but with the basicphilosophy that at least those industries whichneed priority attention in the sense of pollutioncontrol, should know what it is, as well as whyand how it is to be done, before the industriesactually arrange to set it done on their own as amandatory requirement, as per the GOI'snotification of 13th March 1992.

��


ENVIRONMENTAL

CONSERVATION


ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION

A. BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

The term “Biodiversity” is defined as thevariability among living organisms and theecological complexes of which they are part. Itincludes diversity within and between species andecosystems.

Need for Bio-diversity Preservation

Though human being is a major componentof the eco-system, it cannot overlook theimportance of biodiversity at species, genetic andeco-system levels. It has direct consumptive valuein food, agriculture, medicine, industry apart fromaesthetic and recreative value. Biodiversitymaintains ecological balance and continuesevolutionary processes. The indirect ecosystemservices provided through biodiversity arephotosynthesis, pollination, transpiration,chemical cycling, nutrient cycling, soilmaintenance, climate regulation, air, watersystem management, waste treatment and pestcontrol. Bio-diversity regulates the eco-system inthe following ways:

(1) Bio-diversity plays an important role inprotecting the water resources. The naturalvegetation cover in water catchment helpsin maintaining hydrological cycles,regulating and stabilising water runoff andacts as buffer against extreme events likefloods and drought. It also helps to regulateunderground water table. Recently, inmany parts of the world due to degradationof habitats groundwater level is depleting.For instance, in eastern coastal region ofIndia the last 25 years have seen a declineof water level by 30 feet.

(2) In the process of soil formation and itsprotection the bio-diversity also plays amajor role. It maintains the soil structureand increases the soils moisture retentioncapacity as well as nutrient level of soils.Trees help in soil formation, their root

system enables deep penetration of waterand transport mineral nutrients to surface.Litter formation by the organic matterenhances the microbial activity.

(3) In order to maintain the eco-systembiological diversity plays an important rolein nutrient recycling. Microorganisms in thesoil decompose the dead and decayedwastes which ultimately replenish the soil’snutrients. Hence, the diversity ofmicroorganism is very essential.

(4) The diverse components of the ecosystem,the decomposers, breakdown and absorbpollutants, reduce BOD and also destroyharmful microorganisms. Many pollutants,including sewage, garbage, oil-spills etc.often pollute sites even far away from theiractual source. For instance, deleterious DDTlevels have been reported in seals and otheraquatic inhabitants of the Arctic and theAntarctic regions.

(5) Vegetation influences climate both at themicro and macro levels. Forests maintainrainfall by recycling water vapour stabilityinto atmospheric turbulence. Only trees canabsorb CO2 and maintain the stable CO2-O2 balance.

(6) In order to maintain balance between livingthings and the needful resources the animal-plant relationship should be healthy. Theweb of life is so intricate that removal ordisturbance of one part of the ecosystemcould affect the smooth functioning of manyof its other components. For sustainableavailability of biological resources, a healthybio-diversity of the ecosystem should bemaintained. Since heterotrophs depend onautotrophs, only through conservation offloral biodiversity the global food securitycould be maintained. The nutritional valueis different for different groups. Furtherdiversity of food crops increase opportunitiesfor enhancing agricultural productivity.


(7) The social benefits of the biodiversity alsocannot be neglected. Nature serves as thebest laboratory for studies. The research,education and extension works can progressonly with the help of nature and its inherentbio-diversity. Unaltered habitats help us toevolve indexes to formulate differentmanagement levels. There are ampleevidences to prove that human culture hasco-evolved with the environment. For thisreason itself, conservation of biodiversity isimportant for his cultural identity. It is afact that nature has always providedinspirational, aesthetic and educationalneed of the people. Nature also contributesto our emotional and spiritual well being.

Methods for Biodiversity Conservation

1. Wetlands

Wetlands refer to complex ecosystemsencompassing a wide range of inland, coastal andmarine habitats such as floods plains, swamps,marshes, tidal marshes, etc. They have thecharacteristics of both dry and wet environmentsand show wide diversity based on their genesis,location, hydrological regimes and substrate factors.

Wetlands provide suitable habitats forendangered and rare species of birds and animals,endemic plants, insects and invertebrates, besidessustaining migratory birds and waders.

The scheme on conservation and managementof wetlands was started in 1986-87 with theobjective of undertaking a comprehensive studyof important wetlands representing differentecosystems. A National Committee on Wetlands,Mangroves and Coral Reefs has been constitutedto lay down broad policy guidelines forimplementing the programme and identifyingwetlands for intensive conservation, managementand research. Based on the recommendations ofthis committee, 22 wetlands were originallyidentified for intensive action. Out of these, 18remain within the wetlands scheme. The rest fournamely Bhoj, Sukhna, East Kolkata Wetlands andPichola are being dealt with under the NationalLake Conservation Plan as they fall within urbanareas and require special treatment.

National Wetland Conservaton Programme:National Wetland Conservaton Programme hasbeen extended to 115 wetlands all over theCountry involving 24 States and Union

Territories. 22 new Wetlands have been added tothe list after visiting these areas and approvingfield report in the National Committee foridentification of new sites.

The Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairson February 7, 2013, approved the proposal forthe merger of National Lake Conservation Plan(NLCP) and National Wetlands ConservationProgramme (NWCP) into a new scheme called the'National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Eco-systems' (NPCA). The merged scheme shall beoperational during the XII Plan Period at anestimated cost of Rs.900 crore on 70:30 cost sharingbetween the Central Government and respectiveState Governments (90:10 for North-East States).

For conservation of lakes and wetlands, theMinistry of Environment and Forests is presently,implementing two separate Centrally SponsoredSchemes (CSS), namely the NWCP and the NLCP.To avoid overlap, promote better synergies andto ensure conservation and management works,an integrated scheme, NPCA is proposed, withthe objective of conserving aquatic ecosystems(lakes and wetlands), through implementation ofsustainable conservation plans and governed withapplication of uniform policy and guidelines.

2. Mangroves

Mangroves refer to those forest ecosystemswhose vegetation tolerates both high watersalinity and regular floods. They are reservoirs oflarge number of plant and animal species asso-ciated together over a long evolutionary time andare tolerant of the same environmental conditions.

Some of the best mangroves in the world occurin the alluvial deltas of Ganga, Godavari, Krishnaand Cauvery and in the islands of Andaman andNicobar. Mangroves occur all along the Indiancoastline in sheltered estuary, tidal creeks,backwaters, salt marches and mudflats coveringabout 6700 sq km which is about 7 per cent of theworld’s total mangrove areas. Fifteen areas havebeen selected, on the basis of the recommen-dations of the National Committee on Wetlands,Mangroves and Coral Reef for intensive conser-vation and management purposes. These are:northern Andaman and Nicobar, Sunderbans,Bhitarkanika in Orissa, Coringa, Krishna Estuaryand Godavari Delta in Andhra Pradesh,Mahanadi Delta in Odisha, Pichavaram and PointCalimere in Tamil Nadu, Goa, Gulf of Kutch,Coondapur in Karnataka, Ratnagiri inMaharashtra and Vembanad in Kerala.


3. Coral Reefs

A particular class of animal belonging tophylum coelenterata is known as coral. It is a soft-bodied radially symmetrical marineinvertebrate which secrets a calcareousskeleton. The reef is formed by the cementingtogether of millions of these calcareous skeletonsover a long period of time.

The major reef formations in India arerestricted to Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay, Gulf ofKutch, Andaman and Nicobar and LakshadweepIsland. With the exception of Lakshadweep reefs,which are atolls, others are of fringing type.

The National Committee constituted forconservation and management of wetlands andmangroves also oversees the formulation andimplementation of programmes of conservation,management and research of coral reefs. Statelevel steering committees have also beenconstituted for the formulation andimplementation of the management action planfor the identified coral reefs, namely Andamanand Nicobar, Lakshadweep, the Gulf of Mannarand the Gulf of Kutch.

On the recommendation of the NationalCommittee on Mangroves and Coral Reefs, theexisting centre of the Zoological Survey of Indiaat Port Blair has been designated as the NationalInstitute of Coral Reef Research.

The Ministry of Environment and Forests hasbeen identified as the national focal point of theInternational coral reef initiative and the GlobalCoral Reef Monitoring Network.

4. Coastal Regulation Zone Notification 2011

On January 07, 2011 the Ministry ofEnvironment and Forests (MoEF) released CoastalRegulation Zone (CRZ) Notification 2011 toreplace CRZ Notification of 1991. Also for the firsttime, an Island Protection Zone Notification (IPZ),2011 was released to cover Andaman & NicobarIslands, Lakshadweep. The new notification hastaken into account the fact that 250 million peoplelive in the coastal areas (roughly 25 per cent ofthe population).

The Ministry had issued the Coastal RegulationZone (CRZ) Notification on 19.2.1991 under theEnvironment (Protection) Act, 1986, with the aim toprovide comprehensive measures for the protectionand conservation of our coastal environment.

The main objectives of the CRZ Notification,2011 are:

a) To ensure livelihood security to the fishingcommunities and other local communitiesliving in the coastal areas;

b) To conserve and protect coastal stretchesand;

c) To promote development in a sustainablemanner based on scientific principles,taking into account the dangers of naturalhazards in the coastal areas and sea levelrise due to global warming.

B. WILDLIFE CONSERVATION

India is one of the few countries of the world,whose Constitution makes specific references tothe need for conserving the rich wild heritage ofthe country. Article 48 (A) of the Constitutionenjoins upon the state, the responsibility ofprotecting and improving Environment and tosafeguard forests and the wildlife of the country.

Strategy for conservation: In a country likeIndia, where population pressures and thedemand for forest usufructs for the sustenance ofthe lives of the rural people are rather high, theconcept of wildlife protected areas i.e.,establishment of National Parks, Sanctuariesrepresenting various bio-geographic regions in thecountry has been one of the main thrust areas forconservation of wildlife. National parks are theareas of highest biodiversity value, where nohuman activity is permitted. Sanctuaries enjoyslightly lower status and exercise of certain rightsby local residents, including grazing of livestockis allowed. Declaration of any area as a NationalPark or Sanctuary requires that the rights of thelocal people in the protected areas are duly recog-nised and settled. At present, we have extensivenetwork of about 500 National parks andsanctuaries, covering some 4.3% of our territory.

International Union of Conservation of Nature(IUCN) has been involved in developing scientificcriteria for identification of sites for protectedareas, shape and size of the protected areas andthe management strategies to be followed in thisregard. A Regional conservation forum- Asia hasalso been formed for helping development ofNational Parks and Sanctuaries for effectiveconservation of wildlife.

It is estimated that about 1000 species ofwildlife face extinction. The present probable rate


of extinction of species is about one per year incomparison to nearly one per ten years duringAD 1600-1950. If the current pattern of land usecontinues and if sound conservation measures arenot practiced a substantial part of its biologicalheritage and genetic resources will be lost.

Most wild animals inhabit the forest. Anychange in the forest environment in terms of foodsupply and other details would have acorresponding effect on the animal population.Deforestation leads to destruction of wildlife.

Our main task in conservation is to set asiderepresentatives of biotic communities and protectwild plants and animals. The biosphere reservesconcept of UNESCO is an outcome of this need.In the UNESCO programme, representativenatural ecosystems such as the deciduous forest,the conifer forest, the tropical forest, etc. are tobe set apart as natural reserves. It is hoped thateffective practical enforcement of the conceptwill significantly check the sharply dwindlingwildlife populations and also preserve some ofour present ecosystems.

In order to conserve the fauna-diversityvarious activities have been carried out at thegovernment level. The Wildlife (Protection) Act,1972, the provisions of the Convention onInternational Trade in Endangered Species(CITES) and Export and Import Policy of India iscontinued to be enforced. For controlling thepoaching and illegal trade in wildlife 17 states/UTs have set up state level coordinationcommittees.

Schemes for wildlife conservation: As thewildlife conservation involves an extensivepolicing for protection of wild animals and theirhabitats as well as maintaining goodwill andseeking cooperation of the local communities,it requires substantial financial inputs. One ofthe most important schemes is “Developmentof National Parks and Sanctuaries’. Under thisscheme, assistance is provided mainly for theimprovement of the wildlife habitat throughplantation of suitable species, fire controlmeasures as well as strengthening the protectioninfrastructure.

The new National Wildlife Action Plan(2002-16), a revised form of the first NationalWildlife Action Plan (NWAP) of 1983, has beenadopted which outlines the strategies, actionpoints and the priority projects for conservationof wild fauna and flora in the country. In the

context of increasing threats due to biotic pressureand change in consumption pattern the NWAPhas outlined the following strategies:

A. Strengthening and enhancing the ProtectedArea Network and their effectivemanagement.

B. Conservation of wild and endangeredspecies and their habitats.

C. Restoration of degraded habitats outsideProtected Areas.

D. Control of poaching and illegal trade inwild animals and plants.

E. Human research development andpersonnel planning.

F. Conservation awareness and education.

G. Development of wildlife tourism.

H. Integration of National Wildlife Action Planwith other sectoral programmes.

“Beneficiary/Oriented Scheme for TribalDevelopment Objectives and Components” hasbeen launched to re-habilitate the tribal and otherfamilies proposed to be shifted from inside theprotected areas to outside areas under relocationplan. The main objectives of this scheme are toidentify the villages to be relocated, to identify thesites for relocation and to prepare rehabilitationprojects.

The “Eco-development Scheme in andaround National Parks and Sanctuaries” has beenlaunched to provide alternate sources ofsustenance to the communities living at thefringes. It aims to improve the ecologicalproductivity of the buffer zones of protected areasthrough the involvement of these communities.The various activities undertaken in the schemeinclude biomass regeneration, soil and waterconservation measures, alternative source ofenergy, human and livestock health, etc.

Wildlife Institute of India (WII), as anautonomous institute of the Ministry ofEnvironment and Forest, trains the governmentand non-govt. personnel to carry out research andadvise on matters of conservation andmanagement of wildlife resources. The missionof the National Zoological Park (NZP), set up in1959 at New Delhi, is to maximise the visitorssatisfaction by maintaining a healthy collectionof a variety of endangered as well as common fauna.


The Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL) is theapex advisory body in the field of wildlifeconservation, headed by the Prime Minister. Inits 21st meeting at New Delhi the followingresolutions were adopted:

(1) Wildlife and forest shall be declared prioritysector at the national level for which fundsshould be earmarked.

(2) We should fully tap the potential in wildlifetourism and at the same time take care thatit does not have adverse impact in wildlifeand protected areas.

(3) Protecting interests of the poor and tribalsliving around the protected areas should behandled with sensitivity and with maximumparticipation of the affected people.

(4) We should also respond to newer threatsto bio-diversity such as toxic chemicals andpesticides.

(5) Different forms of media should supportthe conservation.

(6) No diversion of forest land for non-forestpurposes from critical and ecologicallyfragile wildlife habitat shall be allowed.

(7) Land falling within 10 km. of the boundariesof National Parks and Sanctuaries shouldbe notified as eco-fragile zones.

(8) No commercial mono-culture to replacenatural forests.

Concept of ‘Threatened Species’

The rare species of plants and animals havebeen categorized for conservation purposes by theInternational Union of Conservation of Natureand Natural Resources (IUCN). The followingcategories have been identified:

Endangered: The species which are in dangerof extinction and whose survival is unlikely if thecausal factors continue to be operating. Theirnumber has been reduced to a critical level or theirhabitats have been so drastically reduced that theyare deemed to be in immediate danger of extinction.

Vulnerable: The species likely to move intothe endangered category in the near future if thecausal factors continue to operate.

Rare: These are species with smallpopulations in the world. These are not at presentendangered and vulnerable, but are at risk.

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species

According to the 2012 World ConservationUnion (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species, lifeon earth is disappearing fast and will continue todo so unless urgent action is taken. There are now63,837 species on the IUCN Red List and 19,817of them are threatened with extinction. The totalnumber of extinct species has reached 905. One infour mammals, one in eight birds, one third of allamphibians and 70 per cent of the world’s assessedplants on the IUCN Red List are in jeopardy.

With 3,947 described as "criticallyendangered" and 5,766 as "endangered", whilemore than 10,000 species are listed as"vulnerable". At threat are 41 per cent ofamphibian species, 33 per cent of reef-buildingcorals, 30 per cent of conifers, 25 per cent ofmammals, and 13 per cent of birds. The IUCNRed List has listed 132 species of plants andanimals from India as "Critically Endangered".

Highlights of Red List: The population ofgreat apes has declined by more than 60 per centover the last 20-25 years. Corals have been assessedand added to the IUCN Red List for the very firsttime. In addition, 74 seaweeds have been addedto the IUCN Red List from the Galápagos Islands.Ten species are listed as Critically Endangered, withsix of those highlighted as Possibly Extinct. India'sand Nepal’s crocodile, the Ghariyal (Gavialisgangeticus) is also facing threats from habitatdegradation and has moved from Endangered toCritically Endangered. Vultures in Africa and Asiahave declined, with five species reclassified on theIUCN Red List. In Asia, the Red-headed Vulturemoved from Near Threatened to CriticallyEndangered while the Egyptian Vulture movedfrom Least Concern to Endangered.

International Agreements to Conserve Birds

� Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (1971):Nearly 2,131 wetland sites in 168 countries,covering around 205,490,520 hectares, havebeen designated for protection andmonitoring under this international agree-ment to conserve wetland and use themsustainably. The convention was developedand adopted by participating nations at ameeting in Ramsar, Iran on February 2, 1971and came into force on December 21, 1975.


� Programme on Man and the Biosphereand World Heritage Convention (1972)under UNESCO: These initiatives set aframework for designating, protecting andmonitoring some of the world’s mostimportant biodiversity and cultural hotspots.

� Convention on International Trade inEndangered Species of Wild Fauna andFlora (1975): It is an internationalagreement by 178 countries to monitorinternational trade in wild animals andplants and ensure that trade does not putwildlife in jeopardy.

Biosphere Reserves

The idea of biosphere reserve was initiated byUNESCO under the aegis of its Man andBiosphere (MAB) programme, to provide a globalnetwork of protected areas for conserving naturalcommunities. It was a new concept which “waselaborated by a workshop convened by UNESCOin 1973, which highlighted the need to conservediversity of living organisms essential foreconomic, scientific, educational and culturalneeds of the present and future generations.Following are the objectives of biosphere reserves:

(i) To conserve representative samples ofecosystem of the world as opposed tospecies or habitat conservation.

(ii) To promote and facilitate ecological andenvironmental research.

(iii)Provide opportunities for education andtraining to local people regarding biosphereand its conservation.

(iv) Promote appropriate sustainable manage-ments of the living resources.

(v) Promote international co-operation.

In brief, we may say that special feature ofbiosphere reserve is that it combines four majorobjectives- (i) conservation (ii) research (iii)education, and (iv) local involvement.

They include a wide range of ecosystems,ranging from undisturbed communities todegraded areas. In a biosphere reserve, multipleland use is permitted by designating various zones,the Core Zone (where no human activity ispermitted), the Buffer Zone (where limitedhuman activity is allowed), and the Manipulation

Zone (where a large number of human activitieswould go on).

The core area of biosphere reserve should bekept completely free from tourism or any otheractivity. The buffer zone can be used in a limitedway for wildlife educational tourism and related(non-destructive), social, cultural and economicactivities by the local population.

Man and Biosphere Programme (MAB)

MAB is an interdisciplinary researchprogramme which emphasizes an ecologicalapproach to the study of interrelationshipbetween man and environment. It is to beimplemented in close cooperation with differentorganizations of the United Nations and suitablenon-governmental organizations at global level.Through this programme, attention is to befocused on the structure and systematic dataabout the changes brought about by man in thebiosphere and its resources, overall effects of thesechanges on humans itself and the education andinformation to be provided on these aspects.

Objectives of MAB

The general objective is to develop the basiswithin the natural and social science for therational use and conservation of the resources ofthe biosphere and for the improvement of theglobal relationship between man and theenvironment to predict the consequences oftoday’s activities on future world and thus toincrease man’s consciousness to manage efficientlythe natural resources of the biosphere. There is atwo-fold scientific approach of the programme:

(i) Analysis of the ecosystems: Study of thestructure and function of natural as wellas crop ecosystems and comparison ofnatural, man-managed and urban systemsto evaluate actual net primary productionand studies on biogeochemical cycles.

(ii) Impact of man on the environment andof the environment on man: Man’s impactmay be due to factors such as populationincrease, demands of urban conglomeratesfor recreational space and consequences ofwaste disposal and engineering works.Other activities include, grazing pressuresof large herbivores, application of biocides,irrigation, and different cultural practices.


Modifications in biosphere done by man, inturn have strong influence on man himself. Thisrequires the conservation of nature, which impliesman’s respect and responsibility for all other formsof life on earth. Thus in shaping his environmentman is in fact shaping his own future. Animportant aspect of MAB is therefore to study howman perceives his environment and acts upon itin natural managed and urban systems and howthese environments act upon him.

Biosphere Reserve Network Programme

Biosphere Reserve network Programme waslaunched in 1971 by UNESCO under the aegis ofits Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme, toprovide a global network of protected areas forconserving natural communities. Following arethe objectives of Biosphere Reserves:

� To conserve representative samples ofecosystem of the world as opposed tospecies or habitat conservation.

� To promote and facilitate ecological andenvironmental research.

� Provide opportunities for education andtraining to local people regarding biosphereand its conservation.

� Promote appropriate sustainable manage-ments of the living resources.

� Promote international co-operation.

They include a wide range of ecosystems,ranging from undisturbed communities todegraded areas. In a biosphere reserve, multipleland use is permitted by designating various zones,the Core Zone (where no human activity ispermitted), the Buffer Zone (where limitedhuman activity is allowed), and the ManipulationZone (where a large number of human activitieswould go on).

C. WATER CONSERVATION

With per capita availability of water depletingat a faster pace, the Union government on May9, 2013 approved a proposal to declare 2013 asWater Conservation Year under which awarenessprogrammes will be launched for conservationof the scarce natural resource. Under theproposal, the Water Resources Ministry willlaunch a series of programmes among masses,especially children, on water conservation. WhileIndia has more than 18 per cent of the world'spopulation, it has only 4 per cent of the world's

renewable water resources. With growingpopulation and rising needs, per capitaavailability of water is likely to go down from1545 cubic meter per annum in 2011 to 1341 cubicmeter per annum in 2025. The increasing demandof water for various purposes will further strain(resources) with the possibility of deepening waterconflicts among different user groups as drinkingwater needs will rise by 44 per cent, irrigationneeds by 10 per cent and industry needs by 81per cent respectively by 2025.

Water Conservation is the key objective of theNational Water Mission which is one of the eightNational Missions under the National Action Planfor Climate Change. This envisages conservation,minimising wastage and ensuring more equitabledistribution of water resources both across andwithin states through integrated water resourcesdevelopment and management.

A report published by Tata Energy ResearchInstitute (TERI) on July 4, 2001 presents a dismalwater scenario. According to it, by 2050 a severewater shortage will hit many parts of the countryand 20 to 30 per cent of the population in Gujarat,Rajasthan, the Gangetic plains, West Bengal andthe North eastern areas will have practically nowater. Though the population will double by 2047,availability of water will remain at 1086 billioncubic meters per year. A further worrying aspectrevealed in the report was that 95 per cent of thewater was used for agriculture and that 60 percent of it is wasted.

Hence when we talk about conservation ofwater, we have to look into both the quantitativeand qualitative aspects. The reasons, both naturaland man-made, are:

1. Vagaries of Monsoon: Monsoon isunpredictable, varies in persistence and “hasregional variations insofar as precipitationis concerned. The rainy months are shortfollowed by a generally dry period.

2. Ground water depletion: Free or subsidizedelectricity means a larger number of boringwells with no backup system for rechargingground water. The result is depletion ofground water and deterioration in its quality.

3. Misuse of water: In India 95 per cent of ourwater is used for agriculture and 60 per centof it is wasted. Also, we are growing morecash crops like sugarcane which require morewater hence bulk of the water is diverted tothese crops leaving others high and dry.


4. Lack of effective conservation strategy:Most of the people have developed a feelingthat water is plenty and is easily available.The government too has failed to evolve asound strategy through measures like waterharvesting, community participation, etc.

5. Water quality deterioration: Both groundand surface water are polluted fromindustrial effluents, poorly treated sewageand runoff of agricultural chemicalscombined with unsatisfactory household andcommunity sanitary conditions. Traces ofmetallic oxides, arsenic, etc. have beenreported from many monitoring stations.These are highly toxic.

Ganga Action Plan

The Ganga basin is the largest river basin ofthe country, supporting around 40 per cent of itspopulation. The Ganga action plan was launchedon January 14, 1986 with the main objective ofpollution abatement, to improve the water qualityby Interception, Diversion and Treatment ofdomestic sewage and present toxic and industrialchemical wastes from identified grossly pollutingunits, entering into the river.

The first stage of Ganga Action Plan (GAP-1)was scheduled to be completed in March 1990,but was later extended progressively to March2000. The project area extended over three statesof Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal,including 6 class-I towns of Uttar Pradesh, 4 ofBihar and 15 of West Bengal. In this first phase,out of nearly 1400 million liters per day (MLD) ofsewage generated in 25 class-I towns along therivers, 870 MLD was proposed to be intercepted,diverted and treated.

GAP-Schemes: In order to implement theworks under Ganga Action Plan 261 differentschemes have been sanctioned, out of which 173schemes have been completed so far. The remainingschemes are at various stages of completion.

A) Thirty-Two sewage treatment plants (STP)out of a total of 35 STPs to be established,have become operational.

B) The schemes for sewage interception anddiversion have been accorded priorityunder the Ganga Action Plan. As a result405 mld of waste water flowing into theriver has been diverted out of which 116mld is being taken to sewage treatmentplant for treatment.

C) Under the low cost sanitation programme43 schemes have been taken up in theGAP-I and 15 schemes in GAP-II.

D) Construction of electric crematoria is amajor part of Ganga Action Plan. 44electric crematories have been constructedin different states.

E) Programme for construction or re-development of ghats, renovation ofponds, improvement of lanes/bye-lanesleading to ghats, traffic regulation andreallocation of dhobi ghats have beentaken up under Ganga Action Plan.

F) Based on an Expert Committee report totalof 732 (56 in Haryana, 96 in West Bengal,117 in UP, 428 in Delhi and 35 in Bihar)industrial units have been identified asgrossly polluting in GAP.

G) The Ganga Action Plan has introducednew technologies for sewage treatment.The upflow “Anaerobic Sludge BlanketTechnology” has been developed incollaboration with the Dutch Government.

H) A new method for afforestation with rawsewage, developed by Central Soil SalinityResearch Institute (CSSRI), Karnal isinexpensive but requires more land.

I) Automatic Water Quality MonitoringStations (AWQMS) have been proposed tobe installed at nine locations out of which 5are functional in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.

Benefits of GAP

I. Non-User benefits for urban and non-urban users:

(i) General aesthetic benefit(ii) Less polluted river for ritual bathing

(iii) Improved bio-diversity(iv) Recreational benefits

II. User benefits:

(i) Pilgrims(ii) Tourists

(iii) Inhabitants living near the river.

III. Health benefits: Reduction in thediarrhoea causes and skin disorders.

IV. Agricultural benefits: The sludge thatremains after sewage treatment may beused as fertilizers.


V. Other benefits:

(i) Benefits of biodiversity, effectiveconservation, bio monitoring and ecorestoration brought about an increasein population of turtle, otters, fish anddolphins.

(ii) Benefits of fisheries and fishermen withincrease catch in cleaner waters.

(iii) Benefits from reduction of toxicants.(iv) Benefits of employment from GAP

project.

Yamuna Action Plan I and II:

The Yamuna Action Plan (YAP) is a bilateralproject between the Government of India andJapan. It is one of the largest river restorationprojects in India. The government of Japan, viathe Japanese Bank for International Cooperation(JBIC), has provided financial aid of 17.7 billionyen to carry out the project, which is beingexecuted by the National River ConservationDirectorate, the Ministry of Environment andForests, and the Government of India.

Yamuna Action Plan-I was implemented inApril 1993 with the aim of pollution abatementand water quality improvement of river Yamunaby the National River Conservation Directorate(NRCD), Ministry of Environment and forests.Under YAP-I, 15 class-I towns, 6 in Haryana State, 8in Uttar Pradesh State and Delhi were covered.

Yamuna Action Plan II is one of the importantprojects, being implemented by U.P Jal Nigamthrough its Project offices at Ghaziabad and Agra.It is being implemented in 3 States of the country(Haryana, Delhi and Uttar Pradesh) and withinUP, 8 towns viz Agra, Mathura Vrindavana,Etawah (all under Agra region) Muzaffarnagar,Saharanpur, Noida, Ghaziabad (underGhaziabad region) have been selected where riverYamuna passes through. During the first phaseof the programme it came out that the river waterpollution cannot be lowered down without theactive participation of the citizens. Therefore inYAP phase II a special component named as PublicParticipation & Awareness component has beenbrought in wherein NGOs are partnering to workat the community level on different themes as:

a) Socio–economic upgradation of the Com-munity Toilet Complexes neighbourhood:As the name suggests, the NGOs involvedhave to improve the lives and environment

of the community residing in the neighbor-hood of the community toilets.

b) School health and hygiene programme:Wherein school going children have beentargeted to sensitise upon the need formaintaining personal hygiene andsanitation.

c) Town Specific innovation programme:Wherein NGOs are given a flexibility todesign and develop a programme specificto the town requirements and could be oneof the most innovative approaches and notnecessarily duplicating the target groups.

d) Clean Yamuna Manch: It is forum of NGOsworking in Agra city, to work exclusively atthe stakeholders level, bring the issue intomainstream of media and academia andhold continuous dialogue. It is one of thepilot programmes to subs-tantiate the effortsof other programmes of the Agra region.

Yamuna Action Plan III: The CabinetCommittee on Economic Affairs in December2011 approved the proposal of "JapanInternational Cooperation Agency (JICA) assistedYamuna Action Plan (YAP) Phase - III project atDelhi", under the Centrally Sponsored Schemeof National River Conservation Plan at anestimated cost of Rs 1656 crore. The project willbe implemented on 85:15 cost sharing basisbetween the Government of India and theGovernment of NCT of Delhi for a period of 7years. Under the YAP-III, it is proposed torehabilitate the damaged trunk sewers tomaximize the utilization of available treatmentcapacity and modernize the Sewage TreatmentPlants (STPs) in three catchment areas of Delhinamely Okhla, Kondli and Rithala.

Watershed Management

Watershed can be defined as the catchmentarea feeding a de-markable drainage system. In asimpler way it can be defined as a region of landthat is crisscrossed by smaller waterways thatdrain into a larger body of water. This entire areaof flowing surface water and ground watertogether is considered a watershed. Watershedmanagement anywhere possesses some commonorientations.

1. To assess the nature and status of thewatershed ecosystem;


2. To define the short-term and long-termgoals for the system;

3. To determine the objectives and actionsneeded to achieve selected goals;

4. To assess both benefits and costs of eachaction;

5. To evaluate the effects, actions and progresstowards goals; and

6. To re-evaluate goals and objectives as partof an interactive process.

The idea of watershed management in Indiawas effectively designed by the DVC (DamodarValley Corporation). Many of micro level integrateddevelopment projects were started in 1970s andearly 1980s by ICAR (Indian Council ofAgricultural Research), Ministry of Environmentand Forests, Ministry of Rural Development andso on. There have also been several aided projectsfunded by World Bank, SDC, ODA, etc. In the1990s, at a number of experimental sites, micro-watershed management has been installed toenhance resource productivity. The new guidelinesintroduced by the Government of India in 1994for micro-watershed development envisaged a highdegree of participation in the design andimplementation of rehabilitation. The guidelinesintroduced a framework that emphasized on thevillage level watershed rehabilitation andmanagement projects.

Watershed management covers a wide rangeof activities to do with land and watermanagement. However, in India watershedmanagement is largely focused on local levelmicro-watershed management for improved soiland water management where mainly groundwater resources are affected. Much of the benefitgained from this is mainly in the form of increasedcrop yields. In India micro watersheds aregenerally defined as falling in the range of 500-1000 ha. In other countries such as South Africaand Zimbabwe catchment management is largelyfocused on river basin level initiatives to ensurethat water is used in the most economical mannerpossible, and that allocation decisions are takenin a transparent and objective manner mainly bythe large scale agricultural and industrial users.In India the entire theme of watershedmanagement has been designed in such a waythat to achieve its targeted success it has to becomea people’s movement. The constitutional frame

of India in this regard provides the opportunityof reciprocative clubbing up of grassrootdemocracy and the utilization of regional naturalresources. The theme of Watershed developmenthas been included in the schedule of subjects,handled by the panchayats after the 73rdConstitutional Amendment.

There are a number of issues of concerns aboutthe current approaches to watershedmanagement. While watershed development hasbenefited many through increased rainfed cropyields, and increased use of irrigation, the resultsare often poorly distributed. In particular thelandless agricultural labourers were hardly ableto enjoy the potential gains. On the other handwatershed management approaches may be overreliant on the assumption of an idealised peaceful‘community’ neglecting the reality of conflictsbetween various social groups and class. Thus,while making a plan for watershed managementone has to keep the following issues in mind:

a) High demand-pressure on scarce areas.

b) Land tenure system and common propertyfeatures.

c) Institutional authority (support, capacityand control).

d) Willingness of participants to contribute inlabour/money/other investment.

e) Technical resources and support readilyavailable to the community (cost effectiveand simple).

f) Caste and religious complexity in theproject area, etc.

Effective watershed management is the needof the hour as it is feared that within a fewdecades availability of water in the country willbe about 1700 to 2000 cubic meters per person asagainst the world average of 5000 to 9000 cubicmeters per person. Already, in one-third of India’sagro-climatic regions, there is water scarcity interms of per capita demand and supply of water.For the coming decades water shed managementshould take an innovative course-a course thatrecognizes water as both a basic need and a scarceresource and therefore seek to address the issuesof availability, quality and access throughintegrated management involving massparticipation.


D. FOREST CONSERVATION

Conservation can be defined as “the rationaluse of the earth’s resources to achieve the highestpossible quality of life for mankind”.

In view of the growing energy crisis, waterpollution and deforestation, and increasinghuman population, man needs to change hisoutlook towards nature from one of irrigationaland reckless exploitation to conservation.

The only way to reverse the trend ofenvironmental deterioration involves rational use“of our valuable resources such as energy, water,forests, etc. Conservation or “preservation ofnatural resources makes it possible to balance thematerial and aesthetic needs of man.

The conservation of forests is simple andobvious. To begin with, as little forest as possibleshould be cut down. We do need timber, but wemust take care that there is no wastage of woodin the process of making timber. As things are, ithas been calculated that two-thirds of a tree iswasted between the time it is cut and the time itis converted into a finished product. Sometimesthe better part of the tree is cut into logs, leavingthe rest to decay. In saw mills the logs are carelesslycut without getting the maximum quantity oftimber out of them. It is obvious that these areextremely wasteful methods and they result inmany more trees being cut than is necessary, suchpractices should be stopped immediately.

Another practice in our country whichravages the forests is ‘shifting cultivation’. Thismeans that peasants clear an area of forest anduse the land for agriculture, and when the soil isexhausted, they abandon the land and clearanother piece of forest. Large tracts of forest havebeen whittled away in this way. Instead of thispractice, farmers should continue to cultivate thesame piece of land, but they should use betterfarming methods which will ensure that the soilremains fertile and can be used again and again.

Very often, forests are destroyed simply forshort-term convenience to locate a variousreasons a factory wants to be located in aparticular area where the only obstacle is a forest.In such cases the forest is usually cut down atonce, so that the factory can be set up. But whatshould really happen is that the owners of thefactory should recognize that the forest is preciousand irreplaceable, and they should locate thefactory on a different site, even though it maycause some inconvenience.

Forest Management

The introduction of forest managementmethods was necessitated mainly by the wastefulapproach of the industrial man for obtaining forestproduce. Block cutting, reforestation, and pest &fire control are some methods practised in a forestmanagement programme. The sustained yieldapproach advocates a continuous supply of modesttimber crop through a method in which theamount of timber harvested annually is replacedby an equal amount of timber crop growth.

The method of block cutting is generally usedin forests having even-aged trees, consisting ofonly very few species. This method is mostlyapplicable in the case of coniferous forests. Aknown area of forest is deforested by cutting downthe entire tree population of that area, and thelost forest area is replaced by reforestation of anadjacent area of the same size. The net result is asustained supply of forest products withoutadversely affecting the original size of the forest.In this way, the net deforestation is followed bynet reforestation of the deforested areas. In thisway the forest is conserved and at the same timeits yield is sustained.

Forest management has multiple uses. Forestsare effective in controlling floods and soil erosion.The rising trend of river floods in India is primarilydue to loss of some forest areas as a result ofindiscriminate and excessive tree felling.

Forests constitute the best habitat for wildlifeand conservation of forest and wildlife are inter-related. For example, the Vindhya range forest inthe Varanasi division, once an ideal habitat forgame animals, including lions, no longer harbourany tigers or lions.

The trunks of forest trees constitute the mainsource of timber. Lumbermen take away the stemlogs but leave behind the stumps, leaves, barksand twigs as debris. Additional wastage of forestproduce occurs in the saw mills where round logsare cut into squarish or rectangular logs. Recenttechnological advances have made it possible touse sawdust, the bark and pieces of wood forindustrial and commercial purposes.

The world’s future timber demand requiresextensive and intensive utilization andmanagement of forests. Some feasibleapproaches include-

1. Intensification of afforestation orreforestation rates to nearly three times ofthe present rate.


2. Further improvement of timber qualitythrough genetic breeding.

3. Avoiding wasteful cutting and encouragingsustained yield harvesting.

4. Breeding for disease and pest resistantvarieties of forest trees.

5. Control of diseases of important forest treesthrough judicious application of fungicidesand pesticides.

Today there is no need to mention the role offorest in our eco-system. Realising this fact theIndian government has always been aware aboutthe conservation of forest. The “National ForestAction Programme (NFAP)” is a comprehensivestrategic long term plan for the next twenty yearsto address the issues underlying the majorproblems of the forestry sector in line with NationalForest Policy, 1988. The objective of NFAP is tobring one third of the areas of the country underforest/ tree cover and to arrest deforestation forachieving sustainable development of forests.

The centrally sponsored scheme “Introductionof Modern Forest Fire Control Methods” has beenrenamed as “Forest Fire Control andManagement”. This scheme is being presentlyimplemented in all the states.

The concept of “Joint Forest Management” hasbeen accordingly initiated by developingappropriate mechanism. A committee has alsobeen constituted by the Ministry for preparing aJFM scheme in order to ensure long term success.

Programmes of Ministry of Environment &Forests

National Mission on Bamboo Technologyand Trade Development: Bamboo plays animportant role in the rural economy. The NationalMission on Bamboo Technology and TradeDevelopment should be implemented for valueadded high volume products, which will benefitincome generation in the rural base and substitutewood products. The programme would facilitatesetting up of primary and secondary processingunits for value addition of bamboo throughadoption of appropriate technology.

National Bio-Diesel Mission: Production ofbio-diesel from non-edible oil can help in reclaiminglarge areas of waste land, create rural employment

opportunities, substitute imported petroleum dieseland create greeneries entitled for carbon tradingunder Kyoto Protocol. Efforts should be made forearly implementation of the National Mission onBio-diesel mooted by Planning Commission andbe expanded the same to cover 20 per cent of thediesel requirement of the country.

Afforestation through Panchayats: To achievethe target of 33 per cent coverage by 2012, greeningof 28.87 million hectares area outside govt. forests,public lands, private lands, community lands andfarm lands need to be targeted. In this context, it isproposed to revive the social forestry movementfor development of common property resources atthe village level. It is proposed to take upafforestation of 50 ha in each of the 2,34,676 villagepanchayats in 31 States and UTs in addition to thetraditional Councils of Meghalaya, through socialforestry wings of the State. A suitable project willbe developed and launched involving resources foremployment generation and development of landresources.

Gregarious Flowering of Muli Bamboo inNorth East: The Ministry of Environment &Forests has proposed an action plan of Rs. 105crore to deal with the problem of gregariousflowering of Muli Bamboo in the North East. Theamount is to be utilized for extraction of bamboobefore flowering, regeneration of flowered areas,rodent control and arrangements forstrengthening Public Distribution System in viewof expected rodent menace. Considering that theimminent decay of flowered bamboo has itsimpact in the forest areas, the action plan shouldbe implemented in the forestry sector. Therefore,an additional allocation of Rs. 84.8 crore had beenmade for the activities envisaged in the ActionPlan during the Tenth Plan period.

TARGETS FOR TWELFTH PLAN

After an in-depth analysis of the policies andprogrammes in the Environment, Forestry,Biodiversity, Wildlife and Animal Welfare sectors,13 monitorable targets have been set for theTwelfth Plan.

Monitorable Targets for 12th Plan

Environment and Climate Change

1. Assess and remediate 12 identifiedcontaminated sites (hazardous chemicalsand wastes) with potential for groundwater contamination by 2017.


2. Clean 80 per cent of critically pollutedstretches in rivers by 2017 and 100 per centby 2020.

3. States to meet NAAQS in urban areas by2017.

4. To reduce emission intensity of our GDP inline with the target of 20 to 25 per centreduction over 2005 levels by 2020.

Forests and Livelihood

5. Greening 5 million ha under Green IndiaMission, including 1.5 million ha ofdegraded lands, afforestation andecorestoration of 0.9 million ha ofecologically sensitive areas.

6. Technology-based monitoring of forestcover, biodiversity and growing stockincluding change-monitoring on periodicalbasis through dedicated satellite by 2017and establishment of open web-basedNational Forestry and EnvironmentalInformation system for research and publicaccessibility by 2015.

7. Engagement of Village Green Guards/Community Foresters for every Joint ForestManagement (JFM) village by 2016.

8. Establish forestry seed bank in forest circlesand Model Nursery in every district withinformation on public portal by 2014.

Wildlife, Ecotourism and Animal Welfare

9. Twenty per cent of veterinary professionalsin the country will be trained in treatingwildlife.

10. Integrated Ecotourism District Planscovering 10 per cent of all potentialProtected Areas (PAs) by 2017.

11. Promoting participation of private sector,civil societies, NGOs and philanthropists inanimal welfare.

Ecosystem and Biodiversity

12. Restoring 0.1 million ha of wetlands/inlandlakes/water bodies by 2017.

13. Mapping and preparation of biodiversitymanagement plans for deserts (both cold

and arid), coastal areas, important coralzones, wetlands, mangroves and so on tobe completed by 2017.

Environment in 11th Plan

1. Increasing forest and tree cover by 5percentage points.

2. Attaining WHO standards of air quality inall major cities by 2011-12.

3. Treating all urban waste water by 2011-12to clean river waters.

4. Increasing energy efficiency by 20percentage points by 2016-17.

Major Policy Developments during 11th Plan

� The National Environment Policy wasunveiled in 2006 to help realise sustainabledevelopment goals by mainstreamingenvironmental concerns in all developmentactivities.

� The Environmental Impact Assessment(EIA) process has been made more efficient,decentralized and transparent, based on acomprehensive review of the existingenvironmental process and its re-engineering through the EIA Notification,2006, and its amendments thereafter. Asystem of mandatory accreditation of EIA/Environmental Management Plan (EMP)consultants has also been introduced toimprove the quality of impact assessmentreports submitted by project proponents.

� Re-engineering of Coastal Regulation Zone(CRZ) Notification 2011 was done to ensurelivelihood security to fishing and other localcommunities, to conserve and protectcoastal stretches and to promotedevelopment based on scientific principles.Another Notification on Island ProtectionZone was issued for similar purposes forthe islands of Andaman & Nicobar andthe Lakshadweep.

� An NAPCC was released in June 2008 tooutline India’s strategy to meet thechallenge of climate change. The IndianNetwork for Climate Change Assessment(INCCA), a network-based programme tomake science the essence of ourpolicymaking in the climate change space,was also launched.


� Towards conservation of biodiversity, aNational Biodiversity Action Plan wasreleased in November 2008.

� A National Ganga River Basin Authority(NGRBA) has been set up to ensure effectiveabatement of pollution and conservation of theriver Ganga by adopting a holistic approachwith the river basin as the unit of planning.

� The NAAQS have been revised and limitsfor 12 pollutants notified.

� National Green Tribunal (NGT) was set upon 18 October 2010 for effective andexpeditious disposal of cases relating toenvironmental protection and conservationof forests and other natural resources.

� Towards further environmental regulatoryreforms and improving environmental gov-ernance, an exercise has been initiated to

conceptualise and constitute a NationalEnvironment Assessment & MonitoringAuthority (NEAMA).

� To resolve the deadlock of CompensatoryAfforestation Fund Management andPlanning Authority (CAMPA), State LevelCAMPAs have been created, providing anintegrated framework for utilisation ofmultiple sources of funding and activitiesrelating to afforestation, regeneration,conservation and protection of forests.

� Interventions have been undertaken toincrease forest cover. The Green IndiaMission under NAPCC to beoperationalised in 2012–13.

� Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 was amended toenable constitution of the National TigerConservation Authority and the Tiger and otherEndangered Species Crime Control Bureau.

��

Ecology 1©Chronicle IAS Academy

1. Consider the following statements:1. Carbon credits are certificates awarded to

the countries that successfully reduce theemissions that cause global warming andare measured in units of Certified EmissionReductions (CERs).

2. A carbon footprint is a measure of the im-pact, our activities have on the environ-ment and in particular climate change andit relates to the amount of green house gasesproduced in our day-to-day lives throughburning of fossil fuels.

3. A Green Test is a test to determine whethera product is as efficient as possible in termof energy consumption.

4. Green taxes are meant to reduce environ-mental burden by increasing prices, and byshifting the basis of taxation from labourand capital to energy and natural resources.

Which of the following statements is/are cor-rect?(a) Only 1 and 3 (b) Only 2 and 3

(c) Only 2 and 4 (d) All are correct

2. Which of the following components of GreenRevolution can lead to dynamic pressure onthe ecological setup?1. Use of chemical fertilizers

2. Use of pesticides

3. Intensive and accurate irrigation, mostlymade possible by building of dams

4. Use of High Yielding Varieties (HYV)

(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only

(c) 1, 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

3. An Environmental impact Assessment auditevaluates the performance of an EIA by com-paring actual impacts to those that were pre-dicted. The mathematical models for predictionof environmental impact attempt to:1. To provide the basic management tool

which consists of systematic, documented,periodic and objective evaluation of, howwell organization, management systems

ECOLOGY ECOLOGY ECOLOGY ECOLOGY ECOLOGY SAMPLE QUESTIONSSAMPLE QUESTIONSSAMPLE QUESTIONSSAMPLE QUESTIONSSAMPLE QUESTIONS

and equipment are performing.

2. To describe qualitatively and quantitativelythe cause and effect relationship betweenthe various system variables

3. To check the accuracy of predictions andexplain errors of any anthropogenic actdone on environment.

4. The study of impact of environment ofproposed action like policy, plan or project.

Select code: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 only

(c) 1, 2 and 4 d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

4. Consider the following statements:1. A large gene pool indicates extensive ge-

netic diversity.

2. Low genetic diversity can increase chancesof extinction.

3. Genetic drift can help, if population is small,to save from extinction.

Codes:(a) Only 1 & 2 are correct

(b) Only 2 & 3 are correct

(c) Only 1 & 3 are correct

(d) All are correct

5. Consider the following statement and select thecorrect answer.(i) The Stockholm Convention is a global treaty

to protect human health and the environ-ment from persistent organic pollutants(POPs).

(ii) POPs are chemicals that remain persistentin the environment for long periods, be-come widely distributed geographically, ac-cumulate in the fatty tissue of living organ-isms and are toxic to humans and wildlife.

(iii) Saudi Arabia ratified the Stockholm Con-vention on 25 July 2012, becoming its 178thParty.

Codes.(a) i, ii, Only.

Ecology

CHRO

NICLE

IAS A

CADEM

Y

2

(b) i, iii, Only.

(c) ii, iii, only.

(d) all

6. India believes that 'Common but differentiatedresponsibility' for countering the menace of en-vironmental degradation at the internationallevel, to which the developed countries do notsubscribe to.Which of the following statementsis a part of action in line with the above prin-ciple?1. Polluter must pay.

2. Differential contribution to the Global En-vironment Facility (GEF)

3. Differential reduction in the green housegases emissions.

4. Different prices for carbon credits for thedeveloped and the developing countries.

Codes:(a) 1, 2 and 3

(b) 2, 3 and 4

(c) 1, 3 and 4

(d) 1, 2 and 4

7. Various facts for ozone depletion are:i: The jet engines of supersonic aircraft flying

at high altitude release sulphur oxideswhich catalytically destroy ozone molecules.

ii: CFC gets, accumulated in greater amountsat high altitude and in troposphere thesecompounds release chlorine atoms underinfluence of UV radiations which finallyconvert ozone into oxygen.

iii: When the concentration of ozone falls be-low 200 dobson unit, it is called as ozonedepletion.

(a) i,ii,iii (b) ii,iii

(c) iii only (d) none

8. Match the following lists:

List1 (GHG) List2 (Source)

(A) Carbon Dioxide (1) Burning of fossil fuels

(B) Methane (2) Aerosol industries

(C) Nitrous oxide (3) Combustion of carbon

in the absence of oxygen

(D) CFCs (4) Biological processes insoil and water

Codes:A B C D

(a) 1 2 4 3

(b) 1 4 3 2

(c) 1 3 4 2

(d) 3 4 1 2

9. Consider the following statements about theGreen India Mission:

I. The Prime Minister's Council on ClimateChange recently approved 46000 crorerupees for National Mission for Green In-dia.

II. The Green India mission is aimed at in-creasing forest cover in the country by fivemillion hectares by 2020.

III. The mission is to be implemented by theUnion Environment Ministry of India un-der the National Action Plan on ClimateChange announced in 2009.

Which of the above statements is/are correct?(a) Only I and II are correct

(b) Only II and III are correct

(c) Only I and III are correct

(d) All I, II and III are correct

10. Energy flow in an ecosystem is:(a) Bidirectional and cyclic

(b) Bidirectional and non-cyclic

(c) Unidirectional and cyclic

(d) Unidirectional and non-cyclic

11. Match the following definitions:List1 List2(Ecosystem terms) (Definitions)(A) Biotic (1) Vegetation community

Succession developed at the end ofsuccession

(B) Sere (2) Sequence of development of vegetationcommunity

(C) Climax (3) The relational positionof a species or popula-tion in an ecosystem

(D) Niche (4) Replacement of onevegetation communityby other vegetationcommunity

Ecology 3

Choose the correct codes:A B C D

(a) 4 2 1 3

(b) 4 2 3 1

(c) 2 4 1 3

(d) 2 4 3 1

12. Consider the following statement and select thecorrect answer.(i) Mangroves constitute a homogeneous

group of plants with similar adaptations toa particular environment.

(ii) Mangroves are salt tolerant forest ecosys-tems, found mainly in the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world.

(iii) Mangroves trees develop aerial or air-breathing roots to avoid suffocation in theoxygen poor mud.

(iv) A distinctive feature of mangroves is theirlarge fruit, the seeds of which germinateand grow into sturdy seedlings before theyleave the parent plant.

Codes:(a) (i), (ii) & (iii)

(b) (i), (ii) & (iv)

(c) (ii), (iii) & (iv)

(d) (i), (ii), (iii) & (iv)

13. An ecological pyramid is a graphical represen-tation designed to show the biomass at eachtrophic level in a given ecosystem. A geographi-cal representation of an ecological parameterlike number of individuals or amount of biom-ass or amount of energy present in varioustrophic levels of a food chain with producerforming the base and top carnivores at the top.

An ecological pyramid may be upright or in-verted or spindle shaped. Which of the follow-ing pyramid is always upright?(a) Pyramid of Numbers

(b) Pyramid of Biomass

(c) Pyramid of Energy

(d) None of these

14. Match the followingList I List II(National Parks/ (State)Sanctuaries)

(A) Kanger Ghati (1) ChattisgarhNational Park

(B) Nagerhole (2) HaryanaNational park

(C) Kugti Wildlife (3) Himachal Pradesh.Sanctuary

(D) Sultanpur (4) KarnatakaBird Sanctuary

Select the codes:A B C D

(a) 3 2 1 4

(b) 1 4 3 2

(c) 3 4 1 2

(d) 1 2 3 4

15. Coral bleaching is the whitening of coral thatresults from the loss of zooxanthellae or thedegradation of the algae's photosynthetic pig-ment. The factors that lead to coral bleachingare:

i. Global climate change

ii. Destructive fishing methods

iii. Mixing of river water

iv. Deposition of sediments in water

v. Prevalence of invasive species

Which of the above listed threats are correct?(a) ii, iii, iv and v

(b) i, ii, iv and v

(c) i, ii, iii and iv

(d) All of the above

16. Consider the following statements regarding"Bio-fertilizers":1. Biofertilizers add nutrients through the

natural processes of Nitrogen fixation, solu-bilizing phosphorus, and stimulating plantgrowth through the synthesis of growth pro-moting substances.

2. Biofertilizers can be expected to reduce theuse of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.The microorganisms in bio-fertilizers restorethe soil's natural nutrient cycle and buildsoil organic matter.

3. Biofertilizers are Eco-friendly organic agro-inputs but less cost effective than chemicalfertilizers.

4. Bio fertilizers are crop specific.

Ecology

CHRO

NICLE

IAS A

CADEM

Y

4

Which of the above statements are correct?(a) 1, 2, 4 only (b) 2, 3 only

(c) 1, 2, 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4

17. Vermicomposting is a simple biotechnologicalprocess in which certain species of earthwormsare used to enhance the process of waste con-version and produce a better end product. Thebenefits of vermicompost are:

I. Helps to open the "metabolic gap" throughon-site waste recycling.

II. Enhances germination, plant growth, andcrop yield.

III. Reduces greenhouse gas emissions such asmethane and nitric oxide.

(a) I only (b) I and II

(c) II and III (d) All of the above

18. Consider the following statement regarding theNational Green Tribunal of India:

i. It has been established by an act of parlia-ment in 2010.

ii. The chairperson of the tribunal is justiceL.S. Panta, former justice of Supreme Court.

iii. The tribunal has been empowered to issuedirections for the compensation and resti-tution of damage caused from actions ofenvironment negligence applying the pol-luter pays principal.

Code:(a) Only I and ii

(b) Only ii and iii

(c) Only I and iii

(d) All are correct

19. Which one of the following statements is cor-rect about Social Forestry?a. It is the form of forest management preva-

lent in socialist countries.

b. It is one of the conventional methods offorest management.

c. It is a form of forest management imposedby the State.

d. It helps in rebuilding of forest wealth bythe participation of local community.

20. The main effects caused by eutrophication canbe summarized as follows:1. Species diversity decreases

2. Biomass increases

3. Turbidity increases

4. Rate of sedimentation decreases

5. Lifespan of the lake is shortened

Codes:(a) 1, 2, 3 and 5

(b) 1, 2, 3 and 4

(c) 2, 3, 4 and 5

(d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

21. Consider the following facts regarding e-waste-1) Rapid changes in technology and falling

prices have resulted in a fast growth of e-waste around the world.

2) Basel Action Network attempts to combatthe waste trade.

3) Almost all electronic items contain lead andtin (as solder) and copper.

4) Mercury, which is found in fluorescenttubes, affects health of people involved inrecycling causing dermatitis, memory loss,and muscle weakness.

Which of the above statements are correct?

(a) Only 1, 3 and 4 (b) Only 1, 2 and 3

(c) Only 1, 2 and 4 (d) All are correct

22. Match the following:Environmental ImplicationPrincipleA. "Polluter Pays" 1. Ethical responsibility

while caring for infec-tious/ hazardouswaste.

B. "Duty of Care" 2. Magnitude of a par-ticular risk is uncer-tain; it should beassumed that the riskis significant.

C. "Proximity 3. All producers of waste

Principle" are legally and finan-cially responsible forsafe and environmen-tally sound disposal ofwaste they produce.

D. "Precautionary 4. Treatment and dis-posal

Ecology 5

Principle" of hazardous wasteshould take place atthe closest possible lo-cation to the source.

Codes:

A B C D(a) 1 3 4 2

(b) 1 3 2 4

(c) 3 1 2 4

(d) 3 1 4 2

23. Select the correct decreasing order of the globalconsumption of energy from different fuel types.(a) Coal - Oil - Natural Gas - Hydroelectricity

(b) Coal - Oil - Hydroelectricity - Natural Gas

(c) Oil - Coal - Hydroelectricity - Natural Gas

(d) Oil - Coal - Natural Gas - Hydroelectricity

24.i. Synbiotics refers to nutritional supplements

combining probiotics and prebiotics in aform of synergism.

ii. Probiotics are nondigestible food ingredi-ents that selectively stimulate the growthof beneficial microorganisms alreadypresent in people's colon.

iii. Prebiotics are food material that contain livemicroorganisms which are beneficial andalso called friendly bacteria.

iv. Dahi, yoghurt, milk are some forms bywhich probiotics can be introduced insomeone's body.

Select the right choice.

(a) i, ii, iii (b) ii, iii

(c) i, iv (d) i, ii, iii, iv

25. Consider the following statement regardingNoise pollution:1. The loudest sound that a person can stand

without discomfort is about 90 decibels.

2. Most of the big cities of India have noisepollution much higher than the permissiblelimit of 60-70 dB.

3. Noise pollution results in mental tensionblood pressure heart disease and stomachtrouble.

4. Tree plantation along the road side reducesthe noise by 10 to 15 dB.

Which of the above statements are correct?

(a) Only 1, 2 and 4 (b) Only 2, 3 and 4

(c) Only 1, 2 and 3 (d) All are correct

❖❖❖

CH

RCH

RCH

RCH

RCH

RO

NIC

LE

ON

ICLE

ON

ICLE

ON

ICLE

ON

ICLE

IA

S

IA

S

IA

S

IA

S

IA

S AAAAACADEM

Y

CADEM

Y

CADEM

Y

CADEM

Y

CADEM

Y

Ecology

1 (d)

2 (d)

3 (a)

4 (d)

5 (d)

6 (a)

7 (c)

8 (b)

9 (d)

10 (d)

11 (c)

12 (c)

13 (b)


ECOLOGY (SAMPLE QUESTIONS)(ANSWERS)

14 (b)

15 (d)

16 (c)

17 (d)

18 (c)

19 (d)

20 (a)

21 (d)

22 (d)

23 (d)

24 (c)

25 (b)

��

Ecology 1©Chronicle IAS Academy

1. Consider the following1. Star tortoise

2. Monitor lizard

3. Pygmy hog

4. Spider monkey

Which of the above found in India?(a) 1, 2 and 3 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(c) 1 and 4 only

(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

2. Which of the following can be found as pol-lutants in the drinking water in some parts ofIndia?1. Arsenic

2. Sorbitol

3. Fluoride

4. Formaldehyde

5. Uranium

Select the correct answer using the codes givenbelow.(a) 1 and 3 only

(b) 2, 4 and 5 only

(c) 1, 3 and 5 only

(d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

3. Consider the following pairs:1. Nokrek Bio-sphere Reserve : Garo Hills

2. Logtak (Loktak)Lake : Barail Range

3. NamdaphaNational Park : Dafla Hills

Which of the above pairs is/are correctlymatched?(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(c) 1, 2 and 3

(d) None

ECOLOGY (UPSC ECOLOGY (UPSC ECOLOGY (UPSC ECOLOGY (UPSC ECOLOGY (UPSC QUESTIONSQUESTIONSQUESTIONSQUESTIONSQUESTIONS)))))

4. In the grasslands, trees do not replace thegrasses as a part of an ecological successionbecause of(a) insects and fungi

(b) limited sunlight and paucity of nutrients

(c) water limits and fire

(d) None of the above

5. Which one of the following is the correct se-quence of ecosystems in the order of decreas-ing productivity?(a) Oceans, lakes, grasslands, mangroves

(b) Mangroves, oceans, grasslands, lakes

(c) Mangroves, grasslands, lakes, oceans

(d) Oceans, mangroves, lakes, grasslands

6. With reference to food chains in ecosystems,consider the following statements :1. A food chain illustrates the order in which

a chain of organisms feed upon each other.

2. Food chains are found within the popula-tions of a species.

3. A food chain illustrates the numbers of eachorganism which are eaten by others.

Which of the statements given above is / arecorrect?(a) 1 only

(b) 1 and 2 only

(c) 1, 2 and 3

(d) None

7. In which one among the following categoriesof protected areas in India are local peoplenot allowed to collect and use the biomass?(a) Biosphere Reserves

(b) National Parks

(c) Wetlands declared under Ramsar Conven-tion

(d) Wildlife Sanctuaries

8. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment de-scribes the following major categories of eco-

Ecology

CHRO

NICLE

IAS A

CADEM

Y

2

system services-provisioning, supporting,regulating, preserving and cultural. Which oneof the following is supporting service?(a) Production of food and water

(b) Control of climate and disease

(c) Nutrient cycling and crop pollination

(d) Maintenance of diversity

9. What is the difference between the antelopesOryx and Chiru?(a) Oryx is adapted to live in hot and arid areas

whereas Chiru is adapted to live in steppesand semi-desert areas of cold high moun-tains

(b) Oryx is poached for its antlers whereasChiru is poached for its musk

(c) Oryx exists in western India only whereasChiru exists in north-east India only

(d) None of the statements (a), (b) and (c) givenabove is correct.

10. Which of the following can be threats to thebiodiversity of a geographical area?1. Global warming

2. Fragmentation of habitat

3. Invasion of alien species

4. Promotion of vegetarianism

Select the correct answer using the codes givenbelow:(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 and 3 only

(c) 1 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

11. What would happen if phytoplankton of anocean is completely destroyed for some rea-son?

1. The ocean as a carbon sink would be adverselyaffected.

2. The food chains in the ocean would be adverselyaffected.

3. The density of ocean water would drasticallydecrease.

Select the correct answer using the codes givenbelow:(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only

(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

12. Vultures which used to be very common inIndian countryside some years ago are rarelyseen nowadays. This is attributed to(a) The destruction of their nesting sites by new

invasive species

(b) A drug used by cattle owners for treatingtheir diseased cattle

(c) Scarcity of food available to them

(d) a widespread, persistent and fatal diseaseamong them

13. How does National Biodiversity Authority(NBA) help in protecting the Indian agricul-ture?1. NBA checks the biopiracy and protects the

indigenous and traditional genetic re-sources.

2. NBA directly monitors and supervises thescientific research on genetic modificationof crop plants.

3. Application for Intellectual Property Rightsrelated to genetic/biological resources can-not be made without the approval of NBA.

Which of the statements given above is/arecorrect?(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only

(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

14. Consider the following statements:

Chlorofluorocarbons, known as ozone-deplet-ing substances, are used1. in the production of plastic foams

2. in the production of tubeless tyres

3. in cleaning certain electronic components

4. as pressurizing agents in aerosol cans

Which of the statements given above is/arecorrect?(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 4 only

(c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

15. Government of India encourages the cultiva-tion of 'sea buckthorn'. What is the impor-tance of this plant?1. It helps in controlling soil erosion and in

preventing desertification

2. It is a rich source of biodiesel

3. It has nutritional value and is well-adapted

Ecology 3

to live in cold areas of high altitudes.

4. Its timber is of great commercial value.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only

(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

16. The acidification of oceans is increasing. Whyis this phenomenon a cause of concern?1. The growth and survival of calcareous phy-

toplankton will be adversely affected.

2. The growth and survival of coral reefs willbe adversely affected.

3. The survival of some animals that have phy-toplanktonic larvae will be adversely af-fected.

4. The cloud seeding and formation of cloudswill be adversely affected.

Which of the statements given above is/arecorrect?(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 only

(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

17. The increasing amount of carbon dioxide inthe air is slowly raising the temperature ofthe atmosphere, because it absorbs:(a) The water vapours of the air and retains

its heat

(b) The ultraviolet part of the solar radiation

(c) All the solar radiations

(d) The infrared part of the solar radiation

18. Biodiversity forms the basis for human exist-ence in the following ways :1. Soil formation

2. Prevention of soil erosion

3. Recycling of waste

4. Pollination of crops

Select the correct answer using the codes givenbelow:(a) 1, 2 and 3 only

(b) 2, 3 and 4 only

(c) 1 and 4 only

(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

19. Recently, "oilzapper" was in the news. Whatis it?(a) It is an eco-friendly technology for the

remediation of oily sludge and oil spills

(b) It is the latest technology developed forunder-sea oil exploration

(c) It is a genetically engineered high biofuel-yielding maize variety

(d) It is the latest technology to control the ac-cidentally caused flames from oil wells

20. The formation of ozone hole in the Antarcticregion has been a cause of concern. Whatcould be the reason for the formation of thishole?(a) Presence of prominent tropo-spheric turbu-

lence; and inflow of chlorofluorocarbons

(b) Presence of prominent polar front andstratospheric' clouds; and inflow of chlo-rofluorocarbons

(c) Absence of polar front and stratosphericclouds; and inflow of methane and chlo-rofluorocarbons

(d) Increased temperature at polar region dueto global warming

21. Regarding "carbon, credits", which one of thefollowing statements is not correct?(a) The carbon credit system was ratified in

conjunction with the Kyoto Protocol

(b) Carbon credits are awarded to countries orgroups that have reduced greenhouse gasesbelow their emission quota

(c) The goal of the carbon credit system is tolimit the increase of carbon dioxide emis-sion

(d) Carbon credits are- traded at a price fixedfrom time to time by the United NationsEnvironment Programme

22. Consider the following:1. Photosynthesis

2. Respiration

3. Decay of organic matter

4. Volcanic action

Which of the above add carbon dioxide to thecarbon cycle on Earth?(a) 1 and 4 only

Ecology

CHRO

NICLE

IAS A

CADEM

Y

4

(b) 2 and 3 only

(c) 2, 3 and 4 only

(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

23. The "Red Data Books" published by the In-ternational Union for Conservation of Natureand Natural Resources (IUCN) contain listsof1. Endemic plant and animal species present

in the biodiversity hotspots,

2. Threatened plant and animal species.

3. Protected sites for conservation of natureand natural resources in various countries.

Select the correct answer using the codes givenbelow:(a) 1 and 3

(b) 2 only

(c) 2 and 3

(d) 3 only

24. Human activities in the recent past havecaused the increased concentration of carbondioxide in the atmosphere, but a lot of it doesnot remain in the lower atmosphere becauseof1. its escape into the outer stratosphere.

2. the photosynthesis by phyto-plankton in theoceans.

3. the trapping of air in the polar ice caps.

Which of the statements given above is/arecorrect?(a) 1 and 2

(b) 2 only

(c) 2 and 3

(d) 3 only

25. In the context of ecosystem productivity, ma-rine upwelling zones are important as theyincrease the marine productivity by bringingthe1. decomposer microorganisms to the surface.

2. nutrients to the surface.

3. bottom-dwelling organisms to- the surface.

Which of the statements given above is/arecorrect?(a) 1 and 2

(b) 2 only

(c) 2 and 3

(d) 3 only

❖❖❖

CH

RCH

RCH

RCH

RCH

RO

NIC

LE

ON

ICLE

ON

ICLE

ON

ICLE

ON

ICLE

IA

S

IA

S

IA

S

IA

S

IA

S AAAAACADEM

Y

CADEM

Y

CADEM

Y

CADEM

Y

CADEM

Y

Ecology 1

1 (a)

2 (a)

3 (a)

4 (d)

5 (c)

6 (a)

7 (b)

8 (c)

9 (a)

10 (a)

11 (a)

12 (b)

13 (d)


ECOLOGY (UPSC QUESTIONS)(ANSWERS)

14 (c)

15 (c)

16 (a)

17 (d)

18 (d)

19 (a)

20 (b)

21 (b)

22 (c)

23 (b)

24 (b)

25 (b)

��

ECOLOGY ENVIRONMENT · ECOLOGY Ecology is a science that studies the interdependent, mutually...

Documents

Transcript of ECOLOGY ENVIRONMENT · ECOLOGY Ecology is a science that studies the interdependent, mutually...