Ecology, Decision-Making, and Environmental Education...
Transcript of Ecology, Decision-Making, and Environmental Education...
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Ecology,Decision-Making,and
Environmental Education. Overview
disciplineapproach-report3JanCincera,MasarykUniversityBrno(CzechRepublic),ClaraVasconcelos,UniversityofPorto,(Portugal),JoanaFaria,UniversityofPorto(Portugal),AlexKoutsourisAgriculturalUniversityofAthens (Greece), Alexandra Smyrniotopoulou, Agricultural University of Athens (Greece),KatarzynaIwinska,MagdalenaKraszewska,CollegiumCivitas(Poland),MichaelJones(SwedishBiodiversity Centre, Uppsala), Peter Aspengren, Swedish University of Agricultural Science(Sweden)
2017
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Tableofcontents:
INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................................3
INFORMATION-ASSIMILATIONAPPROACHES..................................................................................4
ISSUEINVESTIGATIONMODELS.......................................................................................................4
ACTIONCOMPETENCEANDCRITICALPLACE-BASEDEDUCATIONMODELS.......................................7
GAMEANDDISCUSSION-BASEDAPPROACHES................................................................................9CASE-BASEDMETHODOLOGY.....................................................................................................................9DRAMAEDUCATION...............................................................................................................................10GLOBALEDUCATIONANDSYSTEMTHINKINGEDUCATION..............................................................................11
QUALITYASSESSMENTCRITERIAFORISSUE-ORIENTEDEEPROGRAMSANDEDUCATIONALMATERIALS....................................................................................................................................16
DISCUSSION..................................................................................................................................23
CONCLUSION.................................................................................................................................25
REFERENCES..................................................................................................................................25
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IntroductionSincetheverybeginning,environmentaleducation(EE)hastendedtobeorientedtowardmotivating
peopletoparticipateinsolvingenvironmentalproblemsandissues.AccordingtotheTbilisiDeclaration
(1977),thepurposeofEEshouldbetoraisepeople’sawarenessoftheeconomic,social,political,and
ecological interdependence of things, and to “emphasize the complexity of environmental
problems…todevelopcriticalthinkingandproblem-solvingskills”(TbilisiDeclaration,1977).Toachieve
thisgoalinademocraticsociety,peopleshouldobtaincertainknowledge,skills,andattitudes(later
reframedas“competence”)thatwouldallowthemtofacetheseenvironmentalproblemsonboththe
individualandthecollectivelevels.
Theaimofthisreportistoprovideabasicoverviewofrelevanteducationalapproachesforteachers
interestedinincludingenvironmentalorsustainabilityissuesintheircurricula.Althoughthemainfocus
of the report is an educational one, the report is a result of the cooperationof a diverse teamof
scholarsfromdifferentdisciplinesacrossthenaturalandsocialsciences.Duringtheirdiscussions,there
wasopportunitytotacklethe issuesofcapitalism,governanceanddecisionmakingprocesses. The
reportcombinesaliteraturereviewwithexamplesfromthepersonalexperienceoftheauthors,and
it provides both international and national (country-specific) perspectives on the main topic. The
reportalsoreflectsthedifferentneedsofthevarioustypesofthelearningenvironment:whilesome
ofthedescribedapproachesaremoresuitableforsecondaryschooloruniversitystudents(i.e.,case-
basedmethodology,simulationgames),othersmaybemoresuitableforelementarystudents(issue
investigationmodels)orevenforprimaryschoolstudents(dramaeducationmodels).Thepedagogical
approachescanbeusedasaformofinspirationforalreadyexistingEEcurriculaaswellasaformof
fulfillmentofsustainabilitypillarsinthecoursesthatwerenotfocusingonthistopic.
In the contemporary world of global challenges and uncertainty, teaching environmental and
sustainabilityissues1isacrucialimperativeforallteachersaswellasnon-formaleducators.Wehope
thatthisreportwillhelpthemtofindthebestwayhowtointegratethisareaintotheirteaching.
1Inthereport,wedifferentiatebetween“problems”(=situationsinwhichsomethingthatwevalueisatrisk)and“issues”(=situationsinwhichdifferentopinionsexistonhowtosolveaproblem).IntheEEcontext,bothperspectivesmaybeusedwhiledescribingdifferentcontent(whatproblemsexistandshouldbesolvedvs.whatthepossiblesolutionsareandhowtheyarebasedontheattitudesandvaluesofthedifferentstakeholders).
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Information-assimilationapproachesWhile theearlyapproachesemphasized the roleofprovidingproblem-relevantknowledge, it soon
became clear that knowledge itself does notmotivate people toward pro-environmental behavior
(Hungerford&Volk,1990).TheoriginalassumptiontypicalfortheEEprogramsofthe1970’s,called
the K-A-B theory (see image 1), has not been proven, and the EE programs based on it have not
demonstratedtheireffectivenessforincreasingthepro-environmentalbehavioroftheirparticipants
(Hungerford&Volk,1990).
Image1TheK-A-Btheory
However,instructionalstrategiesbasedontheK-A-BtheoryarestillveryfrequentintheEEfieldas
manyprogramstransmitahugeamountofproblem-relevantknowledgetotheirstudents.Although
thisapproachmaybeconsideredverytime-efficient,itisclearthatitopensseriousareasofconcern.
Problem-orientedknowledgemayhaveephemeralimportanceonly.Withoutfurtherelaboration,the
received information can be easily misinterpreted, which may lead to the creation of persistent
misconceptions.Furthermore,ashasbeenalreadydiscussed,newknowledgeitselfdoesnotmotivate
peopletopracticeresponsiblebehavioranditdoesnotdevelopthestudents’competence.Because
of this, K-A-B-based instructional strategies shouldbeusedwith careand, inmost situations, they
shouldbeavoided.
Sincethe1980’s,severalinstructionalapproacheshavebeenlaunchedwhichaimtoincreasepeople’s
motivationtoparticipateindecision-makingprocessesrelatedtosolvingtheemerginglocalandglobal
environmentalproblems.Someoftheseapproacheswillbepresentedinthefollowingchapters.
IssueinvestigationmodelsTwoparticularlyinfluentialmodelsweredevelopedbytheteamledbyH.R.Hungerfordinthe1980s.
Thesemodels,called“IssueInvestigationandActionTrainingModel(IIAT)”and“ExtendedCaseStudy
Knowledge Attitude Behavior
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Model(ECM),”werebasedonasynthesisofanin-depthliteraturereviewofthefactorsshapinghuman
behavior and the on-going process of evaluation of newly developedmodels. On the basis of the
literaturereview,HungerfordandVolk(1990)designedatheorycalled“ResponsibleEnvironmental
Behavior”(REB),identifyingasetofvariableswhoseinterplaywassupposedtoshapehumanbehavior
(seeImage2).Thetheorylistedotherimportantvariablesinadditiontoknowledge,especiallyaffective
variablesandskills,anditdiscriminatedamongdifferenttypesofknowledge(ecologicalknowledge,
issueorientedknowledge,actionknowledge).
Image2ResponsibleEnvironmentalBehaviortheory
Themainimportanceofthetheorywasnotinitsimpactonconservationpsychology(asithasbeen
partiallyreplacedbyotherbehavioralmodelsinthefollowingdecades)butinitsbenefitforEEpractice.
The significance of emotions, attitudes, skills, and action-oriented beliefs expressed by themodel
resonatedininstructionalmodelsthatweremorefinelyelaboratedandmoreeffectivethantheformer
K-A-B-orientedEEprograms.
BoththemodelsdevelopedbyHungerford’steamhavebeenproventobehighlyeffectiveinchanging
the participants’ understanding, skills, attitudes, and behavior (Hungerford& Volk, 1981; Ramsey,
1993;Culen,1994;Hsu,2004;Volk&Cheak,2005;Marcinkowski,2001;2004),andsotheyhavebeen
appliedinmanycountries.
Thesemodelsusea4-stepsequenceofactivitiesthatrangefromaninitialteacher-orientedfocustoa
veryopenstudent-orientedproject(seeImage3).
Entry-level
• Environmen-talsensitivity
• Ecologicalknowledge
Ownership
• In-depthknowledgeabout anissue
• Personalinvestment
Empowerment
• Actionknowledgeandskills
• Internallocusofcontrol
• Intentiontoact
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Image3IssueInvestigationmodels
An important aspectof both thesemodels (thatdiffermainly in the third stepof the sequence in
regards to the level of the students’ independence in the inquiry process) is that they provide
experiencewithdealingwitharealissue,preferablyanissuefromthestudents’localenvironmentand
community.Thestudentsmayfeelthatthe issuestheyare investigating(theymaychoosewhatto
investigateintheIIATmodel)arepartoftheirfamiliarworldand,becauseofthis,theycouldbecome
attachedtothemandmotivatedtotakearesponsibleaction. Inthe laststep, thestudentsusually
chooseanactionconnectedwithadirectoran indirecteffort to influencesomerelevantdecision-
makingprocesses,e.g.theypresenttheirfindings(e.g.,apublicopinionsurveyabouttheissue)tothe
municipality,participateinpublichearings,orpresenttheirargumentsinpublic.
Althoughboththemodelsmaybeconsideredasneedingaslightupdate,theystillpresentaviable
approach. In theCzechRepublic, theECSmodelwas applied for the Forest in Schoolprogram (7th
grade) conducted by the educational organization Tereza. Although this experience revealed the
limitations connectedwith applying themodel in a different educational environment (the lack of
teacherskills,timeconstrains,etc.),theevaluatedprogramwassuccessfulininfluencingthelocusof
control2oftheparticipatingstudents(sothatmorestudentsbelievedtheywerecapableofaltering
2Locusofcontrolexpresses„thedegreetowhichpeoplebelievethattheyhavecontrolovertheoutcomeofeventsintheirlives,asopposedtoexternalforcesbeyondtheircontrol.“(Wikipedia)
Problemsandissues
•Learningdifferencesbetweenproblemsandissues•Learninghowtoanalyzeissue-orientednewspaperarticles•Learninghowtoanalyzeattitudesandvaluesofissuestakeholders
Skillsdevelopment
•Developinginquiryskillsandknowledge•Learninghowtodesignaresearchplan
Inquiryproject
•Independentinquiryofselectedissues(IIAT)•Groupinquiryofselectedissues(ECS)•Presentation
Responsibleaction
•Voluntarycivicactiontosolveanissue•Presentationofresults
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thestateoftheirlocalenvironmentattheendoftheprogramthanbefore)(Cincera&Simonova,in
press).
Actioncompetenceandcriticalplace-basededucationmodels
Intheearly1990’s,theissueinvestigationmodelswerecriticallyassessedbyagroupofscholarsfrom
Nordiccountries(Jensen&Schnack,1997;Mogensen&Schnack,2010;Breiting&Mogensen,1999).
According to these critics, EE (as representedby the issue investigationmodels) tended to be too
stronglybehavioristic,withanemphasisonindividualbehavioranddirectaction,whileitwasindirect,
collective action and less strictly formulated action competence thatwere seenasneeded for the
societyattheendofthe20thcentury.AccordingtoJensenandSchnack(1997),actioncompetence
consists of components such as knowledge/insight, commitment, vision, and action experiences.
Therefore, the approaches that were recommended highlighted the meaning of the participants’
reflectedexperienceandoftheemancipatory(participative)approachbasedonthestudents’choices
anddecisionsaboutshapingtheirprograms.
IncomparisonwithIIETandECS,theteachersdonotdominateevenintheinitialstepsoftheaction
competencemodels. Rather than transmitting knowledge, they should play the role of facilitators
developing the students’ interpersonal competence (including cooperation, communication, or
decision-making)andprovidingthestudentswiththeopportunitytosolveissuesoftheirownchoice.
Learningshouldoccurasaresultofthestudents’actionandreflection,inarepeated4-stepsequence
basedon theexperiential learning theoryas formulatedbyKurt LewinandDavidKolb (1984) (see
Image4).
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Image4TheExperientialLearningcycle
Although such a critical-thinking approach is still rare in the Czech Republic (it seems to bemore
common in Sweden and some other European countries), a few examples have been recently
mentionedinCinceraetal.(2016).Forinstance,afterparticipatinginadiscussion-basedlessononthe
palmoilissue,elementaryschoolpupilsdecidedtoinvestigatewhichoftheirfavoritebiscuitscontain
palmoil.Afterthis,theywrotealettertotheproducer(whichwastheCzechbranchofaninternational
company)withacomplaintandarequesttoalterthepractice.
Theserecommendationsresonatedwithmanyapproachesthathavebeenusedworld-wideandthat
are relevant for the fieldofEEaswellas forEducation forSustainableDevelopment (ESD),anew,
popularconceptsincetheearly1990s.Anotherpopularapproach,alsoknownintheCzechRepublic,
isplace-basededucation(PBE),whichhighlightstheideaoflinkingtheschoolcurriculawiththelocal
environment and community (Sobel, 2005; Smith, 2007).Given the scopeof this quite broad field
encompassingavarietyofparticularapproaches,DavidGruenewald(2008)calledfor“thecriticalPBE”.
The critical PBEwas supposed to be oriented toward teaching students to critically reflect on the
problems and issues in their community, to identify how these problems and issues are rooted in
hiddenpowerstructures,andtobeactivelyengagedinsolvingtheissuesbydirectorindirectactions.
In this approach, schools should become an agent of change. They should develop the students’
Experience
ReflectionGeneralisation
Transfer
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citizenship competence rather than just transmitting knowledge or preparing the students for the
demandsoftheglobalmarket.
Unfortunately,thiskindofpracticeisstillnewintheCzechRepublic,andthesekindsofschoolactivities
areoftenmetwithmisunderstandingoranimosityfromtheimplicatedmunicipalbodies.Asaresult,
teacherstendto“choose”non-controversialissuesfortheirstudents,issuesthatareoftenbasedon
“greening”thewasteareas,increasingsafetyontheroadsneartheirschools,etc.(Cinceraetal.,2016).
Formanyschools,itseemstobesafertoengageinvariousgameordiscussion-basedscenariosrather
thantodealwithreal-lifeissues.Asthisapproachmayalsohaveitsmerits,itwillbeanalyzedinthe
nextchapter.
Gameanddiscussion-basedapproachesAlthoughitistheinstructionalstrategiesbasedonactualparticipationinreal-lifeproblemsthatseem
tohavethehighestimpactonstudents’competence,fartoooftenthisapproachisnotmanageable
forteachers.Limitedtime,lackofexperience,orthecomplexnatureofglobalproblemsmayincrease
theneedforalternative,lessdemandingapproaches.Sound,evenifprobablylesspowerful,strategies
arebasedonprovidingindirectexperiencewiththeinvestigatedissuesthroughdiscussionactivities,
textanalysis,andvariousrole-playingorsimulationgames.
InthecontextofEE,thesetypesofactivitieshavebeenfrequentlyusedsincetheveryfoundationof
thefieldinthe1970s.Whileinthisfieldtherearemanyoverlappingapproachesthatprovidestudents
with indirectexperiencewithEE/ESD-relevant issues, justa fewof themwillbedescribed inmore
detailhere.
Case-basedmethodology
A case-basedmethodology stands for a socio-constructivist perspective in which the teacher is a
mediatorandstudentsworkingroupsandlearnfromtheirpeers.Firstappliedin1870,inaLawSchool
intheUnitedStatesofAmerica(HarvardGraduateSchoolofBusinessAdministration),whereanewly
appointedDean,ChristopherLangdell,beganteachingbyreferringtorealcases,brokeawaydecades
ofteachingthroughlecturesandtransmissiveapproachestoteaching.Thesuccessandeffectiveness
ofthisnewapproachwasduetothequalityofthematerialsprovidedandthecommitmentofthe
institutioningainingexpertiseinthenewteachingmethod.
The use of real-life cases (actual or historical) allows students to developmore complex levels of
cognitive learning, which will lead to the development of analytical skills and evaluation and
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application competences. Is has also beenproven that casebasedmethodology can alsopromote
criticalthinkingandenhancedecisionmakingcapabilities.
Thisteachingmethodologyrequiresthatstudentshaveapriorknowledgeofthesubject,inorderto
facilitate thereflectionandresolutionof realcases, inoppositiontoother teachingmethodologies
whichdon’trequirepreviousexperienceorunderstandingofthesubjectunderstudy(e.g.problem-
basedlearning)(Williams,2005).So,acase-basedteachingmethodologyisbasedontheideathatnew
knowledgeisbuiltuponpreviousknowledge,byaddingexperiencetoit(Harrington&Garrison,1992),
thus closing the gap between the complex reality and the theoretical principles taught in the
classroom.Byprovidingareal-lifecontext,thestudentstendtoputthemselvesintotheroleofthe
actorsinthecase,whichwillfacilitatestudent’sengagementintheactivityandinthelearningprocess.
It isalsooftenmentionedbystudentsthatthismethodologypromotesanddevelops interpersonal
skillsbyenablingactivediscussionandinteractionbetweenstudents(Williams,2005).
Dramaeducation
Other approaches introduce EE/ESD-relevant issues through playing roles in a kind of educational
drama.Theideaofmergingtherolesoftheaudiencewiththoseoftheactorsinaco-created,critically
engagedplaymaybetracedbacktotheworksofPauloFreire(2005)andAugustoBoalwhoorganized
the so called “theatre of the oppressed”. In this kind of a “street show”, the public, usually the
membersof the low-class society living in poor suburbsof developing countries,weredepicted in
varioussituationsreflectingtheexistingsocialoppressionandtheassociateddilemmas.Afterseeing
thenegativeconsequencesofoneofthepossiblechoicesinsuchadilemma,theaudiencewasinvited
to take the role of actors and solve the issue in anotherway,with a positive result. This concept
highlightedtheimportanceofempowermentasapreconditionoffutureresponsiblebehavior.
Despite the on-going discussion about fromwhat age exactly the students aremature enough to
accepttheemotionalburdenconnectedwithglobalproblems,therearesomeapproachesfocusedon
presentingglobalissueseventoprimaryschoolpupils.Amongthem,theGlobalStorylinesmaybeseen
asoneofthemostinterestingones.ThemethodisbasedonmergingEE/ESDanddramaeducation
discourses.Studentsareencouragedtoplayacharacterinapartiallypre-designedplaypresentinga
selected issue (e.g., immigration, the exhaustion of the natural sources, water scarcity etc.)
(McNaughton, 2004, 2006, 2012). They start to be emotionally engaged and are asked to solve
dilemmaspostulatedbytheteacherthroughtheplay’sscript.
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Thisapproachhasprovedtobeeffectivemainly in increasingthepupils’ issueawarenessandtheir
empathytowardmarginalizedandoppressedgroups(e.g.,theindigenouspeoplelivinginadestroyed
tropical forest). It has also had some positive impact on the pupils’ interpersonal competence
(communication and cooperation skills) (McNaughton, 2004, 2006, 2012, 2014; Vaďurová &
Slepičková,2015).
Globaleducationandsystemthinkingeducation
AnotherapproachbasedonprovidinganindirectexperiencewithEE/ESDproblemsisglobaleducation
(GE),whichwasfoundedintheearly1980s.Inthisapproach,theissuesarepresentedbyvarioustypes
ofdiscussiontechniquesandeducationalgames,e.g.role-playing,simulationgames,etc.(Greig,Pike
& Selby, 1987; Pike& Selby, 1994). InGE, awareness of the issues and competence development
occupyacentralposition,whiletheothervariablesdefinedbyREBarerarelyused.Thisapproachmay
be related to Freire’s conceptof “consciousness” as theprecondition for critical reflectionand for
challengingtheexistingformsofsocialoppression(2005).Anotherconnectionmaybefoundwiththe
Mezirow(2001)conceptoftransformativelearning,orwiththeMeadowsandSweeney(2010)concept
ofsystemsthinkingeducation.Alloftheseapproacheshighlightthe ideaofaradicalchange inthe
students’understandingofthesocialreality(mentalmodels,mentalparadigms,framesofreference)
causedbytheirexposuretoanemotionalexperienceandtoadifferentperspective(seeimage5).This
experiencemaybemediatedwiththehelpofvariousgames:playingadifferentrolemayprovidea
newperspectiveandchallengethewaytheparticipantsinterprettheinvestigatedphenomenon.
Suchatheorymaybewell illustratedbytheexampleoftheFishBanks,a famoussimulationgame
developedbyD.Meadows (1999). Theactivity is intended toexplain the tragedyof the commons
systemicarchetypebyG.Hardin(1998)and,morebroadly,theconceptofmentalmodelspresented
bytheIcebergmodel(seeImage5)(Sweeney&Meadows,2010).
TheIcebergmodelrepresentstheoverlyingassumptionofthesystemsthinkingeducationalapproach.
According to this model, educational games help students to realize that the individual events
occurringinthegame(andrepresentingsimilareventsinreallife)areoftenpartofalargerpattern.
Thispatternmaybegeneratedbythe(oftenunexamined)organizationalstructureappliedforsolving
thesituation.Theorganizationalstructureitselfisaresultof(oftenunexamined)mentalmodels,the
way we think and assess social phenomena. Through an initiating experience and a follow-up
reflection,theorganizationalstructureandmentalmodelsarediscoveredandthestudentsmayassess
themodels’relevancefortheirfuturedecision-making.
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Inthegame,theparticipantsplaytherolesofsmallindependentcompaniesresponsibleforfishingin
asharedseaarea.Inthefrequentlyusedgamescenario,studentsoftendonotrealizethatfish,while
beingarenewablesource,maybeexhaustedbyoverreachingthenumberoffishingboatsbeyondthe
carrying capacity of the ecosystem (a mental model). Because of this lack of awareness, the
participantsunnecessarilycompetewiththeothercompaniesandgraduallyincreasethenumberof
boatsintheirfleet(anorganizationalstructure)beforetheydetectthefirstsignsofcollapse(anevent,
apattern).Thisexperience,oftenemotionallyloaded,isassumedtochallengetheparticipants’mental
modelsand,asaresult,itshouldleadthemtoadoptadifferentorganizationalstructureinsimilarreal-
lifesituations.
Howthe“Fishbanks”simulationgamewasreflectedbyitsparticipantsanduniversityteachers:
“Itwasfunnyandinvolvinggame.Allgameplayers(includingmyteam)weresofocusedontheirown
business,thatonlyintheveryendallnoticedthatthecompetitivegameisleadingtoadeadendfor
us.”KatarzynaIwinska,(CollegiumCivitas,Poland)
“Myteamhadaresponsibleattitudetowardnaturalresources.Wewereverycarefulwithourdecisions
andweweretryingtolimitthevolumeoffishingwhenwehadaguessthatthebaybecamedepleted.
Wewerebewilderedwiththebolddecisionsofotherteams.Intheendourapproachdidn’tsavethe
bayaswewereonlyoneamongmany.”MagdalenaKraszewska,(CollegiumCivitas,Poland)
“Tome,theFishbankGameisnotjustanimportantlessonintheTragedyoftheCommonsArchetype,
italsopointstotheinadequacyofthethreepillarsmetaphorofsustainability.IntheFishbankGame
wefocusedoneconomicsustainabilitywithoutknowinganythingabouttheresourcebase.Thistells
methatthethree-layercakemetaphorisabettermodelforunderstandingsustainability.Thethree-
layercakemodelisconsistentwiththesystemthinkingcompetencethatweaimtodevelop.Whileon
thesubjectofarchetypaltraps, Ithinkthatwecouldusesomeofthematerial inDonellaMeadows
“SystemThinking”forteachersnotesandorfurtherreading.Herbookincludesachapteronsystem
traps and how to spring them, and a chapter on levers for change in complex systems. The core
competenciesweaimtoachievereflectaparadigmshiftineducationaboutsustainability.Thismirrors
someoftheparadigmshiftcurrentlyhappeninginfieldslikeeconomicsandecosystemmanagement.
Peopledonotchangeparadigmseasilybecauseoftheirvaluesandcognitiveframes.”MichaelJones
(SwedishBiodiversityCentre,Uppsala)
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Image5TheIcebergmodel
Another learningmodeldrivesthesimulationgameTheForest,which isbasedonareworkingand
extendingofanearlieractivityproposedbyPikeandSelby(1994).Thegameissupposedtobeused
as part of a short educational program consisting of an initial discussion, the game itself, and a
reflectionandafollow-uponthestudents’investigationoftheissueofdeforestation(seeImage6).
Thestartingactivity(adiscussiongamecalledTheHipbonegame)isintendedtogivethestudentsan
opportunitytoreflectontheirinitialconceptsconnectedwithdeforestationand,inabroadersense,
withthesystemicinterconnectednessintheworld.Thesimulationgameprovidestheparticipantswith
an indirect experience of the process of deforestation. This process is emotionally loaded and
perceived from different perspectives. The debriefing session follows the logic of the experiential
learningcycle(seeImage4)inwhichtheexperienceisfirstreflectedasastory(whathashappened
fromtheirperspective), then furtheranalyzed (what is similaranddifferent in therealworld),and
finallyitistransferredtothestudents’follow-upinvestigation(intwoconsequentweeks,thestudents
independentlyinvestigatetheareaoftheirconcern,definedinthepreviousstepoftheprogram).
Event
Pattern
Organisationalstructure
Mentalmodel(Paradigm)
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Image6ProcessmodelofTheForestsimulationgame
HowtheForestsimulationgamewasreflectedbyitsparticipantsanduniversityteachers:
“Atthebeginningofthegameeverybodywasmotivatedshowinginterestandenthusiasmintryingto
effectively perform their roles, become aware of their resources and difficulties and therefore set
objectivessuitedtotheirpossibilities.Inthefirstround,playerswereabletoidentifythedifferences
and inequalities atwork, recognize the role of other stakeholders, communicate and interactwith
differentsocialgroupsandcultures,thustocomprehend,tosomedegree,socioculturalandeconomic
relationsand their importance.With thecompletionof the first round,when the first candleswere
extinguished/putout,playersstartedtorealize theconsequencesof theirdecisions,sonegotiations
becametheirprimetarget.Intheconsecutivephases,playersreflectedandemployedstrategiestofind
pointsincommonwithone’sownstandandreachagreementsthroughcarefulplanningandlistening
theotherperson’sversion.Playerswerepressuredbytimeandchangingsituationswhichstimulated
themtorecognizetheirownsuccessesandfailures,thinklogically,integrateintotheirvision,tovarying
degrees (re: roles), environmental ethics, equality and diverse human values and, finally, find
alternativeroutestoachievetheirobjectives…”
“Thegamemotivatedplayerstoperformitwithinterestanddiligence;therefore,thegamewasplayed
withinterest,care,speedandpromptness.Theplayersbecameawareoftheirresourcesanddifficulties
and thus theywere able to set objectives suited to their possibilities; therefore, theywere able to
recognize their own successes and failures. Given the complex, dynamic, contradictory situation,
playerswereabletoidentifythedifferencesandinequalitiesatworkandtocommunicateandinteract
withdifferentsocialgroupsandcultures.TheconnectionsbetweendifferentSHsenabledplayersto
comprehend,tosomedegree,socioculturalandeconomicrelationsandtheirimportance.
Initialdiscussion
•TheHipbonegame
Simulatedexperience
•SimulationgameTheForest
Debriefing
•Reflectionoftheexperience•Comparisonwiththereality
Follow-upassignment
•Studentsinvestigationoftheissue•Presentationoffindings
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Adaptabilitywasalsonecessaryforthegame.Theywerepressuredbytime,disagreements,opposition,
etc.whichdidnotstopthemfromsetting(new)objectivesaswellasfromfindingalternativeroutesto
achievetheirobjectives.Theywerealsostimulatedbythechallengeofchangingsituationsandtriedto
monitortheirprogress.Furthermore,thegamepromotedareflective,criticalattitude,strengthened
(someof)theplayers’(dependingontheroles)capacitytothinklogically,usingreasonasaninstrument
ofdialogueaswellastointegrateintotheirvisionadiversityofknowledge,beliefsandvalues,and
includeethicsasanissue.
Additionally,interpersonalcommunicationwasdevelopedintheframeworkofthegame.Theplayers
wereabletoestablishgooddialoguerelationswithothersandproducecollaborationasaproductof
interactions.Theplayerswereabletoimproveinterpersonalcommunication,conflictmanagementand
theexerciseofleadershipinsmallgroups.
Negotiationwascentraltothegame.Theplayerswereabletolearnandmastersimpletacticssuchas
listeningtotheotherperson’sversionandfindingpointsincommonwithone’sownstand.Theyalso
addressedconflictivesituations,reflectedandemployedstrategiestoreachagreements.Finally,they
wereabletohandleconfrontationsthroughconflictnegotiationorengagingmediation.
Moreover,thegameseemstohavecontributedindevelopingvaluessuchasrespectforhumandignity,
solidarity, global justice, etc. to all the players.” (Alex Koutsouris and Alexandra Smyrniotopoulou,
AgriculturalUniversityofAthens)
“Duringthesimulation“TropicalForest”Iwasastonishedhoweasilywegetintosocalled„capitalist
game” of thinking about particular profits here and now, it saddenedmewhen he lesson was so
realistic:itoccurredthatevenwithverygoodgovernanceintheendthosewhoarebigandrichhavea
greatpower. This experiencemademepessimistic about the futureof theworld…and turned into
thinkinghowtoempowerstudentsthroughactivelearning.Arewegoingtoshowstudents„whatthe
worldis”orshallwealsotrytomakethemmoreactiveandpowerful?Thisisachallengeofsustainable
teachingandteachingsustainability”(KatarzynaIwinska,CollegiumCivitas)
“TheForestsimulationgamewasnotablefortherichnessofthesocialandpoliticaldimensionsofSD
where many stakeholders compete for access to the same resource, and multiple ways in which
stakeholdersderived their livelihood from the forest.Onceagain though, our knowledgeof rateof
changeto the forestwas inadequate forus toplanaheadanddevisebetterwaysofmanagingthe
forestforthebenefitofall.TheForestsimulationisasophisticatedgamewiththepotentialtocreate
lessonplansaroundeachofthecorecompetenciesbyrunningthesimulationindifferentforms,for
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exampleaversionthat isfocusedonvision(anticipatorycompetence)andleadership(interpersonal
competence).”MichaelJones(SwedishBiodiversityCentre,Uppsala)
“Whenplayingand learning inagame like the rain forest simulationgameorFishbanks,onevery
importantpartisthattheendresultwillbedebriefedinawaythatafeelingofhopelessnessisavoided.”
PeterAspengren(SLU,Sweden)
While numerous educationalmaterials with EE-relevant games or discussion-based activities have
been published, they have rarely been the target of rigorous evaluation. In contrast to the issue-
investigationoraction-competencemodels,theyareusuallyconsideredtobepartofalongerprogram
andtheirparticulareffectisusuallynotanalyzed.InthecaseofTheForestprogram,theeffectofthe
simulationgamecannotbeseparatedfromtheeffectofthefullprogramastheinitialdiscussioncould
helpwithframingtheexperienceandthefollow-upinvestigationmightbecrucial forthestudents’
deeper elaboration of the issue. Since the program was aimed to develop the students’ issue
awareness and their systems thinking competence, we could see, on the basis of the students’
reflection,thatsuchadevelopmentlikelyoccurredasthestudentswereabletoreflectontheroleof
newstakeholders in the issue (“Manygroupswithdifferentpreferences,background…”,“also local
timber industry plays its role”) and they became aware of new layers of the social and ecological
mechanismsofdeforestation(“thereasonisnotonlydesirefornewplantationsofpalmtreesbutalso
plantingsoyabeans…”,“governmentplansbuildingnewinfrastructureforestablishingsecurityoflocal
citizens…”,“timbercompaniesmusthavegainsandbecompatibleinglobalmarket”).
Whiletheevaluationresearchoftheissue-orientedprogramsmaybesometimesdifficultorbeyond
thecapacityoftheteachersinvolved,asimplequalityassessmentmayprovideusefulinformationfor
analyzingtherelevanceofsuchprogramsforissue-orientedcurricula.
Quality assessment criteria for issue-oriented EE programs and
educationalmaterialsTheapplicationofqualitycriteriaisoneoftheapproachesdiscussedinassessingEE/ESDprograms.
Assomescholarsassume,notonly theoutcomes,butalso theprocessmatters,andtheprocess is
oftenshapedbyqualitiesthatarehardtomeasure(Mogensen&Schnack,2010).Asaresult,various
setsofqualityassessmentcriteriaexistinthefieldsofbothEE/ESD.Whilesomeofthesetsarerelevant
tospecificprogramsonly(e.g.,thequalitycriteriafortheEco-schoolprogram),othersaredesignedfor
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17
awiderangeofprograms(Reid,Nikel,&Scott,2006;Breiting,Mayer,&Mogensen,2005;Mogensen
&Mayer,2005).
TheRealWorldLearningModel (2015) isanexampleofa recentlypublishedsetofquality criteria
relevantforoutdoorenvironmentaleducationprograms.Themodelrecommendsassessingsixquality
criteria, including ecological concepts, transfer, experience, competence development, values, and
overlyingframes.Whilesomeofthequalitycriteriaarenotnew,theconceptofvaluesandframes,
first expressed in thismodel, provides an interesting perspectivewhich is particularly relevant for
issue-orientedEE/ESDprograms.
“TheuniversalvaluesmodelisvaluableasisthematerialaboutframesfromtheRealWorldLearning
website. Based on my experience as an SD practitioner, understanding values and frames is a
fundamentalpartofresolvingconflict.Understandinghowpeopledevelop,useandchangetheirvalues
andframesisextraordinarilycomplexandisanendlessprocessthatproceedsslowlythroughoutlife.”
MichaelJones(SwedishBiodiversityCentre,Uppsala)
ThevaluesandframescategoriesarebasedonthetheoryofuniversalvaluesexpressedbySchwartz
(1992,1994,2006,2012).AccordingtoSchwartz,thereareuniversalcategoriesofvaluesalloverthe
world(seeImage7).Thecategoriesinfluenceeachother,andsobysupportingsomeofthem(e.g.,by
expressing them as the “message” of an EE/ESD program), we support also the values in the
neighboringcategoriesbutweakenthevaluesintheoppositecategoriesatthesametime.Assomeof
the values (self-direction, universalism, benevolence) support one’s willingness toward altruistic
behaviorandothers(power,achievement)rathertowardegoisticbehavior,thistheoryoffersabroad
scopeofapplicationinalltheaspectsofenvironmentaleducationandcommunication(Blackmoreet
al.,2013).Consideringthis,itmaybeimportanttobecarefulaboutwhatmessagesEE/ESDprograms
communicate.Asanexample,whenaprogramdirectlyorindirectlycommunicatesthefearofglobal
problems, itmay consequently highlight the values of security, and as a result, support calling for
powerandtradition,whileweakeningtheoppositevaluesofself-directionanduniversalism.Thusit
may, paradoxically, support the participants’ tendency toward egoistic behavior andweaken their
motivationtowardresponsibleenvironmentalbehavior.
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18
Image7TheSchwartztheoryofuniversalvalues(Schwartz,1994)
The Guidelines for Excellence EE Materials formulated by the North American Association for
EnvironmentalEducation(NAAEE,2004)offeranexampleofsuchauniversalsetofqualitycriteria.
The Guidelines provide six broad categories of quality, which are further divided into 2-7 specific
qualitycriteria:
• fairnessandaccuracy
o factualaccuracy
o balancedpresentationofdifferingviewpointsandtheories
o opennesstoinquiry
o reflectionofdiversity
• depth
o awareness
o focusonconcepts
o conceptsincontext
o attentiontodifferentscales
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19
• emphasisonskillsbuilding
o criticalandcreativethinking
o applyingskillstoissues
o actionskills
• actionorientation
o senseofpersonalstakeandresponsibility
o self-efficacy
• instructionalsoundness
o learner-centeredinstruction
o differentwaysoflearning
o connectiontolearners’everydaylife
o expandedlearningenvironment
o interdisciplinarity
o goalsandobjectives
o appropriatenessforaspecificsetting
o assessment
• usability
o clarityandlogic
o easytouse
o long-lived
o adaptable
o accompaniedbyinstructionandsupport
o makesubstantiatedclaim
o fitwithnational,state,orlocalrequirements.
WhilemanyqualitycriteriamaybetakenintoconsiderationwhenassessingEE/ESD-issuesrelevant
programs,someofthemseemtobecrucial.Astrongprogramshouldhaveasound“programtheory”,
i.e.thereshouldbeareasonablechancethattheprogrammayachieveitsintendedgoalsthroughthe
plannedsequenceofactivities(Rossi,Lipsey&Freeman,2004;McLaughlin&Jordan,2004,W.K.Kellog
Foundation,2004).Theprogramtheorycouldbevisuallyexpressedbythelogicmodel(seeImage8):
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20
Image8Logicmodel
Onthebasisofawell-articulatedprogramtheory,itispossibletoassessiftheintendedgoalscanbe
achieved. For example, when the “outcomes” (i.e., goals or aims in the educational context) of a
program are “to develop students’ decision-making skills”, the associated activities should likely
provide students with an opportunity to solve a dilemma within which one or (preferably) more
decisionsmustbemade.Thesedecisionsshouldbequitedifficultbutmanageable,andthestudents
should have a chance to reflect on the decision-makingmechanisms (e.g., consent, voting, expert
decision)theyapplied.Whensuchanactivityismissing,thestudentsareaskedtosolveanunsolvable
dilemma,orthereisnotimeforreflection,achievingtheintendedgoalisunlikely.
ThecasefocusedontheorganicfarmingissuedevelopedasthepartoftheWISEprojectaimstodevelop
students’decisionmakingabilitiesandcollaboratingskills.Nevertheless,whentherole-playingdebate
on organic case firstwas tested to the Greek students, these goalswere not clearly stated at the
beginningoftheexercise,consequentlynonegroupwaswillingtoreachanagreementonthereasons
whyorganicfarmingisworthsubsidizing.Thesecondtimetheexercisetookplace,groupsweremore
opentonegotiationsandmutualunderstandingofeachother’sposition.
Another aspect of the instructional soundness of a program is how the program activities are
sequenced.Whilethistopicexceedsthescopeofthisreport,asoundsequenceshouldrespectthe
group’sdynamics(Johnson&Johnson,2006),thestudents’initiallevelofunderstandingofanissue,
anditshoulduseappropriatelearningmodelsdesignedaccordingtosomeoftheexistingtheoriesof
learning(Braus&Wood,1993,Fosnot,2005,Jacobson,McDuff&Monroe,2006,McCarthy,2010).For
examplesoflearningmodels,seeimages3and4,orimage6foranexampleofanalreadyprepared
flowofactivitiesbasedonacombinationoftheconstructivistandexperientiallearningmodels.
Generally,most learningmodelspreferstartingaprogramwithsomekindofdiscussionorwithan
experiential activity, rather thanwith transmitting information,whilenewknowledge is generated
through the whole process (e.g., through the experience, reflection, and application stage).Most
Inputs Activities Outcomes Impact
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21
models also seek the right balance between abstract and concrete learning, experience and
informationtransmission,theoryandapplication.Whenresortingtocase-basedlearningtheteaching
process starts with the presentation of real cases (current or even historical) and in group work
promotereflectionandthedevelopmentofcompetenciessuchascriticalthinkingandself-directed
learning.Still,nolearningmodelcanbeseenastheonlyvalidone,andteachershavetheopportunity
tofindthewayofsequencingtheactivitiesthatworksbestfortheirparticulargroupandgoals.
Forexample,thecasefocusedonorganicfarmingdevelopedasthepartoftheWISEprojectconsists
ofthreestages(seeImage9):
Image9Activitiesflowinthecaseaboutorganicfarming
In thecaseoforganic farmingexercisethe flowofactivitiescomprisesof the followingstages (see
Image9):Atthefirststage,studentsarepresentedbyacomprehensive lecture inorganicfarming,
proposed inorder for the students to acquire thebasic informationonorganic farmingprinciples,
certification, labelling, and financial support. Afterwards, students are divided into groups, and
background informationand supportmaterial aredistributedand further sources indicated. In the
secondstagestudentsparticipateintheirownresearch,groupmeetingsandpreparation(withintwo
weeks’ interval).Finally, theyparticipate ina roleplayingexercise:grouppresentation in theclass,
discussions among and within groups, concluding statements/positions and joint decision making
(basedontheirmutualagreement).
Flowofactivitiesinthecaseonmitigatingfoodwaste:
Intheopeningpartclassisprovidedwithsomefactsthathelptoestablishbackgroundtotheissueof
foodwaste - such as use of resources for agricultural production, demographic data of the world
population,technologicaldevelopmentsthatallowfortheincreaseinfoodproduction,andfinally,the
dataaboutshareofproductionthatisbeingwasted.Withthisopeningagroundforfurtherworkis
Lectureinorganicfarming
Independentresearch
Roleplayingexercise
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laid,andtheextentofthesubjectisalsodemarcated.Fromthismoment,classisdividedintogroups
andfurtherworkisperformedingroups.
Inthenextstagegroupsdiscusshowtheproblemofafoodwastecouldbereducedthrougheveryday
consumerchoices.Withthisexercise,participantsexploreandsummarizeexperienceandknowledge
thatexistswithinthegroup.
Thentheentireclassispresentedwiththelistofpossibleconsumeractionsthatmitigatetheproblem
(preparedbyteacher)andgroupsreflectonthatlistbasedontheirpreviousdiscussion.Theitemsfrom
thelistthatwerediscussedingroupsareacknowledgedandthosethatwerenotarebrieflyreferredto
byteacher.Additionalinputfromeachgroup(whichwasnotonthelist)isaddedtothelist.Afterthis
exercise,eachgrouphassimilarknowledgeonpossibleactionsthatcanbetakentomitigatethefood
wastebyconsumers.
The next activity aims to investigate the motives and consequences of (un)sustainable consumer
choices.Thegroupsaregivendescriptionofconsumers,whichincludetheirfoodrelatedbehavior(two
profilesarepresentedtotheclassbutonetoeachgroup-ofasustainabilityorientedperson-Alexander
orconsumptionorientedperson-Anna).Consumerprofilesareemployedbecausediscussingbehavior
of others is easier for people and seem to increase the openness and frankness of the expressed
opinions.Eachgroupreadstheprofileandchoosesaparticularexampleofconsumerbehaviorthat
mitigatesaproblemoffoodwasteonindividuallevel.Agroupdebatesthecostsandbenefitsofthis
actionforAnnaorAlexander.Next,theimplicationsofthisparticularbehaviorforenvironment,society
andeconomyarereviewed.Viathisexercise,studentsrealizehowindividualactionsaffecttheglobal
situation.
Aftercompletingthegrouptaskwithconsumerprofiles,groupspresenttheiroutcomestotheentire
class. As groups were working with different solutions to food waste problem, the outcomes
vary. Basedon the results students try to identify thecostsandbenefitsof sustainablechoices for
individualconsumers,environment,societyandeconomy.
Inthefinalpart,studentsareencouragedtoselectoneofthefoodrelatedsustainableconsumeractions
whichtheywouldliketoapplyintheirlivesforthenexttwoweeks.Theyarealsoinvitedtosharethe
explanationwhythisaction,andifitisgoingtobedifficultforthem(MagdalenaKraszewska,Collegium
Civitas)
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Discussion
As we can see, there is no one way to teach EE/ESD issues. Table 1 compares the instructional
approachesdiscussedabove.
Knowledge
transmission
Issue
investigation
Action
competence
Case
reflection
Drama
education
Role-playing
and
simulations
Associated
discourses
Transmissive
(information-
assimilation)
learning
Social
constructivism,
experiential
learning,
inquiry-based
learning
Emancipatory
approach,
action
competence
approach
Place-based
education
Critical
education
Interactive,
discussionand
sharing
knowledge
Global
storylines
Critical
education
Drama
education
Global
education
System
thinking
education,
Simulation
gametheory
Underlying
theories
K-A-Btheory REBmodel social learning
theory,
Experiential
learning cycle
(Kolb’scycle)
Social
constructivism
Experiential
learning cycle
(Kolb’scycle)
Social
constructivism
Cognitive
dissonance
Social
constructivism,
experiential
learning
Transformative
education
Cognitive
dissonance
Strategies Presentation Presentation,
text analysis,
investigation,
community-
basedproject
Community-
basedproject
Text analysis,
role-play,
inquiry
activities, oral
presentation,
online
research,
games, and
others.
Role-playing Simulation
games, role-
playing games,
discussion
activities, text
analysis
Approved
effect
Issue
awareness
and
knowledge
Issue
awareness and
knowledge,
attitudes, issue
investigation
Issue
awareness and
knowledge,
empowerment,
action
Issue
awareness
and
knowledge,
Issue
awareness
and
knowledge,
empathy,
Issue
awareness and
knowledge,
Empathy,
system
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24
skills, self-
efficacy, locus
of control,
intentiontoact
competence,
self-efficacy
and locus of
control, place
attachment,
impact on
schoolcontext
Empathy,
system
thinking,
anticipatory,
and
interpersonal
competence
interpersonal
competence
thinking,
anticipatory,
and
interpersonal
competence
Experiencing
anissue
Indirectly Indirectly and
directly
Directly Indirectly or
directly
Indirectly indirectly
Age Secondary
schools,
university
students
Elementaryand
secondary
schoolstudents
Primary,
elementary,
secondary
school and
university
students
Middle,
Secondary
schools and
university
students
Primaryschool
students
Secondary
school and
university
students,
adults
Educational
environment
Formal /
nonformal /
informal
education
Formal
education
Formal /
nonformal
education
Formal /
nonformal
education
Formal /
nonformal
education
Formal /
nonformal
education,
training
Time
requirement
Low(hours) High(months) High(months) Generaly low
(hours)
Medium
(weeks)
Low / medium
(hours/weeks)
Tabulka1ComparisonofdifferentapproachestoteachandlearnissuesinthecontextofEnvironmentalEducation
Asthevariousapproachesoftenoverlapwithoneanother,itisdifficulttoclearlydistinguishamong
them.Forexample,role-playingmaybeinterpretedasa“strategy”inthecontextofthecase-based
methodologybutalsointhecontextofglobaleducation,oritcouldbeeveninterpretedasaparticular
approachthatprovidesliteraturefocusingonsimulationandroleplayinggameswithoutreferencesto
any other approach. Teaching EE/ESD issues may call for a broad understanding of different
approaches and for the teachers’ ability to flexibly switch among the discourses or instructional
strategiesassociatedwiththeseapproaches.However,somepatternsseemtobeemerging.Whilethe
approachesdiscussedheredifferintheireffect,oneoftheaspectstohelpdeterminetheirapplication
could be just what the teacher wants to achieve. Even the transmissive, information-assimilation
approachcouldbeusefulsometimes,especiallywhenitisawarenessthatneedstobeincreasedand
when the allocated time is limited. In other cases, the educational environment
(formal/nonformal/informal)andtheirspecialneedsandopportunitiesmaybewhatmatters.
Suchavarietyalsoopensthequestionofhowandwhenteachersshouldbetrainedtoapplythese
approaches intheir teachingpractice. It ispossiblethat,giventhedemandsof thetopic, in-service
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25
ratherthanpre-serviceteachertrainingmaybringbetterresultsinchangingtheteachingpracticein
schools.Thisformoftrainingwouldmorelikelycallforakindofon-goingcoachingthanaone-shot
course.However,suchanassumptionstillneedstobetestedandconfirmed.
ConclusionTeachers interested in teaching EE/ESD-related issuesmay choose froma large varietyof relevant
educational approaches. The report provided just a brief overview of some of them. The existing
approachesdifferalotintheirtheoreticalbackground,instructionalstrategies,andothercontextual
aspects. Such diversity may be a source of uncertainty, but it can also open space for creatively
designingthebestwaytobeusedinaparticularcontext.
Wehopethatthisreporthelpsteacherstofindtheirownwayinshapingtheirpracticeinthisimportant
educationalarea.
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