Ecology

Climate vs. WeatherClimate : The weather over a period of years as shown by temperature, precipitation, and wind. Long-term trend.Weather : Day to day manifestations in temperature, precipitation and wind. Short term events.

Solar EnergyMain engine of our climate. The sun heats the earth unevenlysolar energy is greatest at the equator and weakest at the poles. That's because, as latitude increases, the sun's rays strike the earth at an angle, diffusing the solar energy.

Differences in Solar EnergyCause temperature differences. How? Warm air rises and cold air sinks, these temperature differences create pressure differences as well. These pressure differences create wind patterns which are a key feature of Earth's climate.

Factors affecting ClimateHydrological cycle. Energy and mass are transferred through Earth's climate systems by precipitation. Water is an important source of latent heat, and a rainstorm can release a large amount of heat into the atmosphere, affecting weather and climate.

Factors affecting ClimateEarth's rotation. If the earth did not rotate, only one convection cell would form in each hemisphere, reaching from the equator to the pole. The Coriolis force (created by the rotating Earth) deflects the winds sideways, creating more complex wind patterns and causing three convection cells to form instead of one.

Factors affecting ClimateEarth's tilt. The 23.5 tilt of the earth moderates the climate by seasonally shifting the zone receiving the greatest solar energy. Northern latitudes receive more solar energy annually than they would if the earth were not tilted.

SeasonsNot by distance from the sun, but by the effect of the uneven distribution of sunlight on the tilted earth.

Weather MeasurementsTemperature Thermometermeasures the average kinetic energy of the various gas molecules that make up the air around("air molecules.)

Weather Measurementscolder air has less kinetic energy than warmer air. When air molecules collide with a thermometer, kinetic energy is transferred from air molecules to the glass and then to the mercury molecules inside the thermometer. As the mercury molecules begin moving faster they move farther apart, pushing the mercury up in the thermometer.

Converting between Fahrenheit and Celsius temperature scales

To convert a Fahrenheit temperature into Celsius: Tc = (5/9)*(Tf-32)To convert a Celsius temperature into degrees Fahrenheit:Tf = ((9/5)*Tc)+32

Weather MeasurementsAir Pressure - BarometerThe weight of air pressing down on Earth, ocean and on air below causes air pressure. Earth's gravity causes the downward force that we know as "weight." The pressure depends on the amount of air above the point where you're measuring the pressure, the pressure decreases as you go higher.Air pressure is related to its density, which is related to the air's temperature and height above the Earth's surface.

Weather Measurements

Weather MeasurementsHumidity Sling psychrometerHumidity is the amount of water vapor in the air

Weather MeasurementsTwo glass thermometers containing mercury. One thermometer measures air temperature while the other measures the wet-bulb temperatures.Procedure: The wick is dipped in distilled water, whirls the sling psychrometer around, using the handle. As the instrument is whirled, water evaporates from the wick on the wet-bulb thermometer and cools the thermometer.

Weather MeasurementsWind movement - Anemometer

Weather MeasurementsRain - Rain Gauge

Solar RadiationRadiant energy emitted by the sun. Electromagnetic energy. Solar radiation with wavelengths, 400 700 nm make up the visible light.

MoistureRefers to the presence of water, often in trace amounts.

Wateris a tasteless, odorless substanceuniversal solvent.Appears colorless to the naked eye in small quantities, though it can be seen to be blue with scientific instruments or in large quantities Abundant substance on Earth (the UNEP estimates 1400 million cubic kilometers), Exists in many forms. Moves through a cycle.

WaterPolar moleculePolarity is reason behind the many unique properties of water. The positive and negative ends of water stick to each other in a loose form of bonding called hydrogen bonding.

WaterHydrogen bonding is reason that liquid water is wet because it sticks to many things and dissolves many substances. Hydrogen bonding is the cause of capillary action, way that most plants are able to get water from their roots to their leaves.

Nutrientselement or compound necessary for organism's metabolism, growth, other functioning. Living organisms require at least 30 to 40 chemical elements.Macronutrients: C, O, H, N, P, Ca, K, Mg, S, Na, ClMicronutrients: Fe, Cu, Zn, I, Bo, Co, Mo, Mn, Se

Geology and Climate affect availability of nutrientsNutrients come from either atmospheric or geological sources.Majority are released from rocks and minerals by weathering.Aspects of weathering important in nutrient availability: The rate at which materials weatherThe elements released.

Soilcollection of natural bodies that form in earthy material on the land surface.consists of mineral and organic matter, as well as living organisms.most important natural resources because of its position in the landscape and its dynamic, physical, chemical, and biologic functions.

Soil forming factors: regional climate- temperature and rainfall- influences plant and animal life in a region.2. Parent material- unconsolidated mass from which soil forms.- composition of rocks determines chemical composition of soil

Soil forming factors: biotic potential -maximum reproductive capacity of an organism under optimum environmental conditions- plants, animal, bacteria, fungi contribute to formation of soil.-Vegetation largely responsible for organic matter in soil and color of surface layer.

Soil forming factors: 4. Topography- contour of land influence amount of water entering soil.- influence rate of erosion and downhill transport of soil material.- Low and flat land, extra water enters soil, subsoil may be wet and grayish in color.

Soil forming factors: 5. Passage of time- Parent materials heavy in texture requires much longer time to develop- Develop slowly in dry regions than in humid ones.- Young soils are not deeply weathered, more fertile than old soil because not exposed to leaching.

Generalized Profile of SoilO horizon surface layerA horizon upper layer of mineral soil with high content of organic matterB horizon zone of illuviation (accumulates of silicates, clay, Fe, Al, and humus)C horizon contains weathered material

Atmosphere

Troposphere Greek tropos - "turn") - lowest atmospheric layer, zone of intense vertical mixing and turbulence. Weather events occurStrongly stirred by windThe depth of troposphere depends on the o latitude (deepest at the equator, shallowest at the poles); o season (deepest in summer, thinnest in winter); Changes with the passage of warm and cold air masses.

StratosphereLatin stratum - "a cover" - layered, stratified zone of atmosphere without much vertical mixing. 18 - 48 km above the surfaceContains ozone layer.Heat in the stratopause comes from UV absorption by ozone.

StratosphereAir temperature is stable but increases with higher altitudeSimilar composition to troposphere except water and ozone.Water is 1000x lower and ozone is 1000x higher than in troposphereVery little air mixing

MesosphereMeso - "middle" - layer in between stratopause and thermosphere 50 - 80 km

Temperature decreases to 80C

Thermosphere Region of highly ionized gases extending up to 1600 KmVery high temperatureNo life exists

ExosphereOuter layerGradually thins out into interplanetary space.

Two more important layers of the AtmosphereIonosphere - layer of electrically charged molecules and atomsIons in the top half of mesosphere and lower thermosphere. Aids in long-distance communication by reflecting radio waves back to Earth.

Two more important layers of the AtmosphereOzone sphere (Ozone layer) - zone of maximum concentration of ozone (O3, three atom form of oxygen) practically coincides with stratosphere (recall that ozone is the source of heat for the upper stratosphere; heat is generated through reaction with UV radiation). Absorbs UVserves as a shield for living organisms. Ozone constitutes only a tiny fraction of atmosphere < 0.002% by volume.

Components of the Atmosphere78% - nitrogen (N2); chemically inactive, neutral21% - oxygen (O2); very active chemically, reacts readily with other substances in the process of oxidation: slow (rock decay) or fast (fuel combustion)0.93% - argon (Ar); inert< 0.04% - trace gases: Neon (Ne), Helium (He), Methane (CH4), Krypton (Kr), Hydrogen (H2)Ozone (O3) - extremely important as a shield for life - absorbs UV rays

These gases have minimal effect on climate and weather.

Gases with significant effect on weather and climate0-4% - water vapor (< 1% on average) - absorbs long wave radiation, emits counter radiation (greenhouse effect), transfers heat by latent heat transfer (see below)0.033-0.036% - carbon dioxide (CO2) - together with water vapor is responsible for greenhouse effect

The Atmosphere Water, Ice, Dust particles (Aerosol)Atmospheric particles can have a significant impact on weather and climate. Some particles are hydroscopic (they absorb water), and stimulate water condensation and formation of clouds. Some particles absorb or reflect solar radiation and decrease the amount of energy that reaches the surface.

EcosystemStructureLivingNon-livingFunctionEnergy flowMatter Cycle

EcosystemsTerrestrial (Biomes)AquaticFreshwaterSaltwater