Eco-cultural Resource Use in Diyakapilla Village: Baseline Survey Report of the Eco-cultural...

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ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA VILLAGE

BASE LINE SURVEY REPORT OF THE ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE

MANAGEMENT PROJECT

K.S. FERNANDO and S.S.S. JASINGHE

Centre for Eco-cultural Studies (CES) Diyakapilla, Sigiriya

Sri Lanka

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ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE

IN DIYAKAPILLA VILLAGE

BASE LINE SURVEY REPORT OF THE ECO-CULTURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT PROJECT

K.S. FERNANDO and S.S.S. JASINGHE

@ Centre for Eco-cultural Studies (CES) 2001 Cover photograph: The Sigiriya Sanctuary

Photographs: S.S.S. Jasinghe and K. S. Fernando Cover Design: .S.S.S. Jasinghe Centre for Eco-cultural Studies (CES) Diyakapilla

Sigiriya

Sri Lanka [email protected] www.cessrilanka.org


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1.0 INTRODUCTION

The Sigiriya area is one of the most diverse and productive ecosystems that

provides economic, environmental and social benefits to the local

communities. The diverse habitats incorporated within this area are the

Tropical Dry-mixed Evergreen Forest type, dry grasslands, village forests,

home gardens and tank environments that harbour over 80% of the Dry Zone

vertebrate fauna -- the majority of which are considered to be nationally

threatened owing to the loss or modification of habitats; almost 60% of the

Dry Zone flora; and the invertebrate faunal group facing a direct threat from

the extensive use of agricultural pesticides and fungicides. The introduction

of national laws to protect endangered environments and cultural sites include

Sigiriya in its entirety as a designated Protected Area (PA) that yet, contains

several occupied traditional villages, including Diyakapilla and neighbouring

Kosgaha Ala. Among the designated Protected Areas are the World Heritage

Site of the Sigiriya royal palace complex and archaeological reserve; Sigiriya

wildlife sanctuary; and the Minneriya-Giritale Nature Reserve. Yet most of

these ecosystems continue to face the

threat of diverse increased human

activities that endanger the

environment and its associated wildlife

that could be prevented by adequate

measures.

Fig.1. Protected Area signage.


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The corresponding lifeways of the traditional agricultural community of

Diyakapilla governed by agriculture, livestock management, hunting,

gathering and fishing among other subsistence practices have also

considerably influenced the environment. The site was selected owing to its

given location and potential to develop community-based natural resource

management that would assist in controlling the community’s present

dependence on the natural forest environment; to promote non-destructive

nature-based enterprises; and eco-cultural research envisaged for the

sustainability of the forest environs. The proposed project aims to focus on

comparative eco-cultural studies and initiate an appropriate methodology for

the sustainable use of natural resources by the local communities in the

Diyakapilla/Sigiriya area, with the strengthening of local communities

through skills development, providing incentives for development of

alternative income generation activities, etc. Preventing further village

expansion into wildlife Protected Areas and controlling the demand for

forestlands impose a legal, political, social and economic challenge to the

authorities concerned primarily due to

inadequate measures for collaboration and

effective community participation.

The baseline survey pertaining to the study

area is necessitated to comprehend the

present status of village lifeways that

concern PA management. The baseline

survey was carried out to obtain the

preliminary data required to develop a

strategy for a community-based

environmental and cultural resource

management model that provides active

local community participation in the

management of Protected Areas.

Fig. 2. Map of Sri Lanka showing the study region.


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1.1 LOCATION

Diyakapilla is situated approximately 3 km east of the nearest establishment

in Sigiriya within the Sigiriya wildlife sanctuary on the peripheries of the

archaeological reserve and World Heritage Site of the Sigiriya Royal complex

and the western boundary of the Minneriya-Giritale Nature Reserve.

Dambulla to the southwest of Diyakapilla is the nearest major town and

economic centre; and Habarana to the north as the hub, also serve as

important tourist destinations.

Fig. 3. Map of the study area of Diyakapilla.

1.2 CLIMATE

The climate throughout the “Dry Zone” is largely influenced by the

convectional rainfall pattern that governs the agricultural calendar. The

principal rains are received annually from the northeast monsoon between

December and February, with brief inter-monsoonal periods from March-

April and October-November. The mean annual temperature falls within the

range of 25o and 27o C. The wind velocity of the region increases


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dramatically and drops to a lower degree in October, while the south-westerly

winds that blow across Sigiriya area reach their peak in June and July.

1.3 GEOLOGY

The area belongs to the Highland Series dating back to the Pre-cambrian

Period. The rock types distributed in the area include magmatite gneiss,

quartzite or quartz and crystalline limestone. Monoliths such as Sigiriya,

Pidurangala and Mapagala dominate the landscape and are important for their

geological formation and cultural value. The dominant types of soil prevalent

in the area are Reddish-brown Earth and Low Humic Gley soil.

Fig. 4. The Sigiriya Rock monolith.

1.4 WATER RESOURCES

Water is evidently the most severely deficient resource in Diyakapilla for

drinking, bathing or sustained agricultural practices. The main natural

waterways of Migolla Ala and Kuda Ulpota flow across Diyakapilla on the


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southern and northern sides respectively, and fall into the village tank of

Kosgaha Ala vava or Vannigamaya vava in Kosgaha Ala further east. The

majority of inhabitants presently use selected sites these waterways for

bathing in, with some sites reserved for drinking purposes. The initiative to

develop the existing waterways for sustained benefits is, however, evidently

minimal, with the exception of one spring well upstream on Migolla Ala that

has been conserved with thoughtful consideration to cleanliness and hygiene

and is often useful in the long dry period in August and September when most

water holes in the area dry out. The remaining sites and drinking water wells

are largely neglected through a lack of concern, despite the continued need for

potable water.

The few sources of available water fit for drinking and bathing are located

along in a few home gardens with approximately 8 m deep wells. These

wells are often shared by only the closest kin and neighbours, while the

remaining families depend on the few available perennial water sources in

Pihilla -- a site marked by the present construction of a causeway or in

Kosgaha Ala. As such, a well dug by the Mahaveli authorities is available for

use for the families of the owners of the compound in which it is located, and

is restricted for common

usage. Additionally, two

to three wells that are less

deep dry out during the

dry period and are thus

seasonally used or

neglected over an

indefinite period.

Fig.5. The village tank: Vannigamaya vava, also

known as Kosgaha Ala vava.


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The only tube well installed in the Primary School yard is accessible to all

members of the community, except when it runs dry with an increased

demand for water, used for drinking and cooking.

The eastern sector of the village particularly lacks water owing to the

widespread dispersal of the subterranean limestone belt. A single well

contains drinking water with two more available for bathing at the lower end

of the hamlet and is shared by a number of families. A further two spring

wells are available for individual use on the south-eastern periphery. A

seasonal waterway along the route to Kosgaha Ala is also used for bathing,

while a common perennial stream is located further east in Pihilla.

1.5 VEGETATION

The most widespread vegetation type in the Dry Zone is the Tropical Dry-

mixed Evergreen Forest ecosystem (Gunatilleke 1990; Andrews 1961;

Holmes 1956; Rosayro 1950). It has also been described as a Semi-deciduous

Forest ecosystem (Greller and Balasubramaniam 1990) and further nominated

as a Semi-evergreen Forest by Dittus (1977). The vegetation in the area

concerned is representative of the Dry Zone lowland vegetation widely

known as secondary forests. The abandonment of the great kingdoms and

tanks in the past coincides with the development of this forest type, in

addition to sustained chena practices (slash-and-burn or shifting cultivation)

in the area.

The dominant species in this forest ecosystem include Manilkara hexandra

(Palu), Drypetes sepiaria (Vira) Diospyros ebenum (Kaluvara), Chloroxylon

swietenia (Buruta), Berrya cordifolia (Halmilla), Vitex altissima (milla) and

Schleichera oleosa (Kon).


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The vegetation along the waterways in moist conditions occurs with the moist

facies of the former general type. The most abundant species in this habitat

are Vitex leucoxylon (Nabada), Madhuka longifolia (Mi), Berrya cordifolia

(Halmilla) Diospyros malabarica (Timbiri), Hydnocarpus venenata (Makulu)

and Mitragyna parvifolia (Halamba) and Terminalia arjuna (Kumbuk). Since

these deciduous species are not all necessarily simultaneously leafless the

forest appears evergreen throughout the year. Species such as Manilkara

hexandra (Palu) and Diospyros ebenum (Kaluvara) are commonly evergreen

emergent, with species such as Mimusops elangi (Munamal) also occasionally

found (Rosayro 1958, Holmes 1956, Cramer (1993).

The ground vegetation in this forest ecosystem is relatively sparse and may be

observed in open areas and large forest gaps mostly induced by the felling of

trees. The undergrowth is floristically very poor and is mostly dominated by a

few grasses and annual herbs.

The Scrub Forest environment consists mainly of thorny and non-thorny

shrubs and a few

scattered trees. The

thorny shrubs found

are Dichrostrachys

cinera (Andara),

Ziziphus mauritiana

(Masan), Ziziphus

oenoplia (Eraminiya)

and Carissa spinarum

(Karamba) and

Lantana carmera

(Gandapana) to name a few. Fig. 6. CES researches on a floristic survey.


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The dominant non-thorny shrub species are Eupatorium odoratum

(Podisinnomaran), Bauhinia tomentosa (Petan), Memecylon umbellatum

(Korakaha), Phyllanthus polyphyllus (Kuratiya), Croton laccifer (Kappetiya),

Glycosmis angustifolia (Bolpana) and Glycosmis pentaphylla (Dhodampana),

among others. This forest type is unique in appearance due to the presence of

scattered trees such as Pterospermum subrifolium (Velang), Bauhinia

racemosa (Maila), Vitex negundo (Nika) and Grewia damine (Dhamunu).

1.6 FAUNA OF THE SIGIRIYA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

The fauna of the Sigiriya Sanctuary and its environs are characteristic of the

diverse species of Birds, Mammals, Reptiles, Amphibians, Freshwater Fishes,

Insects, etc. that are common throughout the Dry Zone. The region supports

over 80% of the Dry Zone vertebrate fauna -- of which most are considered to

be nationally threatened owing to the loss or modification of habitats -- in

addition to almost over 60% of the Dry Zone flora. The invertebrate faunal

group consisting of Butterflies and Moths, Beetles and Spiders, among others

is another fascinating natural resource that

has not received due attention.

1.6.1 Mammals Of the diverse species of fauna represented in

Sigiriya, approximately 40 species are

mammals. Of these, pride of place goes to the

majestic Elephant whose migratory route lies

across the study area. Sigiriya also provides

an ideal habitat for the four living non-human

primate species found in Sri Lanka. Squirrels Fig. 7. Slender Loris.


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are another interesting group of mammals common in forested areas. The

Wild Boar, Porcupine and numerous species of Deer are also dominant in the

forests. Of particular interest are other nocturnal mammals such as the Civet

Cat and Otter who are rarely seen, although they may be observed during the

day after a careful search of the forest.

Table 1. Some selected mammals recorded in the area.

Flying fox (Pteropus giganteus), Indian Porcupine (Hystrix indica), Malabar Bandicoot

(Bandicota indica), Palm Squirrel (Funambulus palmarum), Giant Squirrel (Ratufa

macroura), Black-naped Hare (Lepus nigricollis), Slender Loris (Loris tardigradus), Grey

Langur (Trachypithecus entellus), Purple-faced Leaf Monkey (Semnopithecus vetulus),

Toque Monkey (Macaca sinica), Ring-tailed Civet (Viverricula indica), Grey mongoose

(Herpestes edwardsi), Black-tipped Mongoose (Herpestes smithii), Fishing Cat

(Prinonailurus viverrinus), Otter (Lutra lutra), Jackal (Carnis aures), Elephant (Elephas

maximus), Mouse Deer (Moschiola meminna), Spotted Deer (Axis axis), Sambhur (Cervus

unicolor), Barking Deer (Muntiacus muntijak), Wild Boar (Sus scrofa), Indian Pangolin

(Manis crassicaudata).

1.6.2 Birds

The Sigiriya region contains over 170 species of migrant and resident birds.

Of these, approximately 50% are considered to be nationally threatened.

Numerous types of Babblers, Bulbuls, Barbets, Flycatchers, Eagles,

Parakeets, Pigeons, Owls and Woodpeckers are common as are Kingfishers,

Egrets, Herons, Cormorants and Storks that are found in tank environments.

Migrant birds such as the Forest Wagtail, Indian Pitta, Orange-headed Ground

Thrush and Blue Rock thrushes are the most attractive species found in the

area when winter sets in the Northern Hemisphere.


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Table 2. Some selected birds recorded in the area.

Black-headed Ibis (Threskiornis melanocephalus), Eurasian Spoonbill (Platalea

leucorodia) White-breasted Waterhen (Amaurornis phoenicurus), Barred Buttonquail

(Turnix suscitator), Black Eagle (Ictinaetus malayensis), Crested Serpent Eagle (Spilornis

cheela), Sri Lanka Grey Hornbill (Tockus gingalensis), Malabar Pied Hornbill

(Anthracoceros coronatus), Sri Lanka Jungle Fowl (Gallus lafayettii), Spot-bellied Eagle

Owl (Bubo nipalensis), Oriental Scops Owl (Otus sunia), Blue-faced Malkoha (Rhopodytes

viridirostris), Common Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis), Stork-billed Kingfisher (Halycon

capensis), Crimson-fronted Barbet (Megalaima rubricapilla), Coppersmith Barbet

(Megalaima haemacephala), Gold Leafbird (Chloropsis aurfrons), Flame Minivet

(Pericrocotus flammeus), White-browed Fantail (Rhipidura aureola), Racket-tailed Drongo

(Dicrurus paradiscus), Black-naped Flycatcher (Hypothymis azurea), Paradise Flycatcher

(Terpsiphone paradisi), Orange-headed Thrush (Zoothera citrina), Black-headed Yellow

Bulbul (Pycnonotus melanicterus), Common tailorbird (Orthotomus sutrius), Large-billed

Leaf Warbler (Phylloscopus magnirostris), Dark-fronted Babbler (Rhopocichla atriceps),

Brown-capped Babbler (Pellorneum fuscocapillum).

1.6.3 Fishes

Over 45 species of freshwater fish have been recorded in the area and the

majority are tank-living species. Introduced fish food species are the most

dominant in tank environments. Numerous species of indigenous fish are found

in streams and rock pools and are less frequent in irrigated channels.


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Table 3. Some selected freshwater fishes recorded in the area.

Sicarplet (Amblypharyngodon melettinus), Giant Danio (Danio malabaricus), Flying Barb

(Esomos themoicos), Red-side Barb (Puntius bimaculatus), Swamp Barb (Puntius chola),

Filamented Barb (Puntius filamantosas), Silver Barb (Puntius vittatus), Scarlet-banded

Barb (Puntius amphibius), Olive Barb (Puntius sarana), Blue Labuca (Chela laubuka),

Striped Rasbora (Rasbora daniconius), Stone Sucker (Garra ceylonensis), Common Spiny

Loach (Lepidocephalichthys thamalis), Striped Dwarf Catfish, (Mystus vittatus), Stinging

Catfish (Heteropneustes fossilis), Orange Chromide (Etroplus maculatus), Pearl Spot

(Etroplus suratensis), Tilapiya (Saratherodon mossambicus), Bar Eyed Goby

(Glossogobius guuris), Scribbled Goby (Awaous grammepomus), Brown Snakehead

(Channa gachua), Walking Catfish (Clarias brachysoma).

1.6.4 Amphibians

Of the amphibians recorded in Sri Lanka, over 15 species are distributed in

numerous habitats in the Sigiriya area including streams, tanks, mud flats,

paddy fields, home gardens and forested areas. The forest floor and canopy

also contain numerous species demanding further taxonomic studies.

Table 4. Some selected amphibians recorded in the area.

Common Toad (Bufo melanostictus), Ferguson’s Dwarf Toad (Bufo fergusonii), Red

Narrow-Mouthed Frog (Mycrohyla rubra), Ornate Narrow-mouthed Frog (Mycrohyla

ornata), Spotted Ramanella (Ramanella variegata), Common Bull Frog (Koloula

taprobanica), Balloon Frog (Uperodon systoma), Skipper Frog (Euphlyctis cyanophtyctis),

Six-toed Green-frog (Euphlyctis hexadactylus), Common Paddyfield Frog (Limnonectes

limnocharis), Common Wood-frog (Rana gracilis), Lanka Chunam Tree Frog (Polypedates

maculatus).


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1.6.5 Reptiles

Diverse species of reptiles numbering over 75 have been recorded in the area

including Snakes, Geckos, Agamide Lizards and Skinks.

Table 5. Some common reptiles recorded in the area.

Common Rat Snake (Ptyas mucosus), Seba’s Bronze-back (Dendrolaphis tristis), Green

Whip Snake (Ahaetulla nasutus), Brown Speckled Whip Snake (Ahaetulla pulverulentus),

Flying Snake (Chysophelea ornata), Flying Snake (Chrysopelea taprobanica), Checkered

Keel-back (Xenochrophis asperrimus ), Buff-striped Keel-back (Amphiesma stolata), Cobra

(Naja naja), Russel’s Viper (Doboia russelli), Merrem's hump-nose Viper (Hypnale

hypnale), Green pit Viper (Trimeresurus trigonocephalus), Garden Lizard (Calotes

versicolor), Earless Lizard (Otocriptis wiegmanni), Spotted Gecko (Hemidactylus

maculatus), Common House Gecko (Hemidactylus frenatus), Crocodile Gecko

(Hemidactylus leschenaulti), Scaly Gecko (Hemidactylus triedrus), Devil Gecko (Ceckoella

yakhuna), Common Skink (Mabuya carinata) Spotted Skink (Mabuya macularia), Hard-

shelled Terrapin (Melanochelys trijuga), Soft-shelled Terrapin (Lissemys punctata), Star

tortoise (Geochelone elegans), Land Monitor (Varanus bengalensis), Water Monitor

(Varanus salvator), Marsh Crocodile (Crocodylus palustris).

1.6.6 Insects

Of the 242 species of Butterflies distributed in Sri Lanka, over 60 species

may be observed in the area. Some of them are mostly common in open

areas, while others inhabit the more dense jungle thickets. A higher number

of Butterfly species may be observed during the seasonal migrations,

particularly during March and April.


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Table 6. Common butterflies recorded in the area.

Common Cerulean (Jamides celeno), Red Pierrot (Talicada nyseus), Common Tiger (Danaus

chrysippus), Glassy Tiger (Danaus aglea), Tree Nymph (Idea Lynceus), Indian Crow (Euploea

Core), Great Crow, (Euploea phaenareta), Common Leopard (Phalanta phalantha), Common

Sailor (Neptis hylas), Lime Butterfly (Papilio demoleus), Banded Peacock (Papilio crino),

Common Mormon (Papilio polytes), Crimson Rose (Atrophaneura hector), Common Rose

(Atrophaneura aristolochiae), Common Birdwing (Troides helena), Common Emigrant

(Catospsilia crocale), Lemmon Emigrant (Catopsilia pomona), Common Jezebel (Delias

eucharis), Common Gull (Cepora nerissa), Common Grassy Yellow (Eurema hecabe), Common

Bushbrown (Mycalesis perseus), Common Eveningbrown (Melanitis leda).

2.0 METHODOLOGY

The standard methods applied in socio-anthropological and faunal and

floristic research studies were employed in carrying out the present survey.

Questionnaires designed to meet the overall objectives of the proposed project

and those of the Institute (Centre for Eco-cultural Studies/CES) serve as the

preliminary method for retrieval of the demographic data. Direct and indirect

observations and local knowledge collected through formal and informal

discussions with the local community provide specific information pertaining

to folklore, traditions and present lifeways. The available standard “one inch

to one mile map” published by the Survey Department of Sri Lanka was also

used for a study of the area.

3.0 PAST RESEARCH STUDIES

The few recognized studies hitherto carried out in the area incorporates

Diyakapilla within the overall archaeological landscape researched under the


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Settlement Archaeology Project -- tersely dubbed ‘SARCP’ -- of the

Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology1 (vide Bandaranayake et al. 1990;

1994:9). The archaeological and ethnographic studies carried out under

SARCP since 1988 have served to provide evidence of diverse cultural

activities in the region dating back many millennia. The evidence relating to

past human activities in the study area are also substantiated by early

settlement indicators found in the vicinity of the present and old settlement

(Sinhala: purana gammadda) of Diyakapilla, Kosgaha Ala (since abandoned),

as well as east of Kiri Oya. These sites are marked by iron slag, brick and

pottery sites that have been recorded upon their discovery (vide Manjusri

1988: 24 September 1988; vide Manatunga 1990:79, 82).

Substantiated by these investigations, Diyakapilla is evidently one of several

recognized purana (traditional) villages in the Sigiriya region (vide

Manatunga 1990:77). Among the other recognized villages are the vestigial

Vadda hamlet of Gallinda (since abandoned2), Ilukvava, Kosgaha Ala and

Alakolavava (ibid.). The ethnoarchaeological component of SARCP has also

investigated the extant lifeways of the diverse settlements in the region in

relation to social practices and material culture, among other aspects to

provide greater visibility in interpreting the archaeological record (vide

Myrdal-Runebjer 1994:227).

Despite the cultural significance corroborated by these studies, they have,

however, had no direct effect on the existing structure or the lifeways of the

inhabitants. The present community has been ineffectually informed of the

archaeological significance of their traditional landscape, or measures for its

preservation and promotion to the world outside.

1 PGIAR

2 At the time of its investigation by the present researcher


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3.0 HISTORY OF DIYAKAPILLA

The site of Diyakapilla is historically known as a place of Buddhist ritual and

worship involving the water-cutting ceremony associated with the 1600 year-

old history of the Sigiriya Kingdom -- a practice that is now obsolete, but

testified in name (pers. comm. A. G.3 Wijesinghe) A rock slab inscribed with

a figure of a peacock was evidently removed from the site believed to have

been a ceremonial site, by the Archaeology Department in recent years and

perhaps placed in the Museum in Kandy (pers. comm. A. G. Wijesinghe). The

remains of a forest monastery lying scattered in the forest surroundings

approximately 1/2 km east of the present settlement in the vicinity of Pihilla,

are among the few signs that bear testimony to past religious activities (vide

Manjusri 1988: 24 September 1988).

The recent history of the settlement documents the arrival of settlers from

Kalavava in Anuradhapura during the early 20th century as recalled by their

descendants, the extant older generation. The settlers were members of a

single family of cattle herders (Sinhala Pattikula; Enderan) whose herds had

caused considerable damage to the bund of the reservoir built in the reign of

King Dhatusena in 5th century A.D., thus leading the authorities to direct the

herders away from the tank. Tradition has it that they arrived in Sigiriya and

occupied the property safeguarded by the Archaeological Department that

again led to their ultimate shift to Diyakapilla (pers. comm. A. G. Wijesinghe;

pers. comm. A. G. Appurala).

3 Alut Gedara


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5.0 TRADITIONAL AND PRESENT LAND-USE PATTERN

5.1 Population and settlement layout

Diyakapilla is first mentioned by Lawrie (1990:170) in 1881 with a

population comprising 8 individuals and a century later with a population of

132 inhabitants as revealed in the SARCP investigations (vide

Wickremesekara 1990:162). The extant population approximates 147

inhabitants comprising 40 resident families largely composed of the

descendants of a small kin group bearing the names of Alut Gedara and

Senanayake Mudiyanselage (vide Wickremesekara 1990:162), with the

exception of one non-related family bearing the name of Ratnayake

Mudiyanselage. The notable absence of Gamagedara, a name corresponding

with other villages in the area as indicated in the SARCP investigations is

presently evident. Consequently, recognized social ties are commonly held

with a number of selected contiguous settlements of corresponding context in

conformance with the traditional Dry Zone settlement pattern representative

of others in the area, in addition to the prevailing custom of cross-cousin

marriage (Fernando 2001:9; vide Ievers 1899:89-90; vide Karunananda

1990:39; 1993:vii;). The tendency has been to contract marriages with the

cattle herder-agriculturists of the traditional settlement in Ilukvava (present

Mahasengama) and others of comparable caste in the environs at Kibissa and

Pollattava. Alternately, other settlements outside the area in Matale, Galevela,

Horivila (Senadhiriyagama) and Minneriya are also perceived

(Wickremesekara 1990:163, 165; pers. comm. A. G. Wijesinghe; pers. comm.

Muthumanika).

The first habitations in Diyakapilla pertaining to the family from Kalavava as

known to the present folk were located in the vicinity of Pihilla owing to the

availability of water at the site. This site was occupied until recently as

evident by traces of human settlement, with its last occupants shifting to the


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present location in Diyakapilla. The dispersal of a segment of the community

to the presently abandoned settlement of Kosgaha Ala approximately 1.5 km

east and the present location in Diyakapilla was also subsequently seen. The

efforts of Vanniya and Gamaya of the second generation of settlers resulted

with the damming of the Kosgaha Ala stream to hold the waters of the

tributaries of the Kiri Oya to enable irrigated agriculture; and after whom the

tank has since been named Vannigamaya vava or Kosgaha Ala vava.

The settlement of Kosgaha Ala was abandoned in 1995 with the shift of the 7

resident families to the present location in Diyakapilla. The shift was

attributed to a combination of factors including the influence of social

pressures; an increase in damage to house and property by the wild elephant

population; and the impact of the wildlife Protected Area system on the

traditional lifeways of the inhabitants following the declaration of the

designated Sigiriya wildlife sanctuary, Minneriya-Giritale Nature Reserve,

etc.

Lying due west of the old settlements, the present settlement of Diyakapilla is

dispersed in an east-west orientation and extends over an area approximating

250 acres (2 km2) along

either side of the main gravel

road that continues towards

Minneriya along one track

and Kosgaha Ala and

Dikkanda Ala along another.

The historically recognized

old pilgrim route to

Minneriya also continues

past the main village road

from Kosgaha Ala and narrows

ECO

Fig. 8. The abandoned hamlet in Kosgaha Ala.

-CULTURAL RESOURCE USE IN DIYAKAPILLA

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into the depths of the forest. This track though less circuitous than the main

road is frequented by wild animals -- the elephant, leopard, bear and wild boar

-- by which it is now seldom used by these and other villagers journeying to

and from Minneriya. Composed of habitations each with its own compound of

1 to 2 acre home gardens and a Primary School, Diyakapilla is fringed by

seasonal chena fields.

The most typical structures built in the 2-3 acre home gardens are a dwelling

and a small toilet located outdoors. The three original dwellings occupied by

the second generation of siblings are located at the entrance to the present

settlement and are yet in occupation. A few residents have shifted to other

settlements in the greater region in Kandalama, Galevela and Kakirava among

other areas, while one family with house and property in Diyakapilla and

Dikkanda Ala have shifted to Kibissa recently.

6.0 SUBSISTENCE

Much of the surrounding landscape has been transformed over time from

intensive subsistence activities. Combined, the varied practices have had a

direct impact on the environment now managed under the Protected Area

system that aims to curb land-use within PAs. Resulting from past human

activities, the diverse habitats in the area surrounding Diyakapilla largely

correspond with those in the area comprising Dry-mixed Evergreen Forests,

dry grasslands, abandoned chena lands that have given way to scrublands,

home gardens, tank environments and perennial waterways. The hill ranges

contain relatively undisturbed forest cover that serve as the catchment from

which several streams in the area originate. For example, Yan Oya.

The subsistence practices of the majority of inhabitants continue to influence

the forest environment. As with the older generation, a few members of the


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younger generation presently pursue and are committed toward their

agricultural practices with adequate foresight to sustain them in the future. The

majority are, however, evidently easily prone to external influences with slight

tendency toward long-term social or economic benefits. Alternative income

generation activities within the present framework are considerably minimal.

The majority of males have sought employment as casual workers of the

Cultural Triangle Sigiriya Project and tourist hotels in Sigiriya or similarly in

or outside the village setting. The females are similarly employed in casual

labour work necessitated in seasonal agricultural practices mostly outside

Diyakapilla or in small food catering establishments in Sigiriya New Town

and are mainly reliant on a daily wage.

6.1 Agricultural productions

6.1.1 Paddy and chena cultivation and home gardening

As in the past, the majority of inhabitants are principally sustained by

agriculture. Corresponding with the greater part of the Dry Zone, the lifeways

of the agricultural community of Diyakapilla are largely governed by the

seasonal agricultural calendar. Sedentary agriculture comprising irrigated rice

(Sinhala: Vi; Oryza sativa) cultivation and/or shifting cultivation are the

mainstay economies.

The chena fields are mostly located in proximity to the village boundaries.

Traditional chena practices are mostly obsolete having being curbed by

wildlife conservation policies. The present fields in Diyakapilla are scattered

in isolated parts of the village peripheries that are less frequented by the law

implementing authorities; or are located in proximity to the home gardens

nearer the forest cover. The chena fields are seasonally prepared during the


22

Maha season by independent or shared family groups. A few fields have been

transformed into farmlands that are cultivated year-round. Those with wells

that have been developed have been converted into agricultural fields with the

farming of cash crops as well.

The traditionally cultivated paddy fields on the eastern peripheries of the

village in Ikiri vela is said to have been abandoned about two decades ago

resulting from an insufficient acreage to sustain the population. Most of the

present paddy fields held are located in Kosgaha Ala and to a lesser extent in

Peikkulama and Dikkanda Ala. Combined, they are all located within the

wildlife “Protected Areas.” These and the fields held by a single family in

Peikkulama approximately 7 km away are located within the peripheries of

the Sigiriya wildlife sanctuary. The remaining fields in Dikkanda Ala some 3

km east of Kosgaha Ala are

located within the

peripheries of the Protected

Area in Minneriya-Giritale

Nature Reserve. These fields

were, as of now traditionally

cultivated with the waters of

the Dikkanda Ala vava that

principally irrigates the

Maha season’s crops. Fig. 9. A Tala chena field in Diyakapilla.

Further, cash crops may be grown in the fields nearer the settlement in

Kosgaha Ala during the less intensive Yala season of cultivation, depending

on the availability of water following the preceding season of cultivation.

Diverse other crops may also be grown in the fields under the Mahaveli

irrigation scheme. The grains cultivated in the seasonal chena cycle as with

the paddy and garden produce, are often sold independently and at random

when the need arises. The agricultural practices concerned are often carried


23

out with money or goods (tractors, water motors, water pipes,

insecticides/pesticides, etc.) borrowed on loan or credit. The traditional

method of ploughing with buffaloes is obsolete and is replaced by hand

tractors or larger tractors. At present, the only hand tractor in Diyakapilla is

owned by an individual household for use in their fields. In keeping with the

agricultural calendar to avoid delays and harm to crops, the other

agriculturists hire tractors from neighbouring settlements to work their own

fields. Essentially, the shared labour of the individual and/or extended family

is obtained, while labour from Diyakapilla or neighbouring villages may be

recruited if required when sowing, weeding or harvesting takes place.

Paddy, as with other

irrigated cash crops, such as

pumpkin are sometimes

carried out with the support

of a neighbouring

businessman or interested

persons from outside the

village, as many of the

present inhabitants are yet

unable to bear the entire

costs involved. The initia Fig. 10. Paddy fields in Kosgaha Ala. expenses are thus taken care

of and a tractor provided to plough the fields and transport the harvest from

the paddy fields to the hamlet along the 1.5 km irregular track. Additional

assistance is provided in the harvesting process for a percentage of the share

as well, thus covering the cost of investment while retaining a profit.


24

Table 7. Grain and other dominant crops cultivated

Sinhala name

English name

Botanical name

Bada Iringu Maize; Indian corn Zeamays indentata

Aba Mustard Brassica sp.

Tala Gingelly Sesamum indicum

Kurakkan Finger Millet Eleusine coracana

Mung Green Gram Phaseolus aureus

Batu Brinjal Solanum surattense

Tibbatu Tibbatu Solanum indicum

Elabatu Elabatu Solanum xanthocarpum

Karavila Bitter gourd Mormordica charantia

Asamodagam Asamodagam Trachyspermum roxburghlanum

Kakiri Cucumber Cucumis sp. Pipingnga Cucumber Cucumis sp. Alu puhul Ash pumpkin Benincasa hispida

Vattakka Pumpkin Cucurbita sp.

Miris Chilli Capsicum sp.Var. acuminatum

The home gardens contain a selection of plant foods for home consumption

needs and for sale of vegetables, fruits, leaves, yams and woody plants.

Seasonal cash crops cultivated in agricultural fields provide an additional

means of income. The produce is often sold to independent collectors from

outside the hamlet for a minimal set price for re-sale to established markets at

neighbouring hotels or other establishments. The majority of home gardens

contain a few selected species of crops and woody plants.

Home gardening is also greatly dependent on water. The home gardens are

considerably neglected at present owing to the scarcity of perennial water or

difficulty in accessing the water that may be available. With the availability of

ground water, a well is sometimes dug at a suitable location for home

consumption needs.


25

The soil development methods introduced by agricultural experts previously

are evidently minimally applied. Certain crops introduced recently such as

cashew nut, teak, mango and lime, among others are the most favoured for

home garden mixed-cropping. Papaw and banana also bring considerable cash

and is cultivated by some residents.

Table 8. Fruits and edible leaves common in home gardens

Sinhala name

English name

Botanical name

Pēra Guava Psidium guajava

Pol Coconut Cocos nucifera

Väl dhodam Passion fruit Passiflora edulis

Dhehi Lime Citrus hystrix

Kesel Banana Musa sapientum

Amba Mango Mangifera indica

Beli Beli Aegle marmelos

Dhelum Pomegranate Punica granatum

Dhodam Orange (ambul; pani) Citrus aurantium; Citrus sinensis

Jäm Jam Muntingia calabura

Dhivül Wood-apple Limonia acidissima

Gaslabü Papaya Carica papaya

Anōda Sugar apple Annona squamosa

Katü anōda Soursop Annona muricata

Väli anōda Custard Apple Bullock heart Annona reticulata

Kos Jak Artocarpus heterophyllus

Ratakajü Ground nut Arachis hypogaea

6.2 Hunting, trapping and fishing

As in the past, these as with other forest-dwelling village communities

supplement their income with hunting, fishing and gathering of wild food


26

species including bees honey (vide Fernando 2001:6). Hunting and fishing

have a long history in the area dating back to the Mesolithic culture phase of the

Stone Age. Although these practices are curbed under the Protected Area

system and the hunting of large mammals has in particular decreased in recent

years, small game hunting prevails. The Black-naped Hare, Indian Porcupine,

Mouse Deer, Gray Langur), Purple-faced Leaf Monkey, Hard-shelled

Terrapin, Soft-shelled Terrapin and the Indian Pangolin are some of the faunal

species commonly hunted for food. The Spotted Deer, Sambhur, Barking Deer

and Wild Boar are also hunted though rarely, while the Jungle Fowl and

diverse pigeons are among the birds favoured.

The present mode of hunting in the greater region is mostly with three types of

firearms. The Paturam thuvakkuva (Cartridge-firing shotgun) of which two

such licensed guns are available in Diyakapilla. The Beheth thuvakkuva

(Muzzle-loader) is the most commonly used, while the Bandina thuvakkuva

(Self-triggered gun/Trap gun) is also found among a few families. Possession

of the two latter types is illegal and offenders will be liable for prosecution if

apprehended by the authorities. These types of firearms are thus mostly used

in areas that are least visited by the officials and are often kept hidden in the

chena or paddy fields or in the forest and are only obtained when necessary.

Traps are also used mostly in the environs of the chena or paddy fields. The

types of traps used in the past are now obsolete. The common types in use are

the Deadfall (Sinhala: habaka) -- a weighted trap, Noose (Sinhala: manda),

Pitfall with pit-spear (Sinhala: boruvala), Lati thibima (snaring with sticky

sap/glue). Fishing nets are also used for snaring small animals such as the

Black-naped Hare and birds, and are laid out along the fences in the

agricultural fields.


27

Fishing is a seasonal practice engaged in during the dry period in July-

October when the tank water subsides and a lull follows the Yala season of

agriculture. Fishing is mostly a leisure activity sought for home consumption

needs to add flavour to the

regular diet and provides an

additional source of income to

some families who sell their

produce locally. The most

common mode of fishing is

with

nets, while fishhooks are

limited to a few users. The

village tank in Kosgaha Ala is Fig. 11. Night fishing in Kosgaha Ala vava.

the most common site for tank

fishing and introduced fish species, such as Tilapiya (Saratherodon

mossambicus) are mostly sought. Rock pools such as Alle Vala are

infrequently used for angling owing to its more distant location.

Further, edible and non-edible herbs, fruits, fuelwood and honey from wild

bee colonies are also among the numerous wild produce commonly gathered

from the forest environs by these and other social groups.

6.3 Livestock management

Despite the community’s herding origins the efforts for livestock

management is considerably limited at present. 9 families are small-scale

herders, each with under thirty head of cattle compared with the larger, often

countless herds managed by the preceding generation (pers. comm. A. G.

Wijesinghe 2000). The influence of cattle herding in the area surrounding

Diyakapilla and Kosgaha Ala, extending into Dikkanda Ala in what is now


28

the designated Protected Area of Minneriya-Giritale Nature Reserve is

considerable, having been extensively used for grazing in the past. A rocky

outcrop shaded by scrub referred to as Karapitiya almost adjacent to the

present paddy fields in Dikkanda Ala vel yaya held the cattle in the past (pers.

comm. A. G. M. Jayathilaka 2000). At present, the cattle are usually left to

graze in pastures nearer the village around Boralu vala -- that serves as the

western boundary of the village -- Kadigaha Damana, Ikiri Vela as well as

around Pihilla, Manik Pitiya, Amuna Pitiya and Sohon Pitiya in the southern

and north-eastern quarters. Open cattle pens are constructed in proximity to

the permanent dwellings to house the animals at night for protection from

possible predators (particularly leopard), while the animals are released in the

mornings and allowed to graze till late afternoon. During the seasonal nightly

crop-watching period, however, the cattle and buffalo are left to graze in the

open in proximity to the agricultural fields and watch huts.

The only present economic use of cattle and buffaloes is their sale to the

Muslim traders from neighbouring settlements. The cattle raised with a

minimal of effort are not commonly reared for dairy products, despite the

existing potential for such an enterprise. The non-dairy cattle -- Batu harak (a

small variety) are mostly raised for meat with the sale of the live animal. The

milk of the cow is obtained for home consumption with minimal efforts to

increase production owing to a general lack of interest, work and other

commitments. Shifts in lifeways, laws for wildlife conservation and lands

curtailed for grazing as well as reduced numbers of cattle are further causes

for the lapse.

Additionally, a few families also rear the common domestic fowl. One family

in particular has developed an interest in poultry with a systematically

constructed a coop. The birds are often left to forage during the day in the

vicinity of the home gardens and cooped at night in small enclosures for

protection from predatory animals. The birds are, however, few in number


29

and are mostly reared for eggs, breeding or sale of the bird. Eggs in small

numbers are either consumed at home, sold locally and/or to traders.

Fig. 12. A wild bee colony.

6.4 Beekeeping

Beekeeping or apiculture as a commercial venture using systematic methods

of production is not common to Diyakapilla. The practice is restricted to two

or three families who

maintain colonies in their

home gardens in hollowed

logs, disused pots or the

traditional technique of

housing the colony in a

single-roomed box. Natural

bee colonies are, however,

abundant in the forest

surroundings. The honey of

the bee is mostly harvested

from the wild colonies

annually during the peak

season in May-August and

to a lesser extent in February

and March. Over 500 to 600 bottles may be collected from the wild colonies

for sale to shops in Sigiriya or to chauffeur guides for a price ranging between

Rs.100/- to 125/- per large bottle. With systematic management, however, the

income earned from this venture would be adequate as with the potential for

beekeeping in these environs with the dominant vegetation type being

conducive to bees. Numerous floral species favoured by the common bee

(Apis indica) are widespread in and around Diyakapilla.


30

6.2 NON-AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS

6.2.1 Mi oil extraction

The seeds of the Mi (Madhuka longifolia) tree are collected seasonally for

processing into oil. The oil is traditionally used for cooking and also serves as

a local remedy. The seeds collected by women and children in the dry period

prior to the Maha season’s intense agricultural season are left to dry and

stored in bags. The seeds are processed when the males who assist in the

tedious process of extracting the oil are less confined by agricultural activities

in May/June. The task is carried out outdoors and is often a communal

activity. A male often joined by the women, older children, or neighbouring

females engage in processing

the hard-shelled seeds.

Traditional methods of oil

extraction using a sack made

of woven pan (Ceyperus sp.)

are obsolescent and are

replaced by modern

receptacles such as plastic

fertiliser sacks.

Fig. 13. Extraction of Mi oil using a pressing-device.

The oil extracted is collected into half or one litre bottles in which they are

sold and/or kept for home usage. A half litre bottle is initially sold at

approximately Rs.50/- per bottle. The prices decrease to approximately Rs.

40/- when a larger supply of oil is available in the area in the months ahead

and vice versa.


31

6.2.2 Brick-making

The only type of building material

produced in the village is brick. Brick

making commences during the dry

period and is infrequently engaged in by

a few families. Bricks are mostly

produced for home consumption needs

and/or sold locally. The fuelwood for

firing the bricks are collected from the

surroundings for which selected

branches may also be felled. Fig. 14. Brick firing.

6.2.3 Traditional rush/reed products

The women engage in traditional mat weaving of mats or basketry using a

wild rush/reed plant species -- Pan (Ceyperus sp.) -- and the fronds of

coconut, tal, etc. The practice is, however, growing obsolescent. The raw

material is collected from several sites in Kosgaha Ala and the neighbourhood

of Peikkulama, Potana

and Pidurangala. The

weavers are mostly

skilled in weaving

sleeping mats, baskets

and shallow receptacles.

The products are

primarily woven for

household use and are

not commercially

produced, without colour or design. Fig. 15. Collection of Gallaha Pan.


32

7.0 ENERGY CONSUMPTION

The hamlet is one of several others in the area without an electricity supply.

The local residents are mostly reliant on kerosene oil for lighting. The

existing power lines extend only as far as Sigiriya Town, while a main power

line supplies electricity to the neighbouring tourist establishments and other

settlements. While an electricity supply to the village would provide direct

social and economic benefits -- enhance productivity and minimise the

existing human-elephant conflict rampant in the area -- the numerous attempts

made by the residents to obtain a supply have thus far been futile.

The most common mode of energy used in cooking is fuelwood. The required

supply including fallen branches or those from dead trees are collected from

the surrounding home gardens, chenas and forestlands. The dry period in

August is the most effective for storing a considerable supply for the months

ahead when the annual monsoon makes the task more difficult. Females in

particular often accompanied by one or more others engage in the practice of

collecting the required

fuelwood for the

individual households

and often cross the

village peripheries some

500 m and rarely over 1

km. A bundle of sticks

is also collected as a

frequent practice on the

way home from the

chena or paddy fields.

Fig. 16. Firewood, a common resource found in the surrounding forest.


33

8.0 VILLAGE INFRASTRUCTURE

8.1 The Road Network

The access route to Diyakapilla from Sigiriya via a 3 km gravel track

requires travelling through a forest thicket that is also frequented by the

wild elephant. The road surface is prone to erosion in monsoonal

weather particularly towards the village end. Further access from the

lower end of the village track is hampered by the limestone belt

dispersed in the area, and limits use to tractors. The road is left muddied

in wet weather towards the first open plains encountered in Ikiri Vela,

making travelling difficult along the track to Pihilla and Kosgaha Ala on

foot or by tractor and to herd the grazing cattle to and from the village.

Further lies the old pilgrim route to Minneriya now mostly re-grown

with vegetation through infrequent usage. The more circuitous road

approached from Sigiriya via Inamaluva or Dambulla is accessed, with

the current availability of public transport.

8.2 Transport

Public transport to the village has often been minimal and is one of the

major problems faced by the Diyakapilla community. Until the latter

half of Year 2000, the Secondary School students of Sigiriya Madya

Maha Vidyalaya have had little option but to travel 5 km to school daily

on foot or by bicycle. The elephant is often encountered by the residents

and students on their way to school, and being vulnerable to attack fear

often leads them back home or to seek assistance if they are in the

vicinity of the village. The efforts of the Principal of the Primary School

and resident teachers have led to the introduction of public transport to

Diyakapilla towards the end of Year 2000, with a school bus arranged to

transport the students to and from school. Its regularity is, however,

questionable with the bus often not reporting for duty for days.


34

Public transport along the tarred tract from Sigiriya to Habarana via

Mahasengama (Illukvava) and Gallinda is, however, lacking. A bus

service presently operates only as far as Mahasengama 3.2 km north of

Sigiriya, while the remaining 5.6 km route leading to Habarana is

neglected. Habarana, Minneriya, Polonnaruva, etc. to the north-east may

thus be accessed along the operative bus route from Sigiriya-Inamaluva

or Sigiriya-Dambulla, while the jungle route to Minneriya via

Diyakapilla is also infrequently accessed.

Bicycles are the most common mode of transport and are owned by the

majority of male residents. Additionally, two motorcycles are owned by

two families are the fastest mode of travel at present. The motorcycles

serve as the main mode of transport in an emergency whether day or at

night. Women mostly travel on foot or are doubled on bicycles.

Additionally, three-wheelers may be hired from Sigiriya Town.

8.3 Native Medicinal Cures and Other Medical Practices

A few male and female elders in the village are versed in traditional

native medicinal practices for the treatment of minor ailments. The local

residents are mostly versed in home remedies used in day-to-day

requirements. Additionally, assistance is sought from the God

Minneriya shrine in Diyakapilla which serves to counteract certain

physical and psychological problems that are encountered by the

residents of Diyakapilla as well as the numerous others living in the

greater area.

Western medical treatment is also resorted to as required, from the

nearest medical dispensary in Kibissa approximately 7 km away or from

the Dambulla Base Hospital 18 km away.


35

8.4 Education

8.4.1 Primary Schooling

The Primary School is the only public establishment that presently

exists in Diyakapilla. The Principal and two resident teachers are

responsible for the education provided for all the relevant subjects

included in the curricula from Grades One to Five, as well as for the

welfare of its twenty students. The school comprises a Principal’s office

and one building housing all five grades. Toilet facilities are at a

moderate level, while water is a scarce resource.

8.4.2 Secondary Schooling

There are no existing facilities for secondary school education in

Diyakapilla. The secondary school students are thus required to travel

approximately 5 km to the Sigiriya Madya Maha Vidyalaya – on foot,

bicycle or the recently introduced, but irregular school bus service –

situated beyond the main Sigiriya town on the Dambulla-Sigiriya route.

Education at a higher level than the Ordinary level examination has

often been lacking, with the exception of perhaps one or two of its

residents in the past (pers. comm. A.G. Gunadasa 2001).

8.5 Retail Stores

Diyakapilla does not have a retail store that sells even the basic

commodities. The only small store operating at present sells only

kerosene, sugar and a type of local cigarette – beedi – that is also sold

by one of the village elders at his house. All other requirements have to

be purchased at the nearest store in Sigiriya town or at the Sunday Fair

in Dambulla. Two stores that were previously in operation are

inoperative at present as they were evidently ineffectively managed,

with the goods taken for home consumption needs.


36

8.6 Community Meeting Place

The small community hall situated at the entrance to the hamlet serves

as the main centre for village gatherings and the monthly society

meetings held by the Funerary Welfare Organisation, the Farmer

Organisation and other society meetings.

9.0 RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND CUSTOMS

The residents of Diyakapilla are largely incorporated within the overall

Buddhist farming community of the region. The ancient cave monastery

at Pidurangala serves as the principal temple of worship, while the

hamlet itself is devoid of a temple. The Chief Incumbent of the

Pidurangala Raja Maha Viharaya maintains religious affiliations with

the hamlet, in addition to the Incumbent of the new temple complex in

Sigiriya, with participation in the religious ceremonies held. The

centrally located Buddhist temple in Sigiriya Town was demolished in

the mid-1990’s and relocated to Sigiriya New Town under the

settlement relocation plan of the Central Cultural Fund’s Sigiriya

Cultural Triangle Project. Additionally, the community of Diyakapilla

customarily visit the Pidurangala shrine in veneration of the Hindu

pantheon of Gods influencing the Buddhist rituals, such as Vishnu and

Kataragama to make and fulfill vows.

The only vestige of a Buddhist place of ritual are as revealed above

located north-east of the present habitations, while the only present

place of worship is discerned in the makeshift altar for offering flowers

at the foot of the Bodhiya (Bo tree) in the school yard that also contains

a small shrine housing a Buddha image and an altar for flowers. The

Primary School staff is also committed toward extending their services

to organise the religious activities in the village in keeping with the


37

Buddhist calendar. The programmes conducted including observing sil

for children and parents, active Vesak and Poson pandol competitions

for children and annual pilgrimages to a site of worship, or cultural site

of significance.

Introduction of a Dhamma School (Daham Pasala) by the two resident

school teachers and the support of the Principal of the Primary School

and parents on Sundays serves to benefit the young on the practical

teachings of Buddhism.

The most intense beliefs lie in the worship of God Minneriya (the

incarnate of King Mahasena) [274-301 A.D.) for blessings and

protection (Sinhala: shanthi karma). The only religious establishment

that is popularly visited by numerous inhabitants from neighbouring and

other settlements is the God Minneriya devalaya or shrine, that is one of

two in the area. With the other located at the vestigial Vadda village in

Gallinda (vide Manatunga 1990: 75). Rituals at the God Minneriya

devalaya are customarily held twice weekly on the days considered

auspicious (Sinhala: kemmura), Wednesdays and Saturdays. Devotees

who habitually visit the shrine seek assistance in times of trouble for

which payments are made in cash or kind to the lay priest-medium

(Sinhala: Animitirala). The annual festivities in particular are held in

September under the patronage of the lay priest medium – a descendant

of the family from Kala Vava.

The traditional beliefs pertaining to cattle herding among the

community extends to the veneration of Maggara deviyo, whose

assistance is sought in a ritual ceremony that takes place prior to the

Sinhalese New Year (pers. comm.. A.G. Wijesinghe; pers. comm.. A.G.

Dayaratne). As the protector of cattle, the assistance of the deity is

sought to prevent the spread of epidemics among their cattle and


38

protection from possible predators, such as leopard. The neighbouring

settlements of Illukvava, Gallinda and Pidurangala are also believed to

adhere to this tradition.

The forest-based inhabitants of Diyakapilla as with other forest-dwellers

adhere to the practice of hanging a freshly broken sprig of leaves on a

branch with a prayer to God Minneriya, prior to entering a forest at a

given location. This rule is customarily adhered to prior to undertaking a

specific subsistence-related activity, whether hunting, gathering fishing

or when exploring the forest environs. This gesture symbolises a request

for protection from the guardian deity within whose forest domain the

forest communities live.

The extant community, particularly the older generation also believes in

the practice of Hadi Huniyam (witchcraft). It is commonly assumed that

a sudden economic or other setback such as an illness suffered by an

individual is due to the influence of a magical charm inflicted by one

who may not often be thought of favourably. This action would often

influence the mental makeup of the person it is directed toward as well

as his/her family. In such a situation, assistance is often sought from the

Animitirala to prevent or counteract the influence of the charm. A

further belief involves the practice of “kem krama” in day-to-day life,

for ailments and agricultural practices that are expected to bring

favourable results and to prevent misfortunes.


39

Diagram 1. Priority Demands for Forest Resources in

Diyakapilla

Chena fields

Grazing lands

Paddy fields

Habitations

Mining and gravel extraction

Timber/hardwood species

Hunting, trapping

Gathering:

- Bees honey

- Edible herbs, leaves, fruits, tubers etc.

- Wild grasses (

- Medicinal herbs

- Fuelwood

Vine for cordage

Timber posts/poles

Demand for forest resources


40

10.0 LOCAL-LEVEL DECISION-MAKING

Decisions concerning most village activities and the welfare of the

community are usually taken upon the advice or influence of the

Primary School Principal, resident teachers or the Grama Niladhari

(local State representatives). Additionally, the influence of the

Divisional Secretariat, the District Officer of the Agricultural

Department and the Department of the Wildlife Conservation

(DWLC) are essential in influencing the decisions made at the local

level, with concern to State legislation.

The centralised decision of a family, elder or nuclear family are

often respected and mostly adhered to. A higher level of respect for

elders is particularly common among the present generation and to

some extent, by the younger generation with respect to traditions.

The local Buddhist monks as well as the Animitirala of the village

shrine also influence certain decisions.

11.0 REPRESENTATION OF LOCAL SOCIETIES AND

COMMUNITY ORGANISATIONS

11.1 “Pubudu” Funerary Welfare Organisation

The Funerary Welfare Organisation is the most effective and

efficiently managed local organisation in Diyakapilla, at present. It

was established under the leadership of the Primary School teachers

and is now entirely managed by the appointed Committee

comprising the residents of Diyakapilla. Its primary objective is to

assist one another on the death of a community member. The

organisation also seeks to work towards the welfare of the

community, basic infrastructural development of the village such as


41

the maintenance of the road, community meeting place, etc. The

required funding is obtained from the membership fees and

donations received from interested external sources. A credit

programme amounting to Rs.1500/-, with an interest rate of 15% per

month has also been introduced for the benefit of its members.

11.2 “Isuru” Farmer Society

The Isuru Farmer Society was established with the direction of the

Agrarian Community Services Centre (Govi Jana Seva Kendraya)

of the Agricultural Department in Kibissa. The society serves to

provide the necessary services pertaining to the development of

agricultural practices in the respective villages in the surrounding

area, and is a decision-making body for collectively deciding which

crops and acreage may be cultivated in the agricultural fields

available. The main objective is to maintain the village tank in

Kosgaha Ala, upon which the irrigated agricultural practices in the

village are entirely dependent; to ensure other concerned services,

such as crop watching and effective distribution of irrigated waters,

among others.

11.3 Parents’ School Development Association

The Parents’ School Development Association was established with

the guidance of the resident teachers of the Primary School, to

provide the necessary supportive services to the School. The

Association ensures that the education of the children is in order, is

responsible for maintenance of the school property, the protective

fence, to tidy the surroundings and provide nutritional food and

beverage to the students in combined efforts extending to shrama

dhana programmes.


42

11.4 Samurdhi Group

The Samurdhi group was established with the direction and

influence of the Government Samurdhi aid programme for the

beneficiaries of the village. Its main objective is to maintain unity

among its recipients and to enhance collective decision-making and

the well-being of the community members.

11.5 Diyakapilla Environmental Development Committee (DEDC)

DEDC was initiated by the Centre for Eco-cultural Studies and is the

most recently established community organisation. Its primary aim

is to monitor and implement the activities proposed under the Eco-

cultural Resource Management Project. The Committee is composed

of the representatives of each of the village organisations and

selected representatives at the local level.

12.0 REPRESENTATION OF GOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONS

The responsible administrative concerns in the study area are the

Grama Niladhari of the Maillattava Division who serves as the

administering Government representative at the local level, the

Dambulla Divisional Secretariat operates at district level and the

administrative division of Matale District is responsible for its

overall jurisdiction. The Police Station in Kibissa serves as the

relevant law enforcement agency and the Department of Wildlife

Conservation (DWLC) Range Office recently established in

Ahalagala in proximity to Sigiriya Town, is the overall

administrative body concerned for managing the Sigiriya wildlife

sanctuary and Minneriya-Giritale Nature Reserve, with the Beat

Office located in Peikkulama.


43

The present land-use system falls under the management of DWLC,

owing to the geographic location of the wildlife “Protected Area”

system. Further, the Archaeology Department and Cultural Triangle

Project are the relevant institutes concerned with safeguarding the

cultural monuments and sites distributed in the area.

13.0 BANKING AND CREDIT FACILITIES

The main source for facilitating credit facilities in the village is the

Funerary Welfare Society that provides small loan schemes on

interest to all members, depending on the availability of funds.

Additionally, numerous banking facilities are available to the local

community. The major banks are located in Inamaluva (The Peoples’

Bank), Habarana or Dambulla which is the popularly visited place.

The bank that is most commonly accessed is, however, the Rural

Bank (Sinhala: Gramiya Bankuva) housed at the Govi Jana Seva

Kendraya in Kibissa, which provides adequate banking and credit

facilities. The Govi Jana Seva Kendraya also provides an effective

loan scheme amounting to Rs.100,000/- for members of the

Diyakapilla Farmer Organization for agriculture-related activities.

Further, the State-sponsored Samurdhi programme provides a

maximum of Rs.25,000/- to initiate or develop self-employment

activities for all Samurdhi recipients.


44

14.0 ENVIRONMENTAL STATUS

Major Issues Observed

Observations reveal that the Protected Areas comprising the Sigiriya

Wildlife Sanctuary, the Sigiriya World Heritage Site and

archaeological reserve are often prone to environmental hazards owing

to the unauthorized actions of the private hoteliers, Government

authorities and the local community:

14.1 Unplanned and ad hoc development activities

Commercial encroachment of land by the private sector, i. e. the tourist

hotel establishments. Encroachment of the property of the World

Heritage Site and the Sigiriya wildlife sanctuary with unauthorised

clearing of land that is in violation of the Fauna and Flora Protection

Ordinance, the Environment Act and the Archaeological Act.

14.2 Haphazard waste disposal

Garbage disposal:

The unauthorized disposal of garbage including non-biodegradable

plastic in secluded areas of the designated Sigiriya wildlife sanctuary

in proximity to Diyakapilla village has been a common practice of the

established tourist hotels. The effects of the illegal dumping grounds

have produced breeding grounds for the mosquito and led to increased

health hazards, while creating artificial feeding grounds for the wild

elephant population and intensifying the human-elephant conflict in

the area.


45

14.3 Pollution of aquatic environments

Further acts of violation of standing laws such as the illegal and

regular draining of sewage into the Sigiriya tank (Sinhala: vava)

environment by outside investors, such as the tourist hotels have led

to increased environmental and health hazards. It is important to

note that this artificial reservoir that once played a key role in the

hydraulics of Sigiriya Kingdom in 5th century AD, yet serves as a

vital resource to local communities and wildlife.

14.4 Mining and quarrying activities

Illegal quarrying of Duvannagala -- an archaeological site situated

within the designated Sigiriya wildlife sanctuary. Duvannagala is an

extensive rock outcrop that once stood as the third largest in

Sigiriya, until its recent exploitation by the authorities. Although

several Government bodies serve as the legal custodians of

Duvannagala, the site has faced excessive destruction from

quarrying of the site;

thus disregarding its

overall potential and

geological and

archaeological value

through extreme

neglect. Further, the

impact of the blasting

of Duvannagala on

the World Heritage

Site of Sigiriya Rock

and its famous

frescoes are also untold. Fig. 17. Quarrying of Duvannagala rock.


46

14.5 Extraction of Gravel

The excavation of gravel pits for the construction of roads is another

matter that requires immediate attention. A vast acreage of the

wildlife sanctuary has already been cleared of forest for the

expansion of extensive roadways at the cost of the unique forest

habitat vital to the Dry Zone fauna and flora, that provide alternative

means of support to the forest-dwelling people. These gravel pits

have now developed into regular unauthorized refuse dumping

grounds for the tourist hotels and also serve as breeding grounds for

mosquitoes, thus leading to increased health hazards.

14.6. Gemming

Non-residents with the support of some local residents have used

selected sites within the periphery of the wildlife sanctuary in the

vicinity of Diyakapilla, for the illegal mining of gems. The evidence

for gemming is corroborated by the considerably sized pits scattered in

the area.


47

14.7 Poaching

Wild game hunting -- now deemed poaching -- is still a continued

practice among a segment of this forest dwellers. Agriculture as the

economic mainstay is supplemented with hunting that brings better

and quicker returns. The wild game species mostly pursued is the

Sambhur – Sri Lanka’s largest species of deer – the spotted deer and

wild boar, for their meat. The demand is mostly from the

middleman/traders operating in Sigiriya, Kibissa, Ilukvava and

Pidurangala. The game flesh is usually transported via a jungle route;

or by main road during the early hourse of the day or in the late

evenings to avoid confrontation with the DWLC or Polive, being the

relevant authorities concerned. Prohibited by law, the offence is

punishable by a term in jail or fine, if apprehended.

14.8. The human-elephant conflict

Adverse effects of the human-elephant conflict prevail in the area

owing to numerous reasons. The geographical setting of Diyakapilla,

the continued agricultural practices that attract the large herbivore to

the cultivated fields that may result in excessive damage to lives and

property; the secondary forest cover and the surrounding plains that

maximize the conflict of interests for resources between the humans

and wild elephants;

and the water

resources also

frequented by the

wild elephant

during the dry

period, increase the

threat to both

humans and


Fig. 18. A victim of the prevailing conflict.

48

elephants. A preventive measure to minimize the conflict was the

establishment of the electric fence by the DWLC that extends from

Vavala and crosses the periphery of Diyakapilla and approaches the

Gallinda Kanda (range of hills). The electric fence has lacked

maintenance over the past several years and is presently inoperative.

14.9. Illicit felling of trees

The woodcraft industry was traditionally unknown in the Sigiriya

region. The art was introduced in recent years with the development of

the tourist industry from which arose the demand for it. The craftsmen

employed in woodcarving are thus mostly from the southern coastal

region such as Galle, while the local youth presently employed in the

several woodcraft shops in the area are learning the skill. The local

development of woodcraft

has thus promoted the

exploitation of valued

hardwood timber species

found in the area, though

protected by the law.

Certain members of the

local community engage

in harvesting the trees and

supplying the timber. Fig. 19. Clearing of forests.

15.0 PRESENT STATUS OF TOURISM

The existing tour programme entails a pre-arranged village tour conducted

for the benefit of the tourists eager to observe traditional village lifeways

accompanied by a local or foreign tour guide and or a hotel employee, as


49

well as a local associate from Diyakapilla who only serves as the porter or

helper and receives a service tip of approximately Rs. 150 or 200/=, in

addition to a picnic lunch for the effort or service provided. The tour

comprises a visit to the home of the local associate and/or a scenic tour of

the forest hamlet leading to the village tank further east in Kosgaha Äla.

The first tour entails a visit to a village dwelling usually that of the local

associate to display methods and uses of traditional lithic and other

implements common to a village setting -- the grinding stone (Sinhala:

miris gala), the quern for grinding kurakkhan), the wooden pestle and

mortar for pounding, displayed by the spouse and or uninvited guests or

neighbours. If time permits, the tour group is accompanied on a nature

hike to the old hamlet of Kosgaha Äla. A picnic lunch organised by the

hotel is set on the tank bund -- a place of scenic beauty with the presence

of aquatic and other wildlife --overlooking the agricultural fields.

Systematic

organisation of

such visits

ought to be

encouraged for

the benefit of

the tourists

who wish to

experience the

Fig. 20. Tourists visiting the Diyakapilla Primary School. culture and environmental setting of a forest hamlet of this nature and its

ecological aspects, as well as the local community. Visits that are not pre-

arranged often do not adhere to the local custom of remaining at the

entrance of the compound (Sinhala: kadulla) until permission for entry is

granted by the householder. Instead, the tendency is for the visiting tour


50

guide and tourists to enter the compound without prior permission from a

householder. These and the pre-arranged visits detailed above also result

in havoc, with the compound often filled to capacity with the presence of

uninvited neighbours who habitually commandeer the setting as well as

the householders and create an aura of unpleasantness contrary to

accustomed traditional lifeways. The householders concerned are usually

unable to prevent these unwelcome visits and are accustomed to accepting

them with submissiveness. A further problem encountered is the

harassment of tourists by a few village children opt to stay away from

school with the arrival of the visiting tour groups with the knowledge of

their parents, mostly encouraged by small handouts.

16.0 DISCUSSION

The uncontrolled exploitation of natural resources in the area has

intensified in recent years with the expansion of human settlements and a

corresponding increase in requirements. For example, large-scale

development projects and chemical-using agricultural practices, shorter

periods of fallow in chena cultivation, the illegal extraction of valued

timber species and unsystematic use of natural habitats for commercial

purposes are some visible changes (vide Jasinghe et al. 1999). Chena

practices and/or paddy cultivation as the principal means of support have

potential to develop for obtaining maximum profits. Present-day

restrictions on traditional chena practices are a recurrent problem owing to

the location of the chena lands within the wildlife Protected Area system,

causing considerable damage to the existing vegetation cover.

Consideration of the fundamental requirements of local/regional/global

bio-diversity conservation aims to ensure the protection and maintenance


51

of ecosystems and natural habitats; with maintenance and recovery of

viable populations of species in their natural surroundings. The need for

adequate measures within and outside “Protected Areas” to protect genes,

species, habitats and ecosystems is increasingly felt, while addressing the

human demands for the above resources, particularly for land. This

“ecosystem approach” constitutes the primary framework of the proposed

actions of the Eco-cultural Resource Management Project that intends to

assist in addressing issues identified in the National Biodiversity

Conservation Action Plan and Environmental Action Plan. Strengthening

the local community through the development of skills, providing

alternative income generation activities, as well as the eco-cultural

resource monitoring programme and habitat enrichment programme

proposed for restoration of the degraded environment would enable the

long-term use of local resources.

Primarily due to inadequate collaboration, the lack of an effective strategy

for community participation and communication; it is required that the

present status of the lifeways of the local communities are adequately

identified to initiate an appropriate methodology for the sustainable use of

natural resources by the traditional Dry Zone forest-dwelling community.

The opportune location of Diyakapilla within the wildlife Protected Area

with proximity to the World Heritage Site of Sigiriya and numerous other

ancient settlements and monastic sites testifies to the ample opportunities

available for the development of long-term economic and social benefits

that aim toward ultimate self-sufficiency. The area is also rich in

archaeological sites that are the valued property and heritage of all Sri

Lankans. These archaeological treasures are extensively distributed in the

area and include sites, monuments, ancient kingdoms, village habitations,

monastic complexes (stupas) rock art, Early Brahmi inscriptions and cave

complexes that date back to the prehistoric, protohistoric, Early and Middle

Historical Periods of the region’s prolonged history.


52

Providing non-destructive alternative means of livelihood to reduce the

dependency on the forest for economic necessities requires a collective

effort for the implementation of legal, economic and social polices. A

political will would thus be an ideal requirement for adopting effective

new strategies, with a model to obtain community involvement in

managing Protected Areas and a cognitive change of the official agencies

concerned, to prevent further commercial encroachment into wildlife,

cultural and other Protected Areas, as well as controlling the demand for

land within the Protected Area system.


53

REFERENCES

1. Ashton, M., S. Gunatilleke, N. de Zoysa, M.D. Dassanayake, N.

Gunatilleke and S. Wijesundera. 1997. A Field Guide to the Common

Trees and Shrubs of Sri Lanka. Colombo: WHT Publications (Pvt.)

Limited.

2. Bandaranayake, S. and M. Mogren. 1994. Further Studies in the

Settlement Archaeology of the Sigiriya-Dambulla Region. Colombo:

PGIAR.

3. Fernando, K.S. 2001. Living Traditions: an introduction to the vestigial

Vadda group of Gallinda in Sigiriya. Centre for Eco-cultural Studies,

Diyakapilla, Sigiriya (CES). (A technical report).

4. Fernando, S and S.S.S. Jasinghe. 2000. World Heritage Site in Danger: A

Case Study from the World Heritage Site of Sigiriya. Centre for Eco-

cultural Studies, Diyakapilla, Sigiriya (CES).

5. Ievers, R. W. 1899. Manual of the NCP, Ceylon. George J. A. Skeen,

Colombo: Government Printer of Ceylon.

6. Jasinghe, S. S. S. 2000. Biodiversity of Sigiriya wildlife Sanctuary. Centre

for Eco-cultural Studies, Diyakapilla, Sigiriya (CES). (A technical report).

7. Jasinghe, S. S. S. and S. Maithripala. 1997. A Note on the Ecology of the

Eastern Precinct of Sigiriya Rampart. A monograph of the Postgraduate

Institute of Archaeology (PGIAR)-University of Kelaniya, Colombo.

8. Karunananda, U. 1990. Nuvarakalaviya. Kelaniya: Shiela Printing

Works. [In Sinhala.]


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9. Karunananda, U. 1993: Tamankaduva. Kadavata: Abhaya Mudrana

Shilpiyo. [In Sinhala.]

10. Lawrie, A. C. An Extract From ‘A Gazetteer of the Central Province of

Ceylon’ Vol. 1 & 11. Colombo 1898 (reprint 1988). In S. Bandaranayake,

M. Mogren and S. Epitawatte (Eds.). The Settlement Archaeology of the

Sigiriya-Dambulla Region. Colombo: Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology

(PGIAR). Pp. 169-193.

11. Manjusri. M. 1988. Journal of the SAREC Project. [Unpublished.]

12. Manatunga, Anura. 1990. The Kiri Oya Valley. In S. Bandaranayake, M.

Mogren and S. Epitawatte (Eds.). The Settlement Archaeology of the

Sigiriya-Dambulla Region. Colombo: Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology

(PGIAR). Pp. 73-92.

13. Myrdal-Runebjer, Eva. 1994. Premodern Sigirya Region an Ethno-

archaeological perspective. In S. Bandaranayake and M. Mogren (Eds.).

Further Studies in the Settlement Archaeology of the Sigiriya-Dambulla

Region. Colombo: Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology (PGIAR). Pp. 241-

262.

14. Myrdal-Runebjer, Eva. 1994. Food procurement: Labour Processes and

Environmental Setting. In S. Bandaranayake and M. Mogren (Eds.).

Further Studies in the Settlement Archaeology of the Sigiriya-Dambulla

Region. Colombo: Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology (PGIAR). Pp. 241-

262.

13. Wickremesekera, Channa 1990. A Catalogue of Villages. In S.

Bandaranayake, M. Mogren and S. Epitawatte (Eds.). 1990. The


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Settlement Archaeology of the Sigiriya-Dambulla Region. Colombo:

Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology (PGIAR). 161-166.


56

17.0 RECOMMENDATIONS

• Development of home gardens: The systematic development of

home gardens is proposed with the re-introduction of soil

conservation measures and mapping of home gardens.

• Establishment of a local market:

The organized sale of the village produce comprising the numerous

grains (paddy, kurakkhan/tala/mung/etc.), processed food (aggala/

tala/etc.), fruits (papaw/plantain/etc.) oil (Mi/kohomba), bees honey

and support the traditional rush/reed weaving industry that is

growing obsolescent, etc., that would serve to establish a self-

sustained market managed by the local community.

• The potential to promote a market for the local produce as a

finished product is considerable with the existing market being a

greater than-average number of visitors to the World Heritage Site

of Sigiriya. For example, the sale of mixed crops grown throughout

the agricultural cycle; of traditional sweets/dairy products that are

usually made/obtained for home consumption needs; and processed

foods (lime pickle, preserves, etc.); traditional rush/reed weaving.

The weaving of rush/reed products will be revived to encourage and

support the experienced weavers and others interested. The raw

materials that are not available in the immediate surroundings will

be obtained from Kosgaha Äla and neighbouring Pidurangala and

more distant Potana, until it can be grown in favourable areas such

as Ikirivela in Diyakapilla.


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• Eco-cultural tourism programme

To initiate eco-cultural tourism programme to serve (forestall the

present tendencies) strengthen the local tourism industry with the

systematic training of a selected number of residents of Diyakapilla,

with others associated with the industry from a number of settlements

located within the Sigiriya wildlife sanctuary. The establishment of a

visitor centre will enable systematic management of the village tours for

the benefit of the local inhabitants as well as the tourists.


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CES was established in January 1998 by a team of interdisciplinary researchers whose aim was to create an institute for participatory eco-cultural development in Sri Lanka through research, education, awareness and community development. CES is registered as a non-governmental research institute concerned with issues pertaining to the present eco-cultural status of Sri Lanka and advocates sustainable measures to suit the local environment and cultures. Collaborative undertakings with other eco-culture friendly institutes will create an extensive network to promote awareness and foster eco-cultural development in Sri Lanka. The majority of CES members are presently involved in various consultancy and research-oriented activities for Government and Non-governmental concerns as well as universities. Objectives

To conduct eco-cultural studies To conduct eco-cultural education, awareness, and Training programmes To establish and maintain an interpretation centre To promote environment-friendly local industries to assist local communities To promote non-destructive nature-based local enterprises

Centre for Eco-cultural Studies (CES) PO Box 03, Sigiriya,

Sri Lanka. E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.cessrilanka.org


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