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ANCIENT ROME

FROM THE EARLIEST TIMESDOWN TO 476 A.D.

BY ROBERT F. PENNELLREVISED EDITION WITH PLANS AND COLORED MAP

Edited by Candida Martinelli

This free e-book was created and is distributed not-for-profit by Candida Martinelli of

2

Candida Martinelli’s Italophile Site This e-book contains all the images from the originalpublication, plus various images to complement the text. The cover image is of a painting ofthe Colosseum (Amphitheatrum Flavium) by Caspar Van Wittel from the early 18th century.

http://home.wanadoo.nl/candida_martinelli/index.htm

http://home.wanadoo.nl/candida_martinelli/index.htm



PREFACE ........................................................................ 7

CHAPTER I GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY.................... 8

CHAPTER II THE EARLY INHABITANTS OF

ITALY............................................................................. 11

CHAPTER III THE ROMANS AND THEIR EARLY

GOVERNMENT............................................................ 13

CHAPTER IV THE EARLY GROWTH AND

INTERNAL HISTORY OF ROME ............................ 15

THE ARMY ................................................................ 16

CHAPTER V THE DYNASTY OF THE TARQUINS

......................................................................................... 19

CHAPTER VI THE CONSULS AND TRIBUNES.. 21 CHAPTER VII THE COMITIA TRIBUTA AND

THE AGRARIAN LAWS............................................. 24

CHAPTER VIII THE CONTEST OF THE

PLEBEIANS FOR CIVIL RIGHTS............................ 26

CHAPTER IX EXTERNAL HISTORY....................31

THE FIRST SAMNITE WAR (343-341) ...................33

THE LATIN WAR (340-338)..................................... 33

THE SECOND AND THIRD SAMNITE WARS (326-290).............................................................................. 34

CHAPTER X WARS WITH PYRRHUS (281-272) . 37

CHAPTER XI DIVISIONS OF THE ROMAN

TERRITORY—NOTED MEN OF THE PERIOD....40

ROADS........................................................................41

NOTED MEN..............................................................41 CHAPTER XII FOREIGN CONQUEST ..................44

CHAPTER XIII ROME AND CARTHAGE

BETWEEN THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC

WARS (241-218) ............................................................49

CHAPTER XIV THE SECOND PUNIC WAR— FROM THE PASSAGE OF THE PYRENEES TO

THE BATTLE OF CANNAE (218-216)......................52

CHAPTER XV THE SECOND PUNIC WAR-FROM

CANNAE TO THE BATTLE OF ZAMA (216-202)..58

AFFAIRS IN SICILY..................................................59 THE CAMPAIGNS IN SPAIN...................................60

OPERATIONS IN ITALY ..........................................61

INVASION OF AFRICA ............................................62

CHAPTER XVI ROME IN THE EAST ....................64

CHAPTER XVII THE SYRIAN WAR......................67

CHAPTER XVIII CONQUEST OF MACEDONIA

AND GREECE (I71-146) ..............................................70

CHAPTER XIX THE THIRD PUNIC WAR, AND

FALL OF CARTHAGE................................................73

3

CHAPTER XX ROME AND SPAIN-THE



NUMANTINE AND SERVILE WARS (206-132) ..... 76

THE NUMANTINE WAR (143-133) ........................ 77

THE SERVILE WAR (134-132) ................................ 78

CHAPTER XXI INTERNAL HISTORY—THEGRACCHI...................................................................... 79

CHAPTER XXII EXTERNAL HISTORY—

PERGAMUM—JUGURTHINE WAR (118-104)...... 84

THE WAR WITH JUGURTHA.................................84

CHAPTER XXIII THE CIMBRI AND

TEUTONES—POLITICAL QUARRELS ................. 87

CHAPTER XXIV INTERNAL HISTORY-THE

SOCIAL WAR (90-88).................................................. 90

CHAPTER XXV MARIUS AND SULLA-CINNA... 93

THE REFORMS OF SULLA ..................................... 96

CHAPTER XXVI SERTORIUS—SPARTACUS—

LUCULLUS—POMPEY AND CRASSUS................. 98

POMPEY AND CRASSUS ......................................100

CHAPTER XXVII CAESAR—CICERO—VERRES....................................................................................... 103

CHAPTER XXVIII TROUBLES AT ROME—

CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE................................. 107

CHAPTER XXIX THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE .. 111

CHAPTER XXX CAESAR'S CAMPAIGNS IN

GAUL............................................................................114

THE WAR WITH THE BELGAE ............................115

THE VENETI—INVASION OF GERMANY.........116

INVASION OF BRITAIN.........................................117 FINAL STRUGGLES OF THE GAULS..................117

CHAPTER XXXI CLODIUS AND MILO—DEATH

OF CRASSUS...............................................................120

CHAPTER XXXII CAESAR'S STRUGGLE WITH

POMPEY—BATTLE OF PHARSALIA ..................123 CHAPTER XXXIII CAESAR'S OPERATIONS IN

EGYPT, ASIA, AFRICA, AND SPAIN.....................131

CATO-METELLUS SCIPIO ....................................135

CHAPTER XXXIV MURDER OF CAESAR .........136

CHAPTER XXXV THE SECOND

TRIUMVIRATE—PHILIPPI AND ACTIUM.........138

PHILIPPI AND ACTIUM.........................................138

MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO.................................141

CHAPTER XXXVI AUGUSTUS (30 B.C.-14 A.D.)

........................................................................................142

CHAPTER XXXVII THE AUGUSTAN AGE ........146

CHAPTER XXXVIII THE JULIAN AND

CLAUDIAN EMPERORS ..........................................149

TIBERIUS (14-37 A.D.)............................................149

4

CALIGULA (37-41)..................................................151



PREFACE

This compilation is designed tobe a companion to the author'sHistory of Greece. It is hopedthat it may fill a want, now felt in

many high schools andacademies, of a short and clearstatement of the rise and fall ofRome, with a biography of herchief men, and an outline of herinstitutions, manners, and

religion.

For this new edition the book hasbeen entirely rewritten, additionalmatter having been introducedwhenever it has been foundnecessary to meet recentrequirements.

The penults of proper nameshave been marked when long,

both in the text and Index. TheExamination Papers given areintroduced to indicate the present

range of requirement in leadingcolleges.

The maps and plans have been

specially drawn and engraved forthis book. The design has beento make them as clear and openas possible; consequently,names and places not mentioned

in the text have, as a rule, beenomitted.

ROBERT F. PENNELL.RIVERSIDE, CALIFORNIA, July.1890.

[Illustration: GAIUS IULIUSCAESAR, from originalpublication.]



8

Northern Italy, between the Alpsand the Apennines, is drained by

the Padus (Po) and its tributaries.It was called GALLIA CISALPÍNA

(Gaul this side of the Alps), andcorresponds in general tomodern Lombardy. The littleriver Athesis, north of the Padus,

flows into the Adriatic. Of thetributaries of the Padus, theTicínus on the north, and theTrebia on the south, are ofhistorical interest.

CHAPTER IGEOGRAPHY OF ITALY

Italy is a long, narrow peninsulain the southern part of Europe,between the 38th and 46th

parallels of north latitude. It is720 miles long from the Alps toits southern extremity, and 330miles broad in its widest part, i.e.from the Little St. Bernard to thehills north of Trieste. It has anarea of nearly 110,000 squaremiles, about that of the State ofNevada.

The Alps separate Italy on the

north and northwest from the restof Europe. The pass over thesemountains which presents theleast difficulties is through theJulian Alps on the east. It wasover this pass that the

Barbarians swept down in their

invasions of the country. The Apennines, which are acontinuation of the Alps, extendthrough the whole of the

peninsula. Starting in theMaritime Alps, they extendeasterly towards the Adriaticcoast, and turn southeasterlyhugging the coast through its

whole extent. This conformationof the country causes the riversof any size below the basin of thePo to flow into the Tyrrhenian(Tuscan) Sea, rather than intothe Adriatic.

Dolomites, Italy

The portion of Northern Italybordering on the Mediterraneanis a mountainous district, andwas called LIGURIA. In thisdistrict on the coast were Genua

and Nicaea. The district north ofthe Athesis, between the Alpsand the Adriatic, was calledVENETIA, from which comes thename Venice. Here were locatedPatavium (Padua), Aquileia, and

Forum Julii.

Gallia Cisalpína contained manyflourishing towns. North of thePadus were Veróna, Mediolánum

(Milan), Cremóna, Mantua, Andes, and Vercellae, a noted



The most important subdivisionof Central Italy was LATIUM,bordering on the Tyrrhenian Sea.North of it on the same coast was

ETRURIA, and to the south wasCAMPANIA. On the Adriatic

coast were UMBRIA, PICÉNUM,and SAMNIUM.

9

In Etruria were Florentia,Faesulae, Pisae, Arretium,Volaterrae, Clusium, andTarquinii; also Lake Trasiménus.In Campania were Capua,

Neapolis (Naples), Cumae,Baiae, a watering place,

Herculaneum, Pompeii,Caudium, Salernum, Casilínum,and Nola. The famous volcanoof Vesuvius was here, and also

Lake Avernus.

battle-field. South of this riverwere Augusta Taurinórum(Turin), Placentia, Parma,Mutina, and Ravenna. The

Rubicon, a little stream flowinginto the Adriatic, bounded GalliaCisalpína on the southeast. TheMucra, another little stream, wasthe southern boundary on the

other side of Italy.CENTRAL ITALY, Italia Propria,or Italy Proper, included all of thepeninsula below these rivers asfar down as Apulia and Lucania.

In this division are the riversTiber, Arnus, Liris, and Volturnus,which empty into theMediterranean, and theMetaurus, Aesis, and Aternus,which empty into the Adriatic.

The cities of Latium were Rome,

on the Tiber, and its seaport,Ostia, near the mouth of thesame river. Ten miles northwestof Rome was Veii, an Etruscancity, and about the same

distance southeast was AlbaLonga. Nearly the samedistance directly south of Rome,on the coast, was Lavinium, andeast-northeast of Rome wasTibur. Neighboring to Alba

Longa were Tusculum and the Alban Lake. The PomptineMarshes were near the coast, inthe southern part of Latium.Lake Regillus was near Rome.

In Umbria, on the coast, were Ariminum and Pisaurum; in theinterior were Sentinum and

Camerínum. The river Metaurus,noted for the defeat ofHasdrubal, was likewise inUmbria.

In Picenum was Ancona. In

Samnium were Cures andBeneventum.

SOUTHERN ITALY included APULIA and CALABRIA on the Adriatic, LUCANIA and

BRUTTUM on the TyrrhenianSea.

Apulia is the most level of thecountries south of the Rubicon.

Its only stream is the Aufidus, onthe bank of which at Cannae was



The islands near Italy wereimportant. SICILY, with an areaof about 10,000 square miles,and triangular in shape, wasoften called by the poets

TRINACRIA (with threepromontories). The islandcontained many important cities,most of which were of Greekorigin. Among these wereSyracuse, Agrigentum, Messána,Catana, Camarína, Gela,

Selínus, Egesta (or Segesta),Panormus, Leontíni, and Enna.There are many mountains, thechief of which is Aetna.

fought a famous battle. Arpi, Asculum, and Canusium areinterior towns.

In Calabria (or Iapygia) were thecities of Brundisium andTarentum.

The chief towns in Lucania and

Bruttium were settled by theGreeks. Among them wereHeracléa, Metapontum, Sybaris,and Thurii, in Lucania; andCroton, Locri, and Rhegium, inBruttium.

SARDINIA is nearly as large asSicily. CORSICA is considerablysmaller. ILVA (Elba) is betweenCorsica and the mainland.

IGILIUM is off Etruria; CAPREAEis in the Bay of Naples;STRONGYLE (Strombóli) andLIPARA are north of Sicily, andthe AEGÁTES INSULAE arewest of it.

10

Map of Italy today



11

The ETRUSCANS at the time

when Roman history begins werea powerful and warlike race,superior to the Italians incivilization and the arts of life.They probably came from the

north, and at first settled in theplain of the Po; but beingafterwards dislodged by theinvading Gauls, they movedfarther south, into Etruria. Herethey formed a confederation of

twelve cities between the Arnoand the Tiber. Of these cities themost noted were Volsinii, thehead of the confederacy, Veii,Volaterrae, Caere, and Clusium.This people also formed

scattering settlements in otherparts of Italy, but gained no firmfoothold. At one time, in the sixthcentury, they were in power atRome. Corsica, too, was at thistime under their control. Theircommerce was considerable.

Many well preserved monumentsof their art have been discovered,but no one has yet been able todecipher any of the inscriptions

upon them. The power of thesepeople was gradually lessenedby the Romans, and after the fallof Veii, in 396, becamepractically extinct.

CHAPTER II THE EARLYINHABITANTS OF ITALY

So far as we know, the earlyinhabitants of Italy were dividedinto three races, the IAPYGIAN,

ETRUSCAN, and ITALIAN. TheIAPYGIANS were the first tosettle in Italy. They probablycame from the north, and werepushed south by laterimmigrations, until they werecrowded into the southeasterncorner of the peninsula(Calabria). Here they weremostly absorbed by the Greeks,who settled in the eighth and

seventh centuries all along thesouthern and southwesterncoast, and who were more highlycivilized. Besides the Iapygians,and distinct from the Etruscansand Italians, were the Venetians

and the Ligurians, the former of

whom settled in Venetia, thelatter in Liguria.

The ITALIANS were of the sameorigin as the Hellénes, andbelonged to the Aryan race, apeople that lived in earliest timespossibly in Scandinavia. While

the Hellénes were settling inGreece, the Italians entered Italy.

At this time the Italians had madeconsiderable progress incivilization. They understood, in

a measure, the art of agriculture;the building of houses; the use ofwagons and of boats; of fire inpreparing food, and of salt inseasoning it. They could makevarious weapons and ornamentsout of copper and silver; husband



12

These towns, thirty in number,

formed a confederacy, called theLATIN CONFEDERACY, andchose Alba to be its head. Anannual festival was celebratedwith great solemnity by themagistrates on the Alban Mount,called the Latin festival. Here all

the people assembled andoffered sacrifice to their commongod, Jupiter (Latiaris).

and wife were recognized, andthe people were divided intoclans (tribes).

That portion of the Italians knownas the LATINS settled in a plainwhich is bounded on the eastand south by mountains, on thewest by the Tyrrhenian Sea, and

on the north by the high lands ofEtruria.

Italian countryside

This plain, called LATIUM (flatcountry), contains about 700square miles (one half the size ofRhode Island), with a coast ofonly fifty miles, and no good

harbors. It is watered by tworivers, the Tiber, and its tributary,the Anio. Hills rise here andthere; as Soracte in the

northeast, the promontory ofCirceium in the southwest,Janiculum near Rome, and the

Alban range farther south. Thelow lands (modern Campagna)

were malarious and unhealthy.Hence the first settlements weremade on the hills, which alsocould be easily fortified.

The first town established was

ALBA; around this sprung upother towns, as Lanuvium, Aricia,Tusculum, Tibur, Praeneste,Laurentum, Roma, and Lavinium.

[Illustration: Latium, from theoriginal publication.]



13

All early communities, to which

the Romans were no exception,were composed of severalgroups of FAMILIES. TheRomans called these groups

GENTES, and a single groupwas called a GENS. All themembers of a gens weredescended from a commonancestor, after whom the gens received its name.

CHAPTER III THEROMANS AND THEIR

EARLY GOVERNMENT

We have learned the probableorigin of the LATINS; how theysettled in Latium, and foundednumerous towns. We shall nowexamine more particularly thatone of the Latin towns which wasdestined to outstrip all her sisters

in prosperity and power.Fourteen miles from the mouth ofthe Tiber, the monotonous levelof the plain through which theriver flows is broken by a cluster

of hills [Note: The seven hills ofhistoric Rome were the Aventine,Capitoline, Coelian, Esquiline(the highest, 218 feet), Palatine,Quirínal, and Viminal. TheJaniculum was on the other side

of the Tiber, and was held by the

early Romans as a strongholdagainst the Etruscans. It wasconnected with Rome by awooden bridge (Pons Sublicius).]

rising to a considerable height,around one of which, thePALATINE, first settled a tribe ofLatins called RAMNES,—a namegradually changed to ROMANS.

When this settlement was formedis not known. Tradition says in753. It may have been muchearlier. These first settlers ofRome were possibly a colony

from Alba. In the early stages oftheir history they unitedthemselves with a Sabine colonythat had settled north of them onthe QUIRÍNAL HILL. The nameof TITIES was given to this new

tribe. A third tribe, namedLUCERES, composed, possibly,of conquered Latins, wasafterwards added and settledupon the COELIAN HILL.

Ancient walled community in Italy

The head of each family wascalled PATER-FAMILIAS, and hehad absolute authority [Note:

Called patria potestas.] over hishousehold, even in the matter oflife and death.

The Roman government at firstwas conducted by these Fathersof the families, with a KING,



This body was probably originallycomposed of all the Fathers ofthe families, but in historicaltimes it was limited to THREEHUNDRED members, holding life

office, and appointed during theregal period by the king. Laterthe appointment was made bythe Consuls, still later by theCensors, and for nearly onehundred years before Christ all

persons who had held certainoffices were thereby vested withthe right of seats in the Senate.Hence, during this later period,the number of Senators wasgreatly in excess of threehundred. The Senators, when

addressed, were called PATRES,or "Fathers”, for they wereFathers of the families.

14

We have learned that in the earlygovernment of Rome there was aking, and a senate that advisedthe king. Besides this, there wasan assembly composed of all

Roman citizens who could beararms. [Note: We must rememberthat at this time no one was aRoman citizen who did not

belong to some family. All otherresidents were either slaves orhad no political rights, i.e. had novoice in the government.] Thisassembly of Roman citizens met,from time to time, in an enclosedspace called the COMITIUM,which means a place ofgathering or coming together.This was between the Palatineand Quirínal hills near the

FORUM, or market-place. Thisassembly itself was called theCOMITIA CURIÁTA, i.e. anassembly composed of the 30curiae. This body alone had thepower of changing the existing

laws; of declaring war or peace;and of confirming the election ofkings made by the senate. Thevoting in this assembly was takenby each curia, and the majority ofthe curiae decided any question.

elected from their own number,and holding office for life. Hisduties were to command thearmy, to perform certain

sacrifices (as high priest), and topreside over the assembly of theFathers of the families, whichwas called the SENATE, i. e. anassembly of old men (Senex ).

The Romans, as we saw above,were divided at first into threetribes, Ramnes, Tities, andLuceres Each tribe wassubdivided into ten districtscalled CURIAE, and each curiainto ten clans called GENTES (3tribes, 30 curiae, and 300gentes). Every Roman citizen,therefore, belonged to aparticular family, at the head of

which was a pater- familias;every family belonged to aparticular gens, named after acommon ancestor; every gensbelonged to a particular curia;and every curia to a particulartribe.



The position of Rome wassuperior to that of the othertowns in the Latin Confederacy.Situated on the Tiber, at the headof navigation, she naturallybecame a commercial centre.

Her citizens prospered and grewwealthy, and wealth is power.Her hills were naturalstrongholds, easily held against afoe. Thus we see that she soonbecame the most powerful of the

Latin cities, and when herinterests conflicted with theirs,she had no scruples aboutconquering any of them andannexing their territory. Thus

Alba was taken during the reignof Tullus Hostilius, and his

successor, Ancus Marcius,subdued several cities along theriver, and at its mouth founded acolony which was named OSTIA,

the seaport of Rome.

CHAPTER IV THEEARLY GROWTH AND

INTERNAL HISTORY OFROME

15

The Tiber riverand the seven hills of Rome

At this time (about 625 B.C.) theRoman territory (ager Románus)comprised nearly 250 squaremiles, being irregular in shape,but lying mostly along the

southern bank of the Tiber and

extending about ten or twelvemiles from the river. It was notmaterially increased during thenext two centuries.

The original founders of Romeand their direct descendantswere called PATRICIANS, i.e.belonging to the Patres, orFathers of the families. Theyformed a class distinct from allothers, jealously protecting theirrights against outsiders.

Attached to the Patricians was aclass called CLIENTS, who,

though free, enjoyed no civilrights, i.e. they had no voice inthe government, but were boundto assist in every way thePatrician, called PATRON, towhom they were attached. In

return, the latter gave them hissupport, and looked after theirinterests. These clientscorresponded somewhat to serfs,worked on the fields of theirpatrons, and bore the name ofthe gens to which their patron



As Rome grew into commercialprominence, still another class ofpeople flocked into the city fromforeign places, who might be

called resident foreigners,corresponding in general to theMetics at Athens. Such weremany merchants and workmen ofall trades. These all weresupposed to be under theprotection of some patrician who

acted as their patron.

16

We have learned that Rome, asshe grew in power, conqueredmany of the Latin towns, andadded their territory to hers. Theinhabitants of these towns wereof the same race as the Romans,but were not allowed any of their

civil rights. Most of them werefarmers and peasants. Many ofthem were wealthy. This class ofinhabitants on the agerRomanus, or in Rome itself, werecalled Plebeians (Plebs,

multitude). Their very nameshows that they must have beennumerous. They belonged to nogens or curia, but were free, andallowed to engage in trade and toown property. In later times(from about 350) all who were

not Patricians or slaves werecalled Plebeians.

belonged. Their origin isuncertain; but they may havecome from foreign townsconquered by the Latins, and

whose inhabitants had not beenmade slaves.

In addition to the clients therewere actual slaves, who were theproperty of their masters, andcould be bought or sold atpleasure. Sometimes a slavewas freed, and then he wascalled a LIBERTUS (freedman)and became the client of his

former master.

These three classes, clients,slaves, and resident foreigners,

were all of a different race fromthe Romans. This should beconstantly borne in mind.

Ancient Italian town

THE ARMY

Until the time of Servius Tullius(about 550) the army was

composed entirely of patricians.It was called a Legio (a wordmeaning levy ), and numberedthree thousand infantry calledmilites, from mille, a thousand,one thousand being levied fromeach tribe. The cavalry



During the reign of Servius thedemands of the plebeians, whohad now become numerous, formore rights, was met by the socalled SERVIAN reform of theconstitution. Heretofore only thepatricians had been required toserve in the army. Now all maleswere liable to service. Toaccomplish this, everyone who

was a land-owner, provided heowned two acres, was enrolledand ranked according to hisproperty. There were five"Classes" of them. The severalclasses were divided into 193

subdivisions called "Centuries,"each century representing thesame amount of property. In thefirst class there were fortycenturies in active service,composed of men under forty-six,forty centuries of reserve, and

eighteen centuries of cavalry.numbered three hundred at first,one hundred from each tribe, andwas divided into three companiescalled Centuries.

In the second, third, and fourthclasses there were twenty

centuries each, ten in activeservice, and ten in reserve. Thefifth class had thirty centuries ofsoldiers, and five of mechanics,musicians, etc.

The first four ranks of the troopswere made up of the infantryfrom the first class. All werearmed with a leather helmet,round shield, breastplate,

greaves (leg-pieces), spear, andsword. The fifth rank wascomposed of the second class,who were armed like the first,without breastplate. The sixthrank was composed of the third

class, who had neitherbreastplate nor greaves. Behindthese came the fourth class,armed with spears and darts, andthe fifth class, having only slings.

Roman soldiers

Each soldier of the infantry paid

for his own equipments; thecavalry, however, received fromthe state a horse, and food tokeep it.

17

This new organization of bothpatricians and plebeians wasoriginally only for militarypurposes,—that the army mightbe increased, and the expensesof keeping it more equitably

divided among all the people.But gradually, as the influence of



In this assembly each centuryhad one vote, and its vote wasdecided by the majority of its

individual voters. The tendencyof this system was to give thewealthy the whole power; forsince each century representedthe same amount of property, thecenturies in the upper or richer

classes were much smaller thanthose in the lower or poorerclasses, so that a majority of thecenturies might represent a smallminority of the people. Themajority of the wealthy people atRome were still patricians, so the

assembly was virtually controlledby them. In this assemblymagistrates were elected, lawsmade, war declared, and

judgment passed in all criminalcases.

the wealthy plebeians began tobe felt, the organization wasfound well adapted for politicalpurposes, and all the people

were called together to voteunder it. It was called theCOMITIA CENTURIÁTA, i.e. anassembly of centuries. Theplace of meeting was on theCAMPUS MARTIUS, a plainoutside of the city.

18

[Illustration: Campania, from theoriginal publication.]



CHAPTER V THEDYNASTY OF THE

TARQUINS

Of the seven traditional kings ofRome, the last three were

undoubtedly of Etruscan origin,and their reigns left in the citymany traces of Etruscaninfluence. The Etruscans weregreat builders, and the onlybuildings of importance thatRome possessed, until a muchlater period, were erected underthis dynasty. The names ofthese kings are said to havebeen LUCIUS TARQUINIUS

PRISCUS, SERVIUS TULLIUS,his son-in-law, and LUCIUSTARQUINIUS SUPERBUS.

Under the first of these kingswere built the fine temple of

JUPITER CAPITOLÍNUS, on the

Capitoline Hill, and near byshrines to JUNO and MINERVA.This temple to Jupiter was calledthe CAPITOLIUM, and from it we

get our word CAPITOL. It waslooked upon as the centre ofRoman religion and authority,and at times the Senate wasconvened in it.

Statue of Romulus and Remusnursing from the wolf on theCapitoline in Rome.

During this reign the famousCLOÁCA MAXIMA, or greatsewer intended to drain theCampagna, is also said to havebeen constructed. This sewer

was so well built that it is still

used.

Under the second king of thisdynasty, Servius Tullius, the city

was surrounded with a wall,which included the Palatine,Quirínal, Coelian, and Aventinehills, and also the Janiculum,which was on the opposite sideof the river, and connected withthe city by a bridge ( ponssublicius).

The establishment of the newmilitary organization, mentioned

in the previous chapter, wasattributed also to this king.

The pupil will notice the similaritybetween these reforms of Tulliusand those of Solon of Athens,

who lived about the same time.Thus early was the Greekinfluence felt at Rome.

19

During the reign of Tullius atemple in honor of DIÁNA waserected on the Aventine, to be



used by all the Latin towns.

20

Tarquinius Superbus added tothe AGER ROMÁNUS the

territory of the city of GABII, andplanted two military colonies,which were afterwards lost. Thedynasty of the Tarquins endedwith the overthrow of this king,and a Republic was established,which lasted until the death ofJulius Caesar.



21

About this time the Senate, whichheretofore had consisted solelyof Fathers of the families(Patres), admitted into its ranks

some of the richest of the landedplebeians, and called themCONSCRIPTI. [Note: This is theorigin of the phrase used by

speakers addressing the Senate,viz.: "Patres (et) Consripti "]These, however, could take nopart in debates, nor could theyhold magistracies.

CHAPTER VI THECONSULS AND

TRIBUNES

At the close of the dynasty of theTarquins, the regal form of

government was abolished, andinstead of one king who heldoffice for life, two officers, calledCONSULS, were electedannually from the PATRICIANS,each of whom possessedsupreme power, and acted as asalutary check upon the other; sothat neither was likely to abusehis power. This change tookplace towards the close of the

sixth century before Christ.

In times of great emergency aperson called DICTATOR mightbe appointed by one of theConsuls, who should have

supreme authority; but his tenure

of office never exceeded sixmonths, and he must be apatrician. He exercised hisauthority only outside of the city

walls. It was at this time, about500, that the COMITIACENTURIÁTA came to be themore important assembly,superseding in a great measurethe COMITIA CURIÁTA.

We must remember that in thisassembly all criminal cases weretried, magistrates nominated, andlaws adopted or rejected. We

must not forget that, since it wason a property basis, it was underthe control of the patricians, forthe great mass of plebeians werepoor. Still there were manywealthy plebeians, and so far the

assembly was a gain for thisparty.

In the Senate, thus constituted,the nomination of all magistratesmade in the Comitia Centuriátawas confirmed or rejected. Inthis way it controlled the election

of the Consuls, whose duties, wemust remember, were those ofgenerals and supreme judges,though every Roman citizen hadthe privilege of appealing fromtheir decision in cases which

involved life.

Two subordinate officers, chosenfrom the patricians, wereappointed by the Consuls.These officers, calledQUAESTÓRES, managed the

P bli ) ld ll h i i dfi f h d h



The rich land-owners, on the

other hand, increased theirwealth by "farming" the publicrevenues; i.e. the state would letout to them, for a stipulated sum,the privilege of collecting allimport and other duties. These,in turn (called in later times

Publicans), would extort all theycould from the tax-payers, thusenriching themselves unlawfully.So the hard times, the

oppression of the tax-gatherer,and the unjust law about debt,made the condition of the poorunendurable.

22

The military service, too, borehard upon them. Many wereobliged to serve more than theirdue time, and in a rank lowerthan was just; for the Consuls,who had charge of the levy of

troops, were patricians, andnaturally favored their own party.Hence we see that the cavalryservice was at this time made up

entirely of young patricians, whilethe older ones were in thereserve corps, so that the bruntof military duty fell on theplebeians.

finances of the state, under thedirection of the Senate.

The wars in which the Romans

had been engaged, during thecentury preceding theestablishment of the Republic,had impoverished the state andcrippled its commerce. This wasfelt by all classes, but especiallyby the small landed plebeianswhose fields had beendevastated. They were obligedto mortgage their property to paythe taxes, and, when unable to

meet the demands of theircreditors, according to the lawsthey could be imprisoned, oreven put to death.

Statue of Roman soldier

This state of things could not last,and, as the opportunity forrebelling against this unjust andcruel oppression was offered, theplebeians were not slow in

accepting it.

The city was at war with theneighboring Sabines, Aequians,and Volscians, and needed extramen for defence. One of the

Consuls liberated all who wereconfined in prison for debt, andthe danger was averted. Uponthe return of the army, however,those who had been set freewere again thrown into prison.The next year the prisoners were

ithi th it ll d ldi d d At fi t th



The patricians and richerplebeians saw that concessions

must be made, for the loss ofthese people would be ruin toRome. Those in debt werereleased from their obligations,and the plebeians received theright to choose annually, from

their own numbers, two officerscalled TRIBÚNI PLEBIS, whoshould look after their interests,and have the power of VETOINGany action taken by anymagistrate in the city. Thispower, however, was confined

within the city walls, and couldnever be exercised outside ofthem.

23

again needed. At first theyrefused to obey, but were finallypersuaded by the Dictator. Butafter a well-earned victory, upon

their return to the city walls, theplebeians of the army deserted,and, marching to a hill near by,occupied it, threatening to founda new city unless their wrongswere redressed. This is calledthe First Secession of the Plebs,and is said to have been in 494.

The person of the Tribunes wasalso made sacred, to preventinterference with them while indischarge of their duties, and ifany one attempted to stop themhe was committing a capitalcrime. Thus, if the Consuls orQuaestors were inclined to pressthe law of debt to extremes, or tobe unjust in the levying of troops,the Tribunes could step in, and

by their VETO stop the matter atonce.

This was an immense gain forthe plebeians, and they were

justified in giving the name of

SACRED MOUNT to the hill towhich they had seceded.

The number of Tribunes wasafterwards increased to five, andstill later to ten.

interest to the plebeians B itthe first secession ere filled b



24

The Comitia Tribúta wasconvened and presided over bythe Tribunes and Aediles. In itwere discussed matters of

interest to the plebeians. By itany member could be punishedfor misconduct, and though atfirst measures passed in it were

not binding on the people atlarge, it presently became adetermined body, with competentand bold leaders, who were feltto be a power in the state.

CHAPTER VII THECOMITIA TRIBUTA AND

THE AGRARIAN LAWS

The next gain made by theplebeians was the annual

appointment from their own ranksof two officers, called AEDILES.[Note: The word "Aedile" isderived from Aedes, meaningtemple.] These officers heldnearly the same position inreference to the Tribunes that theQuaestors did to the Consuls.They assisted the Tribunes in theperformance of their variousduties, and also had special

charge of the temple of Ceres. Inthis temple were deposited, forsafe keeping, all the decrees ofthe Senate.

These two offices, those of

Tribune and Aedile, the result of

the first secession, were filled byelections held at first in theComitia Centuriáta, but later inan assembly called the COMITIA

TRIBÚTA, which met sometimeswithin and sometimes without thecity walls.

This assembly was composed ofplebeians, who voted by "tribes"(tributa, meaning composed oftribes), each tribe being entitledto one vote, and its vote beingdecided by the majority of itsindividual voters. [Note: These

"tribes" were a territorial division,corresponding roughly to "wards"in our cities. At this time therewere probably sixteen, but laterthere were thirty-five. Theplebeians in the city lived mostly

in one quarter, on the AventineHill.]

The aim of the patricians wasnow to lessen the power of theTribunes; that of the plebeians, torestrain the Consuls and extendthe influence of the Tribunes.

Party spirit ran high; even handto hand contests occurred in thecity. Many families left Romeand settled in neighboring placesto escape the turmoil. It is awonder that the government

withstood the strain, so fiercewas the struggle.

The AGRARIAN LAWS at thistime first become prominent.These laws had reference to thedistribution of the PUBLIC

dues In course of time thisLANDS Rome had acquired a



Some of this land was sold orgiven away as "homesteads,"and then it became AGERPRIVÁTUS, or private land . Butthe most of it was occupied bypermission of the magistrates.The occupants were usually richpatricians, who were favored bythe patrician magistrates. This

land, so occupied, was called AGER OCCUPÁTUS, or possessio; but it really was stillthe property of the state. Therent paid was a certain per cent(from 10 to 20) of the crops, or so

much a head for cattle onpasture land. Although the statehad the undoubted right to claimthis land at any time, themagistrates allowed theoccupants to retain it, and wereoften lenient about collecting

dues. In course of time, thisland, which was handed downfrom father to son, and frequentlysold, began to be regarded by

the occupants as their ownproperty. Also the land tax(TRIBÚTUM), which was leviedon all ager privátus, and whichwas especially hard upon thesmall plebeian land-owners,could not legally be levied uponthe ager occupátus. Thus thepatricians who possessed, notowned, this land were naturallyregarded as usurpers by the

plebeians.

25The first object of the AGRARIANLAWS was to remedy this evil.

LANDS. Rome had acquired alarge amount of land taken fromthe territory of conquered cities.This land was called AGER

PUBLICUS, or public land .

Italian hilltop farm

SPURIUS CASSIUS, an ableman, now came forward (486?),proposing a law that the state

take up these lands, divide theminto small lots, and distributethem among the poor plebeiansas homes (homesteads). Thelaw was carried, but in thetroublesome times it costCassius his life, and was neverenforced.

notwithstanding violent according to the wishes and



26

CHAPTER VIII THECONTEST OF THE

PLEBEIANS FOR CIVILRIGHTS

The plebeians were now (about475) as numerous as thepatricians, if not more so. Theirorganization had becomeperfected, and many of theirleaders were persistent in their

efforts to better the condition oftheir followers. Their especialaim was to raise their civil andpolitical rights to an equality withthose of the patricians. Thestruggle finally culminated in the

murder of one of the Tribunes,Gnarus Genucius, for attemptingto veto some of the acts of theConsuls.

VALERO PUBLILIUS, a Tribune,now (471) proposed and carried,

notwithstanding violentopposition by the patricians, ameasure to the effect that theTribunes should hereafter be

chosen in the Comitia Tribúta,instead of the Comitia Centuriáta.Thus the plebeians gained a veryimportant step. This bill is calledthe PUBLILIAN LAW(Plebiscítum Publilium). [Note:

All bills passed in the ComitiaTribúta were called Plebiscíta,and until 286 were notnecessarily binding upon thepeople at large; but this bill

seems to have been recognizedas a law.]

For the next twenty years thestruggle continued unabated.The plebeians demanded a

WRITTEN CODE OF LAWS.

We find among all early peoplesthat the laws are at first theunwritten ones of custom andprecedent. The laws at Rome,thus far, had been interpreted

according to the wishes andtraditions of the patricians only.

A change was demanded. Thiswas obtained by the

TERENTILIAN ROGATION, aproposal made in 461 by GaiusTerentilius Harsa, a Tribune, tothe effect that the laws thereafterbe written. The patricianfamilies, led by one KaesoQuinctius, made bitter opposition.Kaeso himself, son of the famousCincinnátus, was impeached bythe Tribune and fled from thecity.

Finally it was arranged that theComitia Centuriáta should selectfrom the people at large ten men,called the DECEMVIRATE, tohold office for one year, to direct

the government and supersedeall other magistrates, andespecially to draw up a code oflaws to be submitted to thepeople for approval. Acommission of three patricianswas sent to Athens to examine

position of the debtor wasthe laws of that city which was were approved but they



27

The TWELVE TABLES have notbeen preserved, except infragments, and we know but little

of their exact contents. The

position of the debtor wasapparently made moreendurable. The absolute controlof the pater familias over his

family was abolished. The closeconnection heretofore existingbetween the clients and patronswas gradually relaxed, the formerbecame less dependent upon thelatter, and finally were absorbedinto the body of the plebeians.Gentes among the plebeiansnow began to be recognized;previously only the patricians hadbeen divided into gentes.

the laws of that city, which wasnow (454) at the height of itsprosperity. Two years werespent by this commission, and

upon their return in 452 theabove mentioned Decemviratewas appointed.

The laws drawn up by this boardwere approved, engraved on tentables of copper, and placed inthe Forum in front of the Senate-House. Two more tables wereadded the next year. TheseTWELVE TABLES were the only

Roman code.

Forum Romanum from theCapitoline

The DECEMVIRI should have

resigned as soon as these laws

were approved, but theyneglected to do so, and began toact in a cruel and tyrannicalmanner. The people, growing

uneasy under their injustice,finally rebelled when one of theDecemviri, Appius Claudius,passed a sentence that broughtan innocent maiden, Virginia, intohis power. Her father, Virginius,saved his daughter's honor bystabbing her to the heart, andfleeing to the camp called uponthe soldiers to put down suchwicked government.

A second time the army desertedits leaders, and seceded to theSACRED MOUNT, where theynominated their own Tribunes.Then, marching into the city, they

compelled the Decemviri toresign.

Thus we see, socially, the twoorders were approaching nearerand nearer.

In 449 Valerius and Horatius

were elected Consuls, and wereinstrumental in passing the socalled VALERIO-HORATIANlaws, the substance of which wasas follows:—

I. Every Roman citizen could

influential that for a long time noappeal to the Comitia Centuriáta



Two years later (447), theelection of the Quaestors, whomust still be patricians, wasintrusted to the Comitia Tribúta.Heretofore they had been

appointed by the Consuls.28

Canuleius also proposed anotherbill which he did not carry; viz.that the consulship be open to

the plebeians. A compromise,however, was made, and it wasagreed to suspend for a time theoffice of Consul, and to electannually six MILITARYTRIBUNES in the Comitia

Centuriáta, the office being opento all citizens. The people votedevery year whether they shouldhave consuls or military tribunes,and this custom continued fornearly a half-century. The

patricians, however, were so

influential, that for a long time noplebeian was elected.

appeal to the Comitia Centuriátaagainst the sentence of anymagistrate.

II. All the decisions of theComitia Tribúta ( plebiscita), ifsanctioned by the Senate andComitia Centuriáta, were madebinding upon patricians andplebeians alike. This assemblynow became of equal importancewith the other two.

III. The persons of the Tribunes, Aediles, and other plebeian

officers, were to be consideredsacred.

IV. The Tribunes could take partin the debates of the Senate, andveto any of its decisions.

In 445 the Tribune Canuleiusproposed a bill which waspassed, and called the

CANULEIAN LAW, giving to theplebeians the right ofintermarriage (connubium) withthe patricians, and enacting thatall issue of such marriagesshould have the rank of thefather.

As an offset to these gains of the

plebeians, the patricians in 435obtained two new officers, calledCENSORS, elected from theirown ranks every five years(lustrum) to hold office foreighteen months.

The duties of the Censors were:-

I. To see that the citizens ofevery class were properly

registered.II. To punish immorality in theSenate by the removal of anymembers who were guilty ofoffences against public morals.

III. To have the generalsupervision of the finances andpublic works of the state. Thisoffice became in after years themost coveted at Rome.

interests were now more likely toA few years later, in 421, the II. To forbid any citizen's holding



29

These rogations were a greatgain for the poorer classes. Itgave them an opportunity for

labor which had previously beenperformed mostly by slaves.They were less burdened bydebts, and had some prospect ofbecoming solvent. But most ofall, since the office of Consul was

open to them, they felt that their

interests were now more likely tobe protected. The temple ofCONCORDIA in the Forum wasdedicated by Camillus as a mark

of gratitude for the better timesthat these rogations promised.

A few years later, in 421, theplebeians made another stepforward by obtaining the right ofelecting one of their number as

Quaestor. There were now fourQuaestors.

Thus the patricians, in spite ofthe most obstinate resistance,sustained loss after loss. Eventhe rich plebeians, who hadhitherto often found it for theirinterest to side with thepatricians, joined the farmers orlower classes.

Finally, in 367, the TribunesLicinius and Sextius proposedand passed the following bills,called the LICINIANROGATIONS.

I. To abolish the six militarytribunes, and elect annually, asformerly, two Consuls, choosingone or both of them from theplebeians.

II. To forbid any citizen s holdingmore than 500 jugera (300 acres)of the public lands, or feedingthereon more than 100 oxen or

500 sheep.

III. To compel all landlords toemploy on their fields a certainnumber of free laborers,proportionate to the number oftheir slaves.

IV. To allow all interest hithertopaid on borrowed money to bededucted from the principal, and

the rest to be paid in three yearlyinstalments.

The plebeians, however, did notstop until all the offices, exceptthat of Interrex , were thrownopen to them. First they gainedthat of Dictator, then those ofCensor and of Praetor, andfinally, in 286, by the law ofHORTENSIUS, the plebiscita

became binding upon all thepeople without the sanction ofthe Senate and ComitiaCenturiáta. After 200 the sacredoffices of PONTIFEX and

AUGUR also could be filled by

plebeians.

Thus the strife that had lasted fortwo centuries was virtuallyended; and although the Romanpatricians still held aloof from the

commons, yet their rights as

citizens were no greater than



gthose of the plebeians.

To recapitulate:—

Full citizenship comprised fourrights, viz.: that of trading andholding property(COMMERCIUM); that of voting(SUFFRAGIUM); that of

intermarriage (CONNUBIUM);and that of holding office(HONORES).

The first of these rights the

plebeians always enjoyed; thesecond they obtained in theestablishment of the COMITIATRIBÚTA; the third by theCANULEIAN BILL; the fourth bythe LICINIAN and subsequent

bills.

[Illustration: City of Rome to theextent of the Aurelian Walls]

30

Romans subsequently plantedwas fought on July 18, 390. The



31

The city was quickly rebuilt andsoon recovered from the blow. In

387 the lost territory adjacent tothe Tiber was annexed, andmilitary colonies were planted atSutrium and Nepete upon theEtruscan border, and also atCirceii and Setia. [Note: These

military colonies, of which the

q y pmany, were outposts establishedto protect conquered territory. Aband of Roman citizens was

armed and equipped, as if formilitary purposes. They took withthem their wives and children,slaves and followers, andestablished a local governmentsimilar to that of Rome. These

colonists relinquished their rightsas Roman citizens and becameLatins; hence the name LATINCOLONIES.] The neighboringLatin town of TUSCULUM, which

had always been a faithful ally,was annexed to Rome.

CHAPTER IXEXTERNAL HISTORY

The first authentic history ofRome begins about 400. Thecity then possessed, possibly,

three hundred square miles ofterritory. The number of tribeshad been increased to twenty-five. Later it became thirty-five.

In 391 a horde of Celtic

barbarians crossed the Apennines into Etruria andattacked CLUSIUM. Here aCeltic chief was slain by Romanambassadors, who, contrary tothe sacred character of theirmission, were fighting in theranks of the Etrurians. TheCelts, in revenge, marched uponRome. The disastrous battle ofthe ALLIA, a small river about

eleven miles north of the city,

g y ,Romans were thoroughlydefeated and their city lay at themercy of the foe. The Celts,

however, delayed three daysbefore marching upon Rome.Thus the people had time toprepare the Capitol for a siege,which lasted seven months,when by a large sum of money

the barbarians were induced towithdraw.

During this siege the records ofthe city's history were destroyed,

and we have no trustworthy datafor events that happenedprevious to 390.

The trying times of these yearshad caused numerous enemiesto spring up all around Rome; but

she showed herself superior tothem all, until finally, in 353, shehad subdued the whole ofSouthern Etruria, and gainedpossession of the town ofCAERE, with most of its territory.

The town was made a

spreading over the southern half each other, been waging warMUNICIPIUM, the first of its kind.



In 354 she formed her firstconnections beyond the Liris, bya treaty with the SAMNITES, arace that had established itself inthe mountainous districts of

Central Italy. This people,

of Italy, had in 423 captured theEtruscan city of CAPUA, andthree years later the Greek city of

CUMAE. Since then they hadbeen practically masters of thewhole of Campania.

32

After the treaty of 354 mentionedabove, both the Romans and

Samnites had, independently of

upon the Volsci. The Samniteswent so far as to attack Teánum,a city of Northern Campania,

which appealed to Capua for aid.The Samnites at once appearedbefore Capua, and she, unable todefend herself, asked aid ofRome.

The inhabitants, being of foreignblood and language, were not

allowed the full rights of Romancitizenship, but were permitted togovern their own city in localmatters as they wished. Manytowns were subsequently madeMUNICIPIA. Their inhabitants

were called CIVES SINESUFFRAGIO, "citizens withoutsuffrage."

During the next ten years (353-

343) Rome subdued all thelowland countries as far south asTARRACÍNA. To the north,across the Tiber, she hadacquired most of the territorybelonging to VEII and CAPÉNA.

Painting, The Household Gods,by J. W. Waterhouse

Alarmed at the advances of theSamnites, Rome only awaited anexcuse to break her treaty. Thiswas furnished by the Capuanssurrendering their city

unconditionally to Rome, so that,in attacking the Samnites, shewould simply be defending hersubjects.

Thus began the SAMNITE

WARS, which lasted for over halfa century with varying success,and which were interrupted bytwo truces. It is usual to dividethem into three parts, the First,Second, and Third Samnite

Wars.

part of the Ager Románus, andRome a proposition that one of



33

In 338 all the Latins laid downtheir arms, and the war closed.The Latin confederacy was at an

end. Rome now was mistress.Four of the Latin cities, TIBUR,PRAENESTE, CORA, andLAURENTUM, were leftindependent, but all the rest ofthe towns were annexed to

Rome. Their territory became

the inhabitants Roman plebeians.THE FIRST SAMNITEWAR (343-341)

The accounts of this war are souncertain and confused that noclear idea of its details can begiven. It resulted in no material

advantage to either side, exceptthat Rome retained Capua andmade it a municipium, annexingits territory to her own.

THE LATIN WAR (340- 338)

The cities of the LATIN

CONFEDERACY had been for along time looking with jealouseyes upon the rapid progress ofRome. Their own rights hadbeen disregarded, and they feltthat they must now make a stand

or lose everything. They sent to

the Consuls and half of theSenate be Latins; but it wasrejected. A war followed, in the

third year of which was foughtthe battle of Trigánum, nearMount Vesuvius. The Romans,with their Samnite allies, werevictorious through the efforts ofthe Consul, TITUS MANLIUS

TORQUÁTUS, one of theillustrious names of this stilldoubtful period. The remainderof the operations was rather aseries of expeditions against

individual cities than a generalwar.

Besides acquiring Latium, Rome

also annexed, as municipia,three more towns, Fundi,Formiae, and Velítrae, a Volsciantown.

LATIUM was now made to

include all the country from theTiber to the Volturnus.

Rome about this time establishedseveral MARITIME (Roman)

COLONIES, which were similarto her MILITARY (Latin)COLONIES, except that thecolonists retained all their rightsas Roman citizens, whereas themilitary colonists relinquished

these rights and became Latins.The first of these colonies was ANTIUM (338); afterwards wereestablished TARRACÍNA (329),MINTURNAE, and SINUESSA(296). Others were afterwards

founded.

the Etruscans. The last of these



Later, when Antium was changedinto a military colony, its navywas destroyed, and the beaks

(rostra) of its ships were taken toRome, and placed as ornamentson the speaker's stand oppositethe Senate-House. Hence thename ROSTRA.

At this time the FORUM, whichhad been used for tradingpurposes of all kinds, wasimproved and beautified. Itbecame a centre for political

discussions and financialproceedings. The bankers andbrokers had their offices here.Smaller Fora were started nearthe river, as the Forum Boarium (cattle market) and the Forum

Holitorium (vegetable market).

Forum Boarium

Maenius, one of the Censors,was chiefly instrumental in

bringing about theseimprovements.

THE SECOND ANDTHIRD SAMNITE WARS(326-290)

The results of the First SamniteWar and the Latin War were, aswe have seen, to break up theLatin confederacy, and enlargethe domain of Rome.

There were now in Italy threeraces aiming at the supremacy,

the Romans, the Samnites, and

was the weakest, and had beendeclining ever since the captureby the Romans of Veii in 396,

and of Caere in 353.

In the contest which followedbetween Rome and theSamnites, the combatants werevery nearly matched. Rome had

her power more compact andconcentrated, while the Samniteswere superior in numbers, butwere more scattered. They wereboth equally brave.

During the first five years of thewar (326-321), the Romans wereusually successful, and theSamnites were forced to sue forpeace. In this period Rome

gained no new territory, butfounded a number of militaryposts in the enemy's country.

34

The peace lasted for about ayear, when hostilities were again

renewed. By this time the

Caudine Forks (321), one of thet h ili ti d f t th t

(310) the Samnites were soth hl hi d b QUINTUS

Samnites had found a worthyl d i G i P ti b



Such was the affair at the

most humiliating defeats thatever befell the Roman arms. Thearmy was made to pass under

the yoke,—which was made ofthree spears, two stuck into theground parallel to each other andthe third placed above them,—and then suffered to depart.

35

Pontius, indignant at the brokenfaith, refused to accept them, andthe war was renewed. It

continued for seven years, when

thoroughly whipped by QUINTUSFABIUS, then Dictator, at LAKEVADIMÓNIS in Etruria, that they

could no longer make anyeffective resistance, and at last(304) agreed to relinquish alltheir sea-coast, their alliancesand conquests, and acknowledgethe supremacy of Rome.

leader in Gavius Pontius, bywhose skill and wisdom thefortune of war was turned against

the Romans for seven years(321-315). He allured theRomans into a small plain, ateach end of which was a defile(Furculae Caudinae). Onreaching this plain they found

Pontius strongly posted tooppose them. After a bloody butfruitless attempt to force him toretreat, the Romans themselveswere compelled to give way. Butmeanwhile Pontius had alsooccupied the defile in their rear,and they were obliged tosurrender.

A treaty was signed by the

Consuls Titus Veturius andSpurius Postumius, according towhich peace was to be made,and everything restored to itsformer condition.

Rome was filled with dismay atthe news. The citizens dressedin mourning, business andamusements were suspended,and every energy was devoted torepairing the disaster.Compliance with the terms of thetreaty was refused, on theground that no treaty was validunless sanctioned by a vote ofthe people. It was determined to

deliver the Consuls who hadsigned it to the enemy.

During this war the Etruscansmade their last single effortagainst the Roman power. Anexpedition was sent in 311 toattack the military colony ofSutrium, which had beenfounded seventy-six yearsbefore. The Consul QuintusFabius went to the rescue, raisedthe siege, drove the Etruscans

into the Ciminian forests, andthere completely defeated them.

Six years intervened between theSecond and the THIRDSAMNITE WAR (298-290). This

time was employed by the

and, rushing into the midst of thel i [N t It i

other nations on the south fromth U b i G l d

Samnites in endeavoring to uniteIt l i t R Th



In this battle the struggle waslong and doubtful. The Samniteswere assisted by the Gauls, whowere showing themselves more

than a match for the part of theRoman army opposed to them,and commanded by Decius.Following the example of hisillustrious father, the Consulvowed his life to the Infernal

Gods if victory were granted,

enemy, was slain. [Note: It issaid that the father of Deciusacted in a similar manner in a

battle of the Latin war.] Hissoldiers, rendered enthusiasticby his example, rallied andpushed back the Gauls. Thevictory was now complete, for theSamnites were already fleeing

before that part of the armywhich was under Fabius.

36

The war dragged on for fiveyears, when the Consul MANIUSCURIUS DENTÁTUS finallycrushed the Samnites, and alsothe SABINES, who had recently

joined them. The Samnites wereallowed their independence, andbecame allies of Rome. The

Sabines were made Romancitizens (sine suffragio), and theirterritory was annexed to the AgerRománus. This territory nowreached across Italy from theTuscan to the Adriatic Sea,

separating the Samnites and

the Umbrians, Gauls, andEtruscans on the north.

Italy against Rome. They were joined by the UMBRIANS,GAULS, and ETRUSCANS. The

LUCANIANS alone were withRome.

The war was of short duration,and was practically decided bythe sanguinary battle of

SENTINUM (295) in Umbria.The Samnites, led by GelliusEgnatius, were routed by theRoman Consuls QUINTUSFABIUS MAXIMUS andPUBLIUS DECIUS MUS.

In 283, at Lake Vadimónis, theRomans defeated the Senonianand Boian Gauls, and foundedthe military colony of SENAGALLICA.

bound themselves not to allowtheir vessels to appear in the

their jealousy of each other; sothat they were unable to oppose



37

Of these cities TARENTUM wasnow the chief. With it a treatyhad been made by which theTarentines agreed to certainlimits beyond which their fleet

was not to pass, and the Romans

their vessels to appear in theGulf of Tarentum beyond theLacinian promontory. As usual,

the Romans found no difficulty inevading their treaty whenever itshould profit them.

CHAPTER X WARSWITH PYRRHUS (281-

272)

In the early times of Rome, whileshe was but little known, it had

been the custom of Greece tosend colonies away to relieve thepressure of too rapid increase.We find them in Spain, France,

Asia Minor, and especially inSicily and Southern Italy, where

the country became sothoroughly Grecianized that itwas called MAGNA GRAECIA.Here were many flourishingcities, as Tarentum, Sybaris,

Croton, and Thurii. These had,at the time of their contact withRome, greatly fallen from theirformer grandeur, owing partly tothe inroads of barbarians fromthe north, partly to civil

dissensions, and still more to

that they were unable to opposeany firm and united resistance tothe progress of Rome. It had

been their custom to rely largelyupon strangers for the recruitingand management of theirarmies,—a fact which explains inpart the ease with which theywere overcome.

Satellite image of Sicily with Etnaerupting

Thurii was attacked by theLucanians, and, despairing of aid

from Tarentum, called on Romefor assistance. As soon asdomestic affairs permitted, warwas declared against theLucanians, and the wedge wasentered which was to separateMagna Graecia from Hellas, anddeliver the former over to Rome.

Pretending that the war wasinstigated by Tarentum, Rome

decided to ignore the treaty, andsent a fleet of ten vessels into theBay of Tarentum. It was a galaday, and the people wereassembled in the theatre thatoverlooked the bay when the

ships appeared. It was

3,000 cavalry, and 20 elephants.He at once set about compelling

surprise of a charge of elephantsthan by the tactics of the

determined to punish theintrusion A fleet was manned



Pyrrhus landed in Italy in 281

with a force of 20,000 infantry,

He at once set about compellingthe effeminate Greeks to preparefor their own defence. Places of

amusement were closed; thepeople were forced to performmilitary duty; disturbers of thepublic safety were put to death;and other reforms were madewhich the dangers of the

situation seemed to demand.Meanwhile the Romans actedwith promptness, and boldlychallenged him to battle. Thearmies met in 280 on the plain ofHERACLÉA, on the banks of theLiris, where the level nature ofthe country was in favor of theGreek method of fighting. TheMacedonian phalanx was themost perfect instrument of

warfare the world had yet seen,and the Roman legions hadnever yet been brought intocollision with it.

38

The Romans, under LAEVÍNUS,

were defeated, more by the

than by the tactics of thephalanx. However, they retiredin good order. Pyrrhus is said to

have been much impressed bythe heroic conduct of the foe, andto have said, "Another suchvictory will send me back withouta man to Epirus." He recognizedthe inferior qualities of his Greek

allies, and determined to make apeace. A trusted messenger,CINEAS, was sent to Rome. Hewas noted for his eloquence,which was said to have gainedmore for his master than thesword. Through him Pyrrhuspromised to retire to Epirus ifsafety was guaranteed to hisallies in Italy.

intrusion. A fleet was manned,and four of the Roman squadronwere destroyed.

An ambassador, Postumius, sentby Rome to demand satisfaction,was treated with insult andcontempt. He replied to themockery of the Tarentines, that

their blood should wash out thestain. The next year one of theConsuls was ordered south.

Meanwhile Tarentum had sentenvoys to ask aid of PYRRHUS,the young and ambitious KINGOF EPÍRUS. He was cousin of

Alexander the Great, and, sincehe had obtained no share in thedivision of the conquests of this

great leader, his dream was tofound an empire in the West thatwould surpass the exhaustedmonarchies of the East.

The eloquence of Cineas wasfortified with presents for theSenators; and though these wererefused, many seemed disposedto treat with him, when the aged

APPIUS CLAUDIUS CAECUS

(Blind) was led into the Senate,

Senate; and, on his part, Pyrrhusrefused to grant the desired

The wounded beasts becamefurious and unmanageable and

and declared that Rome shouldnever treat with an enemy in



Pyrrhus then tried force, and,hastily advancing northward,appeared within eighteen milesof the city. Here his dangerbecame great. The defection hehad hoped for among the Latinsdid not take place, and thearmies which had been operatingelsewhere were now ready tounite against him. He thereforeretired into winter quarters at

Tarentum, where he received thefamous embassy of GAIUSFABRICIUS, sent to propose aninterchange of prisoners. It wasin vain that bribes and threatswere employed to shake the

courage of the men sent by the

refused to grant the desiredexchange.

39

The same year Pyrrhus retired toSicily to defend Syracuse againstthe Carthaginians, who wereallied to the Romans. Heremained on the island threeyears. Upon his return to Italy hemet the Romans for the last time

in 274, near BENEVENTUM,where he was defeated by theConsul MANIUS CURIOUSDENTÁTUS. The Romans hadby this time become accustomedto the elephants, and used

burning arrows against them.

furious and unmanageable, andthrew the army into disorder.With this battle ended the career

of Pyrrhus in Italy. He returnedhome, and two years later wasaccidentally killed by a woman at

Argos.

never treat with an enemy inarms.

Cineas was deeply impressed bythe dignity of the Romans, anddeclared that the Senators werean assembly of kings and Romeitself a temple.

Many Italian nations now joinedPyrrhus, and hostilities wererenewed. The armies again metin 279 on the plain of ASCULUM,in Apulia; but though the Romanswere defeated, it was only

another of those Pyrrhic victorieswhich were almost as disastrousas defeat.

The departure of Pyrrhus left all

Italy at the mercy of Rome. Twoyears later, in 272, the garrisonat Tarentum surrendered, the citywalls were demolished, and thefleet given up.

CHAPTER XI DIVISIONS

districts (tribes), four of whichwere in Rome The elections

to thirty-five.



40

CHAPTER XI DIVISIONSOF THE ROMAN

TERRITORY—NOTEDMEN OF THE PERIOD

Rome was now mistress of all

Italy south of the Arnus and Aesis. This country was dividedinto two parts.

I. The AGER ROMÁNUS,including about one quarter ofthe whole, bounded on the northby CAERE, on the south byFORMIAE, and on the east bythe APENNINES.

II. The DEPENDENTCOMMUNITIES.

The Ager Románus wassubdivided, for voting andfinancial purposes, into thirty-

three, afterwards thirty-five

were in Rome. The electionswere all held at Rome.

These districts were made up,—

a. Of ROME.

b. Of the ROMAN COLONIES,mostly maritime, now numbering

seven, but finally increased tothirty-five.

c. Of the MUNICIPIA (townsbound to service).

d. Of the PRAEFECTÚRAE(towns governed by a praefect,who was sent from Rome andappointed by the Praetor).

The DEPENDENTCOMMUNITIES were madeup,—

a. Of the LATIN (military)COLONIES, now numbering

twenty-two, afterwards increased

b. Of the ALLIES of Rome(Socii ), whose cities and

adjoining territory composedmore than one half of the countrycontrolled by Rome.

These allies were allowed localgovernment, were not obliged to

pay tribute, but were called uponto furnish their proportion oftroops for the Roman army.

The inhabitants of this countrywere divided into five classes,viz.—

a. Those who possessed bothPUBLIC and PRIVATE RIGHTSas citizens, i. e. FULL RIGHTS.

[Note: Public rights consisted ofthe jus suffragii (right of voting atRome); jus honorum (right ofholding office), and jus

provocationis (right of appeal).Private rights were jus connubii

(right of intermarriage); and jus

of most of the Municipia, whopossessed only private rights, the

commercii (right of trading andholding property). Full rights

her empire, so that not even thesuccesses of Hannibal caused



To class b belonged the citizens

possessed only private rights, thecitizens of all the Praefectúrae,and the citizens of all the Latin

colonies.

holding property). Full rightswere acquired either by birth orgift. A child born of parents, both

of whom enjoyed the jusconnubii , was a Roman citizenwith full rights. Foreigners weresometimes presented withcitizenship (civitas)]

41

b. Those who were subjects anddid not possess full rights.

c. Those who were ALLIES(Socii ).

d. Those who were SLAVES,who possessed no rights.

e. Those who were RESIDENTFOREIGNERS, who possessed

the right of trading.

To class a belonged the citizensof Rome, of the Roman colonies,and of some of the Municipia.

ROADS

Even at this early date, thenecessity of easy communicationwith the capital seems to havebeen well understood. Roadswere pushed in every direction,—broad, level ways, over which

armies might be marched orintelligence quickly carried. Theywere chains which bound herpossessions indissolublytogether. Some of them remaintoday a monument of Romanthoroughness, enterprise, andsagacity,—the wonder andadmiration of modern road-builders. By these means didRome fasten together the

constantly increasing fabric of

successes of Hannibal causedmore than a momentary shakingof fidelity, for which ample

punishment was both speedyand certain.

Via Appia Antica with fragmentsof an ancient tomb

NOTED MEN

The three most noted men of theperiod embraced in the twopreceding chapters were AppiusClaudius, the Censor andpatrician; and Manius CuriusDentátus and Gaius Fabricius,

plebeians.

APPIA, was built under hissupervision. This road ran at first

Dentátus, was from thepeasants. He was a Hernican.We have seen that all plebeians



During the censorship of Appius,Rome had its first regular watersupply by the Appian aqueduct.

The first military road, the VIA

pfrom Rome as far as Capua. Itwas constructed so well that

many parts of it are today in goodcondition. The road wasafterward extended toBrundisium, through Venusia andTarentum.

42GAIUS FABRICIUS, like

p As a soldier he was successful. As a statesman he was

incorruptible, and of great use tohis country. Previous to thebattle of Asculum, Pyrrhusattempted to bribe him by largesums of money, and, failing inthis, thought to frighten him by

hiding an elephant behind acurtain; the curtain was suddenlyremoved, but Fabricius, thoughimmediately under the elephant'strunk, stood unmoved.

pwho were land-owners belongedto one of the tribes, and could

vote in the Comitia Tribúta; this,however, shut out the plebeiansof the city who owned no land,and also the freedmen, who weregenerally educated andprofessional men, such as

doctors, teachers, etc.

APPIUS CLAUDIUS as Censor,in 312, deprived the landownersof the exclusive privilege ofvoting in the Comitia Tribúta, andgave to property owners of anysort the right to vote. Eight yearslater this law was modified, sothat it applied to the four citytribes alone, and the thirty-one

rural tribes had for their basislanded property only.

MANIUS CURIUS DENTÁTUSwas a peasant, a contemporaryof Appius, and his opponent inmany ways. He was a strongfriend of the plebeians. Heobtained for the soldiers largeassignments of the AgerPublicus. He drained the lowand swampy country near Reáteby a canal. He was theconqueror of Pyrrhus. A man of

sterling qualities, frugal andunostentatious, after his publiclife he retired to his farm andspent the remainder of his daysin seclusion as a simple peasant.

In this generation we find Romancharacter at its best. Wealth hadnot flowed into the state in suchlarge quantities as to corrupt it.The great mass of the people

were peasants, small land-owners, of frugal habits andmoral qualities. Butcomparatively few owned largeestates as yet, or possessedlarge tracts of the Ager Publicus.

A century later, when most of the



CHAPTER XII FOREIGN

Carthaginian power. The power of Carthage lay in hercommerce. Through her hands



CHAPTER XII FOREIGNCONQUEST

ROME AND CARTHAGE.—FIRST PUNIC WAR. (264-241)[Note: The word "Punic" is

derived from Phoenici . TheCarthaginians were said to havecome originally fromPHOENICIA, on the easterncoast of the Mediterranean.Their first ruler was Dido. The

Latin student is of course familiarwith Virgil's story of Dido and Aenéas.]

While Rome was graduallyenlarging her territory from

Latium to the Straits of Messána,on the other shore of theMediterranean, opposite Italy andless than one hundred miles fromSicily, sprang up, through

industry and commerce, the

Like Rome, Carthage had anobscure beginning. As in the

case of Rome, it requiredcenturies to gain her power.

It was the policy of Carthage tomake a successful revolt of hersubdued allies an impossibility,

by consuming all their energies inthe support of her immensepopulation and the equipment ofher numerous fleets and armies.Hence all the surrounding tribes,once wandering nomads, wereforced to become tillers of thesoil; and, with colonies sent outby herself, they formed the socalled Libyo- Phoenicianpopulation, open to the attack of

all, and incapable of defence.Thus the country aroundCarthage was weak, and themoment a foreign enemy landedin Africa the war was merely asiege of its chief city.

gpassed the gold and pearls of theOrient; the famous Tyrian purple;

ivory, slaves, and incense of Arabia; the silver of Spain; thebronze of Cyprus; and the iron ofElba.

But the harsh and gloomy

character of the people, theircruel religion, which sanctionedhuman sacrifice, their disregardof the rights of others, their wellknown treachery, all shut themoff from the higher civilization ofRome and Greece.

The government of Carthage wasan ARISTOCRACY. A councilcomposed of a few of high birth,

and another composed of thevery wealthy, managed the state.Only in times of extraordinarydanger were the peoplesummoned and consulted.

44Rome had made two treaties with

MAMERTINES, a band ofbrigands who came from

intervention of the Carthaginians,a truce had been formed

Carthage; one immediately afterthe establishment of the



At this time the island wasshared by three powers,—HIERO, king of Syracuse, the

CARTHAGINIANS, and the

Campania. The latter, makingMessána their head- quarters,

had been pillaging all of theisland that they could reach.Being shut up in Messána byHiero, they asked aid of Rome onthe ground that they were fromCampania. Although Rome was

in alliance with Hiero, and hadbut recently executed 300mercenaries for doing inRhegium what the Mamertineshad done in Sicily,—shedetermined to aid them, for Sicilywas a rich and tempting prey.

45Meanwhile, however, through the

between Hiero and the brigands,and the siege of Messána was

raised. The city itself wasoccupied by a fleet and garrisonof Carthaginians under HANNO,The Romans, though theMamertines no longer neededtheir aid, landed at Messána and

dislodged the Carthaginians,

Republic, in 500, the other about340. By these treaties

commerce was allowed betweenRome and its dependencies andCarthage and her possessions inSicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. Butthe Romans were not to trade inSpain, or sail beyond the Bay of

Carthage.

In leaving Sicily, Pyrrhus hadexclaimed, "What a fine battle-field for Rome and Carthage!" IfCarthage were mistress of thisisland, Rome would be shut up inher peninsula; if Rome were inpossession of it, "the commerceof Carthage would beintercepted, and a good breeze

of one night would carry theRoman fleets to her walls".

The Straits of Messina looking toCampania (Calabria)

Thus opened the FIRST PUNICWAR. The Romans at onceformed a double alliance withSyracuse and Messána, thusgaining control of the easterncoast of Sicily and getting theirfirst foothold outside of Italy.

The most important inland city of

Sicily was AGRIGENTUM. Herethe Carthaginians the next year(262) concentrated their forcesunder HANNIBAL, son of Cisco.The Romans besieged the city,but were themselves cut off from

supplies by Hanno, who landed

at Heracléa in their rear. Bothbesieged and besiegers suffered

land.



much. At last a battle was fought(262), in which the Romans were

victorious, owing to their superiorinfantry. Agrigentum fell, andonly a few strongholds on thecoast were left to theCarthaginians.

The Romans now began to feelthe need of a fleet. That ofCarthage ruled the sea without arival: it notonly controlled many ofthe seaports of Sicily, but alsothreatened Italy itself. With theirusual energy, the Romans beganthe work. [Note: In 259, threeyears previous to the battle ofEcnomus, the Romans underLucius Scipio captured Blesia, a

seaport of Corsica, andestablished there a navalstation.] A wrecked Carthaginianvessel was taken as a model,and by the spring of 260 a navyof 120 sail was ready for sea.

The ships were made the moreformidable by a heavy iron beak,for the purpose of running downand sinking the enemy's vessels;a kind of hanging stage was alsoplaced on the prow of the ship,

which could be lowered in frontor on either side. It wasfurnished on both sides withparapets, and had space for twomen in front. On coming to closequarters with the enemy, this

stage was quickly lowered andfastened to the opposing ship bymeans of grappling irons; thusthe Roman marines wereenabled to board with ease theiropponents' ship, and fight as if on

Four naval battles now followed:1st, near LIPARA (260); 2d, off

MYLAE (260); 3d, off TYNDARIS(257); 4th, off ECNOMUS (256).

In the first of these onlyseventeen ships of the Romanswere engaged under the

CONSUL GNAEUS CORNELIUSSCIPIO. The fleet with itscommander was captured.

46

In the second engagement, offMylae, all the Roman fleet underGAIUS DUILIUS took part. TheCarthaginians were led byHannibal, son of Gisco. Thenewly invented stages orboarding-bridges of the Romans

were found to be very effective.The enemy could not approachnear without these bridgesdescending with their grapplingirons and holding them fast to theRomans. The Carthaginians

were defeated, with the loss of

way, it gained a victory over theCarthaginian fleet off theH é t i ki

nearly half their fleet.

A b l t dMARCUS ATILIUS REGULUS

t i d f th



In the fourth engagement, offEcnomus, the Carthaginians had350 sail. Thirty Carthaginian andtwenty-four Roman vessels weresunk, and sixty-four of the formercaptured. The Punic fleet

withdrew to the coast of Africa,and prepared in the Bay ofCarthage for another battle. Butthe Romans sailed to the easternside of the peninsula which helpsto form the bay, and there landed

without opposition.47

The Romans, learning of thisdefeat, sent a fleet of 350 sail torelieve their comrades who were

shut up in Clupea. While on its

Herméan promontory, sinking114 of the enemy's ships.

A bronze column, ornamentedwith the beaks of the captured

vessels, was erected at Rome inhonor of this victory of Duilius.The pedestal of it is still standing,and on it are inscribed some ofthe oldest inscriptions in the Latinlanguage.

The third engagement, offTyndaris, resulted in a drawnbattle.

was put in command of theRoman forces in Africa. For a

time he was very successful, andthe Carthaginians becamedisheartened. Many of the townsnear Cartilage surrendered, andthe capital itself was in danger.Peace was asked, but the terms

offered were too humiliating to beaccepted.

Regulus, who began to despisehis opponents, remained inactiveat Tunis, near Carthage,neglecting even to secure a lineof retreat to his fortified camp atClupea. The next spring (255)he was surprised, his army cut topieces, and he himself taken

prisoner. He subsequently dieda captive at Carthage.

It arrived at Clupea in time tosave its friends. The war in

Africa was now abandoned. Thefleet, setting sail for home, waspartly destroyed in a storm, only

eighty ships reaching port.

Hostilities continued for six yearswithout any great results.Panormus was taken in 254; thecoast of Africa ravaged in 253;Thermae and the island of Liparawere taken in 252, and Eryx in249.

DREPANA and LILYBAEUM

were now the only places inSicily, held by Carthage. Aregular siege of Lilybaeum wasdecided upon, and the city wasblockaded by land and sea; butthe besieging party suffered as

much as the besieged, its

meanwhile took the field in Sicily.He was a man of great activity

d ilit t l t d th

and the remainder in ten annualpayments. Thus ended the FirstP i W

supplies were frequently cut offby the cavalry of theC th i i d it k



A new Carthaginian commander,

HAMILCAR BARCA (Lightning),

and military talent, and theRomans at first were no match

for him. He seemed in a fair wayto regain all Sicily. The apathy ofthe Senate was so great, that atlast some private citizens builtand manned at their ownexpense a fleet of 200 sail.

48

Sicily was surrendered.Carthage agreed to pay the costof the war,— about

$3,000,000,—one third down,

Punic War.Carthaginians, and its ranksbegan to be thinned by disease.

The Consul, Publius Claudius,who had charge of the siege,determined to surprise theCarthaginian fleet, which wasstationed at Drepana (249). He

was unsuccessful, and lost threefourths of his vessels. Anotherfleet of 120 sail sent to aid himwas wrecked in a violent storm.

The Romans were now inperplexity. The war had lastedfifteen years. Four fleets hadbeen lost, and one sixth of thefighting population. They hadfailed in Africa, and the two

strongest places in Sicily werestill in the enemy's hands. Forsix years more the war draggedon (249-243).

GAIUS LUTATIUS CATALUS,the Consul in command,surprised the enemy andoccupied the harbors of Drepanaand Lilybaeum in 242. ACarthaginian fleet which came tothe rescue was met anddestroyed off the AEGÁTESINSULAE in 241. Hamilcar wasleft in Sicily without support and

supplies. He saw that peacemust be made.

CHAPTER XIII ROME

into the government of Rome anew system; viz. thePROVINCIAL SYSTEM

their produce, and five per centof the value of their imports andexports They were not obliged



49

AND CARTHAGE

BETWEEN THE FIRSTAND SECOND PUNICWARS (241-218)

Twenty-three years elapsedbetween the First and SecondPunic Wars. The Carthaginianswere engaged during the firstpart of this time in crushing a

mutiny of their mercenary troops.Rome, taking advantage of theposition in which her rival wasplaced, seized upon SARDINIAand CORSICA, and, when

Carthage objected, threatened torenew the war, and obliged her topay more than one million dollarsas a fine (237).

The acquisition of Sicily,

Sardinia, and Corsica introduced

PROVINCIAL SYSTEM.

Heretofore the two chiefmagistrates of Rome, theConsuls, had exercised theirfunctions over all the Romanpossessions. Now Sicily wasmade what the Romans called a

provincia, or PROVINCE.Sardinia and Corsica formedanother province (235).

Over each province was placed aRoman governor, calledProconsul. For this purpose twonew Praetors were now elected,making four in all. The power ofthe governor was absolute; hewas commander in chief, chief

magistrate, and supreme judge.The finances of the provinceswere intrusted to one or moreQUAESTORS. All theinhabitants paid as taxes into the

Roman treasury one tenth of

exports. They were not obligedto furnish troops, as were the

dependants of Rome in Italy.The provincial government was afruitful source of corruption. Asthe morals of the Romansdegenerated, the provinces were

plundered without mercy toenrich the coffers of theavaricious governors.

The Adriatic Sea at this time wasoverrun by Illyrican pirates, whodid much damage. Satisfactionwas demanded by Rome ofIllyricum, but to no purpose. As alast resort, war was declared,and the sea was cleared of the

pirates in 229."The results of this Illyrican wardid not end here, for it was themeans of establishing, for thefirst time, direct political relations

between Rome and the states of

Flaminius, by his agrarian lawsgained the bitter hatred of thenobility He was the first

Greece, to many of which thesuppression of piracy was of asmuch importance as to Rome

This contest continued for tenyears, and in 225 Etruria wasinvaded by an army of 70 000



The Romans now began to lookwith hungry eyes upon GALLIACISALPÍNA. The appetite forconquest was well whetted.

There had been peace with theGauls since the battle of LakeVadimónis in 283. The ager

publicus, taken from the Gaulsthen, was still mostly unoccupied.In 232 the Tribune Gaius

Flaminius [Note: Gaius

nobility. He was the firstGovernor of Sicily, and there

showed himself to be a man ofintegrity and honesty, a greatcontrast to many who succeededhim.] carried an agrarian law, tothe effect that this land be givento the veterans and the poorer

classes. The law was executed,and colonies planted. To theGauls this seemed but the firststep to the occupation of thewhole of their country. They allrose in arms except theCenománi.

much importance as to Romeherself. Alliances were

concluded with CORCÝRA,EPIDAMNUS, and APOLLONIA;and embassies explaining thereasons which had broughtRoman troops into Greece weresent to the Aetolians and

Achaeans, to Athens andCorinth. The admission of theRomans to the Isthmian Gamesin 228 formally acknowledgedthem as the allies of the Greekstates."

Lago Arancio, Sicily

invaded by an army of 70,000men. The plans of the invaders,

however, miscarried, and theywere hemmed in between twoRoman armies near TELAMONin 222, and annihilated. TheGallic king was slain at the handsof the Consul MARCUS

CLAUDIUS MARCELLUS.PAGE 61 Rome was nowmistress of the whole peninsulaof Italy, excepting some tribes inLiguria, who resisted a short timelonger.

50

Three military (Latin) colonieswere founded to hold the Gaulsin check; PLACENTIA andCREMÓNA in the territory of the

Insubres, and MUTINA in that ofthe Boii. The Via Flaminia, thegreat northern road, wasextended from SPOLETIUM to

ARIMINUM. [Note: During thisperiod the Comitia Centuriáta

was reorganized on the basis of

and ability in camp under hisfather. He was a fine athlete,well educated in the duties of a

tribes (35) instead of money.]

Meanwhile Carthage was not



At his death, his son-in-law,Hasdrubal, continued his work.Many towns were founded, tradeprospered, and agricultureflourished. The discovery of richsilver mines near Carthago Novawas a means of enriching the

treasury. After the assassinationof Hasdrubal, in 220, the ablestleader was Hannibal, son ofHamilcar. Although a young manof but twenty-eight, he had had alife of varied experience. As a

boy he had shown great courage

well educated in the duties of asoldier, and could endure long

privation of sleep and food. Forthe last few years he had been incommand of the cavalry, and haddistinguished himself for personalbravery, as well as by his talentsas a leader.

51

Meanwhile Carthage was notidle. After subduing the revolt of

the mercenaries in 237, sheformed the project of obtainingSPAIN as compensation for theloss of Sicily, Sardinia, andCorsica. Hamilcar Barca, byenergetic measures, established

(236-228) a firm foothold inSouthern and SoutheasternSpain.

Hannibal resolved to begin theinevitable struggle with Rome atonce. He therefore laid siege toSaguntum, a Spanish town alliedto Rome. In eight months theplace was compelled tocapitulate (219).

When Rome demandedsatisfaction of Carthage for this

insult, and declared herself readyfor war, the Carthaginiansaccepted the challenge, and theSecond Punic War began in 218.

arrived with his troops. Heobtained all the boats possible,and constructed numerous raftsCHAPTER XIV THE

Celtic territory, with littleopposition. The last of Julyfound him on the banks of the



52

The Consuls of the year wereSCIPIO and SEMPRONIUS.

The former had been in NorthernItaly, leisurely collecting forces toattack Hannibal in Spain; thelatter was in Sicily, makingpreparations to invade Africa.Scipio set sail for Spain, touching

at Massilia near the end of June.Learning there for the first timethat Hannibal had already leftSpain, he hoped to intercept himon the Rhone. The Celtic tribes

of the neighborhood were wonover to his side. Troopscollected from these werestationed along the river, butScipio's main army remained atMassilia. It was Hannibal's policy

to cross the river before Scipio

and constructed numerous raftsto transport his main body of

troops. A detachment of soldierswas sent up the river with ordersto cross at the first availableplace, and, returning on theopposite bank, to surprise theCeltic forces in the rear. The

plan succeeded. The Celts fledin confusion, and the road to the Alps was opened. Thus Scipiowas outgeneralled in the verybeginning.

SECOND PUNIC WAR—

FROM THE PASSAGEOF THE PYRENEES TOTHE BATTLE OFCANNAE (218-216)

In the spring of 218 Hannibalstarted from Carthágo Nova toinvade Italy. His army consistedof 90,000 infantry, 12,000

cavalry, and 37 elephants. Hismarch to the Pyrenees occupiedtwo months, owing to theopposition of the Spanish alliesof Rome. Hannibal now sentback a part of his troops,

retaining 50,000 infantry and9,000 cavalry, all veterans. Withthese he crossed the mountains,and marched along the coast byNarbo (Narbonne) andNemansus (Nîmes), through the

found him on the banks of theRhone, opposite Avenio

(Avignon). The Romans wereastonished at the rapidity of hismovements.

Scipio bust from Naples, theMuseo archeologico nazionale

His course now should have

and a night, however, the armyreached the summit of the pass.Here, on a table-land, his troops

exhausted soldiers. Here theyencamped, in September, andrecruited their wearied energies.

been to return to Northern Italywith all his forces, and take everymeans to check Hannibal there.



Meanwhile Hannibal hurried upthe valley of the Rhone, across

the Isara, through the fertilecountry of the Allobroges,arriving, in sixteen days from

Avenio, at the pass of the first Alpine range (Mont du Chat).Crossing this with some difficulty,

owing to the nature of the countryand the resistance of the Celts,he hastened on through thecountry of the Centrónes, alongthe north bank of the Isara. As

he was leaving this river andapproaching the pass of the LittleSt. Bernard, he was againattacked by the Celts, andobliged to make the ascentamidst continual and bloody

encounters. After toiling a day

Here, on a table land, his troopswere allowed a brief rest.

53

The hardships of the descentwere fully as great, and the fertilevalley of the Po was a welcome

sight to the half-famished and

recruited their wearied energies.means to check Hannibal there.Instead, he sent most of his

troops to Spain under his brotherGnaeus Scipio, and himself, withbut a few men, set sail for Pisae.

Map of Hannibal’s crossing of the Alps

This famous march of Hannibalfrom the Rhone lasted thirty-three days, and cost him 20,000infantry and 3,000 cavalry.

The Romans were still

unprepared to meet Hannibal.One army was in Spain underGnaeus Scipio; the other inSicily, on its way to Africa, underthe Consul Sempronius. Theonly troops immediately available

were a few soldiers that hadbeen left in the valley of the Po torestrain the Gauls, who hadrecently shown signs ofdefection.

Publius Cornelius Scipio, uponhis return from Massilia, tookcommand of these. He metHannibal first in October, 218,near the river Ticinus, a tributary

of the Po. A cavalry skirmish

give the enemy a hot reception,if, as he expected, they shouldpursue his retreating vanguard.

joined by the troops that hadwintered at Placentia.

followed, in which he waswounded and rescued by hisson, a lad of seventeen,



Early one raw morning inDecember, 218, the vanguard ofthe Carthaginians was ordered tocross the Trebia, and, as soonany resistance was met, toretreat. The other troops of

Hannibal were drawn up ready to

pu sue s et eat g a gua dSempronius was caught in the

trap, and all his army, except onedivision of 10,000, was cut topieces. The survivors tookrefuge in Placentia andCremona, where they spent thewinter. Sempronius himself

escaped to Rome.

54

The result of TREBIA was theinsurrection of all the Celtic tribesin the valley of the Po, whoincreased Hannibal's army by

60,000 infantry and 4,000cavalry. While the Carthaginianwas wintering near Placentia, theRomans stationed troops toguard the two highways leading

north from Rome and ending at Arretium and Ariminum, TheConsuls for this year wereGAIUS FLAMINIUS andGNAEUS SERVILIUS. Theformer occupied Arretium, the

latter Ariminum. Here they were

so , a ad o se e tee ,afterwards the famous Africanus.

The Romans were discomfited,with considerable loss.

They then retreated, crossing thePo at Placentia, and destroyingthe bridge behind them.

Hannibal forded the river fartherup, and marched along its rightbank until he reached itsconfluence with the Trebia,opposite Placentia. Here heencamped.

Meanwhile Sempronius, who hadbeen recalled from Sicily,relieved the disabled Scipio.

In the spring, Hannibal, instead

of attempting to pursue his marchby either of the highways whichwere fortified, outflanked theRomans by turning aside intoEtruria. His route led through amarshy and unhealthy country,

and many soldiers perished.Hannibal himself lost an eye fromophthalmia. When he hadarrived at Faesulae a report ofhis course first reachedFlaminius, who at once broke

camp and endeavored tointercept his enemy. Hannibal,however, had the start, and wasnow near LAKE TRASIMÉNUS.

Here was a pass with a high hillon one side and the lake on theother. Hannibal, with the flowerof his infantry, occupied the hill.His light-armed troops andhorsemen were drawn up in

concealment on either side.

was not in immediate danger,raised another army, and placedthe Dictator in command. Fabius

with scarcely any resistance, andthe Consul himself was killed.Fifteen thousand Romans fell,



55The Romans, seeing that the city

was a man of determination and

firmness, well advanced in years.He determined to avoid a pitchedbattle, but to dog the steps of theenemy, harassing him andcutting off his supplies as far aspossible.

Bust of Hannibal, Hanba’al in hisown language meaning “mercy ofBaal”

The Roman column advanced(May, 217), without hesitation, tothe unoccupied pass, the thick

morning mist completelyconcealing the position of theenemy. As the Roman vanguardapproached the hill, Hannibalgave the signal for attack. Thecavalry closed up the entrance to

the pass, and at the same timethe mist rolled away, revealingthe Carthaginian arms on theright and left. It was not a battle,but a mere rout. The main bodyof the Romans was cut to pieces,

,and as many more were

captured. The loss of theCarthaginians was but 1,500,and was confined mostly to theGallic allies. All Etruria was lost,and Hannibal could marchwithout hindrance upon Rome,

whose citizens, expecting theenemy daily, tore down thebridges over the Tiber andprepared for a siege. QUINTUSFABIUS MAXIMUS wasappointed Dictator.

Hannibal, however, did notmarch upon Rome, but turnedthrough Umbria, devastating thecountry as he went. Crossing the

Apennines, he halted on theshores of the Adriatic, inPicénum. After giving his army arest, he proceeded along thecoast into Southern Italy.

Meanwhile Hannibal againcrossed the mountains into theheart of Italy to Beneventum, andfrom there to Capua, the largestItalian city dependent upon

Rome. The Dictator followed,condemning his soldiers to themelancholy task of looking on ininaction, while the enemy'scavalry plundered their faithful

allies. Finally, Fabius obtainedwhat he considered a favorableopportunity for an attack.Hannibal, disappointed in hisexpectations that Capua wouldbe friendly to him, and not being

prepared to lay siege to the town,

to the hills with the oxen. Theirengagement with the Romanshad resulted in a severe loss to

adhered to his former tactics.Marcus made an attack, but paiddearly for his rashness, and his

had withdrawn towards the Adriatic. Fabius intercepted himnear Casilinum, in Campania, on



Hannibal, however, ordered hislight-armed troops to ascend theheights over the road during thenight, driving before them oxenwith burning fagots tied to their

horns, giving the appearance ofan army marching by torchlight.The plan was successful. TheRomans abandoned the roadand marched for the heights,

along which they supposed theenemy were going. Hannibal,with a clear road before him,continued his march with the bulkof his army. The next morninghe recalled his light-armed

troops, which had been sent on

Fabius.

56

At Rome the policy of Fabius was

severely criticised. His apparentinaction was displeasing to alarge party, and he was calledCunctator (the Delayer). Atlength the assembly voted that

his command be shared by oneof his lieutenants, MarcusMinucius. The army was dividedinto two corps; one underMarcus, who intended to attackHannibal at the first opportunity;

the other under Fabius, who still

ywhole corps would have been

annihilated had not Fabius cometo his assistance and covered hisretreat. Hannibal passed thewinter of 217-216 unmolested.

pthe left bank of the Volturnus.

The heights that commanded theright bank of the river wereoccupied by his main army; andthe road itself, which led acrossthe river, was guarded by astrong division of men.

Hannibal then proceeded,without opposition, in anortheasterly direction, by a verycircuitous route. He arrived inLuceria, with much booty and a

full money-chest, at harvest time.Near here he encamped in aplain rich in grain and grass forthe support of his army.

The season was spent by the

Romans in active preparationsfor the spring campaign. Anarmy of 80,000 infantry and6,000 cavalry was raised and putunder the command of theConsuls, LUCIUS ÆMILIUS

PAULLUS and GAIUSTERENTIUS VARRO. It wasdecided to test Hannibal'sstrength once more in openbattle. His army was only half as

strong as the Roman in infantry,but was much superior in cavalry.

In the early summer of 216 theConsuls concentrated theirforces at CANNAE, a hamlet

near the mouth of the Aufidus.

Early one morning in June theRomans massed their troops onthe left bank of the river, with



The Carthaginians were drawnup in the form of a crescent,

flanked by cavalry. Both armiesadvanced to the attack at thesame time. The onset wasterrible; but though the Romansfought with a courage increasedby the thought that their homes,

wives, and children were atstake, they were overwhelmedon all sides. Seventy thousandfell on the field, among whomwere Paullus, Servilius, manyofficers, and eighty men ofsenatorial rank. This was themost crushing defeat everexperienced by the Romans. AllSouthern Italy, except the Latincolonies and the Greek cities on

the coast, went over to Hannibal.57

their cavalry on either wing, the

right under Paullus, and the leftunder Varro. The ProconsulServilius commanded the centre.

CHAPTER XV THESECOND PUNIC WAR

luxurious and effeminate habits,are said to have injured hissoldiers. But Hannibal's

Macedonia, and earnestly urgedHasdrubal Baroa, his lieutenantin Spain, to come to his



58

SECOND PUNIC WAR-

FROM CANNAE TO THEBATTLE OF ZAMA (216-202)

ROME was appalled; but thoughdefeated, she was not subdued.

All the Latin allies weresummoned for aid in the commonperil. Boys and old men aliketook up arms even the slaveswere promised freedom if theywould join the ranks.

Hannibal marched from Cannaeinto Campania. He induced

Capua, the second city of Italy, toside with him. But hisexpectations that other citieswould follow her example werenot fulfilled. He went into winterquarters here (215-214). The

Capuans, notorious for their

superiority as a general is

unquestionable, and his want ofsuccess after this was due toinsufficient aid from home, and tothe fact that the resources ofRome were greater than those ofCarthage. The Latin allies of

Rome had remained true to theirallegiance, and only one city ofimportance was under hiscontrol. It was an easy matter toconquer the enemy in openbattle, but to support his own

army was more difficult, for allItaly had been devastated. Onthe other hand, the Romans werewell supplied with food from theirpossessions in Sicily.

Hannibal saw, therefore, thatmore active measures than thosealready employed werenecessary. He sent to Carthagean appeal for aid. He formed an

alliance with Philip V. of

assistance. He hoped, with this

army from the north, withsupplies and reinforcements fromCarthage, and with such troopsas he might obtain fromMacedonia, to concentrate alarge force at Rome and compel

her into submission.

The Romans, realizing theposition of Hannibal, kept whatforces they could spare in Spain,under the two Scipio brothers,

Publius and Gnaeus. With thesethey hoped to stopreinforcements from reaching theenemy from that quarter. At thesame time their army in NorthernGreece effectually engaged theattention of Philip. Thus twoyears (214-212) passed withoutany material change in thesituation of affairs in Italy.

In 212, while the Carthaginians

was removed to Lucania andBruttium. The punishmentinflicted upon Capua was severe.S t f h S t

were in the extreme south ofItaly, besieging Tarentum, theRomans made strenuous effortst C i d

Such was the fate of this famouscity. Founded in as early timesas Rome itself, it became the

t fl i hi it f M



Capua fell in 211, and the seat of

war, to the great relief of Rome,

Seventy of her Senators were

killed, three hundred of her chiefcitizens imprisoned, and thewhole people sold as slaves.The city and its territory weredeclared to be Roman territory,and the place was afterwards

repeopled by Roman occupants.

to recover Campania, and

especially Capua. Hannibal,learning the danger, marchedrapidly north, and failing to breakthrough the lines which enclosedthe city, resolved to advance onRome itself.

59

Silently and quickly he marchedalong the Via Latino through theheart of the territory of Rome, towithin three miles of the city, andwith his vanguard he even rode

up to one of the city gates. Butno ally joined him; no Romanforce was recalled to face him;no proposals of peace reachedhis camp. Impressed by theunmoved confidence of theenemy, he withdrew as quicklyas he came, and retreated to hisheadquarters in the South.

Map showing Capua south-eastof Rome

most flourishing city of Magna

Graecia, renowned for its luxuryand refinement, and as the homeof all the highest arts and culture.

AFFAIRS IN SICILY

HIERO II, tyrant of Syracuse,died in 216. During his longreign of more than fifty years hehad been the stanch friend and

ally of Rome in her struggles withCarthage. Hieronymus, thegrandson and successor ofHiero, thought fit to ally himselfwith Carthage. The young tyrant,who was arrogant and cruel, was

assassinated after reigning a fewmonths.

The Roman Governor of Sicily,MARCELLUS, troubled by theCarthaginian faction in Syracuse,

threatened the city with an attackunless the leaders of this factionwere expelled. In return, they

d d t th

close of the siege by a Romansoldier, who would have sparedhis life had he not been too intent

th ti l bl t

Carthaginians under HANNO andHASDRUBAL. The greatest ofthese was fought in 215 at Ibera,th l ti f hi h i t i



endeavored to arouse thecitizens of the neighboring city ofLeontini against Rome and theRoman party in Syracuse.Marcellus at once attacked andstormed Leontini. TheSyracusans then closed their city

gates against him. A siege oftwo years (214-212) followed,famous for the various devicesadopted by the notedmathematician ARCHIMÉDES[Note: Archimédes was a great

investigator in the science ofmathematics. He discovered theratio of a sphere to itscircumscribed cylinder. One ofhis famous sayings was, "Giveme where to stand, and I willmove the world." He exerted hisingenuity in the invention ofpowerful machines for thedefence of Syracuse. Eight ofhis works on mathematics are in

existence. He was killed at the

on a mathematical problem tocomply with the summons tosurrender. On his tombstone, itis said, was engraved a cylinderenclosing a sphere.] to defeat themovements of the Romans. Thecity was finally betrayed by a

Spanish officer, and given up toplunder. The art treasures inwhich it was so rich wereconveyed by Marcellus to Rome.From this time (212) the citybecame a part of the province of

Sicily and the headquarters ofthe Roman Governor.

60

THE CAMPAIGNS IN

SPAIN

PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO,with his brother, GNAEUSCORNELIUS SCIPIO CALVUS,

were winning victories over the

the location of which is uncertain.Spain was gradually beinggained over to Rome, when theCarthaginians, making desperateefforts, sent large reinforcementsthere (212). The armies of theScipios were separated,

surprised, and overwhelmed.Both their leaders were slain, andSpain was lost to Rome.

Unless checked, theCarthaginians would now cross

the Alps, enter Italy, and, joiningforces with Hannibal, placeRome in great danger. PUBLIUSCORNELIUS SCIPIO, son of oneof the slain generals, then buttwenty-four years of age, offeredto go to Spain and takecommand. He had previouslymade himself very popular as

Aedile, and was unanimouslyelected to the command. On his

arrival in Spain in 210, he found

spent the winter (209-208) inGaul.

intended to become a candidatefor the consulship.

the whole country west of theEbro under the enemy's control.

Fortunately for the Romans the The two Carthaginian generals



Shortly after, Scipio foughtHasdrubal, the brother ofHannibal, at BAECULAE, in theupper valley of the Baetis(Guadalquivir); but the battle wasnot decisive, for Hasdrubal wassoon seen crossing thePyrenees, with a considerable

force, on his way to Italy. He61

The country being now (206)under Roman influence, Scipiocrossed the straits to Africa, andvisited the Numidian princes,SYPHAX and MASINISSA,whom he hoped to stir up againstCarthage. On his return, afterquelling a mutiny of the soldiers,who were dissatisfied about theirpay, he resigned his command,

and started for Rome, where he

Fortunately for the Romans, thethree Carthaginian generals,HASDRUBAL and MAGO,brothers of Hannibal, andHASDRUBAL, son of Gisco, didnot act in harmony. Thus Scipiowas enabled, in the following

spring (209), to capture CarthagoNova, the head-quarters of theenemy. A good harbor wasgained, and eighteen ships ofwar, sixty-three transports,$600,000, and 10,000 captives

fell into the hands of theRomans.

The two Carthaginian generalsnow in Spain, Mago, andHasdrubal, the son of Gisco,retired, the latter to Lusitania, theformer to the Baleares, to wait forreinforcements from home.

The next year another battle wasfought near Baecula, resulting inthe total defeat of theCarthaginians, who retreated toGadus, in the southwestern partof Spain.

OPERATIONS IN ITALYThe news of the approach ofHasdrubal caused intenseanxiety at Rome. Every nervewas strained to prevent the unionof the two brothers. The Consulsfor this year (207) were GAIUSCLAUDIUS NERO, a patrician,and MARCUS LIVIUS, aplebeian. To the former was

intrusted the task of keepingHannibal in check in Bruttium,while the duty of interceptingHasdrubal was given to the latter.

The Carthaginian had already

reached the neighborhood of theriver Metaurus, a small streamsouth of the Rubicon. From herehe sent messengers to inform hisbrother of his approach andproposed line of march. These

Spain. Syphax, however, sidedwith Carthage; but in 203 Scipiotwice defeated him and theCarthaginian forces

messengers were captured byNero, and the contents of theirdespatches learned. He at oncepushed north with his forces

INVASION OF AFRICA

Scipio on his return from Spain



62

In 204 he sailed from Lilybaeum,and landed near Utica. He waswelcomed by Masinissa, whosefriendship he had gained in his

previous visit to Africa from

Carthaginian forces.pushed north with his forces, joined Livius, met Hasdrubal onthe METAURUS early in 207,and defeated his army with greatslaughter. Among the slain wasHasdrubal himself. Neroreturned south without delay, and

the first intimation that Hannibalhad of this battle was the sight ofhis brother's head thrown into thecamp by the victorious foe.

The war in Italy was now virtually

ended, for, although during fouryears more Hannibal stood atbay in a corner of Bruttium, hewas powerless to prevent therestoration of Roman authoritythroughout Italy. Nothing nowremained to Carthage outside of

Africa, except the ground onwhich Hannibal was making hislast stand.

Scipio, on his return from Spain,urged an immediate invasion of

Africa. He was elected Consul in205, receiving Sicily as hisprovince, with permission tocross into Africa if it seemed tohim wise. He was so popular

that voluntary contributions ofmen, money, and suppliespoured in from all sides. The old-fashioned aristocracy, however,did not like him, as his taste forsplendid living and Greek culture

was particularly offensive tothem; and a party in the Senatewould have recalled him, had notthe popular enthusiasm in hisfavor been too strong to beresisted.

Negotiations for peace followed,but the war party in Carthageprevailed. Hannibal wasrecalled. He returned to fight hislast battle with Rome, October

19, 202, at ZAMA, a shortdistance west of Carthage. Theissue was decided by the valor ofthe Roman legions, who lovedtheir commander and trusted hisskill. Hannibal met his first and

only defeat, and Scipio won histitle of AFRICÁNUS. The battlewas a hard one. After all thenewly enrolled troops of Hannibalhad been killed or put to flight,his veterans, who had remainedby him in Italy, althoughsurrounded on all sides by forcesfar outnumbering their own,fought on, and were killed one byone around their beloved chief.

The army was fairly annihilated.

Hannibal, with only a handful,managed to escape toHadrumétum.

Such was the result of theseventeen years' struggle.Scipio was welcomed home and



Rome was now safe from anyattack. She had become a greatMediterranean power. Spainwas divided into two provinces,and the north of Africa was under

her protection.63

The battle of Zama decided thefate of the West. The power ofCarthage was broken, and hersupremacy passed to Rome.She was allowed to retain herown territory intact, but all her

war-ships, except ten, were givenup, and her prisoners restored;an annual tax of about $200,000,for fifty years, was to be paid intothe Roman treasury, and shecould carry on no war without the

consent of Rome. Masinissawas rewarded by an increase interritory, and was enrolled amongthe "allies and friends of theRoman people."

Scipio was welcomed home, andsurnamed AFRICANUS. Heenjoyed a triumph never beforeequalled. His statue was placed,in triumphal robes and crownedwith laurels, in the Capitol. Manyhonors were thrust upon him,

which he had the sense torefuse. He lived quietly for someyears, taking no part in politics.

of the Macedonian and Syriankings, sought the protection ofRome.CHAPTER XVI ROME IN

THE EAST

which enjoyed a semi-independence. Underincompetent rulers, she sawportion after portion of her



64

Ever since the repulse ofPyrrhus, Rome had been slowlydrifting into closer contact withthe East. She formed an alliancewith Egypt in 273. From thiscountry had come in part hersupply of corn during the SecondPunic War. In 205, Ptolemy V

became king, and, through fear

S

ROME was now in a position toadd new nations to her list ofsubjects. The kingdoms of theEast which formerly composed apart of the vast empire of

Alexander the Great, and whichfinally went to swell the limits ofRoman authority, were Egypt,Syria, Macedonia, and Greece

proper.EGYPT was governed by thePtolemies, and included at thistime the valley of the Nile,Palestine, Phoenicia, the island

of Cyprus, and a number oftowns in Thrace.

SYRIA, extending from theMediterranean to the Indus, wascomposed of various nations

portion after portion of herdominions fall from her. Thusarose Pergamus, Pontus,Cappadocia, and Phrygia.

MACEDONIA was ruled by PhilipV., and included also a large

portion of Northern Greece.

GREECE proper was dividedbetween the ACHAEAN and

AETOLIAN LEAGUES, theformer including the most of the

Peloponnesus, the latter thegreater part of Central Greece.

The punishment of the Illyricanpirates in 228 brought Rome intocloser relations with Greece.These connections had beensufficient to open the Easternports to her trade, but her

struggle with Carthage had lefther no time or strength tointerfere actively in Easternpolitics, until she was forced totake action by the alliance ofPhilip V of Macedonia and

Hannibal, and by the former'sthreatened invasion of Italy in214. A small force was sent intoGreece, which was soon largelyincreased by the dissatisfiedsubjects of Philip.

The only object of Rome in theFirst Macedonian War (214-205)was to prevent Philip fromlending aid to Hannibal; and in

this she was partially successful.

peace. barbarity that the people roseagainst him; and from a similarcause Greece was driven to seekalliances which would protect her

None of the Macedonian troopsentered Italy, but four thousandof them were at Zama. Some of Philip's soldiers had

been captured at Zama He



The military operations of thiswar were of slight importance.Marcus Valerius Laevinus was

sent to the Adriatic, and pushedthe king so hard that he wasobliged to burn the fleet in whichhe intended to sail for Italy.Philip was at this time at war with

Aetolia. Laevinus assisted the Aetolians, and the king was toofully occupied at home to think ofoperations farther away. But in205, the Romans, wishing toconcentrate their energies upon

the invasion of Africa, made65

In Asia Minor Philip had

conducted himself with such

alliances which would protect heragainst him.

Philip V of Macedonia, 238-179B.C.

been captured at Zama. Hedemanded their return. Theanswer was, that, if he wishedwar again, he could have it.

There were several otherreasons which led to the

SECOND MACEDONIAN WAR(200-197). Philip had agreedwith ANTIOCHUS III, king ofSyria, to attempt with him thedivision of Egypt, since it seemedprobable that the young king,

Epiphanes (Ptolemy V), who wasonly four years old, would not beable to make an effectualresistance. The ministers ofEgypt sought the protection ofRome. On their journey, theRoman envoys sent to assumethe office of protectorshipremonstrated with Philip.

Rome was unwilling to undertakea new war, but the people wereinduced to vote for one, on therepresentation that the only

means of preventing an invasionof Italy was to carry the warabroad.

This year (200) the Consul,Publius Sulpicius Galba, was

sent with a considerable forceacross the Adriatic. Hiscampaign, and that of the ConsulVillius during the next year, wereproductive of no decisive results,but in 198 the Consul TITUSQUINCTIUS FLAMINÍNUS, aman of different calibre,conducted the war with vigor. Hedefeated Philip on the Aóus,drove him back to the pass of

Tempe, and the next year utterly

defeated him atCYNOSCEPHALAE.

The king had drawn up his forces

The next year (196), at theIsthmian Games, the "freedom ofGreece" was proclaimed to the



Further resistance wasimpossible. Philip was left inpossession of Macedonia alone;he was deprived of all hisdependencies in Greece, Thrace,and Asia Minor, and wasforbidden, as Carthage hadbeen, to wage war without

Rome's consent.66

The king had drawn up his forcesin two divisions. With the first hebroke through the line of thelegions, which, however, closedin around him with but little loss.The other division was attackedby the Romans, while it was

forming, and thoroughlydiscomfited. The victory of theRomans was decisive.

About the same time the Achaeans captured CORINTH

from Philip, and the Rhodiansdefeated his troops in Caria.

Greece was proclaimed to theenthusiastic crowds, and twoyears later Flamininus withdrewhis troops from the so called"three fetters of Greece,"—Chalcis, Demetrias, andCorinth,—and, urging the Greeks

to show themselves worthy of thegift of the Roman people, hereturned home to enjoy a wellearned triumph.

The chief result of the second

Macedonian war was, therefore,the firm establishment of aROMAN PROTECTORATEOVER GREECE AND EGYPT.The wedge had been enteredand the interference of Rome inEastern affairs was assured.

Thermopylae drove back theintruder, who hastily retired to

Asia Minor. The Aetolians werepunished for their infidelity.

CHAPTER XVII THESYRIAN WAR

pleasure, the power behind histhrone was HANNIBAL. Thisgreat soldier, after his defeat atZama, did not relinquish the aim



67

Had Antiochus been energeticafter his arrival in Greece, hecould have accomplishedsomething before the Romantroops came. But he disregardedthe warnings of Hannibal, andspent valuable time in minormatters. The Romans arrived in

191, and under Glabrio at

p y

Antiochus III of Syria, who hadproposed to share Egypt withPhilip, had been engaged forsome time in a campaign in the

East, and did not hear of hisally's danger until too late to aidhim. However, he claimed forhimself portions of Asia Minorand Thrace, which Philip had

previously held, and which Romenow declared free andindependent. He crossed theHellespont into Thrace in 196,but did not dare to enter Greece,although earnestly urged to do so

by the Aetolians, until afterFlamininus had withdrawn all histroops (192).

Antiochus was no general.Himself irresolute and fond of

, qof his life. He became the chiefmagistrate of his native city, andin a short time cleared the moralatmosphere, which was chargedwith corruption and depravity.Under him Carthage might have

risen again. But his intrigueswith Antiochus, with whom hewished to make an alliance, gaveRome an opportunity to interfere.His surrender was demanded.He fled, and, after wandering

from coast to coast, became thetrusted adviser of the Syrian king.

In 190, LUCIUS CORNELIUSSCIPIO was elected Consul, andput in command of the army inthe East, with the understandingthat he should be accompanied

by his brother Africanus, andhave the benefit of his militaryskill and experience. Under hiscommand, the Romans crossedthe Hellespont and sought

Antiochus in his own kingdom.

Hannibal could do nothing withthe poorly disciplined troops ofthe king. They were met by theinvading forces at MAGNESIA, inLydia, in 190, and 80,000

Asiatics were put to rout by30,000 Romans, 50,000 beingslain. The loss of the victors wasslight.

On that day the fate of Asia was

assimilated to their neighbors.This war is noticeable chiefly forthe reason that Manliusundertook it without the authority

the ascendency. Asiaticus wasaccused of misappropriatingfunds obtained during hiscampaign in the East. As he was

sealed. Antiochus relinquishedall pretensions to any territorywest of the river Halys and theTaurus mountains. His chariots,



The Galatians were easilyovercome, their wealth seized,

and they themselves became

yof the Senate, the first instanceof its kind, and a precedent whichwas too frequently followed inlater times. On his return toRome he was allowed a triumph,which stamped his act as legal.

68

Meanwhile, at Rome the political

enemies of the Scipios were in

p gabout to produce his account-books before the Senate, hisbrother, Africanus, seized them,tore them to pieces, and threwthe remnants on the floor.

Asiaticus, however, was

sentenced to pay a fine. When itwas afterwards intimated that hisbrother too was implicated, heproudly reminded his enemiesthat their insinuations were ill-timed, for it was the anniversary

of Zama. This remark changedthe tide of feeling, and no morecharges were made.

elephants, fleet, and treasureswere all surrendered.

Scipio returned home to enjoy atriumph, and added ASIATICUSto his name, as his brother had

taken that of Africanus incommemoration of his victory.

Gneius Manlius Vulso succeededScipio in the East. He made acampaign against the Gauls, who

had settled in Galatia about acentury before, and had becomewealthy by means of constantplunderings. The excuse for thecampaign was, that they hadserved in the Syrian army; thereason was, their wealth, and theambition of the Consul for glory.

These wars in the East broughtto Rome immense riches, whichlaid the foundation of its Orientalextravagance and luxury, andfinally undermined the strength of

the state. From Greece wereintroduced learning andrefinement, from Asia immoralityand effeminacy. The vigor andtone of Roman society arenowhere more forcibly shownthan in the length of time it tookfor its subjugation by theseruinous exotics.

Two years later (183), Africanusdied in voluntary exile atLiternum, on the coast ofCampania. He had lived littlemore than fifty years. His wife,

Aemilia, was the daughter ofPaullus, who fell at Cannae, and

the sister of him who afterwards

not so courted at Rome as inlater days.

PHILOPOEMEN. [Note: See Ancient Greece, page 145.]

conquered Perseus ofMacedonia. His daughter,CORNELIA, afterwards becamethe mother of the famous Hannibal, after the defeat of



Scipio lived to see Rome growfrom an Italian power to bepractically the mistress of theworld. He was of markedintellectual culture, and asconversant with Greek as withhis mother tongue. Hepossessed a charm which madehim popular at a time when the

culture and arts of Greece were 69

This same year is alsomemorable for the death of "the

last of the Greeks,"

GRACCHI.

Next to Caesar, Scipio wasRome's greatest general. Duringthe campaign in the East, he metHannibal at the court of

Antiochus. In the conversationHannibal is reported to have saidthat he considered Alexander thegreatest general, Pyrrhus next,and, had he himself conqueredScipio, he would have placed

himself before either.

Antiochus, was demanded by theRomans, but, escaping, tookrefuge in Crete, andsubsequently with Prusias, Kingof Bithynia. His surrender wasdemanded, and troops were sent

to arrest him. Seeing no way ofescape, he opened the bead onhis ring and swallowed thepoison which it contained (183).

Thus died one of the greatest of

commanders, without attainingthe aim of his life. He had livedbut fifty-four years, yet his lifewas so marked that people haveever since looked with wonderupon the tremendous magnitudeof what he undertook, and cameso near accomplishing.

Hannibal, 247-183 B.C.

CHAPTER XVIIICONQUEST OFMACEDONIA AND

and was succeeded by his sonPERSEUS.

The new king was as able as his

as CURULE AEDILE, in 192, heprosecuted persons who hadmade an illegal use of the publicpastures. He was sent to Ulterior



70

MACEDONIA ANDGREECE (I71-146)

Although Philip had aided the

Romans in their campaignagainst Antiochus, he did notreceive from them the expectedreward in additions to histerritory. Immediate resistancewould be futile; but he labored

patiently and quietly to increasehis resources, and to stir upamong the neighboring Greekshostile feeling towards Rome.He placed his army on the bestfooting possible, and soon beganto enlarge his boundaries.Complaints were made to Rome,and the king was compelled togive up his conquests, andconfine himself to the limits of

Macedonia. In 179 Philip died,

father, and more impatient ofsubjection. He made friends withthe surrounding princes, formeda marriage connection with

Antiochus IV of Syria, and stroveto arouse among the Greeks

memories of their formergreatness.

The Senate, hearing of hisnumerous intrigues, determinedto check him. War was declared

in 171; but the forces sent byRome were at first led byincompetent men, and nothingwas accomplished until LICIUS

AEMILIUS PAULLUS was madeConsul, and took charge of thewar in 168.

Paullus (229-160) was the son ofthe Consul of the same namewho was killed at Cannae. His

integrity was first shown when,

Spain in 191 as governor, where,after some reverses, he put downall insurrections. He was Consulin 182, and did good work inconquering a tribe of maraudersin Liguria. For this he was

allowed a triumph.

He was elected Consul a secondtime in 168, and sent againstPerseus. The war was broughtto a speedy end by the battle of

PYDNA, on the Thermáic Gulf,June 22. The king fled toSamothráce with his treasuresand family. He was shortlyafterwards captured, but wastreated with kindness by theConsul.

Paullus now travelled throughGreece. Later, assisted bycommissioners, he arranged the

affairs of Macedonia. The

from the various peoples he hadconquered.

became a great friend of theyounger Africánus, whom heaccompanied to the siege ofCarthage.

country was divided into foursmall republics, independent ofeach other, but prohibited fromintermarriage and commerce with

hPerseus spent his last days in

fi R



Paullus had two sons by his firstwife. The elder of these wasadopted by Fabius MaximusCunctátor, the younger by the

son of Africánus the elder, hisbrother-in-law. He was of the"blue" blood of Rome, of perfecthonesty, and very popular, agood general, but somewhatsuperstitious. A patron oflearning and the fine arts, hegave his sons the best trainingunder Greek masters. A strongproof of his popularity is the factthat his body was carried to its

last resting place by volunteers 71

After the victory at Pydna, thesympathy shown in Greece forthe conquered monarch madethe Romans more watchful of herinterests there. All suspected tobe enemies were removed ashostages to Italy, and amongthese was the historianPOLYBIUS. He lived in Rome

for more than twenty years, and

one another.

On his return to Rome in 167, heenjoyed a triumph, which wasgraced by Perseus and his threechildren. He was Censor in 164,

and died four years later.

confinement near Rome,enduring, it is alleged, base andcruel treatment. He was the lastking of Macedonia.

Perseus, last king of Macedonia

Like Macedonia, Greece wasseparated into parts,independent of each other, withno rights of connubium orcommercium. Utter

demoralization soon ensued,which proved a sure preventiveto all alliances liable to shake theauthority of Rome.

Trouble again arose in

Macedonia twenty years afterPydna, culminating in what issometimes called the FOURTHMACEDONIAN WAR (149-146).Under the leadership of

ANDRISCUS, who claimed to bea son of Perseus, the peoplerebelled against the protection ofRome. They were twicedefeated in 148 by the praetorQUINTUS CAECILIUS

METELLUS, who gained the

was marked by special cruelties.The city was burned to theground; beautiful pictures andcostly statuary were ruthlesslyd t d G ld i b d

agnomen of MACEDONICUS.The country was made a Romanprovince, with a Romanmagistrate at its head.



Metellus was succeeded inGreece by LUCIUS MUMMIUS, acruel and harsh leader. Theremnant of the Achaean armyhad taken refuge in CORINTH.The Senate directed Mummius to

attack the city. Its capture in 146

destroyed. Gold in abundancewas carried to Rome. The lastvestige of Greek liberty vanished.The country became a Romanprovince under the name of

ACHAIA.

72

At this time the Achaeans werequarrelling with Sparta. Metelluswarned them to desist, and whenthe Achaeans advanced againsthim, he easily defeated them

near SCARPHEIA.Metellus was a moderatereformer and a model man. Hebelonged to an illustriousplebeian gens, the Caecilian.

Before his death in 115 three ofhis sons had been consuls, onecensor, and the fourth was acandidate for the consulship.

Corinth, the "eye of all Greece,"remained in ruins for a century,when it was rebuilt in 46 by JuliusCaesar, who planted on its site acolony of veterans and freedmen.

hearted, they sent ambassadorsto Rome. The answer giventhem was obscure. They wererequested to make reparation toRome and at the same time they

CHAPTER XIX THETHIRD PUNIC WAR, ANDFALL OF CARTHAGE

prosperity of the city, and fromthat time never ceased to urge itsdestruction. The embassy didnot reach any decision, butallowed matters to go on as they



73

After this victory, matters came toa crisis. The city must bedisciplined for warring with anally of Rome. Cato never failedto close any speech he mightmake in the Senate with thesame cruel words, Delenda estCarthago, "Carthage must bedestroyed." The people ofCarthage were called to account.

Desponding and broken-

Rome, and at the same time theywere assured that nothing shouldbe undertaken against Carthageherself. But in 149 the Consulscrossed with a large army intoSicily, where the troops were

organized, and Carthaginianambassadors were expected.

FALL OF CARTHAGE

Fifty years had passed sinceZama. It was a period of greatcommercial prosperity forCarthage, but her governmentwas weakened by the quarrels ofconflicting factions.

MASINISSA, King of Numidia, an

ally of the Romans, was acontinual source of annoyance toCarthage. He made inroadsupon her territory, and, as shewas bound by her treaty not towar upon any allies of Rome, her

only recourse was to complain tothe Senate. In 157 an embassywas sent to inquire into thetroubles. MARCUS PORCIUSCATO, the chief of the embassy,was especially alarmed at the

allowed matters to go on as theymight. Finally, when somesympathizers with Masinissawere banished from the city, heattacked and defeated theCarthaginians, compelled their

army to pass under the yoke, andafterwards treacherouslydestroyed it (150). Carthage wascompelled to give up some of herterritory, and pay $5,000,000indemnity.

When they appeared, theConsuls declared that the Senatedid not wish to encroach upon

the freedom of the people, butonly desired some security; forthis purpose it demanded that,within thirty days, three hundredchildren of the noblest familiesshould be delivered into theirhands as hostages. Thisdemand was met. The Romansthen coolly crossed over to

Africa, and informed theCarthaginians that they were

ready to treat with them on any

When the ambassadors againappeared before the Consuls,they were told that Carthage

question not previously settled.The Romans, who expected tofind a defenceless population,imagined that the storming of theplace would be an easy matter

PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO AFRICÁNUS, the Younger, waselected Consul while but thirty-seven (under the legal age), forthe express purpose of giving



they were told that Carthagemust deliver over all her armsand artillery; for, they said, asRome was able to protect her,there was no need of Carthagepossessing arms. Hard as was

this command, it was obeyed.They were then told thatCarthage had indeed shown hergood will, but that Rome had nocontrol over the city so long as itwas fortified. The preservation of

peace, therefore, required thatthe people should quit the city,give up their navy, and build anew town without walls at adistance of ten miles from thesea. The indignation and fury

which this demand excited wereintense. The gates wereinstantly closed, and all theRomans and Italians whohappened to be within the city

were massacred.

place would be an easy matter.But despair had suggested to theCarthaginians means of defencein every direction. All assaultswere repelled. Everybody wasengaged day and night in the

manufacture of arms. Nothingcan be more heartrending thanthis last struggle of despair.Every man and every womanlabored to the uttermost for thedefence of the city with a furious

enthusiasm.

Masinissa, ruler of Namidia

Two years after the siege began,

the express purpose of givinghim charge of the siege. Aftertwo years of desperate fightingand splendid heroism on the partof the defenders, the famishedgarrison could hold out no longer.

Carthage fell in 146, and theruins of the city burned forseventeen days. The destructionwas complete. A part of herterritory was given to Numidia.

The rest was made a Romanprovince, and called AFRICA.

The year 149 saw the death oftwo men who had beenCarthage's most bitter enemies,

but who were not allowed to seeher downfall,— MASINISSA andCATO, the one aged ninety, theother eighty-five.

74 Masinissa's (239-149) hostility

capacity as Censor, he actedwith extreme rigor. He zealouslyasserted old-fashionedprinciples, and opposed thegrowing tendency to luxury All

dates from the time he failed toget the promised hand ofHasdrubal's daughter,Sophonisba, who was given tohis rival Syphax After the battle



CATO THE ELDER (Major ),(234-149,) whose long publiccareer was a constant strugglewith the enemies of the stateabroad, and with the fashions of

his countrymen at home, was atype of the old Roman character,with a stern sense of duty thatforbade his neglecting theinterests of state, farm, or

household. In 184, in his

growing tendency to luxury. Allinnovations were in his eyes littleless than crimes. He was theauthor of several works, one ofwhich, a treatise on agriculture,has been preserved.

75

Cicero's "Cato Major" representshim in his eighty-fourth yeardiscoursing about old age with

Africánus the younger, and

Laelius, a friend of the latter.

his rival, Syphax. After the battleof Zama, most of thepossessions of Syphax fell toMasinissa, and among them thissame Sophonisba, whom hemarried. Scipio, however,

fearing her influence over him,demanded her as a Romancaptive, whereupon she tookpoison. Masinissa was acourageous prince, but aconvenient tool for the Romans.

Cato the Elder, the Censor, 234-149 B.C.

CHAPTER XX ROMEAND SPAIN-THENUMANTINE AND

tribes was the CELTIBÉRI, whooccupied the interior of thepeninsula. They were alwaysuncertain and intractable,continually breaking out into

classes lands on favorableconditions, and did much toproduce contentment among thenatives. But farther west, in thevalleys of the Douro and Tagus



76

NUMANTINE ANDSERVILE WARS (206-132)

Africanus the elder left Spain in206. After a provincialgovernment of nine years (206-197), the country was dividedinto two provinces, separated bythe IBÉRUS (Ebro), and each

province was assigned to apraetor. It was some time,however, before Spain was reallybrought into a state of completepeace and order. The mountains

and forests were a formidableobstacle to the Roman legions,and favored guerilla warfare,which makes conquest slow andlaborious.

The most warlike of the Spanish

continually breaking out intorevolt. In 195, Cato the elder putdown a rebellion led by them. Heestablished more firmly theRoman power east of the Ibérus.He disarmed the inhabitants of

this part of Spain, and compelledall from the Pyrenees to theGuadalquivir to pull down theirfortifications.

Still the smouldering fires of

rebellion were not extinguished,for, sixteen years later (179), wefind TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUSGRACCHUS, the father of thefamous Gracchi, as Governor ofSpain, fighting the troublesome

Celtibéri. He captured over onehundred of their towns, buttempered his victories withmoderate measures, showinghimself greater in peace than in

war. He granted to the poorer

valleys of the Douro and Tagus,and in Lusitania (Portugal), thereseems to have been constantwarfare.

In 154, MUMMIUS, the same

who eight years later sackedCorinth, was Governor of FartherSpain. His defeat by theLusitanians encouraged theCeltibéri to revolt again, andthere followed another defeat,

with a massacre of many Romancitizens. Two years later (152),CLAUDIUS MARCELLUSavenged these losses, foundedCorduba, and governed thecountry humanely. His

successors, LUCIUS LUCULLUSand SERVIUS GALBA, were socruel and grasping as to drive theLusitanians into another openrebellion, headed by

VIRIÁTHUS, a bold and daring

bandit. During seven years (147-140) he defeated again andagain the armies sent againsthim. The Celtibéri joined hisstandards and Spain seemed

THE NUMANTINE WAR(143-133)

which was never lost. Thecountry now, with the exceptionof its northern coast, wasnominally Roman territory.Several towns were established



77

standards, and Spain seemed

likely to slip from the Romans.The only check to thesesuccesses was during thecommand of METELLUSMACEDONICUS (143); when he

was recalled, matters returned totheir former condition.

In 140, the Consul Mancínus wasobliged to capitulate, and, tosave himself and his army, made

a treaty which the Senaterefused to sanction.

Viriáthus was finally (139)assassinated by persons hired bythe Consul Caepio; his people

were then subdued, and thegovernment was ably conducted(138) by DECIMUS JUNIUSBRUTUS.

The Celtibéri, however, were stillin arms. The strong city ofNUMANTIA, the capital of one oftheir tribes, witnessed more thanone defeat of a Roman Consulbefore its walls (141-140).

Finally Rome sent out her bestgeneral, Africanus the younger.

After devoting several months tothe disciplining of his troops, hebegan (134) a regular siege of

the place. It was defended withthe utmost bravery and tenacity,until, forced by the last extremeof famine, it surrendered (133).The inhabitants were sold asslaves, and the town was levelledto the ground. The victor washonored with the title ofNUMANTÍNUS.

The fall of Numantia gave Rome

a hold upon the interior of Spain,

Several towns were established

with Latin municipal rights(municipia), and, on the whole,order was maintained. Along thecoast of the Mediterranean theresprang up many thriving and

populous towns, which becamecentres of civilization to theneighboring districts, and weretreated by Rome rather as alliesthan as subjects. Some of themwere allowed to coin the silver

money of Rome. The civilizingprocess, due to Romaninfluence, went on rapidly inthese parts, while the interiorremained in barbarism.

In 105 the peninsula was overrunby the Cimbri, a barbarous racefrom the north. The country wasravaged, but finally saved by thebrave Celtibéri, who forced the

invaders back into Gaul.

THE SERVILE WAR (134- 132)

prophet. A number of defeatswere suffered by the Romanarmies, until, finally, PUBLIUSRUTILIUS captured thestrongholds of the slaves,



While the Numantine war wasstill in progress, a war with theslaves broke out in Sicily, wherethey had been treated withspecial barbarity.

For a long time slave labor hadbeen taking the place of that offreemen. The supply wasrendered enormous by constant

wars, and by the regular slavetrade carried on with the shoresof the Black Sea and Greece.The owners of the slavesbecame an idle aristocracy.

78

The immediate cause of theoutbreak in Sicily was the crueltyof a wealthy slave-owner,Damophilus. The leader of theslaves was EUNUS, whopretended to be a Syrian

strongholds of the slaves,

TAUROMENIUM and ENNA, andthus closed the war. For hissuccess he was allowed anovation.

the descendants of the originalfounders of the city. The nobleswere the descendants of any onewho had filled one of thefollowing six curule offices, viz.

CHAPTER XXIINTERNAL HISTORY—THE GRACCHI

settled by a DECREE OF THESENATE (Senatus Consultum).To be sure the Comitia declaredfor war or peace, but the Senateconducted the war and settled



79

The Senate and the Romannobility were in the main thesame. All patricians werenobles, but all nobles were not

patricians. The patricians were

g ,

Dictator, Magister Equitum,Consul, Interrex, Praetor, orCurule Aedile. These noblespossessed the right to place intheir hall, or carry in funeral

processions, a wax mask of thisancestor, and also of any othermember of the family who hadheld a curule office.

THE GRACCHI

We have seen how the longstruggle between the patriciansand plebeians terminated in anominal victory for the latter.From about 275, the outwardform of the old constitution hadundergone little change. It wasnominally that of a "moderate

democracy." The Senate andoffices of state were, in law, opento all alike. In practice, however,the constitution became anoligarchy. The Senate, not theComitias, ruled Rome.

Moreover, the Senate wascontrolled by a class whoclaimed all the privileges of anobility. The Comitias wererarely called upon to decide aquestion. Most matters were

the conditions of peace. It alsousually assigned the commands,organized the provinces, andmanaged the finances.

The causes for this ascendencyof the Senate are not hard tofind. It was a body made up ofmen capable of conductingaffairs. It could be convened atany time, whereas the voters of

the Comitias were scattered overall Italy, and, if assembled, wouldnot be competent to decidequestions demanding knowledgeof military matters and foreignpolicy.

A plebeian who first held this

office was called a novus homo,or "new man."

The Senate, thus made up ofpatricians and nobles, had at thistime the monopoly of power.

Legally, however, it had nopositive authority. The right ofthe people to govern was stillvalid, and there was only wantinga magistrate with the courage to

remind them of their legal rights,

Africánus the younger. Thesons, TIBERIUS and GAIUS,grew up under the care of theirnoble and gifted mother, whowas left a widow when they were

and urge the exercise of them.

Such a magistrate was found inTIBERIUS SEMPRONIUSGRACCHUS. With him was

return home he passed throughTuscany where he wasastonished to see large tracts ofthe ager publicus (see ChapterVII.) cultivated by slave gangs,



Tiberius Sempronius Gracchusthe elder (see Chapter XX)belonged to the nobility, but notto the aristocracy. He married

CORNELIA, the daughter of Africánus the elder. They hadtwelve children, of whom all butthree died young. Two sons anda daughter lived to maturity. Thedaughter, SEMPRONIA, married

y

mere boys.ushered in the contest whichlasted for more than a century,and brought to the surface someof the proudest names of Romanhistory. On one side or the other

we find them,—MARIUS andSULLA, CAESAR and POMPEY, AUGUSTUS and ANTONY—arraying Rome against herself,until the glories of the Republicwere swallowed up in the misrule

and dishonor of the Empire.

Tuscan fields and farm

Tiberius (164-133) entered thearmy, and served under hisbrother-in- law during the thirdPunic war. Ten years later (136)he was Quaestor in Spain, wherehe won the affections of the

people by adhering to the mildpolicy which his father hadpreviously followed. His popularmeasures here displeased hisbrother-in-law, and he ceased tobe a favorite with him. On his

) y g g

while the free poor citizens of theRepublic were wandering intowns without employment, anddeprived of the land which,according to law (see the Licinian

Rogations), should have beendivided among them, and notheld in large quantities by therich land-owners.

80

Tiberius determined to rectify this

wrong. In 133 he offered himselfas candidate for the tribuneship,and was elected. He then beganboldly the battle for thecommons. He proposed torevise the Agrarian Law, now a

dead letter, which forbade theholding of more than 320 acresof the ager publicus by oneindividual. Occupants who hadfenced this land and improved itwere to be compensated

violate this rule, and offeredhimself as candidate for the nextyear. The election day came,and when it became evident thathe would be re-elected, the

patricians were compelled tovacate. But the commissionersbecame unpopular, for those whoreceived lands were not alwayssatisfied, and those who were

therefore.

The wealthy classes and theSenate at once took sidesagainst Tiberius, and the struggle



It was contrary to the law that aperson should hold the office ofTribune for two successive years.But Gracchus, in his desire tocarry out his plans, determined to

aristocrats, who had turned out infull force on the Campus Martiuswith their retinues of armedslaves and clients, raised a riot,and, killing Gracchus with three

hundred of his followers, threwtheir bodies into the Tiber (133).Thus was shed the first blood ofthe civil struggle. The mob wasled by SCIPIO NASÍCA, theuncle of Tiberius. Africánus,

when he heard of the murder ofhis brother-in-law, exclaimed,"Justly slain."

81

The agrarian law, however,which had passed, was too

evidently just to be openlyignored. The remaining twocommissioners continued theirwork, until, within two years,40,000 families were settled ontracts of the public land which the

obliged to leave them wereenraged. The commissionerswere suspended, and the lawrepealed.

began. One of the otherTribunes, OCTAVIUS CAECÍNA,who was himself a large land-owner, taking advantage of hisauthority as Tribune, interposed

his veto to prevent a vote uponthe question.

Gracchus, full of enthusiasm overthe justice of his cause, obtained,contrary to all precedent, the

removal of his colleague fromoffice, and passed his AgrarianLaw. Three commissioners wereappointed, himself, his brother,and his father-in-law, APPIUSCLAUDIUS, to carry it into effect.

Piazza Navona, built on part ofthe Central Campus Martius

The mantle of Tiberius fell onGAIUS GRACCHUS. For a timeafter his brother's death heretired from politics, and servedin the army in Africa andSardinia, where he wasQuaestor. His valor, wisdom,and justice made him justly

without trial, unless the state washeld to be in danger.

popular, but caused him to beregarded with suspicion at Rome.In 123 he was elected Tribune,and twice re-elected. He revivedhis brother's agrarian law, and

The transferring of the juries tothe Equites made Gaius for atime very powerful. He causedanother law to be passed, to theeffect that no Roman citizen

Nearly all Roman writers unite inattacking the reputation of the



82

However, the results obtained bythe Gracchi still remained. Fortythousand peasants had beensettled on public land. The jurylaw was in force. No Romancitizen could be put to death

became at once the avowedenemy of the Senate. As ameans of increasing hispopularity, he endeavored toadmit all the Italians to theprivileges of Roman citizenship,and to limit the price of bread.

Gains gained the favor of theEquites (Knights), thecommercial class, by carrying

through the assembly a law bywhich all judicial functions weretaken from the Senate andintrusted to the Knights.Heretofore all civil and criminalcases of importance had been

tried before a jury chosen fromthe Senate. These juries wereoften venal and corrupt, and itwas a notorious fact that theirverdicts could be bought.

should be put to death withoutlegal trial and an appeal to theassembly of the people.

But the plan of Gaius to extendthe franchise to all the Italiansruined his popularity. TheRoman citizens had no desire toshare their rights with theEtruscans and Samnites. Riotsagain broke out, as ten years

before. The aristocracy againarmed itself. Gaius with 3,000 ofhis friends was murdered in 121,and the Senate was once moremaster of the situation.

Gracchi; but viewed in the light ofto-day their characters werenoble, and their virtues tooconspicuous to be obscured.

A few years previous to this, theyounger Africánus died (129).His remark about the death ofTiberius Gracchus gave direoffence to the popular party, anda few days later he was found

dead in his bed, probably "avictim of political assassination."

Africánus was a man ofrefinement and culture, a warmfriend of scholars, a patron of the

Greek historian POLYBIUS, andof the poets LUCILIUS andTERENCE. He was opposed tothe tendency of his age towardsluxury and extravagance. Hewas an orator, as well as a

general. The one blot on hiscareer is the terrible destructionof Carthage, which he possiblymight have averted had heshown firm opposition to it.



SCIPIO NASÍCA, who led themob against Tiberius, wascompelled, though PontifexMaximus, to leave the city, anddied an exile in Asia.

83

The Forum at the Time of Marius.The Senate and Assembly(circular)

CHAPTER XXIIEXTERNAL HISTORY—PERGAMUM—

Pamphylia. It was made aprovince under the name of

ASIA.

the whole kingdom, and attackedhis other cousin, Adherbal, whoappealed to Rome.Commissioners were sent toinvestigate. They were bought



84

JUGURTHINE WAR (118-104)

Pergamum was an ancient city ofMysia on the Caícus, fifteenmiles from the sea. It firstbecame important after the deathof Alexander. Its first king,

Attalus I (241-197), added a

large territory to the city. He wasan ally of the Romans, and hissuccessors remained their firmfriends. The city became one ofthe most prosperous and famousin Asia Minor, noted for itsarchitectural monuments, its finelibrary, and its schools. AttalusIII, at his death in 133,bequeathed to Rome hiskingdom, which included Lydia,

Pisidia, Lycaonia, and

THE WAR WITHJUGURTHA

After the destruction of Carthage,the most important kingdom in

Africa was NUMIDIA. Itcontained a number of flourishingtowns, which were centres of aconsiderable commerce.Masinissa left this kingdom to his

son Micipsa. The latter had twosons and a nephew,JUGURTHA. The nephew was abrilliant young man, who hadserved under Scipio in theNumantine war, and returned to

Africa covered with honors. Hewas named joint heir with hiscousins to the kingdom ofNumidia. Micipsa dying soonafter, Jugurtha murdered one ofhis cousins, Hiempsal, claimed

off by Jugurtha, and returnedhome without accomplishinganything. Adherbal wasafterwards captured, savagelytortured, and finally killed.

The Senate, compelled by thepopular indignation to make aninvestigation, moved so slowlythat some of its members wereaccused of accepting bribes.

War was declared at last, but thecampaign languished, and peacewas soon made on such easyterms for the prince that it wasevident his money had againbeen freely used. The

scandalous transaction wasdenounced at Rome by theTribune MEMMIUS. Jugurthathen repaired to the city inperson, and bought up all theauthorities except Memmius,

whom he found incorruptible. Hehad another cousin in the city,whom he caused to bemurdered. After this the Senateordered him to leave, and as he

family of the Caesars. By thismarriage with Julia, the aunt ofJulius Caesar, he became aperson of social distinction.



departed, it is said he exclaimed,"Venal city, destined soon toperish, if a purchaser be found!"

War was now begun in earnest(110), but resulted in a crushingdefeat of the Romans, whosearmy was sent under the yoke.Humiliated by the defeat, theSenate in the following year sentQUINTUS CAECILIUS

METELLUS, nephew of MetellusMacedonicus, to take charge ofthe war. He was a man ofintegrity, with some experienceas an officer, and a rigidaristocrat. Realizing the danger

of failure, he took with him as hislieutenant the ablest soldier thathe could find, GAIUS MARIUS.

Gaius Marius, 157-86 B.C.

Marius, born at Arpínum in 157,

was the son of a farmer, and washimself bred to the plough. He joined the army at an early age,and soon attracted notice for hispunctual performance of allduties, and his strictness in

discipline. He was present at thesiege of Numantia, and hiscourage caused Scipio to predictfor him a brilliant career. Hesoon rose to be Military Tribune.In 119 he was chosen Tribune ofthe People, and two years laterPraetor. The fact that he wasrespected and valued in highcircles is shown by hissubsequent marriage into the

85

The campaign was moderatelysuccessful. Jugurtha wasdefeated near the river Muthul,and made to retire into thedesert, where his stronghold,Thala, was captured. He suedfor peace, but, as unconditionalsurrender was demanded, he stillheld out. The popular party atRome, irritated that such a pettyprince should give so much

trouble, demanded that Mariusshould be made Consul andhave charge of the war. Whenthe lieutenant asked Metellus forleave of absence to enable himto be present at the elections, as

was necessary according to thelaw, his general ridiculed theidea, and told him to wait anothertwenty years. He went, however,and was elected in 107, beingthe first plebeian chosen to that

remainder continued to begoverned by native princes, untilthe civil war between Caesar andPompey. In 104 Marius returnedhome, and entered Rome in

office for more than a century.

Metellus was recalled, enjoyed atriumph, and received theagnomen of NUMIDICUS.



The western portion of Numidiawas given to Bocchus as thereward of his treachery, while the

triumph. Jugurtha was throwninto a dungeon, and therestarved to death.

86

Marius was every inch a soldier.He saw that the Roman legionsmust be reorganized and betterdisciplined. He enlisted men whohad no other occupation, thatthey might become professionalsoldiers. Some men of rank whohad a taste for war also went withhim. Among these was a youngpatrician, CORNELIUS SULLA.

With this army Marius soonwrested from Jugurtha all hisstrongholds. In less than twoyears the war was over. By hisally, Bocchus, King of Mauritania,Jugurtha was betrayed (106) into

the hands of Sulla, who wasacting as the Quaestor of Marius.

Fortunately, they turned to thePyrenees, and, sweeping overthe mountains, overran for aseason the province of Spain.

but the survivors becamehardened soldiers. Corps ofengineers were attached to eachlegion, and the soldiers weretaught the use of tools, as well as

CHAPTER XXIII THECIMBRI ANDTEUTONES—POLITICAL

QUARRELS



The CIMBRI and TEUTONES,barbarous nations from Northern

Europe, were threatening thefrontiers of Italy. Already theRoman armies had met with fivesuccessive defeats at their handson the banks of the Rhone.Eighty thousand Romans and

forty thousand camp followersare said to have fallen in thesebattles. Had the barbarians atthis moment chosen to enterItaly, the destruction of Romewould have been a certain result.

87

Marius, appointed Consul asecond time, devoted hisenergies to forming and trainingthe army. He selected the plains

on the banks of the Rhone inSouthern Gaul as best adaptedfor his purpose. Here he drilledhis troops, accustoming them tothe greatest possible exertions.

Many perished under the strain,

of arms. At length, in his fourthconsulship (102), he feltprepared to meet the enemy.

QUARRELS

The war with Jugurtha endednone too soon, for Marius wasneeded in a struggle requiring allhis talents.

A well equiped Roman soldier

The barbarians, on their returnfrom Spain, separated theirforces, the Cimbri marchingaround the northern foot of the

Alps towards Noricum, with theintention of invading Italy fromthat quarter, while the Teutones

remained in Gaul.

As the latter advanced, Mariustook up his position in a fortifiedcamp near AQUAE SEXTIAE(Aix). He allowed the enemy to

march past him, and thenfollowed cautiously, waiting for afavorable opportunity to fall uponthem. In the battle that followed,the barbarians were no match forthe drilled legionaries, who were

irresistible. The contest lastedtwo days, and the vast host ofthe Teutones was cut to pieces(20 July, 102). At the close ofthis battle word was brought to

M i th t h h d b l t d

nominal price. II. The land inCisalpine Gaul, which theCimbrians had occupied, shouldbe divided among the Italian andRoman citizens. III. Colonies

f th t f M i



Marius that he had been electedConsul for the fifth time.

Meanwhile, the Cimbri hadcrossed the Alps and wereravaging the fertile fields ofLombardy, meeting with butslight opposition from Catulus,the other Consul.

The next year Marius came to his

rescue. Near VERCELLAE theCimbri met the same fate as theirbrethren, and Italy was saved(101).

Another well equiped Romansoldier

No sooner was the danger fromthe invasion over than politicalquarrels broke out at Rome withgreat fury. Marius was electedConsul for the sixth time. Thepopular heroes of the hour weretwo demagogues, the Tribune

SATURNÍNUS and the PraetorGLAUCIA. They carried cornlaws and land laws, [Note: Thesewere the APPULEIAN LAWS(100):—I. Any Roman citizencould buy corn of the state at a

from the veterans of Marius wereto be founded in Sicily, Achaia,and Macedonia.] and compelledthe Senators to take an oath toexecute their laws. MetellusNumidicus refusing to complywith their wishes, Saturnínussent a guard to the Senate-House, dragged him out, andexpelled him from the city.

During this troublesome time,Marius showed that he was nopolitician. He lacked judgmentand firmness, and byendeavoring to please all partieshe pleased none.

88

On the popular side there weretwo parties, the moderate one,led by MEMMIUS, who hadexposed the Senate in itsdealings with Jugurtha, and the

radical one, led by Saturnínusand Glaucia. Memmius andGlaucia both ran for theconsulship, and as the formerseemed likely to be successful,

h d d A ti



he was murdered. A reactionthen set in, and Saturnínus andGlaucia were declared publicenemies. They took refuge in theSenate-House, the roof of whichwas torn off, and the wretcheswere stoned to death.

The fall of Saturnínus andGlaucia was followed in 99 by therecall of Metellus from

banishment. He died shortlyafterwards, and it was suspectedthat he was a victim of treachery.

Marius having now becomegenerally unpopular on account

of his vacillating course in therecent troubles, went intovoluntary exile, travelling through

Asia Minor, and visiting the courtof Mithradátes, King of Pontus.

Mithradátes, King of Pontus

For the next eight years (99-91)Rome enjoyed a season of

comparative quiet.

89

CHAPTER XXIVINTERNAL HISTORY-THE SOCIAL WAR (90-

88)

or occasionally from removal,they were filled by the Censor,[Note: See the duties of Censor]who appointed a person that hadheld one of the following offices:

Dictator Consul Praetor Curule

dollars or more. This name wasgiven to them because at firstthey served in the army ashorsemen, though in later timesthe cavalry was composed only

of allied troops The Equites



90

88)

At this time there was a bitterrivalry between the Senate andthe equestrian order, orcommercial class. From theformer were chosen thegovernors of the provinces, fromthe latter came the tax-gatherers

( publicani ) and the money-brokers (negotiatores). It willhelp us to understand better thecondition of affairs, if we studythe composition of the Senateand the Equites.

The Senators, three hundred innumber (later their number wasincreased to six hundred), heldtheir office for life. Whenvacancies occurred from death,

Dictator, Consul, Praetor, Curule Aedile, or, after the time of Sulla,Quaestor. All persons who hadheld these offices, or that ofTribune, were allowed to join indebate in the Senate, but not tovote. No Senator could engagein business. Hence he must bewealthy.

We saw in Chapter IV that

Roman citizens were divided intosix classes according to theirproperty, and that these classeswere subdivided into onehundred and ninety-three otherclasses called centuries. About

225, the number was increasedto three hundred and seventy-three. Eighteen of the centuriesof the first class were calledEQUITES, and must haveproperty worth twenty thousand

of allied troops. The Equiteswere originally from thearistocracy alone, but, as theplebeians increased in wealth,many of them became richenough to be included in thisclass.

There was no hostility betweenthe Senate and the Equites until,in 123, Gaius Gracchus passed

the Lex Judicaria, whichprescribed that the jurors(judices) should be chosen fromthe Equites, and not the Senate.From this time dates the strugglebetween the two classes, and the

breach widened every year. Onthe one side were the nobles,represented by the Senate; onthe other side, the equestrianorder. Since the jurors werechosen from the latter, it had

name ITALIA. All Italians were tobe citizens of Corfinium, andhere was to be the place ofassembly and the Senate-House.

control of the courts, and oftenmade an unscrupulous use of itspower, especially in those courtswhich were established to trygovernors for extortion in the

management of provinces

In 91, MARCUS LIVIUSDRUSUS, the Tribune, took upthe task of reform. He wasnoble, wealthy, and popular, andhe hoped to settle the question

peacefully and equitably But his



91

The death of Drusus drove the

Italians to despair. Eight nationsentered into a close alliance,chose CORFINIUM, in thePelignian Apennines, as theircapital, and formed a FederalRepublic, to which they gave the

management of provinces(quaestiones rerumrepetundarum). From theEquites, too, were taken the tax-gatherers of the provinces. Theypillaged and robbed the people atwill, and, if a governor had thecourage to interfere with them, athreat of prosecution was heldover his head. The averagegovernor preferred to connive at

their exactions; the bolder onespaid with fines or exiles for theircourage. Another trouble wasthreatening the commonwealth.The Italian allies of Rome did notpossess the franchise belonging

to a Roman citizen. For nearlytwo centuries they had shareddangers and victories with theRomans; they now eagerlydemanded all their privileges.

peacefully and equitably. But hisattempt to reform the courtsdispleased the Equites, hisagrarian and corn laws made himmany enemies, and his attemptto admit the Italians to the rightsof Roman citizenship arousedgreat opposition.

His laws were passed, but theSenate pronounced them null

and void. He was denounced inthat body as a traitor, and wasstruck down by an assassin inthe same year.

Rome, in the face of this danger,acted promptly and withresolution. The Consuls, LuciusJulius Caesar and PubliusRutilius Lupus, both took thefield; with each were fivelieutenants, among whom wereMarius and Sulla.

This war (90-88), called the

SOCIAL WAR, i.e. the war withthe allies (Socii ), was at firstdisastrous to Rome. The alliesoverran Campania, defeated theRomans several times, andentered into negotiations with the

Northern Italians, whose fidelitybegan to waver.

It is not strange, therefore, thatopinions at Rome began to beturned in the direction of a more

was torn asunder by violentpersonal rivalries. There was noclass not affected by the wide-spread tightness in the moneymarket. The treasury was empty,

and many capitalists became

liberal policy. It was decided tomake concessions. Towards theclose of the year 90, the ConsulCaesar carried the JULIAN LAW,by which the Roman franchise

was extended to all who had not

4. That those exiled on suspicionof having aided in the Italianrevolt be recalled.

In spite of the bitterest



The end of the Social Warbrought no peace at Rome. Thenewly enfranchised Italians werenot fully satisfied. The Senate

and many capitalists becameinsolvent. War with Mithradátes,King of Pontus, had beendeclared, and both Marius andSulla were eager to have thecommand.

92

3. That any Senator who owedmore than four hundred dollarsbe deprived of his seat.

was extended to all who had notyet revolted. The next year thislaw was supplemented by thePLAUTIAN PAPIRIAN LAW,which allowed every citizen of anItalian town the franchise, if hehanded in his name to thePraetor at Rome within sixtydays. About the same time waspassed another law, theCALPURNIAN, which permitted

Roman magistrates in the field tobestow the franchise on all whowished it. These laws resulted indisorganizing the rebellion. TheSamnites and Lucanians held outthe longest, but were finally put

down by Marius.

At this time (88) the TRIBUNEPUBLIUS SULPICIUS RUFUSbrought forward the followingbills:—

1. That the command of the waragainst Mithradátes be given toMarius.

2. That the new citizens should

be distributed through all thetribes.

In spite of the bitterestopposition, these bills werepassed. But the triumph ofSulpicius was of short duration.Sulla, who with his troops hadbeen encamping near Nola inCampania, marched upon thecity, and for the first time aConsul entered Rome at thehead of his legions.

matched against Numidianarchers. In 92 he went asPropraetor to govern theprovince of Asia, and here hefirst met MITHRADÁTES.

CHAPTER XXV MARIUSAND SULLA-CINNA

his brilliant successes seems tohave been the enthusiasticdevotion of his troops, whom healways held well under control,even when they were allowed to

indulge in plunder and license It



93

After this campaign Sulla lived atRome for some years, taking nopart in politics, and during thistime his name and that of his

rival are almost unheard. Heappeared before the public againin 93, when he was electedPraetor, and increased hispopularity by an exhibition of ahundred lions in the arena,

With the name of MARIUS isusually coupled that of LUCIUSCORNELIUS SULLA (138-78)."He was a patrician of the purest

blood, had inherited a moderatefortune, and had spent it, likeother young men of rank,lounging in theatres and amusinghimself with dinner parties. Hewas a poet, an artist, and a wit.

Although apparently indolent, hewas naturally a soldier,statesman, and diplomatist. AsQuaestor under Marius in theJugurthine War, he had proved a

most active and useful officer." Inthese African campaigns heshowed that he knew how to winthe hearts and confidence of hissoldiers; and through his wholesubsequent career, the secret of

indulge in plunder and license. Itwas to Sulla's combinedadroitness and courage thatMarius owed the final capture ofJugurtha. He served again underMarius in the campaigns againstthe Cimbri and Teutones, andgave efficient help towards thevictory. But the Consul became

jealous of his rising power, andall friendly feeling between the

two ceased.

Lucius Cornelius Sulla, 138-78B.C.

This monarch, who ruled overPontus, was an extraordinaryman. He spoke manylanguages, was the idol, of hissubjects, and had boundless

ambition. He doubted thedurability of the Roman Empire,and began to enlarge his ownterritory, with no apparent fear ofRome's interference.

opportunity to advance his owninterests and extend his realm.He collected all his availableforces, and invaded Bithynia.With his fleets he sailed through

the Dardanelles into the

Strait, connects the sea ofMarmara with the Black Sea

Cappadocia, a neighboringcountry, was under Romanprotection, and was ruled by aprince, ARIOBARZÁNES, thatRome had recognized. This

country Mithradátes attacked

Such was the condition in theEast when Sulpicius Rufus

carried the bills mentioned in the



It was at this time thatMithradátes, learning of theSocial War, thought it a good

the Dardanelles into the Archipelago. The extortions ofthe Roman governors had beenso great, that Ionia, Lydia, andCaria, with all the islands near

Asia Minor, gladly revolted fromRome, and accepted hisprotection. All the Romanresidents with their families weremassacred on a single day. It issaid that 80,000 persons

perished. Mithradátes himselfnext crossed the Bosphorus, andmarched into Northern Greece,which received him with openarms.

94Boat entering the Bosphorus

country Mithradátes attacked.He killed the prince, and placedon the throne his own nephew.

Rome interfered, and Sulla wasinstructed to visit the monarch.He accomplished his missionwith his usual adroitness, andreturned to Rome with newhonors. He took an active part inthe Social War, eclipsing the

fame of his rival, Marius. He wasnow the recognized leader of theconservative and aristocraticparty. The feeling between therivals was more bitter than ever,for Marius, though old, had by no

means lost his prestige with thepopular party.

carried the bills mentioned in thelast chapter. One of these billswas that Marius have charge ofthe war against Mithradátes.This was not to Sulla's liking. Hewas in Campania with the legionsthat had served in the SocialWar. The soldiers were devotedto him, and ready to follow himanywhere. Sulla, therefore,taking matters into his own

hands, marched into the city atthe head of his troops. Thepeople resisted; Sulpicius wasslain; Marius fled for his life, andretired to Africa, where he livedfor a time, watching the course of

events.

Sulla could not remain long at thecapital. The affairs of the Eastcalled him away; and no soonerwas he gone than the flames of

murder whomever he wished.The houses of the rich wereplundered, and the honor ofnoble families was exposed tothe mercy of the slaves.

Fortunately Marius died sixteen

Archeláus at CHAERONÉA inBoeotia, and the next year atORCHOMENOS.

civil war burst out anew (87).

LUCIUS CORNELIUS CINNA, afriend of Marius, was Consul thatyear. He tried to recall Marius,

but was violently opposed and



The next year Marius was madeConsul for the seventh time, andCinna for the second. Thenfollowed the wildest cruelties.Marius had a bodyguard ofslaves, which he sent out to

Fortunately Marius died sixteendays after he entered office, andthe shedding of blood ceased.

95

Sulla left Italy for the East with30,000 troops. He marched

against Athens, where Archeláus, the general ofMithradátes, was intrenched.

After a long siege, he capturedand pillaged the city, March 1,86. The same year he defeated

but was violently opposed andfinally driven from the city. TheSenate declared him deposedfrom his office. He invoked theaid of the soldiers in Campania,and found them ready to followhim. The neighboring Italiantowns sent him men and money,and Marius, coming from Africa,

joined him with six thousandtroops. They marched upon

Rome. The city was captured.Cinna was acknowledgedConsul, and the sentence ofoutlawry which had been passedon Marius was revoked.

For the next three years Cinnaruled Rome. Constitutionalgovernment was practicallysuspended. For the years 85and 84 Cinna himself and atrusty colleague were Consuls,but no regular elections were

held. In 84, he was murdered,when on the eve of setting outagainst Sulla in Asia.

The Hellespont(Dardanelles), the

strait between the Aegean Seaand the Sea of Marmara

Meanwhile Sulla's lieutenant,LUCULLUS, raised a fleet andgained two victories off the coast

of Asia Minor. The Asiatic kingwas now ready to negotiate.Sulla crossed the Hellespont in84, and in a personal interviewwith the king arranged the terms

of peace, which were as follows.The king was to give up Bithynia,Paphlagonia, and Cappadocia,and withdraw to his formerdominions. He was also to payan indemnity amounting to about

success was largely due. Thenext year, 83, the Marian partywas joined by the Samnites, andthe war raged more fiercely thanever. At length, however, Sulla

was victorious under the walls ofR Th it l t hi

invest the Senate, the thinnedranks of which he filled with hisown creatures, with full controlover the state, over everymagistrate and every province.

$3,500,000, and surrender eightyships of war.

Having thus settled matters withthe king, Sulla punished the

Lydians and Carians, in whoset it th R h d b I 79 h i d hi di t t hi



The same year that Cinna died,Sulla landed at Brundisium, with40,000 troops and a largefollowing of nobles who had fled

from Rome. Every preparationwas made by the Marian party forhis reception; but no sooner didhe land in Italy than the soldierswere induced to desert to him inimmense numbers, and he soon

found himself in possession of allLower Italy. Among those whohastened to his standard wasyoung POMPEY, then buttwenty-three years old, and itwas to his efforts that Sulla's

was victorious under the walls ofRome. The city lay at his mercy.His first act, an order for theslaughter of 6,000 Samniteprisoners, was a fit prelude to hisconduct in the city. Every effortwas made to eradicate the lasttrace of Marian blood andsympathy from the city. A list ofmen, declared to be outlaws andpublic enemies, was exhibited in

the Forum, and a succession ofwholesale murders andconfiscations throughout Romeand Italy, made the name ofSulla forever infamous.

96

Having received the title ofDictator, and celebrated asplendid triumph for theMithradátic war, he carried (80-79) his political measures. Themain object of these was to

Lydians and Carians, in whoseterritory the Romans had beenmassacred, by compelling themto pay at one time five years'tribute. He was now ready toreturn to Rome.

In 79 he resigned his dictatorshipand went to Puteoli, where hedied the next year, from aloathsome disease brought on byhis excesses.

THE REFORMS OFSULLA

Sulla restricted the power of themagistrates to the advantage ofthe Senate. Senators were alonemade eligible for the tribuneship,and no former Tribune could hold

any curule office. No one couldbe Praetor without having firstbeen Quaestor, or Consulwithout having held thepraetorship. Every candidate forthe office of Quaestor must be at

summoned by the Senate toreturn, marched against the cityat the head of his forces. He wasdefeated by Crassus andPompey in 78, and soon after

died.

least thirty years old. Thenumber of Praetors wasincreased from six to eight; thatof Quaestors, from twelve totwenty. The Consuls and

Praetors were to remain at Romed i th i fi t f ffi



On the death of Sulla, in 78,CRASSUS and LEPIDUS were

chosen Consuls; but such wasthe instability of the times thatthey were sworn not to raise anarmy during their consulship.Lepidus attempted to evade hisoath by going to Gaul, and, when

97

during their first year of office,and then go to the provinces asProconsuls and Propraetors.

Three hundred new Senators,taken from the Equites, wereadded, and all who had beenQuaestors were made eligible tothe Senate.

The control of the courts wastransferred from the Equites tothe Senate.

CHAPTER XXVISERTORIUS—SPARTACUS—

LUCULLUS—POMPEY

the Spaniards. Many Romanrefugees and deserters joinedhim. He defeated one of Sulla'sgenerals, and drove out ofLusitania (Portugal) METELLUS

PIUS, [Note: Son of MetellusNumidicus He received the

young man, was sent to co-operate with Metellus. Sertoriusproved more than a match forboth of these generals, anddefeated them near Saguntum.

The position of the Romans was



98

AND CRASSUS

Quintus Sertorius (121-72), anative of the little Sabine villageof Nursia under the Apennines,had joined the party of Marius,and served under him in thecampaigns against the Cimbri

and Teutones. In 97 he servedin Spain, and became acquaintedwith the country with which hisfame is chiefly associated. In 91he was Quaestor in CisalpineGaul. He was a partisan of

Marius during his troubles withSulla, and on Sulla's return fromthe East he left Rome for Spain,where he took the lead of theMarian party. His bravery,

kindness, and eloquence pleased

, [Numidicus. He received theagnomen of Pius on account ofthe love which he displayed forhis father, whom he begged thepeople to recall from banishmentin 99.] who had been speciallysent against him from Rome.

The object of Sertorius was toestablish a government in Spain

after the Roman model. Heformed a Senate of threehundred members, and foundedat Osca a school for nativechildren. He was strict andsevere towards his soldiers, but

kind to the people. A white fawnwas his favorite pet and constantfollower. He ruled Spain for sixyears. In 77 he was joined byPERPERNA a Roman officer.The same year Pompey, then a

The position of the Romans wasbecoming critical, for Sertoriusnow formed a league with thepirates of the Mediterranean. Healso entered into negotiationswith Mithradátes, and openedcorrespondence with the slavesin Italy, who were rebelling.

But intrigues and jealousies

arose in his camp. The outcomeof these was that he wastreacherously murdered byPerperna at a banquet in 72, andwith his death fell the Marianparty in Spain.

Meanwhile a dangerous enemywas threatening Italy within herown borders. In 73 a band ofgladiators, under the leadershipof one of their number, named

in Spain, met five thousand ofthose who had escaped from thearray of Spartacus. These heslew to a man. Crassus pointedthe moral of his victory by

hanging, along the road fromRome to Capua six thousand

SPARTACUS escaped from thetraining school at Capua andtook up a strong position onMount Vesuvius. They were

joined by large numbers of

slaves and outcasts of everydescription and were soon in a

distinguished himself in theSocial War, where he gained thefavor of Sulla, and accompaniedhim, as Quaestor, in hiscampaign against Mithradátes in

88. With Cotta he was chosen tothe consulship in 74 The



In 71 the command of the warwas given to CRASSUS, whofinished it in six months.Spartacus fell, fighting bravely,near Brundisium. Pompey,returning from the Sertorian war

g g gRome to Capua, six thousandcaptives whom he had taken.

ydescription, and were soon in aposition to defeat two Praetorswho were sent against them.

The next year they assumed the

offensive; and Spartacus foundhimself at the head of 100,000men. Four generals sent againsthim were defeated; and for twoyears he ravaged Italy at will, and

even threatened Rome. Butintestine division showed itself inhis ranks; his lieutenants grew

jealous of him, and his strengthbegan to wane.

Two gladiators, relief from firstcentury A.D.

Mithradátes meanwhile, takingadvantage of the troubles at

Rome, was again in arms, and in74 LUCIUS LICINIUSLUCULLUS was sent againsthim.

Lucullus, of plebeian birth, first

the consulship in 74. Theprovince of Cilicia was assignedto him, Bithynia to Cotta.Mithradátes invaded Bithynia,defeated Cotta, and besieged

him at Chalcédon.

Lucullus, after reorganizing anddisciplining his army, went to theaid of his colleague, drove the

king into Pontus, and defeatedhim at Cabíra in 72, and his fleetat Tenedos in 71, compelling himto take refuge with his son-in-law,TIGRÁNES, King of Armenia.

99

Lucullus endeavored to workreforms in the administration ofprovincial governments in theEast. The revenues of theprovinces were farmed out, andthe measures of Lucullus were

was very rich, and was famed forthe luxurious dinners which hegave.

(106-48) led a soldier's life fromhis boyhood to his death. Whena youth of seventeen he foughtby his father's side in the civilstruggles between Marius and

Sulla. He was a partisan of thelatter and connected himself with

intended to protect the tax-payers against the tax-gatherers( publicani ). His reforms met withbitter opposition at Rome,especially from the Equites,

whose chief source of incomewas often this same tax-farming



Returning to Rome, Lucullusspent the rest of his days inretirement, dying about 57. He

100GNEIUS POMPEIUS MAGNUS

latter, and connected himself withthe cause of the aristocracy. Hedefeated the followers of Mariusin Sicily and Africa, and in 81was allowed to enjoy a triumph,

though still an Eques and notlegally qualified. Sulla thengreeted him with the surname ofMagnus, which he everafterwards bore. He was then

sent to Spain, with what successwe have seen in the previouschapter. In 70 Pompey andMARCUS LICINIUS CRASSUSwere elected Consuls amid greatenthusiasm.

was often this same tax-farming.Intrigues against him by personssent from Rome began to createdissatisfaction among his troops.He had been a severe

disciplinarian, and so it was allthe easier to turn the soldiersagainst him.

In 68 he won a victory over

Tigránes and Mithradátes, at theriver Arsanias; but his legionsrefused to follow him farther, andhe was obliged to lead them intowinter quarters in Mesopotamia.The next year his soldiers again

mutinied, and he was replacedby Pompey.

Roman dinning room, room withthree couches

POMPEY AND CRASSUS

The Sullan system stood for nineyears, and was then overthrown,as it had been established, by asoldier. It was the fortune of

Pompey, a favorite officer ofSulla, to cause the first violationof the laws laid down by hisgeneral.

Crassus (108-53), the conquerorof Spartacus, had amassedimmense wealth by speculation,mining, dealing in slaves, andother methods. Avarice is said to

charge of an expedition againstthe Greek pirates. From theearliest times these maraudershad been in the habit ofdepredating on the shores of the

Mediterranean. During the civilwars of Rome they had become

have been his ruling passion,though he gave large sums to thepeople for political effect.

Neither Pompey nor Crassus,

according to the laws passed bySulla was eligible to the

In three months the pirates wereswept from the sea.

The next year (66) Pompey'spowers were still further enlarged

by the MANILIAN LAW,proposed by the Tribune



For three years (70-67) after theexpiration of his consulship,Pompey remained quietly atRome. He was then put in

wars of Rome they had becomemuch bolder, so that the city wascompelled to take an active partagainst them. They hadparalyzed the trade of the

Mediterranean, and even thecoasts of Italy were not safe fromtheir raids.

101

Sulla, was eligible to theconsulship. The former hadnever been Quaestor, and wasonly thirty-five years old; thelatter was still Praetor, and ought

to have waited two years.

The work of Sulla was nowquickly undone. The Tribunesregained their prerogative, the

veto. The control of the criminalcourts was transferred againfrom the Senate to the Equites,and the former body was clearedof its most worthless members,who had been appointed by

Sulla.

GABINIUS, a Tribune, proposed

that Pompey should hold hiscommand for three years; that heshould have supreme authorityover all Roman magistrates inthe provinces throughout theMediterranean, and over the

coasts for fifty miles inland. Hewas to have fifteen lieutenants,all ex-praetors, two hundredships, and all the troops heneeded.

proposed by the TribuneManilius. By this law the entirecontrol of the Roman policy in theEast was given to Pompey. Hisappointment was violently

opposed by the Senate,especially by CATULUS, the"father of the Senate," and by theorator HORTENSIUS; butCICERO with his first political

speech (Pro Lege Manilia) cameto Pompey's assistance, and tohim was given the command bywhich he became virtuallydictator in the East. Hisoperations there were thoroughly

successful, and, though hedoubtless owed much to theprevious victories of Lucullus, heshowed himself an able soldier.Mithradátes was obliged to fleeacross the Black Sea to

reign of fifty-seven years. Withhim ceased for many years allformidable opposition to Rome in

Asia.

enjoyed a well earned triumph.He was forty-five years old, hadaccomplished a really great work,had founded several cities whichafterwards became centres of

Greek life and civilization, andwas hailed as the conqueror of

Panticapaeum (Kertch).

In the year 64 Pompey went toSyria, took possession of thecountry in the name of Rome,

and made it a province.



Meanwhile Mithradátes hadreturned to Pontus for theprosecution of his old design; but

so great was the terror inspiredby the Roman arms, that evenhis own son refused to join him.Desperate at the turn affairs hadtaken, the aged monarch put anend to his own life in 63, after a

102

After an absence of nearly sevenyears, Pompey returned toRome, January 1, 61, and

was hailed as the conqueror ofSpain, Africa, and Asia.Next he was invited to act as

judge between Hyrcánus and Aristobúlus, two aspirants to theJewish throne. His decision was

contrary to the wishes of thepeople, and to enforce it he ledhis army against Jerusalem,which he captured after a siegeof three months. He installed

Hyrcánus on the throne oncondition of an annual tribute.

Pontus, top right on map

Besides Syria, Pontus, to whichBithynia was joined, and Cretewere now made provinces.

Cilicia was reorganized, andenlarged by the addition ofPamphylia and Isauria. Thethree countries in Asia Minor notyet provinces, but dependencies,were Galatia, ruled by Deiotarus;

Cappadocia, by Ariobarzánes;and Paphlagonia, by Attalus.

The rest of Pompey's life isclosely connected with that of

Caesar. His wife, Julia, wasCaesar's daughter, and thus farthe relations between the twomen had been friendly.

Pompey's absence in the Eastwas marked at Rome by the riseto political importance ofCAESAR and CICERO, and bythe conspiracy of CATILINE.

when scarcely fifteen, a priest ofJupiter (flamen dialis), whichsacred office carried with it ahandsome income.

CHAPTER XXVIICAESAR—CICERO—VERRES

Julius, and Julia, who becamethe wife of Marius. Gaius Juliusheld no higher office thanPraetor. He was married to

Aurelia, a stately woman of

simple and severe tastes. Theirson Gaius was born on July 12th,



103

Marius had seen in his nephewthe materials which make greatmen, and determined to help himto promotion. He made him,

The Caesars were a familybelonging to the Julian gens,which claimed descent from

IÚLUS, the son of AENÉAS.Eight generations of Caesars hadheld prominent places in thecommonwealth. They had beenConsuls, Praetors, Censors,

Aediles, and were aristocrats ofthe moderate wing. The directancestry of GAIUS JULIUSCAESAR can be traced nofurther back than his grandfather.This gentleman, of the same

name as the great Caesar,married Marcia, who claimeddescent from Ancus Marcius, thefourth King of Rome. They hadthree children, Gaius Julius, thefather of the Dictator, Sextus

y ,100.

During Cinna's consulship (86),Caesar is first mentioned as a

youth, tall, slight, handsome, withdark, piercing eyes, sallowcomplexion, and features refinedand intellectual. The bloodyscenes attending the proscription

of his uncle Marius, to whoseparty his father belonged, musthave made a deep impressionupon him. One of his mostintimate companions wasCICERO, who was six years his

senior.

Bust of Gaius Julius Caesar

Shortly after the death of his

father, in 84, Caesar marriedCornelia, the daughter of Cinna.By this marriage he wasconnected more closely with thepopular party, whose championhe remained.

When Sulla returned to Romefrom his Eastern campaign,Caesar was but eighteen. In thewholesale murders that followed,his party was ruined, his nearest

against the pirates that weremaking their head-quarters inLesbos. The Praetor, finding histroops insufficient to accomplishhis work, sent Caesar to

Nicomédes, a Roman ally andthe King of Bithynia, to obtain

friends dispersed or killed. Hehimself was yet free fromproscription, for Sulla wished towin such a promising young manto his own side. He made

proposals that Caesar divorce hiswife and marry one whom he

campaign against the pirateswho were marauding along thecoast of that country. While herehe was informed of Sulla's death,and at once left the army and

returned home (77). The nextyear he began his struggle with



Here Caesar served hisapprenticeship as a soldier. He

joined the forces of the PraetorThermus, who had been sent

g y ,additional forces. He wassuccessful in his mission, and,upon his return to Lesbos,distinguished himself for his

bravery in the attack uponMityléne, and was awarded theoak wreath, a coveted honor, forsaving the life of a fellow-soldier.

ymight select. Caesar refused.Force was then tried. Hispriesthood was taken from him,and his wife's dowry. His estate

was confiscated, and, when thishad no effect, he was himselfdeclared an outlaw, and a pricewas set on his head. Influentialfriends, however, interceded in

his behalf, and the Dictator wasfinally persuaded to pardon him;but with reluctance, and with theremark that in Caesar was themaking of many a Marius. Theyouth then left Italy, and joined

the army in Asia. Another bust of Caeser

Caesar is next seen in Cilicia,serving under Servilius, in a

y g ggthe nobility by prosecuting forextortion Dolabella, a formerGovernor of Macedonia.Dolabella was a favorite of the

Senate, and his cause wastheirs. The best talent wasengaged to defend him, andCaesar lost the case.

104

Feeling his deficiency as anorator, Caesar went to Rhodesand studied rhetoric under thefamous Apollonius. He hadrecovered his property andpriesthood, and could well afford

the time. While on his way hewas captured by pirates, and notreleased until a ransom of some$50,000 was raised and paid.Upon arriving at Milétus he atonce got together some vessels,

MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO(106-43) was a townsman ofMarius. He belonged to theEquites, and received a good

education under the best Greekteachers. As he ripened into

of office he spent in Sicily, in theperformance of his duties. Therehe obtained an insight into thecorrupt extortions of the Romangovernors. Five years later, he

conducted his famous caseagainst Verres.

returned to the island where hehad been in captivity, seized thecrew of pirates, took them toPergamus, and had them tried,convicted, and crucified. He then

resumed his journey to Rhodes,where he remained two years in



While Caesar was thus preparing

himself for the great struggle inwhich he was destined to takethe leading part, Cicero, thecompanion of his youth, wasbeginning to attract attention atRome.

105

manhood, he chose in politics theparty opposed to Caesar, and fora profession he selected the bar,hoping to gain fame as a speaker

before the Senate, and finally tobecome one of its members. Hetook part in the Social War (89),but during the troubled times thatfollowed he remained quietlyengaged in literary pursuits. Hisfirst public oration (80), thedefence of Roscius, who wasfalsely accused of murdering hisfather, was a great success, andguaranteed for him a brilliant

future. Cicero improved the nextfew years by study and travel in Asia and Greece. Shortly afterhis return, in 75, he was electedQuaestor, and thus became amember of the Senate. His year

gthe pursuit of his studies. Thenthe report of the uprisal ofMithradátes reached him, and heat once crossed over to the

mainland, collected a body ofvolunteers, and saved Caria toRome.

Having finished his studies,Caesar returned to Rome andlived quietly for a time with hiswife and mother, watching thecourse of events.

Bust of Cicero

VERRES had been a follower ofSulla, and during theproscriptions had amassed someproperty. Afterwards he heldofficial positions in Greece and

Asia, where he became notoriousfor his greediness and cruelty.With the money thus acquired,he had bought his election to thepraetorship, became Senator,

which he found the easier as hewas known to belong to thepopular party, of which Mariusand Sertorius had been leaders.

and was sent by his colleaguesto govern Sicily. His governmentthere may have been no worsethan that of many otherproconsuls in the different

provinces, but we have a fulleraccount of it owing to the

It was about this time that Caesarfinished his rhetorical studiesabroad, and returned home. Hewas elected Military Tribune as a

reward for what he hadaccomplished in Caria. Two



Verres was Governor of Sicily forthree years. In his officialposition, he was judge of all civiland criminal cases. Every suitbrought before him he gave tothe party that could pay him best.Property was confiscated onfalse charges, and works of art ofgreat value were stolen. By sucha course Verres collected, it issaid, property to the value of

$4,000,000. Two thirds of this heexpected to spend in silencingaccusations. The rest he hopedto enjoy in peace, but Cicero'seloquence forced him to abandonhis defence and retire into exile.

106

Caesar was now beginning toknow Pompey, and saw that theirinterests were common. Thelatter, although but six yearsolder, was already a great manand a distinguished soldier.Cornelia, Caesar's wife, died,and he married for a second wife

Pompeia, the cousin of Pompey.When sent as Quaestor toFarther Spain, in 67, hecompleted the work begun byPompey and settled the financesof the troubled country, a task

prosecution of Cicero, whosespeeches against Verres arepreserved.

years later, in 68, he was electedQuaestor, thereby acquiring aseat in the Senate. At this timehis aunt Julia died, and, as one

of her nearest relatives, hedelivered the funeral oration.

CHAPTER XXVIIITROUBLES AT ROME—CONSPIRACY OF

CATILINE

aspiring to the consulship wasLUCIUS SERGIUS CATILÍNA, avillain steeped in every crime, butadroit, bold, and withalcaptivating. In 68 he had been

Praetor, the next year Governorin Africa, where by his extortions

Manilian Law. Thus Ciceroreached the goal for which hehad been so long striving.

Caesar was rising at the same

time. The year previous (65) hehad been Curule Aedile, had built



107

While Pompey was absent in theEast, matters at Rome were daily

becoming worse, and shapingthemselves for the speedyoverthrow of the Republic. Therewere many who had sufferedunder Sulla, and who wereanxious to regain what they hadlost, and there were many who,enriched by the Dictator, hadsquandered their ill-gottenwealth, and now only waited aleader to renew the assault upon

the state. The Senate was jealous of the power of thepeople, and the people distrustedthe Senate.

Among the patricians who were

he had obtained enough money,as he hoped, to purchase hiselection to the consulship. Onhis return home he was

impeached for hismisgovernment, but acquittedthrough Cicero's defence and thecareful selection of a jury.

He then came forward ascandidate for the consulship ofthe next year (63). There weretwo other candidates, Antonius,the uncle of Mark Antony, andCicero himself. Antony was sure

of an election, so the strugglewas really between Catiline andCicero. The latter was elected,owing to the popularity he hadacquired by his prosecution ofVerres and his defence of the

a row of costly columns in front ofthe Capitol, and erected a templeto the Dioscúri (Castor andPollux). But what made him

especially pleasing to thepopulace was his lavish displayat the public games andexhibitions.

Caesar was now looked upon asa prominent democratic leader.In 63 the office of PontifexMaximus, the head of the statereligion, became vacant by thedeath of its occupant, Metellus

Pius. Caesar became acandidate for the office, and waselected, receiving more votesthan both the rival candidatescombined. He also receivedfurther evidence of the popular

Cicero's consulship would haveclosed without adding anything to

his fame had it not been forCatiline. The latter's failure to bel t d d hi t t i t

trained soldiers; and those insideof the city, headed by Catiline.Here secret meetings were held,the purpose of which was toexcite an uprising, kill the

magistrates, seize thegovernment, and then unite withth i Et i Ci

favor by being chosen Praetor forthe next year (62).

time Praetor, and the persons ofpublic officers were sacred. TheSempronian Law of Gracchusforbade the executing of anyRoman citizen without giving him

a right of appeal to the Assembly.Too many were implicated in thei f thi t b f



elected caused him to enter intoa plot to seize and burn the city.He had many followers, men ofnoble families, among whom

were the former Consul Lentulus,who had been recently expelledfrom the Senate by the Censors,and Cethégus, a bankruptspendthrift, who was anxious toregain a fortune by a change ingovernment. There wereveterans of Sulla, starvingpeasants who had beendispossessed of their farms, andoutlaws of every description.

The conspirators were dividedinto two parties; those outside ofthe city, headed by MarcusManlius, whose head-quarterswere at Faesulae (Fiesole),where was gathered an army of

the army in Etruria. Cicero wasinformed of these meetings byspies, and just before the plansfor the uprising were matured, he

disclosed them to the Senate.

The hills around Fiesole,Tuscany

Catiline fled from Rome; but hisaccomplices, of whom Lentulusand Cethégus were the mostprominent, were arrested in thecity. A serious difficulty nowarose as to the disposition of theprisoners. Lentulus was at that

conspiracy for this to be safe.

In the debate in the Senate, theprincipal speakers were Caesar,

Cato, and Cicero.

108

Cato and Cicero advocatedimmediate death; Caesar,imprisonment for life. Themotives of the men are socharacteristic that they form acomplete key to their severalpublic careers. Cicero, vain andselfish, weak in council, anddistrustful of the temper of the

people and of his own ability torule their factions, feared thatthey would become dangerousenemies to himself; Cato,desiring the reformation of thestate, would make an example

there he fell fighting withdesperate courage at the head ofhis motley force of soldiers nearPistoria.

Nepos, a Tribune, forbade hisspeaking, on the ground that onewho had put to death Romancitizens without a hearing did notdeserve to be heard. Amid the

uproar Cicero could only shoutthat he had saved his country.M t ll th t d t i h

and warning for the future. Theone, forgetful of the state, wasovercome by personal fears; theother, unmindful of self, wouldhave purity at any cost.

Caesar, on the other hand,i h d thi d i t i t

The name of "Father of hisCountry" was given to Cicero forth i il h i thi ff i



A sentence of death was voted;and Cicero, with unseemly haste,caused the conspirators to be

strangled that same night(December 5, 63). Thesuppression of the conspiracy inthe city was followed by thedefeat of the army in Etruria.Thither Catiline had fled, and

109

Cicero was wrapped up in hisown conceit, imagining himself a

second Romulus. On the lastday of the year (63), as was thecustom of the retiring Consuls,he arose in the Forum to delivera speech, reviewing the acts ofhis year of consulship. Metellus

Metellus threatened to impeachhim, and excitement in the citywas at fever heat. The Tribunemoved before the Assembly that

Pompey be recalled. The Senatefeared his coming. Caesar, whowas now Praetor (judge), favoredit, and earnestly seconded theproposal of Metellus. Cato, whowas also Tribune, orderedMetellus to stop speaking, andsnatched his manuscript from hishand. The aristocrats drew theirswords, and broke up themeeting. Constitutional law was

trampled under foot on all sides.The Senate was riding rough-shod over all opponents.Metellus and Caesar weredeclared deposed from theiroffices. The people, however,

wished everything done in strictaccordance with the laws; as abold and wise statesman, heurged that nothing was more

impolitic than lawless violence onthe part of the rulers. Cicero wasthe timid magistrate; Cato, theinjudicious reformer; but Caesar,with his keener knowledge andstronger hand, was the saferguide.

the vigilance shown in this affair.

The execution of Lentulus andCethégus resulted as Caesar

had expected. It was a lawlessact on the part of the Consul andthe Senate, and it was felt that byit the constitution was still moreendangered. The peopledemanded that Pompey return.In him they thought to have adeliverer from internal strifes.

Rome. His administration wasthorough and complete, and a

just reward for it would, hehoped, be the consulship.

triumphal robe in that bodywhenever he pleased.

believed in Caesar. He wasfollowed to his home by crowds,who begged him to be theirleader, and make an example ofthe law-breakers in the Senate.

But Caesar refused. He wouldhave nothing to do withlawlessness; he let his

Caesar returned from Spain in60, with wealth and military fame.

Though feared and detested bythe Senate, he was the favoriteof the people and could depend



The next year (61) Caesar wassent to Farther Spain asPropraetor. He had already left afavorable impression there asQuaestor. Portions of thecountry were still unsubdued.Many of the mountain passeswere held by robbers, whose

depredations caused muchtrouble. He completed thesubjugation of the peninsula, putdown the brigands, reorganizedthe government, and sent largesums of money to the treasury at

110

Meanwhile Pompey had returnedfrom the East. He landed atBrundisium in December, 62, andproceeded with a large band of

captured princes and immensetreasures to Rome, which heentered in triumph amidst thegreatest enthusiasm. By aspecial vote of the Senate hewas permitted to wear his

lawlessness; he let hisopponents play that rôle, andawaited the results. The Senatesoon saw its mistake, and

requested him to resume hisofficial duties.

Roman Spain, Lusitania is

today’s Portugal

of the people, and could dependupon their support. Pompey hadthe army behind him. Hereceived Caesar with pleasure,

for he had been a friend in all hiscareer.

Caesar felt that, with the peopleand the army through Pompey onhis side, he only needed thecapitalists to make his successsure. CRASSUS was counted asthe richest man at Rome. Hewas won over. These three thenformed what is known as the

FIRST TRIUMVIRATE,—"a unionof shrewdness, renown, andriches," by which Caesarexpected to rise to great power,Pompey to retain his power, andCrassus to gain greater wealth.

veterans of Pompey. Caesarproposed to pay the holders areasonable sum for their loss,though legally they had no claimwhatever on the land. Although

Bibulus interfered, Cato raved,and the Tribunes vetoed, still theAssembly passed the law and

CHAPTER XXIX THEFIRST TRIUMVIRATE

Pompey was ostensibly at the

ideas of reform, and to show thearistocracy of what stuff he wasmade.

It would have been well for

Cicero, and better for the state,had the orator been willing to joinhands with Caesar and Pompey;



111

Caesar's consulship increasedhis popularity among all exceptthe aristocrats. His AGRARIANLAW, carefully framed andworded, was bitterly opposed by

the Senate, especially by hiscolleague, Bibulus, and by Cato.The law provided that large tractsof the ager publicus, then held oneasy terms by the rich patricians,be distributed among the

Assembly passed the law, andvoted in addition that the Senatebe obliged to take an oath toobserve it.

p y yhead of the first Triumvirate, andin return supported Caesar in hiscandidacy for the consulship.

Crassus was to contribute hiswealth to influence the election.Caesar was elected withoutopposition (59); his colleague,the Senate's tool, was MarcusBibulus.

Caesar had now reached thehighest round in the ladder ofpolitical offices. He had shownhimself in all his course to becareful in keeping within the

bounds of the constitution, neverexerting himself in politicalquarrels except to defend the lawagainst lawlessness. Now hewas in a position to push his

hands with Caesar and Pompey;but he was too vain of his ownglory to join hands with thosewho were his superiors, and he

clung to the Senate, feeling thathis talents would shine theremore, and be more likely toredound to his own personalfame.

Pompey, Roman General, 106-48 B.C.

The LEGES JULIAE were a codeof laws which Caesar drew upduring his year of office. Theymark an era in Roman law, forthey cover many crimes thecommission of which had been

two men whom it would bedangerous for Caesar to leavebehind. Cato, the ultra aristocrat,hated him bitterly. Cicero, whoseambition was to lead the Senate,

a body only too willing to crushCaesar, might do him greatharm It was Caesar's good

for the tribuneship, and wassuccessful. He then proposed tothe Assembly that any personwho had put to death a Romancitizen without allowing him to

appeal to the people beconsidered a violator of theconstitution The proposal was

for a long time undermining thestate.

The most important of these wasthe LEX DE REPETUNDIS,

aimed at the abuses of governorsof provinces. It required allgovernors to make a double



There were in Rome, however,

harm. It was Caesar s goodfortune, or, as some believe, theresult of his own scheming, thatboth these men were put

temporarily out of the way.

112

CLODIUS PULCHER was ayoung aristocrat, notorious for hiswildness. At one time, byassuming the dress of a woman,he had gained admittance to thefestival of Bona Dea, which wascelebrated only by women. Hewas discovered and brought totrial before the Senate, but

acquitted by means of openbribery. Cicero had beeninstrumental in bringing him totrial, and Clodius never forgot it.He got adopted into a plebeianfamily in order to be a candidate

constitution. The proposal wascarried. All knew that Cicero wasmeant, and he fled at once toMacedonia. His property was

confiscated, his houses weredestroyed, and his palace in thecity was dedicated to theGoddess of Liberty.

governors to make a doublereturn of their accounts, one tobe left in the province open forinspection, the other to be kept at

Rome.

When Caesar's term of officewas nearly ended, he obtainedfrom the reluctant Senate hisappointment as Proconsul ofGaul for five years. He mustleave the city, however, in safehands, otherwise all his workwould be undone. He managedthe consular elections for the

next year (58) so adroitly, thatPiso and Gabinius, on whosefriendship he could rely, wereelected.

The kingdom of Cyprus, whichhad long been attached to that ofEgypt, had been bequeathed toRome at the death of Ptolemy

Alexander in 80. The Senatehad delayed to accept the

bequest, and meanwhile theisland was ruled by Ptolemy ofCyprus, one of the heirs of thedead king.

Clodius, on the plea that this king

harbored pirates, persuaded the Assembly to annex the island,and to send Cato to take chargeof it. He accepted the mission,and was absent two years. His

duties were satisfactorilyperformed, and he returned withabout $7 000 000 to increase the



about $7,000,000 to increase theRoman treasury. Thus, Ciceroand Cato being out of the city,the Senate was without a leader

who could work injury in Caesar'sabsence.

113

had invited a tribe of Germansunder Ariovistus to come intoGaul and settle, and be theirallies. These Germans hadattacked and conquered the

Aeduans, taken from themhostages, and with theSequanians were in the

CHAPTER XXXCAESAR'S CAMPAIGNSIN GAUL

Switzerland, Holland, andBelgium. The inhabitants wereall of the Celtic race, except afew Germans who had crossedthe Rhine and settled in the

North, and the AQUITÁNI, wholived in the Southwest and whoare represented by the Basques



114

The Gauls were more or less

civilized since they had come intocontact with the Romans, butthey still had the tribal form ofgovernment, like the earlyRomans. There were more thanfifty of these tribes, which weremostly hostile to one another, aswell as divided into factionsamong themselves. Thiscondition favored a conquest, forthe factions were frequently

Roman and non-Roman. Two ofthe chief tribes were the AEDUIand SEQUANI. The former hadbeen taken under the protectionof Rome; the latter, impatient ofcontrol and Roman influence,

Sequanians were in theascendency.Caesar was now in the prime of

manhood, in the full vigor of mindand body. His previous

experience in camp life had beencomparatively small. His earlyservice in Asia, and his morerecent campaigns in Spain,however, had shown his aptitudefor military life.

The Romans had alreadyobtained a foothold in Gaul.Since 118, the southern part ofthe country along the seaboardhad been a Roman province,called GALLIA NARBONENSIS,from the colony of Narbo whichthe Romans had founded. Therest of Gaul included all modernFrance, and a part of

are represented by the Basquesof to-day.

In Switzerland lived the

HELVETII. They had soincreased in numbers that theircountry was too small for them.They therefore proposed toemigrate farther into Gaul, andthe Sequanians, whose landsbordered on those of theHelvetians, gave thempermission to march throughtheir country.

Such was the state of affairswhen Caesar arrived in Gaul.Feeling that the passage of sucha large body of emigrants(368,000) through Gaul would bedangerous to the province (Gallia

Narbonensis), he determined tointerfere. The Helvetians weremet at BIBRACTE, near Autun,and after a terrible battle, whichraged from noon until night, were

defeated with great slaughter(58). The survivors, about onethird, were treated kindly, and

to the Germans who had settledwest of the Rhine. After severalfruitless attempts at negotiation,during which the bad faith of

Ariovistus became conspicuous,

the forces came together.Though the Germans werebrave, they were no match for

THE WAR WITH THEBELGAE

While Caesar was in Hither Gaul,

he learned from Labiénus thatthe BELGAE were forming aleague to resist the Romans



third, were treated kindly, andmost of them sent back toSwitzerland.

Roman Gaul, very roughlytoday’s France and Belgium

Caesar now turned his attention

brave, they were no match forthe drilled legionaries, whofought with the regularity of amachine. Few of the barbarians

escaped, but among these was Ariovistus.

The campaigns of this year beingended, the legions were sent intowinter quarters among theSequanians under Labiénus, thelieutenant of Caesar. He himselfwent into Cisalpine Gaul toattend to his duties asadministrator, and to have

communication with his friends atRome.

league to resist the Romans.This people occupied thenortheastern part of Gaul, andembraced several tribes, ofwhich the principal were theREMI, BELLOVACI,SUESSIÓNES, and NERVII.The last were the fiercest andleast civilized.

115

Caesar raised two new legions,making eight in all, and marchedagainst the Belgae as soon asthe spring opened. His suddenapproach alarmed the Remi, who

lived nearest to Central Gaul,and they immediately putthemselves under his protection.From them he learned that theBelgae could muster about300,000 men.

By skilful tactics and a successfulattack he put to flight and nearlyannihilated the Suessiónes. TheBellovaci now put themselves

under his protection, but theNervii remained in arms. Oneday, while the six legions were

assured. But the enemy foughton with a bravery that excited theadmiration of Caesar. Of sixtythousand men scarcely fivehundred survived. The women

and children were cared forkindly by Caesar, and settled intheir own territory.

part of Gaul (Brittany) except theVENETI had given hostages toCrassus, son of the Triumvir, andlieutenant of Caesar. This triberefused to give hostages, and,

inducing others to join them,seized some Roman officers sentamong them by Crassus. The



y, gforming camp on the bank of theriver Sabis, the Nervii and theirallies suddenly rushed upon

them from an ambuscade in thewoods on the opposite bank.The troops were entirelyunprepared, and so quick wasthe enemy's charge that theRomans had not time to put ontheir helmets, to remove thecovering from their shields, or tofind their proper places in theranks. Great confusion followed,and they became almost panic-

stricken. Caesar rushed intotheir midst, snatched a shieldfrom a soldier, and by hispresence and coolness revivedtheir courage. The Nervii werechecked, and victory was

y

116

The Aduatuci, who had assistedthe Nervii in their struggle, were

conquered by Caesar and soldinto slavery.

Thus ended the Belgiancampaign (57). The legions wereput into winter quarters nearwhere the war had been waged,and Caesar went to Italy. In hishonor was decreed athanksgiving lasting fifteen days.

THE VENETI—INVASIONOF GERMANY

All the tribes in the northwestern

g ycampaign of the third year (56)was directed against thesepeople. They were mostly sailors

and fishermen, with villages builton the end of promontories andeasily defended by land. In anaval engagement, which lastednearly all day, their whole fleetwas destroyed. The leaders ofthe Veneti were put to death fortheir treachery in seizing Romanofficers, and the rest were soldinto slavery.

The legions spent the winter of56-55 in the northern part ofGaul, among the Aulerci andneighboring tribes.

During this winter another wave

of Germans passed over theRhine into Gaul. They had beendriven from their homes by apowerful tribe called the SUEVI.In the spring of 55 Caesar

collected his troops andadvanced to within twelve milesof the German camp, and gave

time, and returned in September,as the equinox was near and theweather unsettled. The legionswere sent into winter quartersamong the Belgae, and Caesar

set out for Cisalpine Gaul.

During this winter (55-54), orders



Caesar next determined to crossthe Rhine into Germany, thinkingthus to inspire the Germans with

greater fear of the Romans. Hebuilt his famous bridge, crossedit, remained eighteen days inGermany, and, thinking his objectaccomplished, returned to Gaul,destroying the bridge behind him.

p gthe invaders twenty-four hours toleave the country. Before theexpiration of the time, they

attacked Caesar's outposts,killing several Knights, and twomen of aristocratic families. Inthe general engagement thatfollowed, the Germans weretotally routed and most of themwere slain.

Roman soldier from first centuryB.C.

INVASION OF BRITAIN

117

It was now August and Caesar

occupied the rest of the seasonby crossing the Channel toBritain (England). Landing nearDeal, with but little resistance onthe part of the natives, heexplored the country for a short

g ( )were given to build a large fleet,as Caesar intended to return toBritain the next year. After all

preparations were completed, heset sail, July 20, 54, and the nextday landed on the island. Hedefeated the Britons under theirleader CASSIVELAUNUS, andcompelled them to pay tributeand give hostages. Manythousand prisoners were taken,and sold in Italy as slaves.

FINAL STRUGGLES OFTHE GAULS

In the winter of 54-53 the legionswere distributed among several

previous winter. The tribe wascompletely destroyed, but theirleader, Ambiorix, escaped andwas never captured. During thissummer Caesar again crossed

the Rhine. At the close of thesummer he returned to CisalpineGaul, supposing that the Gauls

upon Genabum, and plunderedand burnt the town.

tribes. That stationed in theterritory of the Eburónes wascommanded by the lieutenants,Gabínus and Cotta. Newsreached the encampment that

there was an uprisal of theEburónes. It was decided tobreak up camp, and go, if

Vercingetorix saw that he was nomatch for the legions in open

battle. He proposed, therefore,to cut off Caesar's supplies byburning all the towns of the



In 53 Caesar punished theEburónes for their action in the

were totally subdued. He wasmistaken. The patriotism of thepeople was not yet extinguished.

The chiefs of all the tribessecretly establishedcommunication with each other.

A day was settled upon for ageneral uprising. The Romaninhabitants of Genabum, on theLiger, were massacred. Theleading spirit in this last struggleof the Gauls wasVERCINGETORIX, chief of the

Averni.

118

Caesar hastened across the Alps, surmounted the difficultiesof crossing the Cevennes whenthe snow was very deep,collected his legions, marched

possible, to the winter quarters oftheir nearest companions. Onthe march they were surprised

and nearly all killed. Only a fewstragglers carried the news toLabiénus, who was wintering witha legion among the Remi.

This success moved the Nervii toattack Quintus Cicero, thelieutenant who was wintering withhis legion among them. Wordwas sent to Caesar, who hadfortunately not yet left Gaul. He

hastened to Cicero's relief, raisedthe siege, and all but annihilatedthe revolting Nervii.

Bituriges, and laying the countrywaste. Avaricum alone wasspared. Within its walls were

placed the best of their goodsand a strong garrison. ThitherCaesar marched, and, after awell defended siege, capturedthe town and killed every personin it, excepting eight hundred,who escaped to the camp ofVercingetorix. Large quantitiesof corn were taken, with whichCaesar supplied his soldiers. Hethen marched against Gergovia,

the capital of the Averni. As thetown was on a high plateau, andtoo strong to be stormed, he laidsiege to it. A part of the army,contrary to instructions, one dayattempted to assault the place.

him. The relieving army, thoughfive times as large as his, wasdriven back and sent flyinghome.

The battle which followed wasdisastrous to the Romans, andthe only defeat Caesar receivedin Gaul. Forty-six officers andseven hundred men fell. The

siege was raised. It was aserious position for Caesar. AllGaul was in flames. Retreating

distributed among the soldiers.Vercingetorix was kept to beexhibited in the triumph at Rome,and afterwards died in adungeon.

With the fall of Alesia, thesubjugation of Gaul was



On his route was ALESIA. HereVercingetorix was intrenchedwith eighty thousand troops. Itwas, like Gergovia, situated on ahill and considered impregnable.Caesar laid siege to this place(52). Vercingetorix appealed toall Gaul for aid. Hardly had the

fortress been invested whenCaesar's army was surroundedby an immense force of Gaulsthat had come to the rescue.Caesar needed now all his skilland genius. But they did not fail

at once, he formed a junctionwith Labiénus at Agendicum, andwith all his troops started for

Gallia Narbonensis to protect itfrom invasion.

Locations of battles in Gaul (noteParis, today’s capital of France)

Seeing that all was over,Vercingetorix called a council ofhis chiefs and advised surrender.

A message was sent to Caesar.He demanded unconditionalsurrender, and was obeyed. Thepeople were sold into slavery,and the money obtained

practically completed.

119

The next year (51) Caesar

honored several chiefs withprivileges; some of the nobleswere granted the franchise, andsome admitted to the Senate.The work of Romanizing Gaulwas fairly begun. Two provinceswere formed, Gallia and Belgica,and later (17 A.D.) the former ofthese was subdivided intoLugdunensis and Aquitania.Roman money was introduced,

and Latin became the officiallanguage.

pressed it. Day after day theopposing parties met in bloodyaffrays. For seven months thebrawl continued, until Milo's partyfinally got the ascendancy; the

Assembly was convened, andthe recall voted.

CHAPTER XXXICLODIUS AND MILO—DEATH OF CRASSUS

During the nine years (59 50)

person which for the momentwas convenient to him; and yetfor five years this man was theleader of the Roman mob. Hecould defy justice, insult the

Consuls, beat the Tribunes,parade the streets with a gang ofarmed slaves, killing personsdi bl t hi d i th F t th Ci



120

In 57 Consuls were elected whofavored Cicero, and his recallwas demanded. Clodius and hisfollowers opposed the recall.The nobles, led by their tool Milo,

During the nine years (59-50)passed by Caesar in Gaul, greatconfusion prevailed at Rome.

The Republic needed a strong,firm hand, which would stop theshedding of blood and insuresecurity of person and property.Pompey had attempted to bringabout this result, but had failed.

There were two prominentfactions, one led by CLODIUS,the other by MILO.

"Clodius is the mostextraordinary figure in thisextraordinary period. He had nocharacter. He had nodistinguished talent save forspeech; he had no policy; he wasready to adopt any cause or

disagreeable to him; and in theSenate itself he had high friendsand connections, who threw a

shield over him when hisaudacity had gone beyondendurance." Milo was asdisreputable as Clodius. Hischief fame had been gained inthe schools of the gladiators.Gangs of armed slavesaccompanied him everywhere,and there were constantcollisions between his retainersand those of Clodius.

For seventeen months Cicerohad been in Greece, lamentinghis hard lot. He landed at

Brundisium on August 5, 57, andproceeded to Rome. Outside thecity all men of note, except hisavowed enemies, were waiting toreceive him. The Senate votedto restore his property, and torebuild his palace on the PalatineHill and his other villas at thepublic expense. But Clodius,with his bands of ruffians,interrupted the workmen

engaged in the repair of hisPalatine house, broke down thewalls, and, attacking Cicerohimself, nearly murdered him.

At last Clodius even attempted to

burn the house of Milo. The longstruggle between these tworuffians culminated when Milowas a candidate for theconsulship, and Clodius for the

praetorship. The two meeting byaccident in the Via Appia atBovillae, Clodius was murdered,20 J 52 Thi t f Bust of Crassus 115 53 B C

provisions, and to avoid beingsurrounded by the cavalry of theenemy. But Crassus allowedhimself to be deceived by an

Arab chief, who lured him to the

sandy plains of Mesopotamia atCarrhae.

Th f f th P thi



20 January, 52. This act ofviolence strengthened Pompey,who was nominated sole Consul.

Milo was impeached. His guiltwas evident, and he went intoexile at Massilia. Ciceroprepared an elaborate speech inhis defence, but did not dare todeliver it.

During the interval between thetwo campaigns of 57 and 56,Caesar renewed his alliance withhis two colleagues in interviews

that were held at Ravenna andLuca. He retained the commandof Gaul; Pompey, that of Spain;Crassus, that of Syria.

Bust of Crassus, 115-53 B.C.,famous for defeating Spartacusand the slave revolt

CRASSUS now undertook thewar against the Parthians. Hewas accompanied by his son,who had done good serviceunder Caesar in Gaul. They

arrived at Zeugma, a city ofSyria, on the Euphrátes; and theRomans, seven legions strong,with four thousand cavalry, drewthemselves up along the river.The Quaestor, CASSIUS, a manof ability, proposed to Crassus aplan of the campaign, whichconsisted in following the river asfar as Seleucia, in order not to beseparated from his fleet and

121

The forces of the Parthians,divided into many bodies,suddenly rushed upon the

Roman ranks, and drove themback. The young Crassusattempted a charge at the headof fifteen hundred horsemen.The Parthians yielded, but only todraw him into an ambush, wherehe perished, after great deeds ofvalor. His head, carried on theend of a pike, was borne beforethe eyes of his unhappy father,who, crushed by grief and

despair, gave the command intothe hands of Cassius. Cassiusgave orders for a general retreat.The Parthians subjected theRoman army to continual losses,and Crassus himself was killed in

a conference (53).

In this disastrous campaign thereperished more than twentythousand Romans. Ten

thousand were taken prisonersand compelled to serve as slavesin the army of the Parthians.



The death of Crassus broke theTriumvirate; that of Julia, in 54,

had sundered the family tiesbetween Caesar and Pompey,who married Cornelia, the widowof the young Crassus, anddaughter of Metellus Scipio.

122

CHAPTER XXXIICAESAR'S STRUGGLEWITH POMPEY—

BATTLE OF PHARSALIA

but reconciled to subjugation; anation of warriors, as muchdevoted to him as his ownlegions." The nobility hadwatched his successes with bitter

envy; but they were forced tovote a thanksgiving of twentydays, which "the people madesixty "

The law requiring a candidate togive up his command had beensuspended several times beforethis; so that Caesar's requestwas reasonable. His enemies in

the city were numerous andpowerful, and he felt that, if hereturned as a private citizen, hispersonal safety would be in



123

Pompey was elected sole Consulin February, 52. He at once

threw off all pretence of analliance with Caesar, anddevoted himself to the interestsof the Senate and aristocracy.

The brilliant successes of Caesar

in Gaul had made a profoundimpression upon the minds of thecitizens, to whom the name ofthe northern barbarians was stillfraught with terror. Caesar had

won for himself distinction as asoldier greater than the Scipios,or Sulla, or Pompey. "He wascoming back to lay at hiscountry's feet a province largerthan Spain, not only subdued,

sixty.

Caesar now declared through his

followers at Rome that hedesired a second consulship.But he wished first to celebratehis triumph, and on this accountwould not disband his army; for,according to the custom, he

could not triumph without it. According to another custom,however, he must disband itbefore he could offer himself as acandidate for the consulship. But

he asked permission to set asidethis custom, and to become acandidate while he was in theprovince in command of thearmy.

personal safety would be indanger; whereas, if he were amagistrate, his person would be

considered sacred.

The Senate, on the other hand,felt that, if he carried his point,the days of their influence werenumbered. Their first step,

therefore, was to weakenCaesar, and to provide theirchampion, Pompey, with a forcein Italy. They voted that Caesarshould return to Pompey a legion

which had been loaned him, andalso should send another legionback to Italy. The vote was takenon the ostensible plea that thetroops were needed in AsiaMinor against the Parthians; but

When the action of the Senatewas reported to Caesar, hecalled together his soldiers, andaddressed them thus: "For nineyears I and my army have served

our country loyally and with somedegree of success. We havedriven the Germans across theRhine; we have made Gaul a

marched to Ariminum.when they reached Italy theywere placed under Pompey'scommand in Campania. TheConsuls chosen for the year 49were both bitter enemies of

Caesar. He had taken up hiswinter quarters at Ravenna, thelast town in his provincebordering on Italy From here he Map showing Ravenna and



124

Rhine; we have made Gaul aprovince; and the Senate, foranswer, has broken the

constitution in setting aside theTribunes who spoke in mydefence. It has voted the state indanger, and has called Italy toarms, when no single act of minecan justify it in this course." The

soldiers became enthusiastic,and were eager to follow theirleader without pay. Contributionswere offered him by both menand officers. LABIENUS, his

trusted lieutenant, alone provedfalse. He stole away, and joinedPompey. Caesar then sent fortwo legions from across the Alps.With these legions he crossedthe RUBICON into Italy, and

bordering on Italy. From here hesent a messenger with letters tothe Senate, stating that he was

ready to resign his command, ifPompey did the same. Themessenger arrived at Rome,January 1, 49, on the day inwhich the new Consuls enteredupon their duties.

The letters were read in theSenate, and there followed aspirited discussion, resulting in adecree that Caesar should resign

his command. The Tribunesopposed; but, being threatenedby the Consuls, they werecompelled to leave the city, andwent directly to Ravenna.

Map showing Ravenna andRome

Meanwhile the report of hismovements reached Rome. Thearistocracy had imagined that hiscourage would fail him, or thathis army would desert.Thoroughly frightened, Consuls,

Praetors, Senators, leavingwives, children, and property totheir fate, fled from the city toseek safety with Pompey inCapua. They did not stop even

to take the money from thetreasury, but left it locked.

Caesar paused at Ariminum, andsent envoys to the Senate,stating that he was still desirous

advanced, with constantlyincreasing forces, until when hereached Corfinium his army hadswelled to thirty thousand troops.

of peace. If Pompey woulddepart to his province in Spain,he would himself disband hisown troops. He was even willingto have a personal interview with

Pompey. This message wasreceived by the Senate after itsflight from Rome. The substanceof its reply was that Pompey did

readiness for them to depart.

Hoping to intercept Pompey,Caesar hastened to this port. Onhis arrival outside of the town,

the Consuls, with half the army,had already gone. Pompey,however, was still within theplace with twelve thousand



These terms seemed to Caesar

unfair, and he would not acceptthem. Accordingly he sent hislieutenant, Mark Antony, acrossthe mountains to Arretium, on theroad to Rome. He himself

pushed on to Ancóna, beforePompey could stop him. Thetowns that were on his marchthrew open their gates, theirgarrisons joined his army, andtheir officers fled. Steadily he

of its reply was, that Pompey didnot wish a personal interview, butwould go to Spain, and that

Caesar must leave Ariminum,return to his province, and givesecurity that he would dismiss hisarmy.

Mark Antony, 82-30 B.C.

This place had been occupied byDomitius with a party of

aristocrats and a few thousandmen. Caesar surrounded thetown, and when Domitiusendeavored to steal away, hisown troops took him anddelivered him over to Caesar.

The capture of Corfinium and thedesertion of its garrison filledPompey and his followers withdismay. They hurried toBrundisium, where ships were in

place, with twelve thousandtroops, waiting for transports tocarry them away. He refused to

see Caesar; and, though thelatter endeavored to blockade theport, he was unsuccessful, owingto want of ships.

Thus Pompey escaped. With

him were the Consuls, more thanhalf the Senate, and thearistocracy. Caesar would havefollowed them, but a fleet mustfirst be obtained, and matters

nearer home demanded hisattention.

125

In sixty days Caesar had madehimself master of Italy. On hisway to Rome he met Cicero, and

invited him to attend the Senate,but he preferred to stay away.Caesar entered the cityunattended, and assembled theSenate through the Tribunes,

Mark Antony and CassiusLongínus. The attendance wassmall, as most of the memberswere with Pompey In his

for Gaul to join his troops on hisway to Spain.

Afranius and Petreius stronglyintrenched at ILERDA inCatalonia (Northern Spain).Within forty days he broughtthem to terms, and Varro, who

was in Southern Spain, waseager to surrender. All Spainwas at his feet.

He had much to accomplish.Spain was in the hands of

Pompey's lieutenants, Afranius,Petreius, and Varro, who had sixlegions and allied troops. FromSicily and Sardinia came most of



were with Pompey. In hisaddress to the Senate Caesarspoke of his own forbearance

and concessions, of their unjustdemands, and their violentsuppression of the authority ofthe Tribunes. He was still willingto send envoys to treat withPompey, but no one was found

willing to go. After three daysspent in useless discussion,Caesar decided to act forhimself. By his own edict, herestored the children of the

victims of Sulla's proscription totheir rights and property. Themoney in the treasury was votedhim by the Assembly of thepeople. He took as much of it ashe needed, and started at once

126

Upon his arrival in Gaul, Caesarfound that the inhabitants ofMassilia had risen against hisauthority, led by the same

Domitius whom he had sentaway unharmed from Corfinium.Caesar blockaded the city, and,leaving Decimus Brutus incharge of operations, continuedhis journey to Spain. He found

Sicily and Sardinia came most ofthe grain supplies of Rome, andit was important to hold these

islands. To Sicily he sent Curioand to Sardinia Valerius. Cato,who was in charge of Sicily,immediately abandoned it andfled to Africa. Sardinia receivedCaesar's troops with open arms.

Before leaving Spain, Caesarsummoned the leading

Spaniards and Romans toCordova, for a conference. Allpromised obedience to hisauthority. He then set sail fromGades to Tarragóna, where he

joined his legions and marched

back to Massilia, which he foundhard pressed and ready tosurrender. The gates wereopened. All were pardoned, andDomitius was allowed to escape

a second time.Caesar left a portion of his forcesin Gaul, and with the rest arrivedat Rome in the early winter of 49-48. Thus far he had been

debts as they were one yearbefore, the interest was remittedand the principal declared stilldue. This measure relieved thedebtors somewhat.

successful. Gaul, Spain,Sardinia, Sicily, and Italy werehis. He had not succeeded,however, in getting together anaval force in the Adriatic, and he

had lost his promising lieutenant,Curio, who had been surprisedand killed in Africa, whither hehad gone in pursuit of Cato and

It was now nearly a year sinceCaesar crossed the Rubicon.Pompey, during the nine months

Today’s Brindisi (just above theheel of Italy’s boot) has only the



During Caesar's absence, affairsat Rome had resumed their usualcourse. He had left the cityunder charge of his lieutenant,

Aemilius Lepidus, and Italy incommand of Mark Antony.

Caesar was still at Massilia,when he learned that the peopleof Rome had proclaimed himDictator. Financial troubles in thecity had made this stepnecessary. Public credit wasshaken. Debts had not beenpaid since the civil war began.Caesar allowed himself onlyeleven days in Rome. In thistime estimates were drawn of all

had gone in pursuit of Cato andPompey's followers.

Pompey, during the nine monthsthat had elapsed since hisescape from Brundisium, had

been collecting his forces inEpírus. Here had gathered manyprinces from the East, a majorityof the Senatorial families ofRome, Cato and Cicero, thevanquished Afranius, and the

renegade Labiénus. There werenine full legions, with cavalry andauxiliaries, amounting in all to100,000 men.

y ) ybases of the columns to mark theend of the Via Appia from Rome

Caesar reached Brundisium atthe end of the year 49. Hisforces were fewer in number thanthose of his adversary,amounting to not more than

15,000 infantry and 600 cavalry.But his legionaries were allveterans, inured to toil andhunger, to heat and cold, andevery man was devoted to hisleader.

127

On the 4th of January he set sailfrom Brundisium, landing after anuneventful voyage at

Acroceraunia. He advanced at

movements.once towards Dyrrachium wherewere Pompey's head-quarters,occupied Apollonia, andintrenched himself on the leftbank of the river Apsus. The

country was well disposed andfurnished him with amplesupplies.

The great general was now readyfor action. He built a line ofstrongly fortified forts around

Pompey's camp, blockading himby land. He turned the streamsof water aside, causing as muchinconvenience as possible to the



Caesar sent back the vessels onwhich he crossed to transport his

remaining troops, but they wereintercepted on their way acrossand many of them destroyed. Hewas therefore compelled toconfine himself to triflingoperations, until his lieutenant,

Mark Antony, could fit out asecond fleet and bring over theremainder of his legions. When

Antony finally crossed, he landedone hundred miles up the coast.Pompey's forces were betweenhim and Caesar, and his positionwas full of danger; but Caesarmarched rapidly roundDyrrachium, and joined himbefore Pompey knew of his

penemy. So the siege dragged oninto June.

Two deserters informed Pompeyof a weak spot in Caesar's line.

At this point Pompey made asudden attack. For onceCaesar's troops were surprised

and panic-stricken. Even hisown presence did not causethem to rally. Nearly onethousand of his men fell, thirty-two standards, and a fewhundred soldiers were captured.

The area of battle, in today’s Albania, Macedonia, Serbia,Montenegro, and Greece

This victory was the ruin ofPompey's cause. Its importancewas exaggerated. His followerswere sure that the war waspractically over; and so certainwere they of ultimate successthat they neglected to follow up

the advantage gained, and gaveCaesar opportunity to recoverfrom the blow.

128

The latter now retired from the

ancient Roman families, theleaders of society in Romansalons, and the chiefs of thepolitical party of the optimates(aristocracy) were here present

on the field. The other greatactions were fought by theignoble multitude whose deathswere of less significance. The

Senate had taken from Caesar.Outside him on the plain were hisallies covered by the cavalry.Opposite Pompey was Caesar,with the famous Tenth Legion.

His left and centre were led byhis faithful Tribunes, Mark Antonyand Cassius Longínus.

sea-board into Thessaly.Pompey followed, confident ofvictory. The nobles in his campamused themselves withquarrelling about the expected

spoils of war. Cato and Ciceroremained behind in Epirus, theformer disgusted at the actions ofthe degenerate nobility, the latter



"The battle of PHARSALIA(August 9, 48) has acquired aspecial place in history, becauseit was fought by the Romanaristocracy in their own personsin defence of their ownsupremacy. Senators and thesons of Senators, the heirs of thenames and fortunes of the

gplains of Pharsalia were wateredby the precious blood of the elect

of the earth."

129

The position of the Senatorialarmy was well taken. Its rightwing rested on the Enipeus, itsleft was spread out on the plain.Pompey himself commanded theleft with the two legions the

g ypleading ill health.

The two armies encamped on aplain in Thessaly near the riverEnipeus, only four miles apart.Between them lay a low hillcalled PHARSÁLUS, which gavename to the battle which

followed.

For several days the armieswatched each other withoutdecisive action. One morningtowards the end of May (August

9, old style) Caesar noticed amovement in Pompey's lines thattold him the expected attack wascoming.

At the given signal Caesar's frontranks advanced on a run, threw

their darts, drew their swords,and closed in. At once Pompey'scavalry charged, outflanking theenemy's right wing, and drivingback the opposing cavalry, whowere inferior in numbers. But as

they advanced flushed withvictory, Caesar's fourth line,which he had held in reserve,and which was made up of theflower of his legions, appeared intheir way. So fierce was theirattack that the Pompeianswavered, turned, and fled. Theynever rallied. The fourth linethrew themselves uponPompey's left wing, which was

needed the common necessariesof life, of dissoluteness andprofligacy." But Caesar could notdelay. Leaving a portion of hisforces in camp, by rapidmarching he cut off the retreat ofthe enemy. Twenty-fourthousand surrendered, all ofwhom were pardoned. Domitius,

now unprotected. This wing,composed of Caesar's oldveterans, was probably in nomood to fight its formercomrades in arms. At any rate, itturned and fled. Pompey himselfmounted his horse and rode offin despair. Thus the battle endedin a rout. But two hundred of



The abandoned camp was aremarkable sight. The luxuriouspatricians had built houses of turfwith ivy trained over the

entrances to protect their delicateskins from the sun's rays;couches were stretched outready for them to take reposeafter their expected victory, andtables were spread with daintyfood and wines on which to feast.

As he saw these preparationsCaesar exclaimed, "These arethe men who accused mysuffering, patient army, which

whom we saw at Corfinium andMassilia, was killed trying to

escape. Labiénus, Afranius, andPetreius managed to steal awayby night. Thus ended the battleof Pharsalia.

130

Caesar's men fell, while fifteenthousand of the enemy lay dead

on the field.

GREAT. He was certainly agood soldier, and is said to haveexcelled in all athletic sports, buthe fell short of being a first-classgeneral. He won greatsuccesses in Spain, and moreespecially in the East; but forthese he was, no doubt, partlyindebted to what others had

Ptolemy was at variance with hissister, the famous CLEOPÁTRA,Caesar sided with her. Theinhabitants of Alexandríarevolted, and besieged Caesar inthe palace; but with a handful ofsoldiers he bravely baffled theirattacks. Setting fire to theneighboring buildings, he

CHAPTER XXXIIICAESAR'SOPERATIONS IN EGYPT,

ASIA, AFRICA, ANDSPAIN



Just before his death Pompeyhad completed his fifty-eighthyear. "Though he had somegreat and good qualities, hehardly deserved the surname of

already done. Of the gifts whichmake a good statesman, he had

really none. He was too weakand irresolute to choose a sideand stand by it. Pitted againstsuch a man as Caesar, he couldnot but fail. But to his credit be itsaid, that in a corrupt time he

never used his opportunities forplunder and extortion."

131

Meanwhile Caesar, pursuing hisvictory with indefatigable activity,set sail for Egypt. Upon hisarrival the head of his enemywas brought to him. He turnedfrom the sight with tears in hiseyes. The murderers now sawwhat would be their fate.

escaped to his ships. Afterwardshe returned and wreaked

vengeance upon the Alexandrians, establishingCLEOPÁTRA upon the throne(47).

Pompey, in his flight from

Pharsalia, hastened by theshortest way to the sea, and,seeing a vessel weighing anchor,embarked with a few companionswho had accompanied him in hisflight. He went to Mityléne, andfrom there to Egypt, hoping toobtain an asylum with the youngPTOLEMY; but he was seizedupon his arrival, and beheaded,28 September, 48.

A bust of Cleopatra, Queen ofEgypt

Satisfied with this vengeance,

debts should be paid, and therights of property respected. Herestored quiet, and after a briefstay of three months prepared totransport his army to Africa. Thearmy was in Campania, butdiscontented and mutinousbecause of not receiving theexpected privilege of pillage andl d Th f d

lands had been allotted to eachsoldier out of the ager publicus,or out of his own estates.

Caesar left Egypt, and went toPontus, where PHARNACES,son of Mithradátes, was inciting arevolt against Rome. Caesarattacked and defeated him atZELA (47), with a rapidityrendered proverbial by his words,Veni, vidi, vici , I CAME, I SAW, ICONQUERED.

Africa must now be subdued.Since the defeat and death ofCurio, King JUBA had found noone to dispute his authority.

Around him now rallied all thef ll f P M ll



132

Caesar's return in September,47, was marked by noproscription. He insisted that all

plunder. They refused to moveuntil certain promised rewards

were received. The TenthLegion broke out into open revolt,and marched from Campania toRome to obtain their rights.Caesar collected them in theCampus Martins, and asked

them to state their grievances.They demanded their discharge."I grant it, citizens" (Quirites),said the Imperator. Heretoforehe had always addressed themas "fellow soldiers," and theimplied rebuke was so keen, thata reaction at once began, andthey all begged to be receivedagain into his service. Heaccepted them, telling them that

He now passed quickly down the

Hellespont, and had landed inItaly before it was known that hehad left Pontus. During hisabsence from the capital therehad been some minordisturbances; but the mass of the

citizens were firmly attached tohim. Few could distrust thegenius and fortune of theirresistible conqueror. In Octoberof 48 he had been made Dictatora second time, and appointedTribune for life.

followers of Pompey, MetellusScipio, Cato, Labiénus, Afranius,

Petreius, and the slain general'stwo sons, Sextus and GnaeusPompeius.

Utica was made their head-quarters. Here Cato collected

thirteen legions of troops ofmiscellaneous character. Raidswere made upon Sicily, Sardinia,and the coasts of Italy. Caesar'sofficers, if captured, were put todeath without mercy.

Cicero alone of the old Pompeianparty protested against suchcruelties. He remained in Italy,was denounced by them as a

southeast of Carthage, April 4,46, the armies met. Caesar'smen were so enthusiastic thatthey rushed to the charge withone impulse. There was no realbattle, but rather a slaughter.Officers and men fled for theirlives. Scipio was intercepted inhis flight and slain. Juba andP t i fl d t th b t

successive days; one over theGauls, one over Ptolemy ofEgypt, one over Pharnaces, andone over Juba. He gratified hisarmed followers with liberal gifts,and pleased the people by hisgreat munificence. They werefeasted at a splendid banquet, atwhich were twenty-two thousandt bl h t bl h i th

traitor, and charged with curryingfavor of the Dictator.

Caesar sailed from Lilybaeum(December 19), effected alanding near Leptis, andmaintained himself in a fortifiedposition until he formed usefulalliances among theM t i M R



For three months Caesar failedto bring on the desiredengagement; Scipio had learnedcaution from Pompey'sexperience at Pharsalia. Finally,at THAPSUS, one hundred miles

Petreius fled together, but,finding their retreat cut off,

engaged, it is said, in mortalcombat; when the first, Petreius,fell, the other threw himself onhis own sword. Labiénus and thetwo sons of Pompey managed toescape to Spain. Afranius was

captured and executed.

133

On his return from Africa, Caesarcelebrated four triumphs, on four

tables, each table having threecouches, and each couch three

persons. Then followed shows inthe circus and theatre, combatsof wild beasts and gladiators, inwhich the public especiallydelighted.

Mauretanians. Many Romanresidents in the province came to

him, indignant at MetellusScipio's promise to Juba to givethe province to him in case ofsuccess. Many deserters alsocame in, enraged thatprecedence was given to Juba

over Scipio in councils of war.But the enemy's army was keptfull of new recruits sent fromUtica by Cato.

Cato, when he heard of thedefeat, retired to his chamber inUtica, and committed suicide.

Thus ended the Africancampaign.

Honors were now heaped uponCaesar without stint. Athanksgiving of forty days wasdecreed. His statue was placedin the Capitol. Another wasinscribed to Caesar the Demigod.

A golden chair was allotted tohim in the Senate-House. Thename of the fifth month (Quintilis)of the Roman calendar waschanged to JULIUS (July). He

method of reckoning time hadbeen so inaccurate, that nowtheir seasons were more thantwo months behind. Caesarestablished a calendar, which,with slight changes, is still in use.It went into operation January1st, 45. He employedSosigenes, an Alexandrianastronomer to superintend the

Roman affairs. The remnant ofScipio's African army restedthere in its wanderings. ThusLabiénus and Pompey's two sonsmanaged to collect an army asnumerous as that which hadbeen defeated at Thapsus.There were thirteen legions in all.

was appointed Dictator for twoyears, and later for life. Hereceived for three years the officeof Censor, which enabled him toappoint Senators, and to beguardian of manners and morals.He had already been madeTribune (48) for life, and PontifexMaximus (63). In a word, he wasking in everything excepting Caesar saw that he must make



Caesar's most remarkable anddurable reform at this period wasthe REVISION OF THECALENDAR. The Roman

astronomer, to superintend thereform.

134

Meanwhile matters in Spain werenot satisfactory. After the battleof Pharsalia, Cassius Longinus,Trebonius, and Marcus AemiliusLepidus had been sent to governthe province. They could notagree. The soldiers becamemutinous. To Spain flocked allwho were dissatisfied with

king in everything exceptingname.

Statue of Caesar

While Sosigenes was at work onthe calendar, Caesar purified theSenate. Many who were guilty ofextortion and corruption wereexpelled, and the vacancies filled

with persons of merit.

Caesar saw that he must makeone more struggle. He set out

for the province accompanied byhis nephew OCTAVIUS(afterwards the Emperor

AUGUSTUS), and by his trustedfriend and officer, DECIMUSBRUTUS. The struggle in Spain

was protracted for severalmonths, but the decisive battlewas fought at MUNDA, 17March, 45, on the Guadalquivir,near Cordova. The forces werewell matched. The advantage inposition was on the side of theenemy. The battle wasstubbornly fought, most of it handto hand, with short swords. Soequal was the struggle, so

doubtful at one time the issue,that Caesar himself sprang fromhis horse, seized a standard, andrallied a wavering legion. Finally,Labiénus was seen to gallopacross the field. It was thoughthe was fleeing. Panic seized histroops, they broke and ran.Thirty thousand were slain,including three thousand Roman

CATO-METELLUSSCIPIO

MARCUS PORTIUS CATO

UTICENSIS [Note: Cato theYounger, called UTICENSIS onaccount of his death at Utica.](95-46) was the great-grandsonf C C

QUINTUS CAECILIUSMETELLUS PIUS belonged tothe illustrious family of theScipios by birth, and to that of theMetelli by adoption. He was oneof the most unjust and dishonestof the Senators that opposedCaesar. He was the father-in-lawof Pompey by whom he was



including three thousand RomanKnights, and Labiénus himself.

Gnaeus Pompey shortly after losthis life, but Sextus lived for anumber of years.

Caesar tarried in Spain,

regulating affairs, until late in theautumn, when he returned toRome and enjoyed anothertriumph over the Iberians(Spaniards). The triumph wasfollowed, as usual, by games andfestivals, which kept thepopulace in a fever of delight andadmiration.

of Cato the Censor. He was thelast of the Romans of the old

school. Like his more famousancestor, he was frugal andaustere in his habits, upright,unselfish, and incorruptible. Buthe was a fanatic, who could notbe persuaded to relinquish hisviews on any subject. As ageneral, he was a failure, havingneither taste nor genius formilitary exploits. He held variousoffices at Rome, as Quaestor

and Praetor; but when candidatefor the consulship he wasdefeated, because he declined towin votes by bribery and otherquestionable methods then invogue.

135

of Pompey, by whom he wasmade a pliant tool against the

great conqueror.

against Caesar, and also beenpardoned by him. Cassius, itwas said, hated the tyrant, andBrutus tyranny.

CHAPTER XXXIVMURDER OF CAESAR

Upon his return from Spain,Caesar granted pardon to all whohad fought against him, the most

physicians and scientists wereencouraged to settle in Rome.The harbor of Ostia wasimproved, and a roadconstructed from the Adriatic tothe Tyrrhenian Sea, over the

Apennines. A temple to Marswas built, and an immenseamphitheatre was erected at thefoot of the Tarpeian Rock

These conspirators were soon joined by persons of all parties;and men who had fought againsteach other in the civil war nowjoined hands Cicero was not



136

CASSIUS LONGINUS andMARCUS JUNIUS BRUTUSwere the leaders in the

conspiracy to effect Caesar'sdeath, Cassius, a formerlieutenant of Crassus, had showngreat bravery in the war with theParthians. At Pharsalia hefought on the side of Pompey,but was afterwards pardoned byCaesar. He was married to asister of Brutus. The latter, anephew and son-in-law of Cato,had also fought at Pharsalia

prominent of whom were GAIUSCASSIUS, MARCUS BRUTUS,

and CICERO. He increased thenumber of the Senate to ninehundred. He cut off the corngrants, which nursed the citymob in idleness. He sent out

impoverished men to colonize oldcities. He rebuilt Corinth, andsettled eighty thousand Italianson the site of Carthage. As acensor of morals he was veryrigid. His own habits were

marked by frugality. The richyoung patricians were forbiddento be carried about in litters, ashad been the custom. Librarieswere formed. Eminent

foot of the Tarpeian Rock.

In the midst of this useful activityhe was basely murdered.

joined hands. Cicero was nottaken into the plot. He was of

advanced years, and all whoknew him must have felt that hewould never consent to thetaking the life of one who hadbeen so lenient towards hisconquered enemies.

On the morning of the IDES(15th) OF MARCH, 44, asCaesar entered the Senate andtook his seat, he wasapproached by the conspirators,headed by Tullius Cimber, whoprayed for the pardon of hisexiled brother; and while the rest

joined him in the request, he,grasping Caesar's hand, kissed

his head and breast. As Caesarattempted to rise, Cimberdragged his cloak from hisshoulders, and Casca, who wasstanding behind his chair,stabbed him in the neck. Thefirst blow was struck, and thewhole pack fell upon their noblevictim. Cassius stabbed him inthe face and Marcus Brutus in

followed; and, in their alarm,most of the Senators fled. It wastwo days before the Senate met,the conspirators meanwhilehaving taken refuge in theCapitol. Public sentiment wasagainst them. Many of Caesar'sold soldiers were in the city, andmany more were flocking therefrom all directions The funeral

As a general Caesar wasprobably superior to all others,excepting possibly Hannibal. Hewas especially remarkable for thefertility of his resources. It hasbeen said that Napoleon taughthis enemies how to conquer him;but Caesar's enemies neverlearned how to conquer him,because he had not a mere



the face, and Marcus Brutus inthe groin. He made no further

resistance; but, wrapping hisgown over his head and thelower part of his body, he fell atthe base of POMPEY'S STATUE,which was drenched with themartyr's blood.

Marcus Brutus, 85-42 B.C.

Great tumult and commotion

from all directions. The funeraloration of Mark Antony over the

remains produced a deepimpression upon the crowd.They became so excited whenthe speaker removed the deadman's toga, and disclosed hiswounds, that, instead of allowing

the body to be carried to theCampus Martius for burial, theyraised a funeral pile in theForum, and there burned it. Thecrowd then dispersed in troops,broke into and destroyed thehouses of the conspirators.Brutus and Cassius fled from thecity for their lives, followed by theother murderers.

137

because he had not a meresystem of tactics, but a new

stratagem for every emergency.He was, however, not only agreat general, but a pre-eminentstatesman, and second only toCicero in eloquence. As ahistorian, he wrote in a style that

was clear, vigorous, and alsosimple. Most of his writings arelost; but of those that remainCicero said that fools might try toimprove on them, but no wiseman would attempt it.

CHAPTER XXXV THESECONDTRIUMVIRATE—

PHILIPPI AND ACTIUM

Caesar in his will had appointed

sagacious, without passion oraffection, and showed himself amatch for all his opponents. Hisarrival at Rome was disagreeableto Antony, who was unwilling tosurrender Caesar's property. Heclaimed that he had alreadyexpended it for public purposes.Octavius at once paid the deadDictator's legacies mostly out of

finding it for his interest, hedeserted the Senate, madefriends with Antony, and with himand Lepidus formed (27November, 43) the SECONDTRIUMVIRATE, assuming fullauthority to govern andreorganize the state, and to holdoffice for five years.



138

Caesar in his will had appointedGAIUS OCTAVIUS, the

grandson of his sister Julia, heirto three fourths of his property;and his other relatives were tohave the remaining fourth.

Young Octavius was in his

nineteenth year when Caesarwas murdered. He went at onceto Rome to claim his inheritance.Caesar's widow, Calpurnia, hadintrusted to Mark Antony all themoney in the house,—a largesum,—and had also delivered tohis care all the Dictator's writingsand memoranda.

Octavius was cool and

Dictator s legacies, mostly out ofhis own fortune, thus making

himself very popular among thepeople. He then joined the partyof the Senate, and during theautumn and winter of 44 was itschief champion. He was helpedby the eloquent Cicero, who was

delivering against Antony hisfamous fourteen PHILIPPICS,—so called from their resemblanceto the great orations ofDemosthenes against Philip.

During the spring of 43 Octaviusadvanced against Antony, whowas at Mutina (Modena), anddefeated him in two battles. Hewas then appointed Consul, and,

The provinces were divided as

follows: Lepidus was to haveSpain and Gallia Narbonensis; Antony, the rest of Gaul beyondthe Alps and Gallia Cisalpína;Octavius, Sicily, Sardinia, and

Africa. A bloody prescription

followed. Among its victims wereCICERO, who was surrenderedto please Antony, 300 Senators,and 2,000 Equites.

PHILIPPI AND ACTIUM

The Triumvirs could nowconcentrate their energies upon

the East, whither BRUTUS andCASSIUS, the murderers ofCaesar, had fled. These two hadorganized in the provinces of theEast an army amounting to80,000 infantry and 20,000cavalry. They were employed inplundering various towns of AsiaMinor, and finally, in the spring of42, assembled their forces at

With Brutus fell the Republic.The absolute ascendency ofindividuals, which is monarchy,was then established.

the rebel was overcome. He fledto Asia with a few followers, butwas taken prisoner at Milétus byone of the lieutenants of Antony,and put to death.

The immediate result of Philippiwas a fresh arrangement of theRoman world among theTriumvirs. Antony preferred theEast, Octavius took Italy and

Lepidus now claimed Sicily as apart of his province, and an equalshare in the government of theRoman world with the other



42, assembled their forces atSardis preparatory to an invasion

of Europe. After marchingthrough Thrace they enteredMacedonia, and found Antonyand Octavius opposed to them atPHILIPPI, with an army of120,000 troops. There were two

battles at Philippi in November,42. In the first, Brutus defeatedOctavius; but Cassius wasdefeated by Antony, and,unaware of his colleague'svictory, committed suicide. In thesecond battle, three weeks later,Brutus was defeated by theunited armies of the Triumvirs,and, following the example ofCassius, put an end to his life.

139

Octavius tried to establish orderin Italy, but many obstacles wereto be overcome. SextusPompeius, who had escapedfrom Munda, was in command of

a strong naval force. Hecontrolled a large part of theMediterranean, and, bywaylaying the corn ships boundfor Rome, exposed the city togreat danger from famine.Octavius was obliged to raise afleet and meet this danger. Atfirst he was defeated by Pompey,but later, in 36, in the great seafight off NAULOCHUS in Sicily,

East, Octavius took Italy andSpain, and Africa fell to Lepidus.

Roman world with the otherTriumvirs. But his soldiers were

induced to desert him, and hewas obliged to surrender toOctavius. His life was spared,but he was deprived of his powerand provinces. He lived twentyyears longer (until 13), but

ceased to be a factor in publicaffairs. Having rid themselves ofall rivals, Octavius and Antonyredivided the Empire, the formertaking the West, the latter theEast.

Antony now repaired to Alexandría, and surrenderedhimself to the fascinations of thefamous Cleopátra. He assumed

sea-fight off Naulochus. Thebattle lasted a long time, and wasstill undecided, when Cleopátrahoisted sail and with her sixtyvessels hastened to leave theline. Antony at once followedher. The battle, however,continued until his remaining fleetwas destroyed, and his army,after a few days' hesitation,

the triumph of the conqueror,followed his example, and wasfound dead on her couch, in royalattire, with her two faithfulattendants also dead at her feet.

the habits and dress of anEastern monarch, and by hissenseless follies disgusted hisfriends and supporters. Heresigned himself to luxury andidleness, and finally divorcedhimself from his wife Octavia,sister of Octavius, disregardinghis good name and the wishes ofhis friends. Thus gradually he



The contest was decided by thenaval battle off Cape Actium, in

Greece, September 2, 31. Antony had collected from allparts of the East a large army, inaddition to his fleet, which wassupported by that of Cleopátra.He wished to decide the conteston land; but Cleopátra insistedthat they should fight by sea.The fleet of Octavius wascommanded by Agrippa, whohad been in command at the

y ,surrendered.

140

Octavius did not follow Antony forabout a year. He passed thewinter in Samos, sending

Agrippa to Italy with the veterans.His time was occupied in

restoring order in Greece and Asia, in raising money to satisfythe demands of his troops, and infounding new colonies. At lengthhe turned his attention to Egypt.

After capturing Pelusium, the keyof the country, he marched upon

Alexandría. Antony, despairingof success, committed suicide,expiring in the arms of Cleopátra.The queen, disdaining to adorn

g ybecame more and more

estranged from Octavius, untilfinally the rupture resulted inopen war.

Octavius as Augustus Caesar

Octavius was now sole ruler ofRome. Before returning to thecapital to celebrate his triumphs,he organized Egypt as aprovince, settled disputes in

Judaea, and arranged matters inSyria and Asia Minor. He arrivedat Rome (August 29), andenjoyed three magnificenttriumphs. The gates of the



regular Consuls, of course, wereonly too ready to follow hiswishes. Finally, he was madePontifex Maximus, the head ofthe Roman religion.

CHAPTER XXXVIAUGUSTUS (30 B.C.-14A.D.)

After enjoying his triple triumph,Octavius should, according to the

d t f th R bli h

to six hundred, and required aproperty qualification formembership. He placed himselfat its head as PRINCEPS(prince), a title which implied thatthe Emperor was the first citizen,without claiming any rights ofroyalty, thus lulling anysuspicions of the populace.



142

The Senate next conferred uponOctavius the title of AUGUSTUS;then it made him Proconsul (anofficer with the right to governprovinces), and Consul, with theprivilege of having twelve lictors,and of sitting in the curule chairbetween the two Consuls. The

precedents of the Republic, havegiven up the title ofIMPERATOR; but he allowed theSenate, which was only too gladto flatter him, to give him thatname for ten years,—a periodwhich was repeatedly renewed.

In this way he becamepermanent commander of thenational forces. Next theImperator (Emperor) causedhimself to be invested with theauthority of Censor. This

enabled him to revise the list ofSenators, and to restore to thisbody something of its ancientrespectability. By judiciouspruning he reduced the number

The Senate still decided the most

important questions. It had jurisdiction in criminal matters,and the right of ratifying newlaws. It was convened threetimes each month; viz. on the1st, 5th (or 7th), and 13th (or

15th). The Emperor voted withthe other Senators.

Bust of Augustus

Augustus was now supreme rulerin fact, if not in name. The

Senate was practically subject tohis will. The Assembliesgradually lost all voice in thegovernment, and finallydisappeared entirely. TheSenate, however, continuednominally to act until the time ofDiocletian (284 A.D.).

As Augustus had exclusivecommand of the armies, he

chose to govern as Proconsulthose provinces which requiredmilitary forces. He himselfresided at the capital, and sentdeputies (legati ) to oversee them.The other provinces, calledSenatorial, were governed byProconsuls appointed by theSenate. These were at this timeSicily, Africa, Achaia (Greece), Praetorian Guard relief

Augustus next devoted himself tothe task of conquering theterritory between the LowerRhine and Moesia, which wasoccupied by hardy mountaineerswhose resistance was likely to bestubborn. His two step-sons,Drusus and Tiberius, were incharge of this important work.They were so successful as to



Macedonia, Asia (Minor),

Hispania Ulterior, and GalliaNarbonensis.

The city government nowincluded all Italy. In this

Augustus was assisted by three

Praefects; one in charge of thecorn supplies, a second incharge of the city proper, and athird in charge of his body guardof nine thousand men, called thePRAETORIAN GUARD. ThesePraefects soon overshadowed allthe regular magistrates, andthrough them Augustus reignedsupreme.

The Roman Empire at this timeincluded all the countriesbordering on the Mediterranean,extending east to the Parthiankingdom (the Upper Euphrátes)and the Arabian Desert, south to

the Desert of Sahara, and westto the Atlantic Ocean. On thenorth the boundary wasunsettled, and subject to inroadsof barbarians. In the early part of

his reign Augustus joined to theEmpire a new province, Moesia,comprising the territory along theLower Danube, and makingnineteen in all.

acquire enough territory to form

two new provinces, Rhaetia andNoricum (15 B.C.).

Tiberius also conquered thevalley of the Save, and made itthe province of Pannonia

(Western Hungary), 10 B.C.

143

Drusus, while his brother Tiberiuswas engaged in Pannonia, madea campaign against the Germansnear the Rhine. He had nearlyfinished the conquest ofGermany from the Rhine to theElbe, when he died (9, B.C.), andwas succeeded by his brotherTiberius, who completed his

loss in making his way throughthe pass into the open plain, butwas there met by the enemy infull force, and his troops wereannihilated. In despair Varuskilled himself. Germany waspractically lost and the Rhinebecame again the Romanfrontier. This defeat caused agreat stir at Rome, and the

work.

Drusus received the cognomenof Germanicus for his conquestsin Germany. His wife was

Antonia, daughter of Mark Antony, by whom he had twosons, Germanicus and Claudius,the latter of whom wasafterwards Emperor.

Temple of Mars in the Forum of



Varus was allured from his

fortified camp (9 A.D.) into a passin the Teutoberger Forests,where he was suddenly attackedon all sides. After three days'fighting, he succeeded with great

Emperor is said to have

exclaimed in his sorrow, "Varus,Varus, give me back my legions!"In 7 A.D. Lucius Varus wasappointed governor of the newlyacquired territory in Germany.When he endeavored to subjectthese recently conqueredpeoples to the forms of the

Roman provincial government,they rose in rebellion under thelead of Arminius (Herman), apowerful chief.

Five years later (14 A.D.) Augustus died. In his lastmoments he asked his friends if

he had not played well his part inthe comedy of life.

Temple of Mars in the Forum of Augustus

Although married three times, theEmperor had but one child,JULIA (39 B.C.—14 A.D.), by hissecond wife, Scribonia. She

[Julia] was noted for her beautyand talents, but infamous for herintrigues. She was married threetimes; first, to Marcellus, hercousin; secondly, to Agrippa, bywhom she had five children; and

thirdly, to the Emperor Tiberius.She was banished on account ofher conduct, and died in want.

144

OCTAVIA, the sister of Augustus,

and had three sons, two of whomwere adopted by Augustus, butdied before him; the third wasmurdered by Tiberius.

Augustus died at the age ofseventy-six. He was frugal andcorrect in his personal habits,quick and shrewd in his dealingswith men, bold and ambitious inth ff i f t t Hi

irresponsible sovereignty heestablished. He formed hisempire for the present, to theutter ignoring of the future. Thusit would seem that the part heplayed was that of a shrewdpolitician, rather than that of awise statesman.

was noted for her beauty andaccomplishments, as well as forthe nobility of her character. Herson MARCELLUS was adoptedby his uncle, but died young (23B.C.). The famous lines of Virgilupon this promising young man(Aeneid VI. 869- 887) were readbefore the Emperor and hissister, moving them to tears, and

i i f th th



AGRIPPA (63-12), an eminentgeneral and statesman, was a

warm friend and counsellor of Augustus. At the battle of Actiumhe commanded the fleet ofOctavius. He married Julia, theonly daughter of the Emperor,

145

the affairs of state. His

greatness consisted rather in theability to abstain from abusingthe advantages presented byfortune, than in the genius whichmoulds the current of affairs tothe will. His success depended

on the temper of the people andthe peculiar circumstances of thetime. His clearest title togreatness is found in the fact thathe compelled eighty millions ofpeople to live in peace for more

than forty years, He made theworld to centre on one will, andthe horrors which mark the reignsof his successors were thelegitimate result of the

winning for the author a

munificent reward. After the death of her firsthusband, Octavia was married toMark Antony, by whom she hadtwo daughters, through whom

she was the ancestress of threeEmperors, CLAUDIUS,CALIGULA, and NERO.

however, fitted to grapple withthe tasks and difficulties ofpractical life.CHAPTER XXXVII THE

AUGUSTAN AGE

In speaking of Augustus, wemust take into account thewriters whose names have givento his its brightest lustre, and

stands first in the Augustan age.Born at Andes, near Mantua, 15October, 70, he was educated atCremona and Mediolánum. Aftercompleting his education heretired to his paternal estate. Inthe division of land among thesoldiers after the battle of Philippi(42), he was deprived of hisproperty, which was

b tl t d t hi b

In his fortunes and friends hewas a happy man. Munificentpatronage gave him amplemeans of enjoyment and leisure;and he had the friendship of allthe most accomplished men ofhi d h



146

In disposition he was childlike,innocent, and amiable,—a goodson, a faithful friend, honest, andfull of devotion to persons andideal interests. He was not,

g ,have made the AUGUSTAN AGE

a synonym for excellence inculture, art, and government.Virgil, Ovid, Horace, Livy, and ahost of others, have given hisreign a brilliancy unmatched intime, which is rather enhancedthan diminished by the fame ofCicero, Caesar, and Sallust, whopreceded, and that of Tacitus,Seneca, and others, whofollowed; for they belong to an

epoch in which Augustus standsthe central figure in all whichpertains to the arts of peace.

In literature the name of VIRGIL

subsequently restored to him by

Augustus. He lived partly atRome, partly in Campania. Hishealth was never good, and hedied in his fifty-second year (22September, 19 B.C.).

Virgil had neither original norcreative genius. Though hemainly imitated Greek poetry, hisstyle is graceful and eloquent, histone inspiring and elevating.

his day, among whom was

Horace, who entertained a strongaffection for him. His fame,which was established in hislifetime, was cherished after hisdeath as an inheritance in whichevery Roman had a share; and

his works became school-bookseven before the death of Augustus, and have continuedsuch ever since.

HORACE (65-8 B.C.) was born

at Venusia, but received hiseducation at Rome and Athens.He was present at the battle ofPhilippi (42), where he fought asTribune under Brutus. His first

perhaps nearest to moderncivilization, partly on account ofhis fresh and vivid sense of thebeauties of nature, and partlybecause his subject is love. Hisrepresentations of this passion

are graceful, and strikingly true.He also excelled other poets inthe perfect elegance of his form,especially in the character andrhythm of his verses " He spent

manner, and the latter isconstantly referring to him in hispoetry. He died (8 B.C.)childless, and left his fortune to

Augustus.

writings were his Satires. Thesehe read to his friends, and theirmerit was at once recognized.His great patron wasMAECÉNAS, who introduced himto the Emperor, and gave him a

fine country seat near Tivoli,among the Sabine Mountains.He died the same year as hispatron, and was buried besidehim at the Esquiline Gate



"Of the Latin poets he stands

rhythm of his verses. He spent

his last days in exile, banished by Augustus for some reason nowunknown. Some of his mostpleasing verses were writtenduring this period.

147

One of the most noted men ofthe Augustan age wasMAECÉNAS, the warm friendand adviser of Augustus. Hewas a constant patron of theliterature and art of his

generation. He was verywealthy, and his magnificenthouse was the centre of literarysociety in Rome, He helped bothVirgil and Horace in a substantial

him at the Esquiline Gate.

The poems of Horace give us apicture of refined and educatedlife in the Rome of his time. Theyare unsurpassed in gracefulnessand felicity of thought. Filled with

truisms, they were for centuriesread and quoted more than thoseof any other ancient writer.

OVID (43 B.C.-18 A.D.), a nativeof Sulmo, is far inferior to Virgil

and Horace as a poet, but rankshigh on account of his great giftfor narration.

Auditorium of Maecenas in Rome

The prose writers who lived atthis period were Livy, Sallust,and Nepos.

LIVY is the best of these. Hewas a native of Patavium(Padua), a man of rhetoricaltraining, who spent most of histime in Rome. The historical

value of his work cannot beoverestimated, on account of thescarcity, and in many cases theutter lack, of other historicaldocuments on the times of which

republican institutions, a man ofgreat independence of character,and a poet of no mean merit, ashis contemporaries testify.Unfortunately, none of hiswritings are preserved.

he wrote. His style is spirited,and always interesting. Hisaccuracy, however, is not to becompared with that of Caesar.Only thirty-five out of the onehundred and forty-two books that

he wrote are preserved.

NEPOS was a prolific writer, butonly a portion of one of hisworks De Viris Illustribus has

The age of Augustus is alsonoted for the architecturalimprovements in Rome.Augustus is said to have found a

The finest building outside of thecity, in the Campus Martius, wasthe PANTHEON, built by

Agrippa, and now used as aChristian church. Here areburied many distinguished men.

Near by, Augustus erected amausoleum for himself. Here toowas a theatre, built byPompey,—the first stone theatreof Rome



GAIUS ASINIUS POLLIO was astatesman and orator of markedattainments of this time. He wasstrongly attached to the old

works, De Viris Illustribus, has

come down to us; it is neitheraccurate nor interesting, and oflittle value.

SALLUST left two historicalproductions, one on the

conspiracy of Catiline, the otheron the war with Jugurtha. Hisstyle is rhetorical. He excels indelineating character, but he isoften so concise as to beobscure.

Augustus is said to have found a

city of stone, and left one ofmarble. He himself built twelvetemples, and repaired eighty-twothat had fallen into decay. TheFORUM was beautified by fivehalls of justice (Basilicae), which

were erected around its borders.The most famous of these wasthe BASILICA JULIA, begun byJulius Caesar and finished by

Augustus. Public squares wereplanned and begun north of the

great Forum, the finest of whichwas the FORUM OF TRAJAN,finished by the Emperor of thatname.

of Rome.

148

Pantheon entrance, Rome

CHAPTER XXXVIII THEJULIAN AND CLAUDIANEMPERORS

TIBERIUS (14-37 A.D.)

Rome in 7 B.C., he celebrated atriumph, and afterwards marriedJulia, the dissolute daughter of

Augustus. This marriage provedto be the ruin of Tiberius,developing everything that was

bad in his character, and makinghim jealous, suspicious, andhypocritical.

throne at the age of fifty-six. Asilent man, "all his feelings,desires, and ambitions werelocked behind an impenetrablebarrier." He is said but once tohave taken counsel with his

officers. He was a master ofdissimulation, and on thisaccount an object of dislike andsuspicion. But until his lateryears his intellect was clear and



Augustus was succeeded byTIBERIUS CLAUDIUS NEROCAESAR (born 42 B.C.), the sonof Tiberius Claudius Nero andLivia. His mother obtained adivorce from Tiberius, and

married Augustus.Tiberius had great military talent.He was a severe disciplinarian,and commanded the fullconfidence of his soldiers. As

commander in Cantabria, Armenia, Rhaetia, Dalmatia, andGermany, he conducted hiscampaigns with success, andhonor to himself. Returning to

Tiberius, 42 B.C – 37 A.D.

Augustus, not relishing thechanges in his character, senthim to Rhodes, where he livedseven years in retirement.

Through his mother's influence,however, he was recalled in 2 A.D., and was afterwardsappointed the Emperor'ssuccessor. He ascended the

years, his intellect was clear and

far-seeing, penetrating alldisguises.

149

Throughout his reign Tiberiusstrove to do his duty to theEmpire at large, and maintained

with great care the constitutionalforms which had beenestablished by Augustus. Onlytwo changes of importance weremade. First, the IMPERIALGUARD, hitherto seen in the city

only in small bodies, waspermanently encamped in fullforce close to the walls. By thiscourse the danger of riots wasmuch lessened. Secondly, the

the imperium or potestas.Tiberius stretched the applicationof this offence even to words orconduct which could in any waybe considered dangerous to theEmperor. A hateful class of

informers (delatores) sprung up,and the lives of all were renderedunsafe. The dark side of thisruler's character is madespecially prominent by ancient

another, the large circle ofrelatives of Augustus, until finallythe aged Emperor found himselfalone in the palace with Livia andher son, Tiberius. All Romeexecrated the Empress, and her

son feared and hated her. Shesurvived Augustus fifteen years,and died in 29. Tiberius refusedto visit her on her death-bed, andwas not present at her funeral

old COMITIAS were practicallyabolished. But the Senate wastreated with great deference.

Tiberius expended great care onthe provinces. His favorite

maxim was, that a goodshepherd should shear, and notflay, his sheep. Soldiers,governors, and officials of allkinds were kept in a wholesome



Tiberius was noted especially forprosecutions for MAJESTAS, onthe slightest pretext. Majestas nearly corresponds to treason;

but it is more comprehensive.One of the offences included inthe word was effecting, aiding in,or planning the death of amagistrate, or of one who had

specially prominent by ancient

historians; but their statementsare beginning to be taken withmuch allowance.

150

LIVIA, the mother of Tiberius,deserves more than a passingnotice. She exercised almost a

boundless influence on herhusband, Augustus. She hadgreat ambition, and was verycruel and unscrupulous. Shemanaged to ruin, one after

was not present at her funeral.kinds were kept in a wholesome

dread of punishment, if theyoppressed those under them.Strict economy in publicexpenses kept the taxes down.Commerce was cherished, andhis reign on the whole was one of

prosperity for the Empire.

After a reign of twenty-threeyears, Tiberius died, either in a

fainting fit or from violence, at theage of seventy-nine.

SEJÁNUS was the commanderof the Praetorian Guard ofTiberius. He was trusted fully bythe Emperor, but proved to be adeep-dyed rascal. He persuaded

Livilla, the daughter-in-law of theEmperor, to poison her husband,the heir apparent, and then hedivorced his own wife to marryher. He so maligned Agrippína,the widow of Germanicus and

daughter of Agrippa and Julia,that Tiberius banished her, withher sons Nero and Drusus. In 26he induced the Emperor to retireto the island of Capreae, and he

himself became the real masterof Rome.

Tiberius at last finding out histrue character, Sejánus wasarrested and executed in 31. His

body was dragged through thestreets, torn in pieces by themob, and thrown into the Tiber.

confiscated their property. Heseemed to revel in bloodshed,and is said to have expressed awish that the Roman people hadbut one neck, that he might slaythem all at a blow. He was

passionately fond of adulation,and often repaired to theCapitoline temple in the guise ofa god, and demanded worship.Four years of such a tyrant was

THE CLAUDIANEMPERORS

CLAUDIUS (41-54)

A strong party was now in favorof returning to a republican formof government; but while theSenate was considering thisquestion the Praetorian Guard



CALIGULA (37-41)Tiberius having left no son, theSenate recognized GaiusCaesar, son of Germanicus and

Agrippína, grandson of Julia, andgreat-grandson of Augustus, asEmperor. He is better known asCALIGULA,—a nickname givenhim by the soldiers from thebuskins he wore. He was

twenty-five years of age when hebegan to reign, of weakconstitution, and subject to fits.

After squandering his ownwealth, he killed rich citizens, and

Four years of such a tyrant was

enough. He was murdered by aTribune of his Praetorian Guard.

Caligula, 12 A.D.-41 A.D.

question, the Praetorian Guard

settled it by proclaimingCLAUDIUS Emperor.

151

Claudius was the uncle ofCaligula and the nephew ofTiberius. He was a man of

learning and good parts, but aglutton, and the slave of his twowives, who were both badwomen. His first wife,MESSALÍNA, was so notorious

that her name has becamealmost a synonym forwickedness. His second wife, hisniece AGRIPPÍNA, sister ofCaligula, was nearly as bad.

or three years he was under theinfluence of his tutor, SENECA,the author, and BURRHUS, thePraefect of the Praetorian Guard,and his government was duringthis period the most respectable

of any since the time of Augustus. His masters kept theyoung Emperor amused, andremoved from the cares of state.But he soon became infatuated

This woman had by her formerhusband, Domitius, a son, whomshe induced the Emperor toadopt under the name of NERO.The faithless wife then causedher husband to be poisoned, and

her son to be proclaimedEmperor.

noted general AGRICOLA: Itremained a Roman province forfour hundred years, but thepeople never assimilated Romancustoms, as did the Gauls, andwhen the Roman garrisons were

withdrawn, they quickly returnedto their former condition.However, many remains ofRoman buildings in the islandshow that it was for the time well



152

NERO was but sixteen years oldwhen he began to reign. For two

with an unscrupulous woman,POPPAEA SABÍNA, for whom heneglected and finally killed hiswife, Octavia.

Claudius, 10 B.C.-54 A.D.

At Rome the rule of Claudius wasmild, and on the whole beneficial.In the government of theprovinces he was rigorous andsevere. He undertook the

CONQUEST OF BRITAIN, and ina campaign of sixteen days helaid the foundation of its finalsubjugation, which occurredabout forty years later, under the

under subjection.

The public works of Claudiuswere on a grand scale. Heconstructed a new harbor at themouth of the Tiber, and built the

great aqueduct called the AQUACLAUDIA, the ruined arches ofwhich can be seen to this day.He also reclaimed for agriculturea large tract of land by drainingthe Fucine Lake.

NERO (54-68)

It would be useless to follow in

detail the crimes of Nero fromthis time. A freedman,TIGELLÍNUS, became hisadviser, and was the real ruler ofthe Empire. He encouraged hismaster in all his vices and

wickedness. Poppaea died froma kick administered by Nero inanger; Burrhus was disposed of;

Agrippína, and Britannicus, thetrue heir to the throne, were

Broad regular streets replacedthe narrow winding alleys. Thenew houses were limited inheight, built partly of hard stone,and protected by open spacesand colonnades. The water

supply was also carefullyregulated.

murdered. The wealthy wereplundered, and the feelings of hissubjects outraged in everyconceivable manner. TheEmperor appeared in public,contending first as a musician,

and afterwards in the sports ofthe circus.

The great fire of 18 July, 64,which destroyed a large part of

meadows, lakes, groves, anddistant views. In front was acolossal statue of Nero himself,one hundred and ten feet high.

Conspiracies having been

formed in which Seneca andLucan were implicated, both menwere ordered to take their ownlives. Nero's life after thisbecame still more infamous. In a



In rebuilding Rome, Nero tookevery precaution against therecurrence of a conflagration.

y g pthe city, was ascribed to him, butwithout sufficient evidence; andthe stories of his conduct duringthe conflagration are doubtlesspure fictions. It was necessary,however, to fix the guilt on some

one; so the CHRISTIANS, then asmall sect, made up chiefly of thepoorer people, were accused ofthe crime, and persecutedwithout mercy. They were oftenenclosed in fagots covered with

pitch, and burned alive.

Nero, 37 A.D.-69 A.D.

In addition to rebuilding the city,Nero gratified his love for themagnificent by erecting asplendid palace, called the

GOLDEN HOUSE. Its wallswere adorned with gold, preciousstones, and masterpieces of artfrom Greece. The groundsaround were marvellous in their

153

tour made in Greece, heconducted himself soscandalously that even Romanmorals were shocked, andRoman patience could endurehim no longer. The Governor of

Hither Spain, GALBA, proclaimedhimself Emperor, and marchedupon Rome. Verginius, theGovernor of Upper Germany,also lent his aid to theinsurrection. The Senate

proclaimed Nero a public enemy,and condemned him to death.He fled from the city and put anend to his life, June 9, 68, just intime to escape capture. His

LUCIUS ANNAEUS SENECA (8B.C.-65 A.D.) was born atCorduba in Spain, of a SpanishRoman family, and was educatedat Rome. His father was a

began to dislike him, and whenBurrhus died his fate was sealed.By the Emperor's command hecommitted suicide. Opening theveins in his feet and arms, hediscoursed with his friends on the

brevity of life until death ensued.

sincerely regretted by the betterelement in the city.statues were broken down, hisname everywhere erased, andhis Golden House demolished.With him ended the Claudian lineof Emperors.

Seneca is the most eminent ofthe writers of his age. He wrotemoral essays, philosophical

OTHO, the first husband ofPoppaea, and the leader in theinsurrection against Galba, was

now declared Emperor. Nosooner did the news of hisaccession reach Gaul thanVITELLIUS, a general of thearmy of the Rhine, revolted.



teacher of rhetoric, a man ofwealth and literary attainments.Seneca began to practise at thebar at Rome, and was gainingconsiderable reputation, when in41 he was banished to Corsica.

Eight years later he was recalledto be tutor of the young Nero,then eleven years old. He wasConsul in 57, and during the firstyears of Nero's reign he sharedthe administration of affairs with

the worthy Burrhus. Hisinfluence over Nero, while itlasted, was salutary, thoughoften maintained by doubtfulmeans. In course of time Nero

154

GALBA entered the city as aconqueror, without much trouble,but on account of his parsimonyand austerity he soon becameunpopular, and was murdered byhis mutinous soldiers fifteen daysafter he reached Rome. Hebelonged to an old patricianfamily, and his overthrow was

letters, physical treatises, andtragedies. Of the last, the bestare HERCULES FURENS,PHAEDRA, and MEDEA.

GALBA (68-69)—OTHO

(69)—VITELLIUS (69)

Otho marched against the rebels,was defeated, and committedsuicide after a reign of threemonths.

VITELLIUS had been a good

soldier, but as a ruler he wasweak and incapable. He waskilled after a reign of less than ayear, during which he haddistinguished himself by gluttonyand vulgar sensuality.

of Peace, public baths, and thefamous COLOSSÉUM wasbegun, receiving its name fromthe Colossus, a statue of Nero,which had stood near by.

CHAPTER XXXIX THEFLAVIAN EMPERORS

VESPASIAN (69-79).

The East now made a claim forthe Emperor and on July 1 69

simple, putting to shame theluxury and extravagance of thenobles, and causing a markedimprovement in the general toneof society. He removed from theSenate many improper members,

replacing them by able men,among whom was AGRICOLA.In 70 he put down a formidablerebellion in Gaul; and when hisson Titus returned from the



155

Much money was spent on publicworks, and in beautifying the city.

A new Forum was built, a Temple

the Emperor, and on July 1, 69,

the soldiers who were engagedin war against the revolted Jewsin Judaea proclaimed asEmperor their commander,TITUS FLAVIUSVESPASIÁNUS. He left theconduct of the war in charge ofhis son Titus, and arrived atRome in 70. Here he overthrewand put to death Vitellius. In thecourse of this struggle the Capitol

was burned. This he restored,rebuilding also a large part of thecity.

In his own life Vespasian was

capture of Jerusalem, [Note:Jerusalem was taken in 70, aftera siege of several months, thehorrors of which have beengraphically detailed by theJewish historian Joséphus, who

was present in the army of Titus.The city was destroyed, and theinhabitants sold into slavery.]they enjoyed a joint triumph. TheTemple of Janus was closed, andpeace prevailed during the

remainder of his reign.

Vespasianus, 9-79 A.D.

On the whole, Vespasian wasactive and prudent in public

affairs, frugal and virtuous inprivate life. The decade of hisreign was marked by peace andgeneral prosperity.

One of the ablest men of this age

was AGRICOLA (37-93). Born atForum Julii in Gaul, he was madeGovernor of Aquitania byVespasian in 73. Four yearslater he was Consul, and the next

year was sent to Britain, whichhe conquered, and governed withmarked ability and moderation,increasing the prosperity of thepeople and advancing theircivilization. He remained in

Britain until 85, when he wasrecalled. His life was written byhis son-in-law, the historianTacitus.

which can still be seen.

Titus Vespasianus, 39-81 A.D.

It was during this reign that

DOMITIAN (81-96)

DOMITIAN was the opposite ofhis brother Titus,—cruel,passionate, and extravagant. He

was murdered after a reign offifteen years, during which heearned the hatred and contemptof his subjects by his crimes andinconsistencies.



TITUS (79-81)

Vespasian was succeeded by hisson TITUS, who emulated thevirtues of his father. He finishedthe Colosséum, begun byVespasian, and built a triumphalarch to commemorate hisvictories over the Jews. Thisarch, called the ARCH OF

TITUS, was built on the highestpart of the Via Sacra, and on itswalls was carved arepresentation of the sacredcandlestick of the Jewish temple,

It was during this reign that

HERCULANEUM and POMPEIIwere destroyed by an eruption ofVesuvius. In this eruptionperished PLINY THE ELDER, themost noted writer of his day. His

work on Natural History , the onlyone of his writings that ispreserved, shows that he was atrue student. His passion forinvestigation led him to approachtoo near the volcano, and caused

his death.

In his foreign policy Domitianshowed considerable ability. Headded to the Empire that part ofGermany which corresponds tomodern Baden and Wirtemberg,

and built a line of fortificationsfrom Mentz on the Rhine toRatisbon on the Danube.

With him ended the line of theFLAVIAN EMPERORS, and he

was also the last of the so calledTWELVE CAESARS, a namegiven them by the historianSuetonius.

156

TRAJAN, whose character hasits surest guaranty in the loveand veneration of his subjects;and it is said that, longafterwards, the highest praisethat could be bestowed on a ruler

was that he was "more fortunatethan Augustus, and better thanTrajan." Trajan was a soldier,and, if he lacked the refinementsof a peaceful life, he was

th l i d fi

CHAPTER XL THE FIVEGOOD EMPERORS

NERVA (96-98).

NERVA was appointed by theSenate to succeed Domitian and

Trajan also annexed to theEmpire Arabia Petraea, whichafforded an important routebetween Egypt and Syria. Hisinvasion of Parthia, however,resulted in no permanent

advantage.



Nerva was succeeded by

nevertheless a wise and firmmaster.

157

Senate to succeed Domitian, and

was the first Emperor who did notowe his advancement to militaryforce or influence. He associatedwith himself MARCUS ULPIUSTRAJANUS, then in command ofthe army on the Rhine. Nervaruled only sixteen months; butduring that time he restoredtranquillity among the people,conferring happiness andprosperity upon every class.

TRAJAN (98-117).

He added to the Empire Dacia,the country included between theDanube and the Theiss, the

Carpathians and the Pruth. Thisterritory became so thoroughlyRomanized that the language ofits inhabitants to-day is foundedon that of their conquerors nearlyeighteen centuries ago. It was in

honor of this campaign into Daciathat the famous COLUMN OFTRAJAN, which still remains,was erected.

Trajan’s Column in Forum ofTrajan

During the reign of Trajan theRoman Empire REACHED THESUMMIT OF ITS POWER; butthe first signs of decay werebeginning to be seen in the

financial distress of all Italy, andthe decline of the free peasantry,until in the next century theywere reduced to a condition ofpractical serfdom.

Caledonians and built a fortifiedline of works, known as thePICTS' WALL, extending fromsea to sea. The remains of thisgreat work are still to be seen,corresponding nearly to the

modern boundary betweenEngland and Scotland. He alsovisited the East, where the Jewswere making serious trouble, andcompleted their overthrow.

Trajan, 53-117 A.D.

The literature of Trajan's reignwas second only to that of the

HADRIAN (117-138)

Trajan was succeeded by hiscousin's son, HADRIAN, a nativeof Spain. One of the first acts of

Hadrian was to relinquish therecent conquests of Trajan, andto restore the old boundaries ofthe Empire. The reasons for thiswere that they had reached thet t li it hi h ld l d



158

Hadrian displayed constant

activity in travelling over theEmpire, to overlook personally itsadministration and protection.He visited Britain, where hecrushed the inroads of the

was second only to that of the

Augustan age. His time hasoften been called the SILVER

AGE. Its prose writers were,however, unlike those of the

Augustan age, far superior to its

poets. The most famous prosewriters were TACITUS, PLINYTHE YOUNGER, andQUINTILIAN.

The poets of this period were

JUVENAL, PERSIUS, MARTIAL,LUCAN, and STATIUS, of whomthe last two were of an inferiororder.

utmost limits which could lendstrength to the power of Rome,or be held in subjection withoutconstant and expensive militaryoperations. The peopleoccupying the new conquests

were hardy and warlike,scattered over a country easy ofdefence, and certain to striveconstantly against a foreign yoke.

On his return to the city, theEmperor devoted himself to itsadornment. Several of his works,more or less complete, stillremain. The most famous of

these is the MAUSOLÉUM(Tomb) OF HADRIAN, nowknown as the Castle of San

Angelo.

Hadrian was afflicted with bad

health, suffering much fromdiseases from which he couldfind no relief. On account of this,and to secure a propersuccession, he associated with

account of the affectionaterespect which he had shown forHadrian. He was a man of nobleappearance, firm and prudent,and under him the affairs of statemoved smoothly.

himself in the government TITUS AURELIUS ANTONÍNUS, andrequired him to adopt Marcus

Annius Verus and Lucius Verus.In 138, soon after thisarrangement was made, Hadrian

died, leaving the Empire to Titus.

MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONÍNUS (161-180)

brought with it a pestilence,which spread devastationthroughout the West. TheChristians were charged withbeing the cause of the plague,and were cruelly persecuted.

Among the victims were JustinMartyr at Rome, and Polycarp atSmyrna.

The death of Lucius Verus in 168released Aurelius from a



ANTONÍNUS, a native of Gaul,was fifty-two years old when hesucceeded to the throne. Thecognomen PIUS was conferredupon him by the Senate on

159

Castel Sant’Angelo, Hadrian’sMausoleum

TITUS AURELIUS ANTONÍNUS PIUS (138- 161)

On the death of Antonínus,Marcus Annius Verus succeededhim under the title of Marcus

Aurelius Antonínus.

The Moors made an invasion intoSpain; the barbarians broke intoGaul; the army in Britainattempted to set up anotherEmperor; and the Parthians inthe East were in an uneasy state.

The Eastern war, however,ended favorably, and theParthian king purchased peaceby ceding Mesopotamia toRome. But the returning army

released Aurelius from acolleague who attracted attentiononly by his unfitness for hisposition. The Emperor was thusrelieved of embarrassmentswhich might well have become

his greatest danger. Theremainder of his reign, however,was scarcely less unhappy.

The dangers from thetroublesome barbarians grew

greater and greater. Rome hadnow passed the age of conquest,and began to show inability evento defend what she had acquired.For fourteen years Aurelius was

began rapidly to wane.engaged on the frontiers fightingthese barbarians, andendeavoring to check theiradvance. He died at Viennawhile thus occupied, in the fifty-ninth year of his life (180).

Peace was shortly afterwardsmade with the barbarians, apeace bought with money; anexample often followed in latertimes when Rome lacked the

Marcus Aurelius, 121-180 A.D.

of adoration. The Christians notonly refused homage to theRoman gods, but denounced theburning of incense assacrilegious. AURELIUS gavehis sanction to the most general

persecution this sect had yetsuffered. The last combinedeffort to suppress them wasunder DIOCLETIAN, in 284, but itended with the EDICT OF MILANin 312 which famous decree



Marcus Aurelius was thePHILOSOPHER of the Empire.

His tastes were quiet; he wasunassuming, and intent on thegood of the people. His faultswere amiable weaknesses; hisvirtues, those of a hero. HisMeditations have made him

known as an author of fine tastesand thoughts. With him endedthe line of the GOODEMPERORS. After his death,Rome's prosperity and power

times, when Rome lacked thestrength and courage to enforceher wishes by force of arms.

160

THE CHRISTIANS

The CHRISTIANS, who weregradually increasing in numbers,

were persecuted at differenttimes throughout the Empire.One ground for thesepersecutions was that it was acrime against the state to refuseto worship the gods of theRomans under whom the Empirehad flourished. It was also thecustom to burn incense in front ofthe Emperor's statue, as an act

in 312, which famous decreegave the imperial license to thereligion of Christ.

CHAPTER XLI PERIODOF MILITARYDESPOTISM—DECLINEOF THE EMPIRE

COMMODUS (180-192)

proudest boasts were of histriumphs in the amphitheatre,and of his ability to kill a hundredlions with as many arrows. Aftera reign of twelve years hisservants rid the Empire of his

presence.

PERTINAX (192-193)

crown to the highest bidder, whoproved to be DIDIUS JULIÁNUS,a wealthy Senator. He paidabout a thousand dollars to eachsoldier of the Guard, twelvethousand in number. After

enjoying the costly honor twomonths he was deposed andexecuted.

In the mean time several soldiershad been declared Emperor by



161

On the death of Aurelius, his son,Commodus, hastened to Rome,and was received by both theSenate and army withoutopposition. His character was

the opposite of that of his goodfather. In ferocity andvindictiveness he was almostunequalled, even among theEmperors of unhappy Rome. Bymeans of informers, who were

well paid, he rid himself of thebest members of the Senate. Hisgovernment became so corrupt,he himself so notorious in crime,that he was unendurable. His

PERTINAX, the Praefect of thecity, an old and experiencedSenator, followed Commodus.His reign of three months waswell meant, but as it was notsupported by the military it was ofno effect. His attempted reformswere stopped by his murder.

JULIANUS (193).—

SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS(193-211)

The Praetorians now offered the

had been declared Emperor bytheir respective armies. Amongthem was SEPTIMIUSSEVÉRUS, an African, belongingto the army of the Danube.

Sevérus was an able soldier. Hedisarmed the Praetorians,banished them from Rome, andfilled their place with fiftythousand legionaries, who actedas his body guard. The person

whom he placed in command ofthis guard was made to rank nextto himself, with legislative,

judicial, and financial powers.The Senate he reduced to a

nonentity.

After securing the capital,Sevérus carried on a campaignagainst the Parthians, and wasvictorious over the rulers of

Mesopotamia and Arabia. In 203he erected, in commemoration ofthese victories, a magnificentarch, which still stands at thehead of the Forum. He died atEboracum (York) in Britain while

CARACALLA,MACRINUS, ANDHELIOGABALUS

Sevérus left two sons, both ofwhom he had associated withhimself in the government. Nosooner was he dead than theyquarrelled, and the elder,CARACALLA, murdered the

predecessors. The Praetoriansrevolted and murdered him.

FROM ALEXANDER

SEVERUS TO THE AGEOF THE THIRTYTYRANTS (222-268)

ALEXANDER SEVÉRUS was a



Eboracum (York), in Britain, whilemaking preparations for acampaign against theCaledonians.

Septimius Severus, 145-211 A.D.

other with his own hand in thepresence of their mother.

Caracalla was blood-thirsty andcruel. After a short reign (211-216) he was murdered by one of

his soldiers. By him were begunthe famous baths which bore hisname, and of which extensiveremains still exist. Caracalla wassucceeded by MACRÍNUS, who

reigned but one year, and wasfollowed by HELIOGABALUS(218-222), a priest of the sun, atrue Oriental, with but few virtues.His end was like that of his

good man, and well educated.But he endeavored in vain tocheck the decline of the state.The military had become allpowerful, and he could effectnothing against it. During his

reign (222-235), the famousbaths begun by Caracalla werefinished.

Sevérus was killed in a mutinyled by MAXIMIN, who wasEmperor for three years (235-238), and was then murdered byhis mutinous soldiers.

162

GORDIAN, his successor (238-244), was also slain by his ownsoldiers in his camp on theEuphrates, and PHILIP (244-249)and DECIUS (249- 251) both fellin battle. Under Decius was

begun a persecution of theChristians severer than any thatpreceded it.

The next seventeen years (251-268) is a period of great

ruled and revived somewhat theshattered strength of thegovernment: CLAUDIUS (268-270); AURELIAN (270-275);TACITUS (275-276); PROBUS(276-282); and CARUS (282-

283). Aurelian undertook acampaign against the famousZENOBIA, Queen of PALMÝRA.In her he found a worthy foe, onewhose political ability wasrendered more brilliant by her

Aurelian, 214-275 A.D.

DIOCLETIAN (284-305)



268) is a period of greatconfusion. Several generals indifferent provinces were declaredEmperor. The Empire nearly fellto pieces, but finally ralliedwithout loss of territory. Its

weakness, however, wasapparent to all. This period isoften called the AGE OF THETHIRTY TYRANTS.

FIVE GOOD EMPERORS(268-283)

FIVE GOOD EMPERORS now

rendered more brilliant by her justice and courage. Defeated inthe field, she fortified herself inPalmýra, which was taken after asiege and destroyed. Zenobiawas carried to Rome, where she

graced the triumph of herconqueror, but was afterwardspermitted to live in retirement.

Aurelian was the first who builtthe walls of Rome in their presentposition.

163

With this ruler, the last vestige ofthe old republican form ofgovernment at Rome disappears.Old Rome was dead. HerSenate had lost the last remnant

of its respectability. Seeing thenecessity of a more unitedcountry and a firmer rule,DIOCLETIAN associated withhimself MAXIMIAN, a gigantic

soldier, who signalized hisaccession by subduing adangerous revolt in Gaul. Healso appointed two officers,GALERIUS and CONSTANTIUS,

(306-337).

Constantine determined to buildfor his Empire a new capital,which should be worthy of him.He selected the site of

BYZANTIUM as offering thegreatest advantages; for, beingdefended on three sides by thesea and the Golden Horn, itcould easily be made almostimpregnable, while as a seaport

thirty years, in his sixty-fourthyear (337).whom he called CAESARS,—one to have charge of the East,and the other of the West. Bymeans of these assistants hecrushed all revolts, strengthenedthe waning power of the Empire,

and imposed peace and goodorder upon the world.

Diocletian and Maximianafterwards resigned, and allowedtheir two Caesars to assume the



CONSTANTINE THE GREAT

164

p eg ab e, e as a seapoits advantages were unrivalled,—a feature not in the least sharedby Rome. The project wasentered upon with energy; thecity was built, and named

CONSTANTINOPLE. To peopleit, the seat of government waspermanently removed thither,and every inducement wasoffered to immigration. Thus wasborn the GREEK EMPIRE,

destined to drag out a miserableexistence for nearly a thousandyears after Rome had fallen aprey to the barbarians. Itsfounder died, after a reign of

e o Caesa s o assu e erank of AUGUSTI, and they intheir turn appointed Caesars asassistants.

Soon after his accession

Constantius died, and his sonCONSTANTINE was proclaimedCaesar, against the wishes ofGalerius. A bitter strugglefollowed, in which Constantinefinally overcame all his

opponents, and was declaredsole Emperor. For his successeshe was named the GREAT.

Constantine the Great, 272-337 A.D.

Constantine is entitled to greatcredit for the uniform kindnesswith which he treated his

Christian subjects. It is said thathis mother, HELENA, was aChristian, and that it was to herinfluence that this mildness wasdue. The sect, notwithstandingmany persecutions, had kept on

increasing, until now we findthem a numerous and quiteinfluential body. It was during hisreign that the DECREE OFMILAN was issued, in 313, giving

attempted to restore the oldreligion, and thus gained forhimself the epithet of

APOSTATE. The Christians,however, had too firm a hold onthe state to admit of their powers

being shaken. The failure ofJulian precluded any similarattempt afterward. After a reignof three years, he was killed in anexpedition against the Persians.His successor, JOVIAN (363-

the imperial license to the religionof Christ; and also in this reignthe famous COUNCIL OF NICE,in Bithynia (325), met to settlequestions of creed.

In person Constantine was talland majestic: he was dexterousin all warlike accomplishments;intrepid in war, affable in peace;patient and prudent in council,bold and unhesitating in action.

DECLINE OF THEEMPIRE

Constantine was succeeded byhis three sons, CONSTANTINE

II., CONSTANTIUS, andCONSTANS, who divided theEmpire among themselves (337-353). Constantine and Constansalmost at once quarrelled over



165

JULIAN was a good soldier, anda man calculated to win the loveand respect of all. But he

, (364), who was chosen by thearmy, died after a reign of onlyseven months.

g Ambition alone led him to attackthe East; and the very madnessof jealousy marked his courseafter his success. He was filial inhis affection towards his mother;

but he can scarcely be calledaffectionate who put to death hisfather-in-law, his brother-in-law,his wife, and his son. If he wasgreat in his virtues, in his faultshe was contemptible.

the possession of Italy, and thedifficulty was ended only by thedeath of the former. The othertwo brothers lived in harmony forsome time, because the Persianwar in the East occupied

Constantius, while Constans wassatisfied with a life of indolenceand dissipation. Constans wasmurdered in 350, and his brotherwas sole Emperor. He died tenyears later, and was succeeded

by his cousin, Julian (360- 363)

VALENTINIAN andVALENS (364-375)

After a brief interregnum, thethrone was bestowed on

Valentinian, who associated withhimself his brother Valens. TheEmpire was divided. Valens tookthe East, with Constantinople ashis capital. Valentinian took the

West, making MILAN the seat ofhis government. So completelyhad Rome fallen from her ancientposition, that it is very doubtful ifthis monarch ever visited the cityduring his reign. [Note: Since the

building of Constantinople noEmperor had lived in Rome. Shehad ceased to be mistress evenof the West, and rapidly fell to therank of a provincial city.] He diedduring a campaign on the

and EUGENIUS (392-394), wereeither deposed or assassinated,and again there was, for a shorttime, one ruler of the wholeEmpire, THEODOSIUS, whomGratian had made Emperor of

the East. He was sole Emperorfor one year (394-395). On hisdeath his two sons divided theEmpire, HONORIUS (395-423)taking the West, and Arcadiusthe East.

barbarians were driven from thefrontiers on the Rhine and inBritain; a revolt in Africa wassuppressed. Honorius himselfwas weak and jealous. He didnot hesitate to murder Stilicho as

soon as he was old enough tosee the power he was wielding.With Stilicho's death his fortunedeparted. Rome was besieged,captured, and sacked by thebarbarian ALARIC, in 410. When



g p gDanube. His son GRATIAN(375-383) succeeded him. Hediscouraged Paganism, andunder him Christianity maderapid strides. His uncle Valens

was slain in a battle against theGoths; but so completely werethe Eastern and WesternEmpires now separated, thatGratian did not attempt to makehimself sole ruler, but appointed

THEODOSIUS to the emptythrone. Gratian, like so many ofhis predecessors, was murdered.His successors, MAXIMUS (383-388), VALENTINIAN II (388-392),

166

Honorius was only six years old

when he began to reign. He wasplaced under the care of aVandal named STILICHO, towhom he was allied by marriage.Stilicho was a man of ability. The

this evil was past, numerouscontestants arose in differentparts of the Empire, each eagerfor a portion of the fabric whichwas now so obviously crumbling

to pieces.

Honorius, 384-423 A.D.

Honorius was succeeded, afterone of the longest reigns of theimperial line, by VALENTINIANIII. (423-455). The Empire was

but a relic of its former self.Gaul, Spain, and Britain werepractically lost; Illyria andPannonia were in the hands ofthe Goths; and Africa was soon

after seized by the barbarians.Valentinian was fortunate in thepossession of AETIUS, aScythian by birth, who for a timeupheld the Roman name,winning for himself the title of

LAST OF THE ROMANS. Hewas assassinated by hisungrateful master. A few monthslater, in 455, the Emperor himselfwas killed by a Senator,MAXIMUS, who succeeded him,

After his death, Ricimer ruledunder the title of PATRICIAN,until the people demanded anEmperor, and he appointed

ANTHEMIUS (467-472), who

attempted to strengthen hisposition by marrying a daughterof Ricimer; but jealousy soonsprang up between them.Ricimer invited a horde ofbarbarians from across the Alps,



but for only three months, when AVÍTUS (455-456), a noble ofGaul, became Emperor. He wasdeposed by RICIMER (457-467),a Sueve, of considerable ability,

who for some time managed theaffairs of the Empire, making andunmaking its monarchs atpleasure. After the removal of

Avítus, ten months were allowedto elapse before a successor was

appointed; and then the crownwas bestowed upon MAJORIAN(457-461). SEVÉRUS followedhim, a man too weak to interferewith the plans of Ricimer.

167

with whom he captured andsacked Rome, and killed

Anthemius. Shortly after,Ricimer himself died.

Names which appear only asnames now follow each other inrapid succession. Finally, in 476,ZENO, Emperor of the East,declared the office of EMPEROROF THE WEST abolished, and

gave the government of theDIOCESE OF ITALY toODOÁCER, with the title ofPatrician.

CHAPTER XLIIINVASIONS ANDDISTRIBUTION OF THEBARBARIANS

The sieges and captures ofRome by the Barbarians wepresent in a separate chapter,

westward, their march wasirresistible. In 395 they met anddefeated the GOTHS, a powerfultribe that lived to the north of theDanube, and who were ruled bya king named Hermanric.

The Gothic nation consisted oftwo branches, theOSTROGOTHS, Eastern Goths,and the VISIGOTHS, WesternGoths, Of these the Ostrogoths

Subsequently a remnant of theOstrogoths arrived at theDanube, also desiring to cross.To them permission was refused,but they seized shipping and

crossed, despite the prohibitionof the Romans. They found thecondition of their brethren, theVisigoths, so sad, that theyunited with them in open revolt,defeated a Roman army sent



168

instead of in the narrative of theEmperors, because by this plan abetter idea of the operations canbe given; and especially becausewe can thus obtain a clearer and

more comprehensive conceptionof the rise of the nations, which,tearing in pieces the RomanEmpire, have made up ModernEurope.

The HUNS, who originated themovement which overthrew theWestern Empire, came, it issupposed, from the eastern partof Asia. As they moved

were the more powerful, but onthe approach of the Huns theywere obliged to submit. TheHuns moved on, and found butlittle trouble in overrunning the

country of the Visigoths, whowere so terrified by the hideousappearance and wild shouts ofthe Huns that they fled to theDanube, and besought theRomans to allow them to cross

the river and take refuge in theirterritory. The favor was granted,but the refugees were treatedwith indignity, and compelled toundergo every privation.

against them, and ravagedThrace. The Emperor Valenstook the field in person, and wasdefeated (378). The Goths thenmoved southward and westward

into Greece, everywhere pillagingthe country.

When Theodosius becameEmperor, he acted cautiously,fortifying strong points from

which to watch the enemy andselect a favorable moment for anattack. At length he surprisedtheir camp and gained acomplete victory. The Goths

Theodosius was succeeded by Arcadius, and before the end ofthe year the Goths broke into

sincere the barbarian was in hisoffers of peace may be seenfrom the fact that in two years heinvaded Italy (400).

Honorius, who was then Emperor

of the West, was a man so weakthat even the genius of Stilichocould not save him. No soonerdid he hear of the approach of

Alaric, than he hastened to aplace of safety for himself,

the fleetness of his horse.Honorius returned home (404),and enjoyed a triumph.

were taken into the service of theEmpire, and the first chapter ofthe barbarian invasion of theEmpire was brought to a close.

We now meet two of the great

names connected with the fall ofRome, ALARIC and STILICHO.

Rome had scarcely time tocongratulate herself upon her

escape from the Goths, whenshe was threatened by a newenemy.

[Illustration on next page: LateRoman Empire and Barbarian



open revolt under their leader, Alaric. Athens was compelled topay a ransom; Corinth, Argos,and Sparta were taken andplundered. No place was strong

enough to offer effectualresistance. At this juncture,Stilicho, General of the WesternEmpire, hastened to the scene,and succeeded in surroundingthe Goths, but Alaric burst

through his lines and escaped.He then made peace withConstantinople, and the office ofMaster-General of Illyricum wasbestowed upon him. How

169

leaving Stilicho to defend Rome.Troops were called from Britain,Gaul, and the other provinces farand near, leaving their placesvacant and defenceless.

Honorius, who had attempted toescape to Gaul, was surprised by Alaric, and, taking refuge in thefortified town of Asta, was therebesieged until the arrival of thebrave Stilicho, who attacked the

besiegers, and after a bloodyfight utterly routed them. In hisretreat, Alaric attempted to attackVerona, but he was againdefeated, and escaped only by

Invasions/Kingdoms, 285-451.]



170

the northwest of Spain, but metthe same fate as the Alans. TheVandals occupied the southernpart, and from there crossed overto Africa, where they maintainedthemselves for nearly a century,

and at one time were powerfulenough, as we shall see, tocapture Rome itself.

a lapse of eight centuriesbecame the second time a preyto the barbarians (24 August,410).

The Huns, pushing westward,had dislodged the northern tribesof Germany who dwelt on theBaltic. These were the Alans,Sueves, Vandals, andBurgundians. Under the

leadership of RADAGAISUS,these tribes invaded Italy withabout two hundred thousandmen. They were met nearFlorence by Stilicho, and totallydefeated (406). Radagaisus

Rome was now for a timedelivered from her enemies, and

The city was plundered for five

days, and then Alaric withdrew toravage the surrounding country.But the days of this great leaderwere almost spent. Before theend of the year he died, andshortly after his army marched



The Alans, Sueves, and Vandalspushed on into Spain, where they

established kingdoms. The Alans occupied the country at thefoot of the Pyrenees, but weresoon after subdued by theVisigoths. The Sueves settled in

171

With Stilicho Rome fell. Scarcelytwo months after his death, Alaricagain appeared before Rome.He sought to starve the city intosubmission. Famine and

pestilence raged within its walls.Finally peace was purchased bya large ransom, and Alaricwithdrew, but soon returned.The city was betrayed, and after

himself was killed. The survivorsturned backward, burst into Gaul,ravaged the lower portion of thecountry, and finally separated.One portion, the Burgundians,

remained on the frontier, andfrom their descendants comesthe name of Burgundy.

the Emperor, no longer needingStilicho, was easily persuadedthat he was plotting for thethrone. He was put to death,with many of his friends.

into France, where theyestablished a kingdom reachingfrom the Loire and the Rhone tothe Straits of Gibraltar.

The GERMANS, under their king,CLODION, prompted by theexample of the Burgundians andVisigoths, began, about 425, aseries of attempts to enlarge theirboundaries. They succeeded in

establishing themselves firmly inall the country from the Rhine tothe Somme, and under the nameof FRANKS founded the presentFrench nation in France (447).

and Eastern Empires; but theprospect of an ally in Gaul, withan opportunity of afterwardsattacking Italy from the west, wastoo favorable to be neglected.

captured, and rased to theground Aquileia. He thenscoured the whole country,sparing only those whopreserved their lives by thesurrender of their wealth.

Clodion left two sons, whoquarrelled over the succession.The elder appealed to the Hunsfor support, the younger toRome.

The Huns at this time were ruledby ATTILA, "the Scourge ofGod." The portrait of this monsteris thus painted. His featuresbore the mark of his Eastern

i i H h d l h d

A march of six hundred milesbrought the Huns to the Rhine.Crossing this, they continuedtheir progress, sacking andburning whatever cities lay intheir route.

It was to this invasion thatVENICE owed its rise. Theinhabitants, who fled from theapproach of the Huns, found onthe islands in the lagoons at the

h d f th Ad i ti h b f



At the time he received from theson of Clodion the invitation tointerfere in the affairs of Gaul,

Attila was already contemplatingan invasion of both the Western

172

The Visigoths under Theodoric, joining the Romans under Aetius,met the Huns near Orleans.

Attila retreated towards Chalons,

where, in 451, was fought a greatbattle, which saved thecivilization of Western Europe.

Attila began the attack. He wasbravely met by the Romans; anda charge of the Visigoths

completed the discomfiture of thesavages. Aetius did not push hisvictory, but allowed the Huns toretreat in the direction of Italy.The "Scourge" first attacked,

origin. He had a large head, aswarthy complexion, small deep-seated eyes, a flat nose, a fewhairs in the place of a beard,broad shoulders, and a short

square body, of nervous strengththough disproportioned form.This man wielded at will, it issaid, an army of over half amillion troops.

head of the Adriatic a harbor ofsafety.

Venice’s main square and town

hall, St. Mark’s Square and theDoge’s Palace, from above

The Venetian Lagoon in which

Venice was established

(455), had forcibly marriedEudoxia, the widow of theprevious Emperor, Valentinian,whom he had killed. She inrevenge sent to Genseric asecret message to attack Rome.

He at once set sail for the mouthof the Tiber. The capital wasdelivered into his hands on hispromise to spare the property ofthe Church (June, 455), and forfourteen days the Vandals

d it t l G i



Venice was established

Attila died shortly after (453) fromthe bursting of a blood-vessel,and with his death the empire ofthe Huns ceased to exist. The

VANDALS, we have seen, hadestablished themselves in Africa.They were now ruled byGENSERIC. Carthage was theirhead-quarters, and they werecontinually ravaging the coasts of

the Mediterranean with theirfleets.

Maximus, Emperor of Rome

ravaged it at pleasure. Gensericthen left Rome, taking with himEudoxia.

173

This was the last sack of the city

by barbarians. But twenty-oneyears elapsed before the RomanEmpire came to an end (476).

CHAPTER XLIII ROMANLITERATURE

PLAUTUS (254-184)

PLAUTUS, the comic poet, wasone of the earliest of Roman

riters Born at Sarsina in

TERENCE (195-159)

TERENCE was a native ofCarthage. He was brought toRome at an early age as a slave

of the Senator Terentius, bywhom he was educated andliberated. Six of his comediesare preserved. Like the plays ofPlautus, they are freetranslations from the Greek, and

of the same general character

CICERO (106-43)

MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO, anative of Arpínum, ranks as thefirst prose writer in Roman

literature. As an orator Cicerohad a very happy natural talent.The extreme versatility of hismind, his lively imagination, hisgreat sensitiveness, hisinexhaustible richness of

e pression hich as ne er at a



writers. Born at Sarsina inUmbria, of free parentage, he atfirst worked on the stage atRome, but lost his savings inspeculation. Then for some timehe worked in a treadmill, but

finally gained a living bytranslating Greek comedies intoLatin. Twenty of his plays havecome down to us. They arelively, graphic, and full of fun,depicting a mixture of Greek andRoman life.

of the same general character.

ENNIUS (139-69)

QUINTUS ENNIUS, a native ofRudiae, was taken to Rome byCato the Younger. Here hesupported himself by teachingGreek. His epic poem, the

Annàles, relates the traditional

Roman history, from the arrival of Aenéas to the poet's own day.

174

expression, which was never at aloss for a word or tone to suit anycircumstances or mood, hisfelicitous memory, his splendidvoice and impressive figure, all

contributed to render him apowerful speaker. He himself leftnothing undone to attainperfection. Not until he hadspent a long time in laboriousstudy and preparation did he

make his début as an orator; nordid he ever rest and think himselfperfect, but, always working,made the most carefulpreparation for every case. Each

success was to him only a stepto another still higherachievement; and by continualmeditation and study he kepthimself fully equipped for histask. Hence he succeeded, as is

universally admitted, in gaining aplace beside Demosthenes, or atall events second only to him.

There are extant fifty-sevenorations of Cicero, and fragments

of twenty more His famous

Eight hundred and sixty-four ofCicero's letters are extant, andthey furnish an inexhaustibletreasure of contemporaneoushistory.

CAESAR (100-44)

Of CAESAR'S literary works the

most important are his

NEPOS (94-24)

CORNELIUS NEPOS, a native ofNorthern Italy, was a friend ofboth Cicero and Atticus. He was

a prolific writer, but only his DeViris Illustribus is preserved. Itshows neither historical accuracynor good style.

LUCRETIUS (98 55)



His chief writings on rhetoricwere De Oratore; Brutus deClaris Oratoribus; and Orator adM. Brutum. Cicero was a lover

of philosophy, and his writings onthe subject were numerous.Those most read are DeSenectute, De Amicitia, and DeOfficiis.

175

of twenty more. His famousPhilippics against Antony causedhis proscription by the SecondTriumvirate, and his murder nearhis villa at Formiae, in December,43.

most important are hisCommentarii , containing thehistory of the first seven years ofthe Gallic war, and the history ofthe civil strife down to the

Alexandrine war. The account of

his last year in Gaul was writtenprobably by Aulus Hirtius; that ofthe Alexandrine, African, andSpanish wars, by some unknownhand. As an orator, Caesarranks next to Cicero.

LUCRETIUS (98-55)

TITUS LUCRETIUS CARUS hasleft a didactic poem, De RerumNatura. The tone of the work is

sad, and in many places bitter.

CATULLUS (87-47)

GAIUS VALERIUS CATULLUS,of Veróna, is the greatest lyricpoet of Roman literature. Onehundred and sixteen of his

poems are extant.

VIRGIL (70-19)

The great epic Roman poet wasVIRGIL. His Aenéis, in twelvebooks, gives an account of thewanderings and adventures of

Aenéas, and his struggles tofound a city in Italy. The poem

was not revised when Virgil died

HORACE (65-8)

QUINTUS HORATIUSFLACCUS left four books ofOdes, one of Epodes, two of

Satires, two of Epistles, and the Ars Poetica.

TIBULLUS (54-29)

OVID (43 B.C.—18 A.D.)

PUBLIUS OVIDIUS NASO leftthree books of Amores; one ofHeroides; the Ars Amatoria;

Remedia Amoris; theMetamorphoses (fifteen books);the Tristia; and the Fasti .

LIVY (59 B.C.—17 A.D.)



was not revised when Virgil died,and it was published contrary tohis wishes.

Besides the Aenéis, Virgil wrotethe Bucolica, ten Eclogues

imitated and partially translatedfrom the Greek poet Theocritus.The Georgica, a poem of fourbooks on agriculture in itsdifferent branches, is consideredhis most finished work, and themost perfect production ofRoman art-poetry.

ALBIUS TIBULLUS, an elegiacpoet, celebrated in exquisitelyfine poems the beauty andcruelty of his mistresses.

PROPERTIUS (49-15)

SEXTUS PROPERTIUS, a nativeof Umbria, was also an elegiac

poet, and wrote mostly on love.

TITUS LIVIUS left a history ofRome, of which thirty-five bookshave been preserved.

PHAEDRUS

176

PHAEDRUS, a writer of fables,flourished in the reign of Tiberius

(14- 37). He was originally aslave. His fables are ninety-seven in number, and are writtenin iambic verse.

SENECA (8 B.C.—65 A.D.)

For an account of this writer seethe chapter on the EmperorNero.

CURTIUS

LUCAN (39-65)

LUCAN, a nephew of Seneca,wrote an epic poem (not finished)called Pharsalia, upon the civil

war between Caesar andPompey.

PLINY THE ELDER (23-

79)

poetical talent. He wrote theThebaid , the Achilleis (unfinished), and the Silvae.

MARTIAL (42-102), wrote sharpand witty epigrams, of which

fifteen books are extant. He wasa native of Spain.

QUINTILIAN (35-95), was also anative of Spain. He was ateacher of eloquence for many

years in Rome His work On the



177

QUINTUS CURTIUS RUFUSwas a historian who lived in thereign of Claudius (50 A.D.). Hewrote a history of the exploits of

Alexander the Great.

PERSIUS (34-62)

PERSIUS, a poet of the reign ofNero, was a native of Volaterrae.He wrote six satires, which areobscure and hard to understand.

79)GAIUS PLINIUS SECUNDUS, ofNorthern Italy, was a greatscholar in history, grammar,rhetoric, and natural science. Hiswork on Natural History hascome down to us.

STATIUS, MARTIAL,

QUINTILIAN, JUVENAL

STATIUS (45-96), a native ofNaples, had considerable

years in Rome. His work On theTraining of an Orator , ispreserved.

JUVENAL (47-130), of Aquínum,was a great satirist, whodescribed and attacked bitterlythe vices of Roman society.Sixteen of his satires are still inexistence.

TACITUS (54-119)

CORNELIUS TACITUS was the

great historian of his age. Hisbirthplace is unknown. Hiswritings are interesting and of ahigh tone, but often tinged withprejudice, and hence unfair. Hewrote,—

1. A dialogue on orators. 2. Abiography of his father-in-law,

Agricola. 3. A description of thehabits of the people of Germany.4. A history of the reigns of

Galba Otho Vespasian Titus

large number of subjects, andpresenting vivid pictures of thetimes in which he lived. Theirdiction is fluent and smooth.



Galba, Otho, Vespasian, Titus,and Domitian (Historiae). 5.

Annales, a narrative of theevents of the reigns of Tiberius,Caligula, Claudius, and Nero.

PLINY THE YOUNGER(62-113)

178

Pliny the Younger was theadopted son of Pliny the Elder.He was a voluminouscorrespondent. We have ninebooks of his letters, relating to a

CHAPTER XLIV ROMANROADS—PROVINCES

The Romans were famous fortheir excellent public roads, fromthirteen to fifteen feet wide. Theroadbed was formed of fourdistinct layers, placed above the

foundation The upper layer wasmade of large polygonal blocks Copy of a Roman milestone, andi t i t

Ocriculum and Narnia, a branchwent east through Spoletium,

joining the main line at Fulsinia.It then continued through Fanum,Flaminii, and Nuceria, where itagain divided, one branch going

to Fanum Fortúnae on the Adriatic, the other to Ancóna, andfrom there along the coast toFanum Fortúnae, where the twobranches, again uniting, passedon to Ariminum through

Pisaurum From here it was



foundation. The upper layer wasmade of large polygonal blocksof the hardest stone, fitted and

joined together so as to make aneven surface. On each side ofthe road were footpaths strewn

with gravel. Stone blocks for theuse of equestrians were atregular distances, and alsomilestones telling the distancefrom Rome.

py ,ancient paving stones

There were four main publicroads:—

1. VIA APPIA, from Rome toCapua, Beneventum, Tarentum,and Brundisium.

2. VIA LATÍNA, from Rome to

Aquínum and Teánum, joiningthe Via Appia at Beneventum.

3. VIA FLAMINIA, the greatnorthern road. In Umbria, near

Pisaurum. From here it wasextended, under the name of VIA

AEMILIA, into the heart ofCisalpine Gaul, through Bononia,Mutina, Parma, and Placentia,where it crossed the Po, toMediolánum.

4. VIA AURELIA, the great coastroad, reached the west coast at

Alsium, following the shore along

through Etruria and Liguria, byGenua, as far as Forum Julii, inGaul.

179

PROVINCES

After the conquest of Italy, all theadditional Roman dominionswere divided into provinces.

Sicily was the first Romanprovince. At first Praetors wereappointed to govern theseprovinces; but afterwardspersons who had been Praetorsat Rome were appointed at the

expiration of their office, with the

his predecessor was expected toleave within thirty days.

The governor was assisted bytwo QUAESTORS, who hadcharge of the financial duties of

the government. Originally thegovernor was obliged to accountat Rome for his administration,from his own books and those ofthe Quaestors; but after 61 B.C.,he was obliged to deposit two

copies of his accounts in the two

consisted of quaestors,secretary, notary, lictors, augurs,and public criers. His authoritywas supreme in military and civilmatters, and he could not beremoved from office. But after

his term had ended, he could betried for mismanagement.

Many of the governors wererascals, and obtained by unfairmeans vast sums of money from

the provincials. One of the most



180

expiration of their office, with thetitle of PROPRAETOR. Later,the Consuls also, at the end oftheir year of office, were sent togovern provinces, with the title ofPROCONSUL. Such provinceswere called ProvinciaeConsuláres. The provinces weregenerally distributed by lot, buttheir distribution was sometimesarranged by agreement among

those entitled to them. Thetenure of office was usually ayear, but it was frequentlyprolonged. When a newgovernor arrived in the province,

copies of his accounts in the twochief cities of his province, and toforward a third to Rome.

If the governor misconductedhimself in the performance of hisofficial duties, the provincialsmight apply for redress to theSenate, and to influentialRomans who were their patrons.

The governor received no salary,but was allowed to exact certaincontributions from the people ofthe province for the support ofhimself and his retinue, which

the provincials. One of the mostnotorious of these was Verres,against whom Cicero deliveredhis Verrine orations.

At the time of the battle of Actiumthere were eighteen provinces;viz. Sicilia (227 [Note: Thefigures in parentheses indicatethe date at which the provincewas established.]), Sardinia and

Corsica (227), Hispania Citerior(205), Hispania Ulterior (205),Illyricum (167), Macedonia (146),

Africa (146), Asia (133), Achaia(146), Gallia Citerior (80), Gallia

Narbonensis (118), Cilicia (63),Syria (64), Bithynia and Pontus(63), Cyprus (55), Cyrenaica andCrete (63), Numidia (46), andMauritania (46).

Under the Emperors the followingsixteen were added: Rhoetia,Noricum, Pannonia, Moesia,Dacia, Britannia, Aegyptus,Cappadocia, Galatia, Rhodus,Lycia, Judaea, Arabia,

Mesopotamia. Armenia, andA i



p , Assyria.

181

Marius and Cicero.

CHAPTER XLV ROMANOFFICERS, ETC.

[Note: Most of the informationgiven in this chapter is scatteredin different parts of the history;but it seems well to condense itinto one chapter for readier

reference.]

Equitum, Consul, Praetor,Censor, and Curule Aedile.These officers had the right to sitin the sella curúlis, chair of state.This chair was displayed upon allpublic occasions, especially in

the circus and theatre; and it wasthe seat of the Praetor when headministered justice. In shape itwas plain, resembling a commonfolding camp-stool, with crookedlegs. It was ornamented with

ivory, and later overlaid with gold.

The magistrates were chosenonly from the patricians in theearly republic; but in course oftime the plebeians shared these

honors. The plebeianmagistrates, properly so called,were the plebeian Aediles andthe Tribúni Plebis.

All the magistrates, except the

Censor, were elected for oned ll b t th T ib



182

A person who first held a curuleoffice, and whose ancestors hadnever held one, was called anovus homo, i.e. a new man.The most famous new men were

]The magistrates of Rome were oftwo classes; the Majores, orhigher, and the Minores, orlower. The former, except the

Censor, had the Imperium; thelatter did not. To the formerclass belonged the Consuls,Praetors, and Censors, who wereall elected in the ComitiaCenturiáta. The magistrates

were also divided into two otherclasses, viz. Curule and Non-Curule. The Curule offices werethose of Dictator, Magister

y, g

The descendants of any one whohad held a curule office werenobles, and had the right to placein their halls and to carry atfuneral processions a wax maskof this ancestor, as well as of anyother deceased members of thefamily of curule rank.

,year; and all but the Tribunesand Quaestors began their termof office on January 1st. TheTribune's year began December10th; that of the Quaestor,December 5th.

The offices, except that ofTribune, formed a gradation,through which one must pass if

he desired the consulship. Theearliest age for holding eachwas, for the quaestorship,twenty-seven years; for theaedileship, thirty-seven; for the

praetorship, forty; and for theconsulship, forty-three. Nomagistrate received any salary,and only the wealthy could affordto hold office.

THE CONSULS

The two Consuls were thehighest magistrates, except when

a Dictator was appointed, andwere the chiefs of the

(fasces), to signify the power ofthe magistrate to scourgecriminals. Outside the city, thesefasces showed an axe projectingfrom each bundle, signifying thepower of the magistrate to

behead criminals."

At the expiration of his year ofoffice, the Consul was sent togovern a province for one year,and was then called the

Proconsul . He was chief in hisprovince in all military civil and

of all civil suits between Romancitizens. In the absence of bothConsuls from the city, he acted intheir place. Each Praetor wasattended by two lictors in the city,and by six outside. The Praetor

Peregrínus had charge of civilcases in which one or bothparties were aliens. The othersix Praetors presided over thepermanent criminal courts.

AEDILES



ppwere the chiefs of theadministration. Their power wasequal, and they had the rightbefore all others of summoningthe Senate and the Comitia

Centuriáta, in each of which theypresided. "When both Consulswere in the city, they usually tookturns in performing the officialduties, each acting a month; andduring this time the Consul wasalways accompanied in public bytwelve lictors, who preceded himin single file, each carrying on hisshoulders a bundle of rods

province in all military, civil, andcriminal cases.

PRAETORSThere were eight Praetors,whose duties were to administer

justice (judges). After theexpiration of their year of office,they went, as Propraetors, togovern provinces. The mostimportant Praetor was calledPraetor Urbánus. He had charge

AEDILES

183

The Aediles were four officerswho had the general

superintendence of the police ofthe city, and the care of thepublic games and buildings. Twoof the Aediles were taken fromthe plebeians, and two, calledCurule Aediles, ranked with thehigher magistrates, and might bepatricians. They were elected inthe Comitia Tributa. Theirsupervision of the public games

gave them great opportunities forgaining favor with the populace,who then, as now, delighted incircuses and contests. A smallsum was appropriated from thepublic treasury for these games;

but an Aedile usually expendedmuch from his own purse tomake the show magnificent, andthus to gain votes for the nextoffice, that of Praetor. Only thevery wealthy could afford to hold

this office.

the city's money, as directed bythe Senate. A Quaestor alwaysaccompanied every Imperator(general) in the field as hisquartermaster. The elections forQuaestors were held in the

Comitia Tribúta.

TRIBUNI PLEBIS

There were ten Tribunes, electedin the Comitia Tribúta. They

power; but Pompey restored it.The Tribunes did not possess theimperium.

CENSORS

There were two Censors, chosenfrom Ex-Consuls, and they heldoffice for eighteen months. Theywere elected once every five

years, this period being called alustrum. They ranked as higher



QUAESTORS

There were twenty Quaestors.Two were city treasurers atRome, having charge also of thearchives. The others wereassigned to the differentgovernors of the provinces, andacted as quartermasters.Through their clerks, the two cityQuaestors kept the accounts,received the taxes, and paid out

in the Comitia Tribúta. Theywere always plebeians, and theirchief power lay in their right toveto any decree of the Senate,any law of the Comitia, and any

public act of a magistrate. Theirpersons were considered sacred,and no one could hinder them inthe discharge of their officialduties under penalty of death.They called together the ComitiaTribúta, and they also hadauthority to convene the Senateand to preside over it. Sullasucceeded in restricting their

lustrum. They ranked as highermagistrates without possessingthe imperium. Their duties were:

184

(1) To take the census, i.e.

register the citizens and theiramount of property, and to fill allvacancies in the Senate. (2) Tohave a general oversight of thefinances, like our Secretary of theTreasury; to contract for theerecting of public buildings, andfor the making or repairing ofpublic roads, sewers, etc.; to letout the privilege of collecting the

taxes, for five years, to thehighest bidder.[Note: In theintervals of the censorship, theduties under (2) fell to the

Aediles. ] (3) To punish grossimmorality by removal of the

guilty parties from the Senate,the Equites, or the tribe.

DICTATOR

In cases of great danger the

MAGISTER EQUITUM

This was an officer appointed bythe Dictator, to stand next inauthority to him, and act as a sort

of Vice-Dictator.

Pontifex Maximus (high priest).Their tenure of office was for life,and they were responsible to noone in the discharge of theirduties. Their influence wasnecessarily very great.

IMPERIUM

This was a power to command

the armies, and to exercise judicial functions conferred upon



g gSenate called upon the Consulsto appoint a Dictator, who shouldpossess supreme power, butwhose tenure of office could

never exceed six months. Inlater times Dictators were notappointed, but Consuls wereinvested with the authority if itwas thought necessary. Sullaand Caesar, however, revivedthe office, but changed its tenure,the latter holding it for life.

The emperor Augustus as pontifex maximus

PONTIFICES

The priests formed a body(collegium) of fifteen members, atthe head of whom was the

j pa magistrate (Dictator, Consul, orPraetor) by a special law passedby the Comitia Curiáta. TheImperium could be exercised

only outside of the city walls( pomoerium), except by specialpermission of the Senate for thepurpose of celebrating a triumph.The one receiving the Imperium was called IMPERATOR.

185

POTESTAS

This was the power, in general,which all magistrates possessed.



186

gold, and frescoing.

CHAPTER XLVIHOUSES, CUSTOMS,INSTITUTIONS, ETC.

The private houses of theRomans were poor affairs untilafter the conquest of the East,when money began to pour into

the city. Many houses ofimmense size were then erected,

corresponded in general to ourfront hall. From it a door openedinto the ATRIUM, which was alarge room with an opening in thecentre of its roof, through whichthe rain-water was carried into a

cistern placed in the floor underthe opening. To the right and leftof the Atrium were side roomscalled the ALAE, and theTABLÍNUM was a balconyattached to it. The passages

from the Atrium to the interior ofthe house were called FAUCES

Reconstruction of the Atrium of a private Roman house

The main rooms were lighted



187

The floors were covered withstone, marble, or mosaics. The

walls were lined with marbleslabs, or frescoed, while theceilings were either bare,exposing the beams, or, in thefiner houses, covered with ivory,

,adorned with columns, paintings,statues, and costly works of art.Some of these houses are saidto have cost as much as two

million dollars.

The principal parts of a Romanhouse were the Vestibulum,Ostium, Atrium, Alae, Tablínum,Fauces, and Peristylium. TheVESTIBULUM was a courtsurrounded by the house onthree sides, and open on thefourth to the street. The OSTIUM

the house were called FAUCES.The PERISTYLIUM, towardswhich these passages ran, wasan open court surrounded bycolumns, decorated with flowersand shrubs. It was somewhatlarger than the Atrium.

The main rooms were lightedfrom above; the side roomsreceived their light from these,and not through windows looking

into the street. The windows ofrooms in upper stories were notsupplied with glass until the timeof the Empire. They were merelyopenings in the wall, coveredwith lattice-work. To heat a

room, portable stoves weregenerally used, in which charcoalwas burned. There were nochimneys, and the smoke passedout through the windows or the

openings in the roofs.

The rooms of the wealthy werefurnished with great splendor.The walls were frescoed withscenes from Greek mythology,

landscapes, etc. In thevestibules were fine sculptures,costly marble walls, and doorsornamented with gold, silver, andrare shells. There wereexpensive rugs from the East,

and, in fact, everything that couldbe obtained likely to add to the

Roman lamp

MEALS

The meals were theJENTACULUM, PRANDIUM, andCOENA. The first was ourbreakfast, though served at anearly hour, sometimes as earlyas four o'clock. It consisted ofbread cheese and dried fruits

Reconstruction of a dining roomin a private Roman house

At elaborate dinners the guests

assembled, each with his napkinand full dress of bright colors.



be obtained likely to add to theattractiveness of the room.

188

Candles were used in earlytimes, but later the wealthy usedlamps, which were made of terra-cotta or bronze. They weremostly oval, flat on the top, oftenwith figures in relief. In themwere one or more round holes to

admit the wick. They eitherrested on tables, or weresuspended by chains from theceiling.

bread, cheese, and dried fruits.The prandium was a lunchserved about noon. The coena,or dinner, served between three

and sunset, was usually of threecourses. The first courseconsisted of stimulants, eggs, orlettuce and olives; the second,which was the main course,consisted of meats, fowl, or fish,

with condiments; the third coursewas made up of fruits, nuts,sweetmeats, and cakes.

and full dress of bright colors.The shoes were removed so asnot to soil the couches. Thesecouches usually were adaptedfor three guests, who reclined,resting the head on the left hand,with the elbow supported bypillows. The Romans took thefood with their fingers. Dinnerwas served in a room called the

TRICLINIUM. In Nero's "GoldenHouse," the dining-room wasconstructed like a theatre, withshifting scenes to change withevery course.

decorations, and allconveniences for cold, warm,hot, and vapor baths. Thesebath-houses were verynumerous, and were places ofpopular resort. Attached to many

of them were rooms for exercise,with seats for spectators. Theusual time for bathing was justbefore dinner. Upon leaving thebath, it was customary to anointthe body with oil.

DRESS—BATHING

The Roman men usually woretwo garments, the TUNICA andTOGA. The former was a shortwoollen under garment with shortsleeves. To have a long tunicwith long sleeves was considereda mark of effeminacy. The tunic

was girded round the waist with abelt. The toga was peculiarly aR t d b t

shoulder by a buckle. Boys, untilabout sixteen, wore a toga with apurple hem.

The women wore a TUNIC,STOLA, and PULLA. The stola

was a loose garment, gathered inand girdled at the waist with adeep flounce extending to thefeet. The pulla was a sort ofshawl to throw over the wholefigure, and to be worn out of

doors. The ladies indulged theirfancy for ornaments as freely as



189

Bathing was popular among thewealthy. Fine buildings wereerected, with elegant

Roman garment, and none butcitizens were allowed to wear it.It was also the garment of peace,in distinction from the SAGUM,

which was worn by soldiers. Thetoga was of white wool and wasnearly semicircular, but being acumbrous garment, it becamecustomary in later times to wearit only on state occasions. Thepoor wore only the tunic, otherswore, in place of the toga, theLACERNA, which was an opencloak, fastened to the right

y ytheir purses would allow.

Foot-gear was mostly of twokinds, the CALCEUS and theSOLEAE. The former was muchlike our shoe, and was worn inthe street. The latter weresandals, strapped to the barefoot, and worn in the house. The

poor used wooden shoes.

Customary clothes of Romans:citizen, matron, curulemagistrate, emperor, general,workman, slave.



190

FESTIVALS, GAMES,ETC.

The SATURNALIA was thefestival of Saturn, to whom theinhabitants of Latium attributedthe introduction of agriculture andthe arts of civilized life. It wascelebrated near the end of

December, corresponding to ourChristmas holidays, and under

the most ancient festivals, andwas held in the Lupercal, whereRomulus and Remus were saidto have been nursed by the shewolf (lupa). The priests ofLupercus were called LUPERCI.

They formed a collegium, buttheir tenure of office is notknown. On the day of the festivalthese priests met at the Lupercal,offered sacrifice of goats, andtook a meal, with plenty of wine.

They then cut up the skins of thegoats which they had sacrificed.

Recreation of Colosseum

Gladiators were men who foughtwith swords in the amphitheatreand other places, for the

amusement of the people.These shows were first exhibitedt R i 264 B C d



191

The QUIRINALIA was celebratedon the 17th of February, whenQuirínus (Romulus) was said tohave been carried up to heaven.

the Empire lasted seven days.During its continuance no publicbusiness was transacted, the lawcourts were closed, the schools

had a holiday, and slaves wererelieved from all ordinary toil. Allclasses devoted themselves topleasure, and presents wereinterchanged among friends.

The LUPERCALIA; a festival inhonor of Lupercus, the god offertility, was celebrated on the15th of February. It was one of

With some of these they coveredparts of their bodies, and withothers, they made thongs, and,holding them in their hands, ranthrough the streets of Rome,striking with them all whom theymet, especially women, as it wasbelieved this would render themfruitful.

at Rome in 264 B.C., and wereconfined to public funerals; butafterwards gladiators were to beseen at the funerals of most men

of rank. Under the Empire thepassion for this kind ofamusement increased to such anextent, that gladiators were keptand trained in schools (ludi ) andtheir trainers were calledLanistae. The person who gavean exhibition was called anEDITOR. He published (edere),some time before the show, a list

of the combatants. In the showthe fights began with woodenswords, but at the sound of thetrumpet these were exchangedfor steel weapons. When acombatant was wounded, if the

spectators wished him spared,they held their thumbs down, butturned them up if they wantedhim killed. Gladiators who hadserved a long time, were oftendischarged and presented with a

wooden sword (rudis), Hencethey were called rudiarii .

applied to a wooden buildingerected by Caesar. Augustusbuilt one of stone in the CampusMartius, but the most celebratedamphitheatre was built byVespasian and Titus, and

dedicated in 80 A.D. It is stillstanding, though partly in ruins,covers nearly six acres, andcould seat ninety thousandpeople. The name given to it to-day is the COLOSSÉUM. The

open space in the centre wascalled the ARÉNA, and was

The THEATRE was never aspopular with the Romans as withthe Greeks. The plays of Plautusand Terence were acted ontemporary wooden stages. The

first stone theatre was built byPompey in 55 B.C., near theCampus Martius. It was a finebuilding, with a seating capacityof forty thousand. The seatswere arranged in a semicircle, as

at present, the orchestra beingreserved for the Senators and



THE AMPHITHEATRE,

THEATRE, AND CIRCUSThe AMPHITHEATRE was aplace for the exhibition ofgladiatorial shows, combats ofwild beasts, and navalengagements. Its shape wasthat of an ellipse, surrounded byseats for the spectators. Theword Amphitheatre was first

surrounded by a wall aboutfifteen feet high to protect thespectators from the wild beasts.Before the time of Caesar the

shows were held in the Forumand in the Circus.

Recreation of the CircusMaximus of ancient Rome

other distinguished persons.Then came fourteen rows ofseats for the Equites, and behindthese sat the ordinary crowd.

192

The CIRCUS MAXIMUS.between the Palatine and

Aventine Hills, was built forchariot races, boxing, and

gymnastic contests. It was animmense structure, with galleriesthree stories high, and a canalcalled Eurípus, and itaccommodated one hundred

for sacrifice. 6. Elephants andrare animals from the conqueredcountries. 7. The arms andinsignia of the leaders of theconquered enemy. 8. Theleaders themselves, with their

relatives and other captives. 9.The lictors of the Imperator insingle file, their fasces wreathedwith laurel. 10. The Imperatorhimself, in a circular chariotdrawn by four horses. He was

attired in a gold-embroideredrobe, and a flowered tunic; he

thousand spectators. In thecentre Caesar erected an obeliskone hundred and thirty-two feethigh, brought from Egypt. Theseats were arranged as in thetheatre. Six kinds of games were

celebrated: 1st, chariot racing;2d, a sham-fight between youngmen on horseback; 3d, a sham-fight between infantry andcavalry; 4th, athletic sports of allkinds; 5th, fights with wild beasts,

such as lions, boars, etc.; 6th,sea fights. Water was let into thel fl hi Th

sometimes allowed to enjoy atriumphal procession, providedhe had been Dictator, Consul, orPraetor. No one desiring atriumph ever entered the city untilthe Senate decided whether or

not he deserved one. When afavorable decision was reached,the temples were all thrownopen, garlands of flowersdecorated every shrine andimage, and incense smoked on

every altar. The Imperatorascended the triumphal car andd i h h



193

1. The Senate, headed by the

magistrates. 2. A troop oftrumpeters. 3. Carts laden withspoils, often very costly andnumerous. 4. A body of flute-players. 5. White bulls and oxen

held a laurel bough in his righthand, a sceptre in his left, andhis brow was encircled with alaurel wreath. 11. The grown up

sons and officers of theImperator. 12. The whole bodyof infantry, with spears adornedwith laurel.

canal to float ships. Thecombatants were captives, orcriminals condemned to death,who fought until one party was

killed, unless saved by thekindness of the Emperor.

A TRIUMPHAL

PROCESSION

The Imperator, when he returnedfrom a successful campaign, was

entered a city gate, where hewas met by the whole body of theSenate, headed by themagistrates.

The procession then proceededin the following order:—

The OVATION was a sort ofsmaller triumph. Thecommander entered the city onfoot, or in later times onhorseback. He was clothed in a

purple-bordered robe. His head

was crowned with laurel, and asheep (ovis) was sacrificed,instead of a bull as in the case ofa triumph.

POMOERIUM

The Pomoerium was the sacredenclosure of the city, inside of

which no person holding theImperium was allowed to enter.It did not always run parallel to

Caesar. To these names was

sometimes added another, theagnomen, given for some exploit,or to show that the person wasadopted from some other gens.Thus Scipio the elder was called

AFRICÁNUS, and all hisdescendants had the right to thename. Africánus the youngerwas adopted from the Corneliangens into the Aemilian gens;therefore he added to his other

names AEMILIÁNUS.

Th ll d l b

MARRIAGE

Intermarriage (connubium)between patricians and plebeianswas forbidden previous to 445,

and after that the offspring ofsuch marriages took the rank ofthe father. After the parties hadagreed, to marry, and theconsent of the parents orpersons in authority was given,

the marriage contract was drawnup and signed by both parties.Th ddi d th fi d



It did not always run parallel tothe city walls.

NAMES

Every man in Rome had threenames. The given name( praenomen), as Lucius, Marcus,

Gaius. The name of the gens(nomen), as Cornelius, Tullius,Julius. The name of the family(cognómen), as Scipio, Cicero,

The women were called only bythe name of their gens. Thedaughter of Scipio was called, forexample, CORNELIA, and to

distinguish her from others of theCornelian gens she was calledCornelia daughter of Scipio. Ifthere were more than onedaughter, to the name of the

eldest was added prima (first), tothat of the next, secunda (second), etc.

194

The wedding day was then fixedupon. This could not fall uponthe Kalends, Nones, or Ides ofany month, or upon any day in

May or February. The bride wasdressed in a long white robe, witha bridal veil, and shoes of abright yellow color. She wasconducted in the evening to her

future husband's home by threeboys, one of whom carried beforeher a torch, the other twosupporting her by the arm. Theywere accompanied by friends of

both parties. The groom

received the bride at the door,which she entered with distaffand spindle in hand. The keys ofthe house were then delivered toher. The day ended with a feast

given by the husband, afterwhich the bride was conducted tothe bridal couch, in the atrium,which was adorned with flowers.On the following day anotherfeast was given by the husband,

and the wife performed certainreligious rites.

Noble woman with slaves

washed, and anointed with oil

and perfumes, by slaves orundertakers. A small coin wasplaced in the mouth of the bodyto pay the ferryman (Charon) inHades, and the body was laid out

on a couch in the vestibulum,with its feet toward the door. Inearly times all funerals were heldat night; but in later times onlythe poor followed this custom,mainly because they could not

afford display. The funeral, heldthe ninth day after the death, washeaded b m sicians pla ing



The position of the Romanwoman after marriage was verydifferent from that of the Greek.

She presided over the wholehousehold, educated herchildren, watched over andpreserved the honor of thehouse, and shared the honors

and respect shown to herhusband.

FUNERALS

195

When a Roman was at the point

of death, his nearest relativepresent endeavored to catch thelast breath with his mouth. Thering was removed from the dyingperson's hand, and as soon ashe was dead his eyes and mouthwere closed by the nearestrelative, who called upon thedeceased by name, exclaiming"Farewell!" The body was then

headed by musicians playingmournful strains, and mourningwomen hired to lament and singthe funeral song. These were

sometimes followed by playersand buffoons, one of whomrepresented the character of thedeceased, and imitated his wordsand actions. Then came the

slaves whom the deceased hadliberated, each wearing the capof liberty. Before the body werecarried the images of the deadand of his ancestors, and also

the crown and military rewards

which he had gained. The couchon which the body was carriedwas sometimes made of ivory,and covered with gold andpurple. Following it were the

relatives in mourning, oftenuttering loud lamentations, thewomen beating their breasts andtearing their hair.

The procession of the most

illustrious dead passed throughthe Forum, and stopped beforethe Rostra where a funeral

the Romans was confined to

reading, writing, and arithmetic;but as they came in contact withthe Greeks a taste for highereducation was acquired. Greekslaves ( paedagogi ) were

employed in the wealthy familiesto watch over the children, and toteach them to converse in Greek.

A full course of instructionincluded the elementary

branches mentioned above, anda careful study of the best Greek and Latin writers besides a

papyrus tree. Besides the

papyrus, parchment was oftenused. The paper or parchmentwas joined together so as to formone sheet, and was rolled on astaff, whence the name volume

(from volvere, to roll).Letter writing was very commonamong the educated. Letterswere usually written with thestylus, an iron instrument like a

pencil in size and shape, on thinslips of wood or ivory coveredwith wax and folded together



the Rostra, where a funeraloration was delivered. Fromhere the body was carried to itsplace of burial, which must be

outside the city. Bodies weresometimes cremated, and in thelater times of the Republic thisbecame quite common.

EDUCATION

In early times the education of

and Latin writers, besides acourse in philosophy andrhetoric, under some well knownprofessor abroad, usually at

Athens or Rhodes.

BOOKS—LETTERWRITING

The most common material onwhich books were written wasthe thin rind of the Egyptian

196

with wax, and folded togetherwith the writing on the inside.The slips were tied together by astring, and the knot was sealed

with wax and stamped with asignet ring. Letters were alsowritten on parchment with ink.Special messengers wereemployed to carry letters, as

there was no regular mailservice. Roman letters differedfrom ours chiefly in the openingand close. The writer alwaysbegan by sending "greeting" to

the person addressed, and

closed with a simple" farewell,"without any signature. Thus"Cicero S. D. Pompeio" (S.D. =sends greeting) would be theusual opening of a letter from

Cicero to Pompey.



197

Temples were numerous. ThePantheon (temple of all thegods), built by Agrippa andrestored by Hadrian, wasdedicated to Jupiter. It wassituated outside of the city, in the

Campus Martius, and is nowused as a Christian church. TheTemple of Apollo Palatínus, builtby Augustus, was on the PalatineHill. It contained a library, whichwas founded by Augustus. The

Temple of Aesculapius was onan island in the Tiber; that ofConcordia on the slope of the

with a face in front and another

on the back of his head. Fromhim is named the month ofJanuary.

CHAPTER XLVII PUBLICBUILDINGS, SQUARES,ETC.

Rome was built on seven hills,—the Palatine, the Aventine, theCapitoline, the Esquiline (thelargest), the Quirínal, the Viminal,

and the Coelian.There were various public

There were several temples of

Jupiter, the most famous ofwhich was that of JupiterOptimus, Maximus, orCapitolínus, built during thedynasty of the Tarquins, andsplendidly adorned. (See

Chapter V.) There were alsonumerous temples of Juno, ofMars and of other deities



198

Concordia, on the slope of theCapitoline Hill, was dedicated in377 B.C., and restored byTiberius. The Temple of Janus

was an arched passage east ofthe Forum, the gates of whichwere open during war. Up to thetime of Ovid the gates had beenclosed but three times, once inNuma's reign, again at the closeof the Second Punic War, andafter the battle of Actium. Januswas one of the oldest Latindivinities, and was represented

psquares (forum = square orpark). Some were places ofresort for public business, and

most were adorned with porticos.The most celebrated square wasthe Forum Románum, or simplyThe Forum. There were also theForum Caesaris and ForumTrajáni . Some served as

markets; as Forum Boarium, thecattle market; Forum Suarium,the hog market, etc.

Mars, and of other deities.

The COLOSSÉUM was thelargest building in Rome.

There were three theatres; that ofPompey, of Marcellus, and ofBalbus; and several circuses, themost famous of which was theCircus Maximus.

The BASILICAE were halls of justice (court-houses). The mostimportant was the Basilica Julia,

commemorate his conquest of

Judaea, The bas- reliefs on thisarch represent the spoils takenfrom the temple at Jerusalem,carried in triumphal procession.3. The ARCH OF SEPTIMIUSSEVERUS, built by the Senate in207 A. D., at the end of the ViaSacra, in honor of the Emperorand his two sons for theirconquest of the Parthians and

Arabians. 4. The ARCH OF

GALLIÉNUS. 5. The ARCH OFCONSTANTINE.

begun by Caesar and finished by

Augustus, which was situated onthe south side of the Forum, andthe foundations of which can stillbe seen.

The CURIA, or Senate-house,was in the Forum. Each of thethirty curiae had a place ofmeeting, called also a curia,where were discussed publicquestions pertaining to politics,

finance, or religion.

The PUBLIC BATHS were

SEWERS intersected Rome in alldirections, and some were ofimmense size The CLOÁCA



Pure water was brought into thecity from the surrounding hills byfourteen different aqueducts, allof which were well built, andthree of which are still in use.The first aqueduct (Aqua Appia)was built about 313 B.C., by

Appius Claudius.

199

There are said to have beentwenty TRIUMPHAL ARCHES, ofwhich five now remain, 1. The

ARCH OF DRUSUS, on the Appian Way, erected in honor ofClaudius Drusus. 2. The ARCHOF TITUS, at the foot of thePalatine Hill, built by Titus to

The PUBLIC BATHS werenumerous. There were Thermae(hot baths) of Nero, of Titus, ofTrajan, of Caracalla, and of

others, ruins of which still exist.

immense size. The CLOÁCAMAXIMA, built by Tarquin, wasthe largest, and is still in use. Itsinnermost arch has a diameter offourteen feet.

There were two famousMAUSOLÉA, that of Augustus,now in ruins, and that of Hadrian,

which, stripped of its ornaments,is now the Castle of Sant’Angelo.

The COLUMNS commemoratingpersons or events werenumerous. The most remarkableof these were erected for navalvictories, and called COLUMNAEROSTRÁTAE. The one ofDuilius, in honor of the victory at

Mylae (261 B. C.), still stands. It

has three ship-beaks attached toeach side. Columns were built inhonor of several Emperors. Thatof Trajan is perhaps best known.

The COLUMNA MILLIARIA wasa milestone set up by Augustusin the Forum, from which alldistances on the different publicroads were measured. It wascalled Milliarium Aureum, or the

golden milestone.

[Illustration: Rome and Environs,



[Illustration: Rome and Environs,by K. D. Servoss, Engineer, N.Y., from the original publication.]

200

CHAPTER XLVIIICOLONIES—THECALENDAR—RELIGION

Colonies were established byRome throughout its wholehistory. They were intended tokeep in check a conquered

people, and also to represshostile incursions. Many werefounded to provide for veteran

Latin or military. Members of the

former class had all the rights ofRoman citizens; those of thelatter could not vote in theComitia at Rome. The Latíni ,who were once Roman citizens,and who always felt equal tothem, were uneasy in theirsubordinate position. But by theJulian law, passed in 90 B.C.,they acquired the right of votingat Rome, and were placed on the

same footing as Romancolonists.

came eight days after the Nones.

If an event happened on thesedivisions, it was said to occur onthe Kalends, Nones, or Ides ofthe month. If it happenedbetween any of these divisions, itwas said to occur so many daysbefore the division following theevent. The year was reckonedfrom the foundation of the city(753 B.C.), and often the namesof the Consuls of that year were

added.



soldiers; a practice which wasbegun by Sulla, and continuedunder the Emperors.

No colony was establishedwithout a lex , plebiscítum, orsenatus consultum. Religiousceremonies always accompaniedtheir foundation, and the

anniversary was observed.

The colonies were divided intotwo classes, viz. Roman, and

THE CALENDAR

The Roman year began withMarch. There were twelvemonths, and each month hadthree divisions, the KALENDS,NONES, and IDES. The Kalends

fell on the first of the month; theNones, on the 7th of March, May,July, and October; in othermonths, on the 5th. The Ides

RELIGION

201

The Romans were religious, andhad numerous gods andgoddesses: JUPITER and JUNO,the god and goddess of light;SATURN, the god of seed-sowing; TELLUS, the goddess of

the nourishing earth; CERES, thegoddess of growth; CONSUSand OPS, who presided over theharvest; PALES, the god of the

of their meals upon plates.flocks; and LUPERCUS, the god

of fertility. Various festivals werecelebrated in honor of these, asthe Saturnalia, in December; theTellilia (Tellus), Cerialia (Ceres),and Palilia (Pales), in April; andthe Lupercalia, in February.

VESTA was the goddess of thehouse, and as every family hadan altar erected for her worship,so the state, as a combination of

families, had a common altar toher in the temple of Vesta. In thistemple were also worshipped the

The PENÁTES were kept andworshipped only in the inmostchambers of houses andtemples. Their statues, made ofwax, wood, or ivory, were alsokept in the inner hall.

fill the vacancy, and she was

bound to serve for thirty years.The Vestals were preceded by alictor when in public. They hadprivate seats in the public shows,and had the power of deliveringfrom punishment any condemnedperson they happened to meet.They wore white dresses andwhite fillets. Their chief duty wasto keep the fire always burningon the hearth (focus publicus) in

the temple. They could notmarry.



The LARES were special

guardians of private houses.Some protected fields and cities.Images of Lares of diminutivesize, clad often in dog-skins,were ranged along the hearth.The people honored them on theKalends of May and other festivaldays by decking them withflowers, and by offering themwine, incense, flour, and portions

p ppPenátes and Lares.

202

A woman of ancient Roman

The priestesses of Vesta weresix in number, and were calledVESTAL VIRGINS. When a

vestal was to be elected, thePontifex Maximus chose twentyyoung girls from high families. Ofthese one was chosen by lot to

FLAMINES

The FLAMINES were priestsdevoted to the service of someparticular god. There werefifteen, and they were chosenfirst in the Comitia Curiáta, and

afterwards probably in theTributa. The most distinguishedof all the Flamines was theFLAMEN DIÁLIS (Jupiter). He

had the right to a lictor, to thesella curulis, and to a seat in theSenate. If one in bonds tookrefuge in his house, the chainswere at once removed. Thispriest, however, could not beaway from the city a single night,and was forbidden to sleep out ofhis own bed for threeconsecutive nights. He was notallowed to mount a horse, oreven to touch one, or to look

upon an army outside of the citywalls.

THE AUGURESThis body varied in number, fromthree, in early times, to sixteen inthe time of Caesar. It wascomposed of men who werebelieved to interpret the will ofthe gods, and to declare whetherthe omens were favorable orotherwise. No public act of anykind could be performed, no

election held, no law passed, nowar waged, without firstconsulting the omens. There

numbering probably twenty.

They were expected, wheneverany dispute arose with othernations, to demand satisfaction,to determine whether hostilitiesshould be begun, and to presideat any ratification of peace.



THE SALII

These were priests of Mars,twelve in number, and alwayschosen from the patricians. Theycelebrated the festival of Mars onthe 1st of March, and for several

successive days.

was no appeal from the decisionof the Augurs, and hence theirpower was great. They held

office for life, and were a closecorporation, filling their ownvacancies until 103 B.C.

THE FETIALES

203

This was another body of priestsholding office for life, and

QUAESTOR, or quartermaster.

4. The TRIBÚNI MILITUM,numbering six in each legion,and assisting the Imperator inhis duties. 5. The PRAEFECTI,who held various subordinatecommands. 6. TheCENTURIÓNES, who were non-commissioned officers, and rosein rank for good service. Therewere sixty centurions in eachlegion, six in each cohort, and

one in each century. They werepromoted from the ranks, butrarely rose above centurion of

CHAPTER XLIX THEROMAN ARMY INCAESAR'S TIME

The LEGIO was composed ofinfantry, and, though larger,corresponded to our regiment. Itwas divided into ten cohorts

(battalions), each cohort intothree maniples (companies), andeach maniple into two centuries( l t ) I th th b

The outer garment was a woollen

blanket, fastened to theshoulders by a buckle. Higherofficers wore a long purple cloak.The offensive armor was a short,straight two-edged sword(gladius), about two feet long,worn by privates on the rightside, so as not to interfere withthe shield, but on the left side byofficers. The javelin ( pilum) wasa heavy wooden shaft with an

iron head, the whole about sevenfeet long and weighing fully tenpounds. All legionary soldiers



204

The officers were: 1. TheIMPERATOR, or commander inchief. 2. The LEGÁTI, or staffofficers, varying in number.Caesar had ten. 3. The

the first rank. All the officers,except the centurions, came fromeither senatorial or equestrian

families.

(platoons). In theory the numberin each legion was six thousand,in practice about four thousand.

The usual order of battle was todraw up each legion in threelines (acies triplex), the firstconsisting of four cohorts, thesecond and third of three each.The defensive armor of the

legionary soldier was a helmet ofmetal or leather, a shield (fourfeet by two and a half), greaves,and corselets of various material.

were Roman citizens. Theauxiliaries were hired or draftedtroops, and were always light-

armed. The cavalry in Caesar'stime was made up of auxiliariestaken from the differentprovinces.

The COHORS PRAETORIA wasa body of picked troops thatacted as body guard to theImperator.

The STANDARD (signum) of thelegion was an eagle withoutstretched wings, perched

upon a pole.

The Romans when on the marchfortified their camp every night.They made it rectangular inshape, and threw up fortificationsalways in the same way. It wassurrounded by a ditch andrampart. The legionary soldiersencamped next to the wall on theinside of the fortifications, thussurrounding the cavalry, the

auxiliaries, the general and hisstaff. The general's tent wascalled the Praetorium, and the



entrance to the camp in front ofhis tent was called the PraetorianGate. The opposite entrance

was called the Decuman Gate.

205

land. A she wolf, hearing their

cries, ran to them and suckledthem. FAUSTULUS, a shepherdwho was near by, seeing this,took the boys home and rearedthem. When they grew up andlearned who they were, theykilled Amulius, and gave thekingdom to their grandfather,Numitor. Then (753) theyfounded a city on MountPalatínus, which they called

ROME, after Romulus. Whilethey were building a wall aroundthis city, Remus was killed in a

l ith hi b th

CHAPTER LLEGENDARY ROME

AENEAS, son of Anchíses andVenus, fled from Troy after itscapture by the Greeks (1184B.C.?) and came to Italy. Hewas accompanied by his sonIÚLUS and a number of brave

followers. LATÍNUS, who wasking of the district where Aenéaslanded, received him kindly, and

SILVIUS PROCAS, who left two

sons, NUMITOR, the older, and AMULIUS. They divided thekingdom, the former choosing theproperty, the latter the crown.Numitor had two children, a sonand a daughter. Amulius, fearingthat they might aspire to thethrone, murdered the son, andmade the daughter, RHEASILVIA, a Vestal virgin. This hedid to prevent her marrying, for

this was forbidden to Vestalvirgins. She, however, becamepregnant by Mars, and had twin

h h d



206

At this time the river was swollenby rains, and had overflowed itsbanks. The boys were throwninto a shallow place, escapeddrowning, and, the watersubsiding, they were left on dry

quarrel with his brother.landed, received him kindly, andgave him his daughter, LAVINIA,in marriage. Aenéas founded a

city, which he named LAVINIUM,in honor of his wife. After hisdeath, Iúlus, also called

ASCANIUS, became king. Hefounded on Mount Albánus a city,which he called ALBA LONGA,

and to it transferred the capital.

Here a number of kings ruled insuccession, the last of whom was

sons, whom she namedROMULUS and REMUS. When

Amulius was informed of this, he

cast their mother into prison, andordered the boys to be drownedin the Tiber.

Recreation of a kitchen in anancient Roman home

king, and then NUMA

POMPILIUS (716-673 B.C.), aSabine from Cures, was chosen.He was a good man, and a greatlawgiver. Many sacred rites wereinstituted by him to civilize hisbarbarous subjects. He reformedthe calendar, and built a templeto the god Janus. TULLUSHOSTILIUS (673-641B.C.)succeeded him. His reign wasnoted for the fall of Alba Longa.

Then came ANCUS MARCIUS(640-616 B.C.), the grandson ofNuma. He was a good ruler and

l H d th

Romulus, first king of Rome,

ruled for thirty-seven years (753-716 B.C.). He found the cityneeded inhabitants, and toincrease their number he openedan asylum, to which manyrefugees fled. But wives wereneeded. To supply this want, hecelebrated games, and invitedthe neighboring people, theSABINES, to attend the sports.When all were engaged in

looking on, the Romans suddenlymade a rush and seized theSabine virgins. This bold robbery

d hi h fi ll

Recreation of ancient Rome

The next three kings were ofEtruscan origin. LUCIUSTARQUINIUS PRISCUS (616-

578 B.C.) went to Rome firstduring the reign of Ancus, and,becoming a favorite of his, was

i t d di f hi



One year followed without any

popular. He conquered theLatins, enlarged the city, andbuilt new walls around it. He was

the first to build a prison, and tobridge the Tiber. [Note: Thisbridge was called the ponssublicius i.e. a bridge resting onpiles.] He also founded a city atits mouth, which he calledOSTIA.

caused a war, which finallyended in a compromise, and asharing of the city with the

Sabines. Romulus then choseone hundred Senators, whom hecalled PATRES. He also dividedthe people into thirty wards. Inthe thirty-seventh year of hisreign he disappeared, and wasbelieved to have been taken upinto heaven.

207

appointed guardian of his sons. After the death of Ancus, hewrested the government from

them, and became king himself.He increased the Senators to twohundred, carried on many warssuccessfully, and thus enlargedthe territory of the city. He builtthe CLOÁCA MAXIMA, or greatsewer, which is used to-day.Tarquin also began the temple ofJUPITER CAPITOLÍNUS, on theCapitoline Hill. He was killed in

oracles and prophecies; but the

price seemed exorbitant, and herefused to purchase them. Thesibyl then burned three, and,returning, asked the same pricefor the remaining six. The kingagain refused. She burned threemore, and obtained from themonarch for her last three theoriginal price. These books werepreserved in the Capitol, andheld in great respect. They were

destroyed with the temple by fire,on July 6, 83. Two men hadcharge of them, who were calledduoviri sacrórum The worship of

Collatínus. Unable to bear the

humiliation, she killed herself inthe presence of her family,having first appealed to them toavenge her wrongs]. A Republicwas then formed, with twoConsuls at the head of thegovernment.

the thirty-eighth year of his reign

by the sons of Ancus, from whomhe had snatched the kingdom.

His successor was his son-in-law, SERVIUS TULLIUS (578-534 B.C.), who enlarged the citystill more, built a temple to Diána,and took a census of the people.It was found that the city andsuburbs contained 83,000 souls.Servius was killed by his

daughter, Tullia, and herhusband, Tarquinius Superbus,son of Priscus.

Tarquin made three attempts torecover his power at Rome, allunsuccessful. [Note: The victory

of Lake Regillus, which has beenpainted by Macaulay in glowingcolors, was gained over Tarquinin 509 B C ] In the last attempt



TARQUINIUS SUPERBUSsucceeded to the throne (534-

510 B.C.). He was energetic inwar, and conquered manyneighboring places, among whichwas Ardea, a city of the Rutuli.He finished the temple of Jupiter,begun by his father. He alsoobtained the SIBYLLINEBOOKS. A woman from Cumae,a Greek colony, came to him,and offered for sale nine books of

duoviri sacrórum. The worship ofthe Greek deities, Apollo andLatóna, among others, was

introduced through these books.

208

In 510 B.C. a conspiracy wasformed against Tarquin byBRUTUS, COLLATÍNUS, andothers, and the gates of the citywere closed against him. [Note:The cause of the conspiracy wasthe violence offered by Sextus,Tarquin's son, to Lucretia, wife of

in 509 B.C..] In the last attempt(508 B.C.), he was assisted byPORSENA, king of the

Etruscans. They advancedagainst the city from the north.HORATIUS COCLES, a braveyoung man, alone defended thebridge ( pans sublicius) over theTiber until it was torn downbehind him. He then swam theriver in safety to his friends.[Note: See Macaulay's "Lays of

Ancient Rome."]

retirement.

In 494 B.C. the plebeians atRome rebelled, because theywere exhausted by taxes and

chosen from their own ranks to

represent their interests. Theseofficers were called TribúniPlebis.

During the siege of the city,QUINTUS MUCIUS SCAEVOLA,a courageous youth, stole intothe camp of the enemy with theintention of killing King Porsena,but by mistake killed hissecretary instead. He wasseized and carried to Porsena,who tried to frighten him bythreats of burning. Instead ofreplying, Scaevola held his right

hand on the burning altar until itwas consumed. The king,admiring this heroic act,pardoned him Out of gratitude

Reconstruction of courtyardgarden fountains of Roman home

Two years later (492 B.C.) GaiusMarcius, one of the patricians,met and defeated the Volsci, aneighboring tribe, at CORIOLI.For this he received the name ofCORIOLÁNUS. During a famine,he advised that grain should not

be distributed to the plebeiansunless they relinquished theirright to choose the Tribúni Plebis.For this he was banished



Tarquin went to Tusculum, wherehe spent the rest of his days in

209

were exhausted by taxes andmilitary service. A large part ofthem left the city, and crossed

the Anio to a mountain (MonsSacer) near by. The Senate sentMENENIUS AGRIPPA to treatwith them. By his exertions[Note: Menenius is said to haverelated for them the famous fableof the belly and members.] thepeople were induced to return tothe city, and for the first timewere allowed to have officers

pardoned him. Out of gratitude,Scaevola told the king that threehundred other men as brave as

himself had sworn to kill him.Porsena was so alarmed, that hemade peace, and withdrew fromthe city. Mucius received hisname Scaevola (left-handed) onaccount of this loss of his righthand.

For this he was banished.Having obtained command of aVolscian army, he marched

against Rome, and came withinfive miles of the city. Here hewas met by a deputation of hisown citizens, who begged him tospare the city. He refused; but,when his wife and mother addedtheir tears, he was induced towithdraw the army. He wasafterwards killed by the Volsciansas a traitor. [Note: See

QUINCTUS CINCINNÁTUS was

appointed Dictator. He was oneof the most noted Romanwarriors of this period. Theambassadors sent to inform himof his appointment found himworking with bare arms in hisfield. Cincinnátus told his wife tothrow over him his mantle, thathe might receive the messengersof the state with proper respect.Such was the simplicity of his

character, and yet so deeply didhe reverence authority. The Aequi could not withstand hisvigorous campaign but were

Lucius Virginius, and the

betrothed of Lucius Icilius. Heformed, with one of his tools, aninfamous plot to obtainpossession of Virginia, underpretence that she was a slave.When, in spite of all the efforts ofthe girl's father and lover, theDecemvir had, in his officialcapacity, adjudged her to be theslave of his tool, Virginiusplunged a knife into his

daughter's bosom, in presence ofthe people in the Forum. Theenraged populace compelled theDecemviri to resign and Appius

Shakespeare's "Coriolanus."]

After the expulsion of Tarquin,the FABII were among the mostdistinguished men at Rome.There were three brothers, andfor seven consecutive years oneof them was Consul. It looked asif the Fabian gens would getcontrol of the government. Thestate took alarm, and the wholegens, numbering 306 males and

4,000 dependents, was drivenfrom Rome. For two years theycarried on war alone against theVeientes but finally were



In 458 B.C. the Romans werehard pressed by the Aequi. Theirterritory had been overrun, andtheir Consuls, cut off in somedefiles, were in imminent dangerof destruction. LUCIUS

vigorous campaign, but wereobliged soon to surrender, andmade to pass under the yoke as

a sign of humiliation. TheDictator enjoyed a well earnedtriumph.

210

In 451 B.C. one of the Decemviri, APPIUS CLAUDIUS, wascaptivated by the beauty of apatrician maiden, VIRGINIA,[Note: See Macaulay's "Lays of

Ancient Rome."] a daughter of

Decemviri to resign, and Appius,to escape worse punishment, putan end to his own life.

Veientes, but finally weresurprised and slain (477 B.C.).One boy, Quintus Fabius

Vibulánus, alone survived topreserve the name and gens ofthe Fabii.

MARCUS FURIUS CAMILLUSwas a famous man of a little laterperiod. He was called a secondRomulus for his distinguishedservices. In 396 B.C. hecaptured Veii, after a siege of tenyears. On his return hecelebrated the most magnificenttriumph yet seen at Rome. He

was afterwards impeached for

not having fairly divided thespoils obtained at Veii, and wentinto exile at Ardea. When Romewas besieged by the Gauls underBrennus, in 390 B.C., Camilluswas recalled and made Dictator.

At the head of forty thousandmen he hastened to the city,raised the siege, and in the battlewhich followed annihilated theGauls. He was Dictator five

times, Interrex three times,Military Tribune twice, andenjoyed four triumphs. He diedat the advanced age of eighty-

BRENNUS was the famousleader of the Senones, a tribe ofGauls, who invaded Italy about390 B.C. He defeated theRomans at the River Allia (July18, 390 B.C.), and captured thecity, except the Capitol, which hebesieged for six months.

During the siege he tried tosurprise the garrison, but was

repulsed by Manlius, who wasawakened by the cackling ofsome geese. Peace was finallypurchased by the Romans by the

gold. To increase the weight,

Brennus is said to have thrownhis sword on the scales. At this

juncture, as the story runs,Camillus appeared with histroops, ordered the gold to beremoved, saying that Rome mustbe ransomed with steel, and notgold. In the battle whichfollowed, the Gauls weredefeated.



at the advanced age of eightyeight.

purchased by the Romans by thepayment of a thousand pounds of

211

CHRONOLOGY

[The dates previous to 389 B.C. are uncertain.]

B.C.

753 Foundation of Rome by Romulus753-510 Regal Period

753-716 Romulus716-673 Numa Pompilius673-641 Tullus Hostilius640 616 Ancus Marcius

390 Siege of Rome by Brennus, Battle at the

Allia river (July 18)387 The planting of the first military or Latincolonies367 The Licinian Rogations353 Caere: the first Municipium343-341 First Samnite War340-338 The Latin War338 Antium, the first Roman or maritime colony326-304 The Second Samnite War321 The Caudine Forks298-290 The Third Samnite War

295 Sentínum283 Lake Vadimónis281-272 Pyrrhus280 Heracléa, Cineas



640-616 Ancus Marcius616-578 Tarquinius Priscus578-534 Servius Tullius

534-510 Tarquinius Superbus510-30 The Republic509 Battle of Lake Regillus508 Porsena, Horatius Codes494 Tribúni Plebis, Menenius Agrippa

492 Corioli, Coriolánus477 Destruction of the Fabian Gens458 War with the Aequians, Cincinnátus451 The Decemviri, Appius Claudius, Virginia396 Capture of Veil, Camillus

280 Heracléa, Cineas279 Asculum274 Beneventum

272 Rome mistress of Italy, morality at itsheight264 Period of foreign conquest begins264-241 First Punic War260 Lipara, Mylae257 Tyndaris256 Ecnomus, Regulus at Clupea249 Drepana241 Aegátes Insulae, Catulus, Hamilcar Barca237 Sardinia and Corsica acquired, andprovincial system established

229 Illyrican War, Important results

222 Gallia Cisalpína acquired by battle ofTelamon220 Hannibal in Spain219 Saguntum218-202 Second Punic War218 Ticinus, Trebia217 Trasiménus, Casilínum216 Cannae212 Capture of Syracuse, Archimédes207 Baecula, Metaurus202 Zama

214-205 First Macedonian War200-197 Second Macedonian War198 Cynoscephalae190 Magnesia

118-104 The Jugurthine War, Metellus, Marius,

Sulla102 Aquae Sextiae101 Vercellae90-89 The Italian or Social War86 Death of Marius86-84 Sulla's campaign against Mithradátes84 Death of Cinna80 Reforms of Sulla78 Death of Sulla80-72 Sertorius in Spain73-71 Spartacus

72-67 Campaign of Lucullus against Mithradátes67 Pompey conquers the pirates67-61 Pompey in the East63 Cicero Consul, Catiline



123-121 Gaius Gracchus

213

g183 Death of Africánus, Hannibal, andPhilopoemen

171-168 Third Macedonian War168 Pydna149-146 Third Punic War149 Death of Cato the elder146 Destruction of Carthage and Corinth143-133 The Numantine War134-132 The Servile War133 Tiberius Gracchus129 Death of Africánus the younger

,59 First Triumvirate formed, Caesar's firstConsulship

59 The Leges Juliae, Clodius, Cicero'sbanishment, Cato sent to Cyprus58-49 Caesar in Gaul57 Recall of Cicero, Return of Cato53 Death of Crassus, Murder of Clodius,Pompey's consulship52 Separation from Caesar49 Caesar crosses the Rubicon49 Siege and capture of Ilerda48 (Jan. 4) Caesar sails from Brundisium,

Victory of Pompey near the sea-board, (Aug. 9)

Pharsalia, (Sept 28) Murder of Pompey, Caesarestablishes Cleopatra on the throne of Egypt47 Battle of Zela, (Sept.) Caesar returns toRome46 (Apr. 4) Thapsus, Death of Cato theyounger45 (Mar. 17) Munda44 (Mar. 15) Murder of Caesar43 (Nov. 27) The Second Triumvirate, (Dec.)Murder of Cicero42 (Nov.) Philippi

36 Naulochus31 (Sept. 2) Actium

41-68 The Claudian Emperors.

41-54 Claudius54-68 Nero68-69 Galba69 Otho69-96 The Flavian Emperors69-79 Vespasian79 Destruction of Jerusalem79-81 Titus80 Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii81-96 Domitian96-180 The Five Good Emperors

96-98 Nerva98-117 Trajan. Limit of Empire reached117-138 Hadrian138-161 Antonínus Pius



THE EMPIRE

B.C. / A.D.

30-41 The Julian Emperors30-14 Augustus

A.D.

14-37 Tiberius37-41 Caligula

161-180 Marcus Aurelius180-192 Commodus

192-284 From Pertinax to Diocletian284-305 Diocletian306-337 Constantine the Great312 Edict of Milan325 Council of Nice337-476 From Constantine to Romulus Augustulus

214

SPECIMEN EXAMINATION PAPERS

HARVARD COLLEGE

June, 1889

1. Place or explain the following: Capua; Numidia;Veii; Pharsálus;

Comitia Centuriata; Decemvir; law of Majestas. Withwhat importantevents was each connected? [Omit one; answervery briefly ]

1888

1. Basilica; Lex Publilia; Patrician; Triumvir; Tribune;Romancitizen,--what were they? [Take four.]

2. (a) How did Augustus obtain his power? (b)The reign of Hadrian; (c ) The first Punic war. [Takeone.]

3. (a) The Roman religion; (b) Decay of the Empire,[Take one]

4. Sulla's rule in Rome.

5. The tribes at the time of the Second Punic War.



very briefly.]

2. The campaigns of Pyrrhus in Italy.

3. The causes and results of the Samnite Wars.

4. Cato's efforts to reform the government of Rome.

5. (a) Education in Rome. (b) Amusements atRome.[Take one]

[4 and 5are for "additional readings."]

1887

(a) [Take five.] The Allia, Agrigentum, Lilybaeum,Placentia, Cannae,Numantia, Massilia,-where? Mention (with dates)historical eventsconnected with four of these places. [Take any two.]

215



against Catiline.EXAMINATION FOR ADMISSION

June, 1889

1. The Patricians and Plebeians: first causes ofstrife between them.Steps in the political progress of the Plebeians.Censors. Tribunes.Licinian Laws.

2. Greek influences on Roman life: what were they?In what ways and at

what times introduced?

3. The Second Punic War: its causes. Hannibal'sgreat march. Battles

1887

[Time allowed, 30 minutes.]

1. What powers did Octavianus Augustus take tohimself? What changedid he make in the government of Rome? Whatchanges did Constantinemake?

2. The gradual extension of the right of Romancitizenship, thecauses of each extension, and dates.



Capture of Rome by the Gauls. Cicero's first oration

217

gin Italy. Hasdrubal. Transference of the war. Theresult. Why did

Hannibal fail?

4. Give some account of the members of the FirstTriumvirate.

5. Arrange in chronological order, with dates: Actium. The Gracchi.First Samnite War. Pharsálus Regulus. Teutonesand Cimbri. Numantia.

3. What were the possessions of Rome at the

beginning of the Christianera? How were they acquired, and when?

4. Explain praetorian guards; provincia; colonia;tribunus plebis;comitia centuriata.

5. Allia, Beneventum, Saguntum, Metaurus,Pharsalia; where werethey? what happened there, and when?

1886

1. Describe the circumstances under which thetribunate wasestablished.

2. When and where did the principal military eventsin the war betweenthe Caesarians and Pompeians occur?

3. Sketch briefly the career of Pompeius.

4. What persons composed the SecondTriumvirate? In what essential

June, 1885

1. Give an account of the Second Punic War (withdates).

2. Explain tribunus plebis, censor, dictator,imperator .

3. How were the provinces governed under theRepublic, and how underthe Empire?

4. What were the causes of the Social War, andwhat the results?

5. When and where did the following events take



points did the Second Triumvirate differ from theFirst?

5. When and for what reasons was the right ofcitizenship given to theprovinces?

6. What radical changes in the government weremade by Diocletian?

place: the defeat ofVarus; the first Roman naval victory; the decisive

victory overPyrrhus; the death of Brutus and Cassius; theconquest of the firstRoman province?

218

UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEWYORK.

35th Academic Examination, November 22,1889

Time, 9.30 A.M. to 12 M., only 48 credits; necessaryto pass, 36.

1. Mention two prominent characteristics of theRoman people. (2)

2. Mention one element which Rome hascontributed to the civilizationof the world. (1)

5. Which occurred first: (1) Fall of Carthage, or

captivity ofJugurtha; (2) Battle of Actium, or battle of Philippi;(3) Death of

Antony, or death of Cicero? (3)

6. What do you understand by a "proscription"?

Mention the two whichoccur in Roman history. (3)

7. What were gladiators? who was their leaderwhen they rebelled? (2)

8. What notable service was rendered to his countryby Camillus;Tiberius Gracchus; Marius; Cicero? (4)



o t e o d ( )

3. Mention two foreign enemies that fought Romeon Italian soil; statethe result in each contest. (4)

4. Describe the situation of any two of the followingplaces, and

state an important historical event connected witheach: CaudineForks; Pharsalia; Pompeii; Cannae. (4)

9. Mention two laws that are landmarks in Roman

history. (2)

10. Give the boundaries of the Roman Empire at thebeginning of theChristian era. (3)

11. Briefly describe the system of slavery as itexisted in Rome.(2)

219

12. What was the Haruspex? how did he determine

future events? (2)

13. Was the Roman government usually tolerant ofreligion? on whatground were the Christians punished? (2)

14. Describe the way in which the Romans attacked

fortified towns.Describe two engines used by them for thispurpose.(3)

15. Whence did Rome derive literature and art? (2)

THE LIFE AND PUBLIC SERVICES OFCORNELIUS SULLA

20. Give a sketch of the character of Sulla. (2)

34th Academic Examination, June 14, 1889

Time, 9 30 A.M. to 12 M., only 48 credits; necessaryto pass, 36.

1. Give a brief account of any two races whichinhabited Italy beforethe founding of Rome.(2)

2. On how many hills was Rome built? Give thenames of three of them. (4)

3 N t th i t d hi h th



19. Briefly describe his dictatorship and how it cameto an end. (2)

220

16. To which of the two great parties in Rome did

Sulla belong? (1)

17. Tell something of the reforms which heinstituted. (2)

18. Mention two wars in which Sulla was engaged.

(2)

3. Narrate the circumstances under which theTribunes were first

elected. (1)

4. What were the "public lands"? what politicalquestion arose inconnection with them? (2)

5. What king of Epirus made war on the Romans?Why? What grounds hadhe for hoping to succeed? (3)

6. Mention two reasons why Hannibal hoped to

overcome Rome. Why did hefail? (3)

7. What importance in Roman history is attached tothe followingdates: B.C. 55, 44, 42? (3)

8. Briefly describe the political situation whenCaesar crossed theRubicon. What were the chief consequences of hisact? what was "the

Rubicon"? (3)9. What power was intrusted to a Roman Dictator?Mention two instancesof this (3)

so called. (2)

13. Mention three objects which a Roman would besure to point out toa stranger visiting Rome at the time of the EmperorTitus.(3)

14. Mention any three writers of the Augustan age,and the characterof the writings of each. (6)

15. Mention two principal causes which contributed

to the downfall ofRome. (2)

THE LIFE AND PUBLIC SERVICES OF CAIUS



12. Give a brief description of Julian the Apostate;tell why he was

221

of this. (3)

10. Give the names of the Flavian Emperors, withsome account of oneof them. (4)

11. What radical change in the Roman governmentwas made by

Diocletian? (1)

THE LIFE AND PUBLIC SERVICES OF CAIUSMARIUS

16. To what class of the people did Marius belong?(1)

17. In what war did he first gain great distinction?(1)

18. By the defeat of what peoples did he gain thetitle of "Saviourof his Country"? (1)

19. How many times was Marius elected Consul?(1)

20. What prolonged struggle had its beginning in thequarrels ofMarius and Sulla? what was the result to the

Republic? (2)

33rd Academic Examination, March 8, 1889

Time, 9.30 A M. to 12 M., only 44 credits; necessaryto pass, 33.

1. What was the early form of government in Rome?(1)

6. Tell briefly the story of Cincinnatus. (2)

7. Describe the system of Roman roads, and tellsomething of theireffect upon the Republic. (2)

8. Give the immediate cause of the First Punic War.What was itsresult? (2)

9. Give the name of Rome's first province. (1)

10. In what battle did the Romans finally overthrowMacedonia? WhatRoman general commanded in this battle? (2)



5. Who compiled the laws of the Twelve Tables? (2)

222

(1)

2. Tell what you know about the (a) Patricians, (b)Plebeians, (c ) Tribune, (d ) Consul. (4)

3. Give a brief account of the origin of the ComitiaTributa. (2)

4. What was meant by an Agrarian law? whosecured the first one? (2)

11. Briefly describe the siege of Numantia. (2)

12. What was the effect of their great conquestsupon the character ofthe Roman people? (2)

13. What was the cause of the Social War? Give the

result of thiswar. (2)

14. Describe the campaign of Pompey against the

pirates, giving the

cause of the campaign, its length, and the result. (3)

15. What great religious event occurred during thereign of theEmperor Augustus? (1)

16. For what were the following men noted: (a)Juvenal,(b) Seneca, (c ) Cato the Censor, (d ) Fabius,(e) Caligula? (5)

THE GRACCHI

17. Of what great movement did the agitations ofthe Gracchi form a

birth? with which, by sympathy? (2)

21. Why was the failure of the agitation of theGracchi of very greatsignificance? (2)

31st Advanced Academic Examination,June 15, 1888

Time, 9.30 A. M. to 12 M., only 48 credits;necessary to pass, 36.

1. Into what three principal classes (or races) maythe inhabitants ofItaly be divided? To what great race did theybelong? (4)



20. With which order of the Roman people were theGracchi allied by

223

the Gracchi form apart? (1)

18. What measure was proposed by TiberiusGracchus? what measure byCaius Gracchus? (2)

19. Briefly describe the death of each of the

Gracchi. (2)

belong? (4)

2. Who established the comitia centuriata? How didit differfrom the comitia curiata? (2)

3. Who made the first code of Roman law? (1)

4. What king aided the Greek colonies in their warwith Rome? What wasthe result of the war? (2)

5. In what war was Syracuse taken by the Romans?

What was the cause ofthe siege? Give the name of a famous man who wasslain, and state thecircumstances of his death. (4)

6. Mention five provinces gained by Rome during

the period ofconquest, 266-133 B.C. (5)

7. Give the effects upon Rome of the Easternconquests, in regard toliterature and morals. (2)

8. What political parties did Marius and Sullarepresent? (2)

12. To what one of the Caesars was Seneca tutor?

(1)

13. In whose reign occurred the last greatpersecution of theChristians? (1)

14. Give a brief sketch of the life and character ofConstantine? (3)

15. Who was the last Western Roman Emperor? (1)

THE SAMNITE WARS, AND THE RELATIONS OFROME TO SUBJECT STATES

16. What caused Rome to bring the First Samnite



224

9. What two foreign wars were conducted by

Marius. (2)

10. What was the decisive battle in the civil warbetween Pompey andCaesar? (1)

11. Who formed the Second Triumvirate? Whatillustrious man was slainin their proscription? (4)

16. What caused Rome to bring the First SamniteWar to an end? (1)

17. Give a brief account of the battle of the CaudineForks, and ofthe treaty made there. (4)

18. What was the result of the battle of Sentinum?

Give the terms ofthe final peace between the Romans and theSamnites. (3)



Rome. (2)of the

battle.(2)

11. Mention two reforms or measures favored bythe Gracchi.(2)

12. Compare the character of Marius with that of

Sulla.(2)

13. Who formed the First Triumvirate, and whatelement of strength dideach contribute to it? (3)

14. What cause was assigned for the assassinationof Caesar? (1)

15. Describe in a sentence the character of each of

18. What was the first form of government at Rome,and after what wasit modelled? (2)

19. How did the Senate differ from the Comitia

Curiata in itsmembership? (2)

20. What authority did the king have, and whatduties did the Senateperform? (2)

21. Describe the religion of the early Romans. (1)



17. Tell briefly the traditional story of the founding of

226

the following:

Nero; Trajan. (2)

THE EARLY HISTORY OF ROME

16. Into what two principal branches were the early

Italians divided,and what part of Italy did they occupy? (3)

29th Advanced Academic Examination,

November 18, 1887

Time, 9.30 A.M. to 12 M., only 48 credits; necessaryto pass, 36.

1. When was Rome founded? (1)

2. Under what king was the constitution remodelled,and what was thebasis of the new constitution? (2)

Cato in character and

3. Who was the last king? By whom was thegovernment by kingsoverturned, and to whom was the power thenintrusted? (3)

4. What caused the struggle between the patricians

and plebeians, howlong did it continue, and how did it result? (3)

5. Give briefly the story of Coriolanus (2)

6. What induced the Gauls to invade Italy 390 B.C.,where did theycontend with the Roman army, and with what result?(3)

habits. (2)

10. What was the object of Catiline's conspiracy, bywhat Consul wasit defeated, and in what manner? (3)

11. What causes led to the formation of the FirstTriumvirate? (1)

12. What was the cause of the battle of Actium, andwhat was itsresult? (2)

13. Describe the manner in which Octavius Augustus became Emperor,and the character of his reign. (2)



9. Compare Publius Scipio Africanus with Marcus

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7. Where was Carthage, by what means did it attain

its power andwealth, and when did the Romans andCarthaginians first contend inarms? (3)

8. Under what circumstances was Fabius sent

against Hannibal, whatpolicy did he pursue, and with what result? (3)

g ( )

14. By what Emperor was Jerusalem captured, andin what year? (2)

15. Describe the customs of the Romans at meals,and mention somearticles used by them for food. (2)

THE GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY, AND ITS EARLYINHABITANTS

16. Draw a map of Italy, and upon it sketch the Apennine mountains,and the rivers Tiber and Arno. (4)

17. Upon the map indicate the location of thefollowing: Rome,

Naples, Tarentum. (3)

18. What three races occupied Italy in the earliestknown times, whatpart of Italy did each occupy, and from which ofthese were the Latinsdescended? (7)



228

Trustees replaced him with

Carlton Ritter.About the Author

Robert F. Pennell was born in

Maine in 1850 and received his AB degree from HarvardUniversity. In 1889 he was inCalifornia and was principal ofthe Marysville schools. From1890 - 1893 he was principal of

the Stockton Schools. In 1893,he was elected principal of thenormal school at Chico. Duringhis term of office, he promotedthe beginning of the NormalRecord as the school newspaperand the ungraded or countryschool was added to the trainingschool.In an introduction to the Normal

Pennell and his wife, Eleanor,had one son. Robert Pennelldied in San Francisco in 1905.

From University Archives,

Meriam Library, SpecialCollections

http://www.csuchico.edu/lspr/pres1b.htm








229

In January 1896 the graduatingclass, which had arrived at thenormal school at the same time

as he did, presented him with agold headed cane to show theirrespect and esteem. In 1897, anewly appointed Board of

Record, he wrote " We are trying

to lay our course on the broadfoundation of scholarship andpractical teaching".

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