East and South-East Asia - Korea

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Map reference: www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook

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In 2008, the Republic of Korea, known as South Korea, had a population of just under 50,000,000, and the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, known as North Korea, had approximately 23,500,000 (July 2008 est.). Over half the people in both nations live in cities or towns. North Korea is slightly larger in land mass than South Korea.

The Korean peninsula and adjacent islands comprise 85,285 square miles, roughly the same area as the British Isles. The peninsula extends south from north-eastern China, and has for centuries served as a bridge between powers on the continent of Asia and powers in the Pacific Ocean, each powerful neighbour being concerned with controlling this strategically located country.

There are many islands adjacent to the western and southern coasts. The largest of these is Cheju, a volcanic island close to the southern tip. Korea is surrounded by coastal plains on the south, north-east and west, with beautiful beaches; and the interior is heavily forested and quite mountainous. The summers are very hot, but in winter all mountains are snow covered.

Ancestors of the Korean people lived in what is now Korea at least 30,000 years ago, but other nations have had a strong influence on the peninsula. China controlled part of it from 108 BC until the early 300s AD and Japan controlled Korea from 1910 until 1945.

Korea was a single nation before World War II and the Korean people were the inheritors of a long tradition. This resulted in a homogeneous people, speaking one language and adhering to a single culture, rich in music and the arts, and combining Confucianism, Buddhism and Shamanism as a way of life.

Before the 1900s, Korea was an agricultural society built on strong family ties. Almost all of the people lived in small villages and worked on farms. They owed their loyalty to their families, often living in extended family groups. This way of life began to change after Japan occupied the country, bringing industries to Korean cities and taking away many farms from the people. As a result, many young Koreans moved to the city to find work, thus weakening family ties. Industrialisation continues to expand rapidly.

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In 1945, the communists took over the north, and in 1948 the present two nations were formed. Seoul became the capital city of South Korea, and Pyongyang the capital of North Korea.

North Korean troops invaded South Korea in 1950. The Korean War between North and South continued until 1953. At time of publication a permanent peace treaty had not been signed.

As well as the changes in Korean life brought about by industrialisation, further changes were instituted by the communist régime in the north. For example, it was stated that the interests of the nation were to be held above those of the family; and women were encouraged to work outside the home, with child care being provided in centres. Life in South Korea has also changed due to the influence of Western nations. Western clothing has become common, and family ties have weakened, as young people continue to move to the cities. However, because the changes in South Korea have not been forced by the government, traditions have remained stronger there.

Life expectancy at birth in South Korea is 74 years for men and 81.1 years for women (2008 est.) Life expectancy at birth in North Korea is 69.45 years for men and 75 years for women (2008 est.)

Language

Language is the unifying core of Korean culture. The Korean language belongs to the Ural-Altaic family of languages (which also includes Turkish and perhaps Japanese); but about 50% of the words used in Korean are taken from Chinese, which is not in the same language family. The structure of the language resembles that of Japanese. There are approximately seven major dialects which most Koreans can understand. (The exception is the dialect spoken on the island of Cheju).

Hangul is the name of the writing system used, first designed in the mid-15th century. With Hangul, each syllable is written within a block. In their writing South Koreans use some Chinese symbols in addition to Hangul but North Koreans use only Hangul.

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The purpose of the new alphabet was to simplify reading and writing, thus making it more accessible to the total population. However, the new alphabet was resisted by scholars who wished to maintain their prestige as a literate élite, and the complex Chinese writing system remained entrenched until early in the 20th century, when another attempt was made to introduce Hangul. But in 1905 Korea was annexed by Japan and Japanese became the compulsory language.

At the end of World War II, Hangul was revived. There are now two forms of writing: pure Hangul, and a mixed Hangul script with some Chinese characters. The policy is now to gradually dispense with the Chinese characters altogether.

The literacy rate in South Korea is 97.9 %.

The Korean family

The philosophical foundation of Korean society is based on the Confucian ethic. Three principles regulate social relationships: the ruler is the mainstay of the state, the father is the mainstay of the son, and the husband is the mainstay of the wife. In addition, there are five other rules which indicate the individual’s position in society: there must be loyalty between ruler and subordinates, closeness must exist between father and children, the wife is subordinate to the husband, younger members must respect older members, and trust is important in all relationships.

The traditional family is an extended one and although patterns of living are changing with urbanisation and migration to cities, the traditional family system still exists, with the father as head of the unit. The unit consists of grandparents, uncles, aunts and others related through a patrilineal family system. The importance of the paternal family and ancestral traditions are emphasised, and older members are always treated with politeness and respect. The family must live in harmony.

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The eldest son, on marriage, inherits the duty of supporting the family financially and making practical decisions. His parents, however, still oversee the family, the father acting as advisor and the mother, though freed from responsibility for household duties, supervising the new wife in home duties and child rearing.

The rights of family members are clearly defined. The first son inherits nearly all the property, plus responsibility for all financial dealings, and when his father dies, he will be head of the house. As the heir he must keep the family together. After his death, he becomes an honoured ancestor to the following generation. Younger brothers and sisters defer to their older brother.

The wife’s parents are called relatives; those on the husband’s side are called family. The mother’s side is considered unimportant and visited rarely. Until recently, divorce was largely unknown.

Traditionally, the bride was often older than the groom, and this added maturity gave her authority within the family structure. Many young men now wait until completing tertiary courses or serving in the armed forces before marrying. In Korea, the wife retains the name of her father throughout her life. Her primary role is to bear children, particularly the male heir. Her secondary role is the maintenance of her household and the extended family. Her life is rigorous.

Religion

In Korea, a variety of religious systems co-exist and mingle: Buddhism, Confucianism, Shamanism and Ch’ondogyo are the traditional religions. Christianity, a relatively recent arrival, is now one of the major religions of Korea with both Protestant and Catholic churches represented.

An important tenet of Confucian belief is the worship of ancestors, a core of Korean life. Not only are the names of deceased ancestors enshrined on tablets in the temple of Buddha, but feasts are offered and services held in the home for the honoured dead.

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Naming and forms of address

Naming in Korea is complex. The family name stands first and is taken from the father’s ancestral line. The middle name is the generation name, and the extended family must consider carefully the generation name they wish to use. All boys of a particular generation in a given ancestral line will bear the same middle name. Usually the same is true for girls, but a female generation name will differ from that of the males in the same generation. Finally, a third name is given.

With forms of address, the language reflects the culture. Members of family groups must address each other with respect and in such a way that the relationship of the speaker to the individual is clearly defined. Thus a Korean child will not address siblings by their first names, but will indicate his or her position to them in the hierarchy by saying, for example, ‘older sister’.

Housing

In Korea, many high-rise apartment buildings and modern homes have been built in the cities; but in areas where the extended family traditions are still important, houses are built close together. Inside each house there are few rooms and little furniture. The kitchen is set apart from the rest of the house. Traditionally, Koreans do not sleep on beds but on layers of thick quilted blankets spread on the floor. Family members sleep together. These sleeping arrangements not only make efficient use of space but are practical and comfortable. However, there are now variations to these sleeping patterns.

Childbirth and child rearing

An impending birth is cause for great joy in a Korean family. When pregnancy is demonstrated, the daughter-in-law gains her mother-in-law’s respect, because she is fulfilling her primary role as perpetrator of the family lineage. The husband is proud, as this pregnancy demonstrates his

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masculinity and fulfils his obligation toward his ancestors. If there are other children in the family already, they are told from the moment the pregnancy is known. Everyone hopes the child will be a boy.

Koreans count the gestation period as the first year in a child’s life. It is believed that the mother’s thoughts, behaviour and feelings during the pregnancy will have a formative influence on the well-being of the foetus, so the prenatal period is called the ‘education period’ for the unborn child.

It is believed that a dream may predict the future of the unborn child. A close relative is likely to have a significant premonition. If the dream is about a bear, the child is likely to be a boy; if about a snake, it will be a girl. If a sky or star appears in the dream, the child will go very far in life. Should the dream show the newborn child holding the moon, then that child will be an especially precious person. Very important people in Korea will always be born following such extraordinary dreams. As the dream-blessed child matures, parents will relate this dream many times so that the child can develop a self-image conducive to the important role.

Late in the pregnancy, the family begins to make formal and festive preparations for the baby’s birth. It is taboo to start these preparations too early, as it is thought that something might go wrong. According to the old traditions, harvested rice of the season is stored in a special jar, to be cooked for the mother’s first meal after her child is born. During the last month of pregnancy, final preparations begin. The wife’s mother makes a quilt and nappies for the baby. The mother now has a diet of seaweed soup and rice. This seaweed is believed to provide fresh oxygen for her blood.

The conditions surrounding a Korean birth are thought to be critical to the infant’s later development. Therefore, every precaution is taken to see that the environment is auspicious. The atmosphere is kept at a comfortable temperature, the mother keeps calm and serene, the family is unified and at peace, and dietary precautions are taken.

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Traditionally, the grandmother will assist at the birth and prepare the necessary equipment. Korean women traditionally deliver their children onto a cotton blanket laid over straw. The mother is in a squatting position and is aided by the birth-helper who is probably the mother or mother-in-law. The birth-helper will press down from behind on the body of the woman in labour.

Now, as Korea becomes modernised, more women are choosing to secure the services of a qualified midwife or to give birth in a hospital; but the traditional way is still not uncommon.

Immediately after the birth, the mouth of the baby is cleaned out to remove any impurities. Then the baby is wiped with boiled, clean water and placed beside the mother. Once the infant is delivered, bathed and presented to the mother, the birth-helper wraps the afterbirth in the birth straw and burns it. As the smoke rises to heaven, people gather outside the gate and pray that they might next have a son born to them.

The placenta is much honoured, as it is believed to symbolise the three spirits responsible for the birth of the child: the spirit of fertility; the spirit of life; and the spirit of growth. Once the placenta is properly cut away, the navel cord is washed and carefully preserved in a clean gauze-like cloth. Traditionally, this was kept by the mother until she died.

For the first three weeks after the birth, the mother and child are well cared for. The mother may return to her parents’ home to be looked after. No guests other than family are permitted. Straw strings are made to hang in the door, signifying ‘no visitors’. When guests are welcome, the straw strings are twisted to the right. If a son is born, red pepper, pine branch and charcoal (for good health) are twisted into these strings; if the infant is a girl, only pine branch and charcoal are intertwined.

Only mild food is given to the mother during the first three weeks. She is rarely left alone with the child and a relative may sleep with her. At the end of three weeks, the mother resumes her normal life, and the father returns to sleep with his wife.

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After the baby passes its first motion (usually after three days), the mother will start breast feeding. The first liquid coming from the breast is discarded. During the breast feeding period, contact between mother and child is exclusive and intimate. The baby is not fed when it is angry or upset, and no attempt is made during this period to discipline or control the child. Breast feeding may be available to the child until the birth of the next baby; and up to the age of about 7 years a child is allowed to have contact with the mother’s breast. Once the infant reaches six months of age, it will be given rice, gruel, soup or anything else that is easy to digest.

From an early age the Korean baby it is hugged, kissed and never left alone. It is carried continually, often in the grandmother’s arms, and is cared for by the mother and other relatives and siblings.

Discipline in general is thought inappropriate for the very young child and most Korean toddlers are, by Australian standards, thought to be quite spoiled. When a baby approaches danger, they are not scolded but simply removed physically from the threat.

The hundred-day celebrationBecause Korea has a past history of high infant mortality, there are no traditional pre-birth baby gifts. However, there is usually a grand celebration when the infant reaches the age of 100 days. The extended family attends on this day, together with friends and other relatives, to meet the new arrival. The home is adorned with a baby picture and a festive meal, including seaweed soup and round rice cakes, is prepared. Everyone brings a gift such as clothing, nappies or towels.

Toilet trainingToilet training begins when a child is several months old. If there is a grandmother in the house, the training will be diligent and highly organised. Very early, the grandmother learns how often to expect a wet nappy. At first the nappy is simply changed as soon as it is wet, and the baby hugged and patted on the hip. The baby thus learns from early infancy that urination is an achievement of which to be proud. The grandmother, when she feels the time is right for learning, will remove

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the nappy and whisper ‘shh, shh’ in the baby’s ear. Soon the baby will urinate on request; and, once this is achieved, she or he is presented with a dry nappy. This association of a good toilet performance with love from the grandmother is a powerful training device and many infants are completely trained by the age of 1 year.

WalkingLike toilet training, instruction on walking is usually offered by the grandmother. Even before their legs are strong enough to walk, babies are encouraged to crawl towards a toy or to imitate older siblings or parents who crawl competitively with the child. Eight months is the usual time for the first step. Although children learn to walk early, strenuous exercise is not encouraged, as it is thought to slow development.

Daily routinesSmall children get up when they are ready. Mother prepares breakfast and then they play until lunch. Children may sleep after lunch, but this is not compulsory. The family eats the evening meal together. At the table the toddler is taught table manners, including handling chopsticks, being quiet and remaining seated. Children eat from a communal platter. Discipline at the table is very important. Children are reprimanded if they spill food or spit food out. After dinner, the family sit together, and when children are sleepy, they simply lie down on grandmother’s lap or in mother’s arms and go to sleep. When adults retire, blankets are spread and children laid down.

Discipline

Once the child is a toddler, the father, grandparents or others become involved in teaching them the rules of living harmoniously with others. Children also learn by example. Status terminology is stressed and the child is encouraged to address siblings politely. Other siblings also help to look after the younger ones. The oldest boy is looked up to for help with settling disputes. A child is disciplined by its parents by facial expressions and physical punishment. It is forbidden to discipline a child in front of guests, and smacking must only be on the legs or hips. Children may be rewarded by praise, food or a small gift.

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Gender differences

From the age of 7 years, the sexes are separated (at home and at school). This sexual separation is enforced even more stringently outside the family, where girls particularly are rigidly controlled and not allowed to mix freely with boys. A little girl will also be deprived of intimate physical contact with her father from this time on. He will no longer bathe her and she must not sleep on his side of the bed. There is less distance between father and son. Girls from this age no longer play outside with boys, but receive instructions from mother in housekeeping, cooking and care of younger children.

Education

Korean parents prepare their children for entry to school. They teach them some numbers and letters, how to write and how to follow instructions. They will also be taught how to take care of their belongings, and to respect their teachers. At this time, father begins to assume a more active role, and the child is more strictly controlled and rigidly disciplined.

Education is highly prized and highly competitive, and the system is quite formal, characterised by rote learning and memorisation. Children are encouraged to strive and to achieve.

Schooling is compulsory only until Grade 6 in South Korea; but it is estimated that on average girls in Korea remain in full-time education until aged 15 years, and boys until age 18, with parents paying some of the cost. In North Korea, schooling is free and compulsory to Grade 9.

Festivals and celebrations

It is not part of Korean tradition to celebrate birth dates, although many people acknowledge New Year’s Day as their birthday. The exceptions to this are two special birthday celebrations: the first birthday and the 60th. However, many Koreans living in the cities and other countries do now celebrate actual birthdays.

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Traditionally, a kind of rice cake is baked in honour of a child’s first birthday. These cakes are distributed to the neighbours, who, in turn, send a gift of money for the child. It is a special source of pride for grandmother, if her grandchild can carry his or her own rice cakes to the neighbours.

For the first birthday, the child is dressed in a typical Korean costume and, if it is a boy, he wears a special hat. A table is placed before the child, set with food and arranged with three types of objects: pencils, money and thread. The child is expected to pick up one of these three items, and the one it chooses will foretell its future. If it picks up a pencil, it will become a scholar; if it picks up the money, it will be a merchant; if it picks up the thread it signifies a long life. If a child grasps two of these items at the same time, it will forfeit neither but will be visited by good fortune twice over. Guests bring gifts of metal such as money, brass bowls or silver spoons. After the ceremony there is a feast and guests are given a variety of foods.

The main Korean festivals are as follows:

• October 9th - On this day Koreans commemorate the adoption of the Korean (Hangul) alphabet.

• New Year - Traditionally, New Year is celebrated in February or March according to the lunar calendar, but many Korean people now celebrate New Year’s Day on January 1st. Whenever it is celebrated, it remains one of the main family holidays. Relatives visit the home of the eldest male and a service will be held to honour deceased ancestors. Elderly family members will also be visited, and children will receive coins when they bow in the traditional way – three times in succession. A small amount of paper money is also given to children from other close family members.

All debts for the year are usually finalised on New Year’s Day.

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• Tano - Tano, the Day of Swings, is celebrated on the 5th of May. It is believed that this festival originated in ancient pagan rituals, after the planting of the spring seeds. On this day, Korean families hold special memorial services at the graves of their ancestors. Many contests of strength are held. There is a swinging contest for women, to see who can swing high enough to kick a suspended bell. Wrestling matches are another popular contest. Korean people believe that irises are a symbol of good luck and on the evening before Tano, irises are sold in the streets.

• Weddings - Wedding celebrations are usually held in public wedding halls with the bride wearing a Western style bridal gown.

• 60th birthday - The 60th birthday of a Korean person is celebrated with the traditional Confucian expression of filial piety and joy in a long life. Sixty represents one full cycle in the traditional system of year names.

Clothing

For everyday wear, the clothing is usually Western style, with beautiful traditional costumes kept for festive occasions.

Games and toys

The child has an important place in the extended family. Children are never left alone, and if mother is busy, they are cared for by grandparents or older siblings. Sometimes extra help is hired to assist with housework and child care. If a small child cannot be supervised at play, the mother will carry it on her back.

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Play is influenced by the extended family rather than by material possessions. Sibling play is encouraged, including touching, finger plays and crawling. The few toys children have are shared by all. Most toys are created by the children themselves, although dolls are becoming popular – and children learn the skill of carrying babies on their back by playing with a doll or pillow tied on.

Korea has many traditional games. Yut-nori is a popular game, often played at festival times between family members who have gathered to spend the special time together. It is similar to backgammon, played with four flattened sticks. Ssirum is men’s wrestling and kossaum-nori is a tug of war.

Food

Korean food is extremely hot, salty and with many herbs and spices. Kimchee, a dish of hot pickled cabbage, radish or cucumber, is the national dish of Korea. It is rich in vitamins and is eaten every day. Rice is the national staple. Meat and dairy products are not readily available and traditionally are not eaten in large quantities. Polgogi is a famous marinated roast beef dish. Other common foods include barley, fish, apples, peaches, pears, beans and potatoes. Certain foods are forbidden during pregnancy, such as duck and pigs’ trotters.

Meals are eaten by the family sitting together around a low table. Breakfast is traditionally the most important meal of the day in Korea. Lunch is light, and the evening supper is a moderate meal. A typical meal might include a bowl of rice, a soup such as soy bean soup or a beef soup with noodles, many side dishes of vegetables in season and perhaps side dishes of meat or fish. Barley tea may be served with the meal. The tea cup is held in both hands and the tea is sipped.

On festival days, rice cakes and rice wine are enjoyed. At the Hundred Days feast for a new baby, steamed red bean cakes are placed in the house at the four points of the compass. If they are shared with one hundred people, this ensures health and a long life for the child.

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Bibliography

All-Australian almanac, Hodja, Richmond, 1995.

Harvey, J.H.T., The Koreans, Korean Overseas Information Service, Seoul, 1993.

Lye, K., South Korea, Franklin Watts, Sydney, 1989.

Rice, P., Asian mothers, Australian birth, Ausmed, Melbourne, 1994.

Yoon, Ho Mi., Korean basics, Korean Overseas Information Service, Seoul, 1993.

AsianInfo.org, 2000, Korean language, using information on the Korean language provided by the Korean Embassy in the United States.

World factbook, South Korea, 2008, http://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/kn.html, updated 2008.

World factbook, North Korea, 2008, http://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ks.html, updated 2008.

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East and South-East Asia - Korea

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