Earth Science Fall 2016

Owner _______________________

OUTLINE OF SEMESTER

Syllabus ……p2 Calendar ……p3-7 Intro to ES ……p8-29 Mapping ……p30-72 Energy & Environment ……p73-84 Meteorology……p85-130 Minerals/Rocks ……p131-162 Tectonics ……p163-190 Semester One Review/Study Guide ……p191-203

GENERAL POLICIES Bring this book to class every day. It is your responsibility to read the daily emails/texts or check Vision to see what

you need to make up when you are absent. You will have one calendar week to make up missed work. After that time, you will receive a zero for the assignment.

Labs are designed to be completed in class. Some questions you may finish at home. If you are absent on a lab day, you have one calendar week to make it up during flex. Labs will be graded during your test for that unit or as a lab quiz. No late labs will be accepted.

Every week there will be a new quiz posted in Vision. It must be completed online by the deadline (11:59pm Friday). It is your responsibility to complete the online quiz – typically outside of class – by the due date. Each is for a grade and failure to complete it by the due date will result in a zero for a quiz grade. You can make them up for half credit in the Closed Vision Quiz section, as long as you do so before the quarter ends.

Notes are to be completed as assigned. The final check for credit will be done during the test for that unit.

One retake per test is available if you have completed all the homework/labs associated with that unit. You will receive the average of the original & retake grades. Retakes must be completed by the end of that quarter.

Online access is necessary for this class. If you do not have it at home, it is available:

• During flex (see me for a flex pass) • Before/after school (when school library is open) • At the local public library

1

FALL SEMESTER Introduction to Earth Science

Mapping Energy & Environment

Meteorology Minerals & Rocks

Tectonics

SPRING SEMESTER Surface Processes

Astronomy Oceanography Geologic Time

Virginia Geology SOL Review/Prep

August/ September 2016

Important Information

Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri

29 30 31 1

2

5 Labor Day – No School

6 7 8 9

12

13 14 15 16

19

20

21 22 23

26 27 28 29 30

3

October 2016 Important Information

Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri

3 4 5 6 7

10 Columbus Day – No School

11 12 13 14

17 18 19 20 21

24 25 26 27 28

31

1 2 3 4

November 2016 Important Information

Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri

31 1

2 3 4 End 1st Qtr

7 Planning Day – No School

8 Planning Day – No School

9 10 11

14 15 16 17 18

21 22 23 Thanksgiving Break – No School

24 Thanksgiving Break – No School

25 Thanksgiving Break – No School

28 29 30 1 2

5

December 2016 Important Information

Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri

28 29 30

1

2

5 6 7 8 9

12

13 14 15 16

19

20

21 22 Winter Break – No School

23 Winter Break – No School

26 Winter Break – No School

27 Winter Break – No School

28 Winter Break – No School

29 Winter Break – No School

30 Winter Break – No School

January 2017 Important Information

Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri

2 Winter Break – No School

3 4 5 6

9 10 11

12 13

16 Martin Luther King Day – No School

17 18 19 20

23 24 25 26 End 2nd Qtr

27 Planning Day – No School

30 31 1 2 3

7

UNIT ONE – GENERAL SCIENCE A. Lab Safety

• Toxic chemicals are spilled down your back

• What do you do? How long? Where?

• What does the class do? What does teacher do?

• Who should be contacted?

• How do you prevent it?

• Your hair catches on fire

• What do you do? How long? Where?

• What does the class do? What does teacher do?

• Who should be contacted?

• How do you prevent it?

• Your partner’s notebook catches on fire

• What do you do? How long? Where?

• What does the class do? What does teacher do?

• Who should be contacted?

• How do you prevent it?

• Chemicals are splashed into your eyes

• What do you do? How long? Where?

• What does the class do? What does teacher do?

• Who should be contacted?

• How do you prevent it?

B. Earth Sciences & Spheres

• Identify the four earth sciences & the spheres:

• Astronomy

• Geology

• Meteorology

• Oceanography

• Atmosphere

• Biosphere

• Geosphere

• Hydrosphere

• Determine what science/sphere different items would qualify as

• Determine what scientist would study different events (meteorologist,

oceanographer, geologist, astronomer)

C. Scientific Method

• Put the steps of the scientific method in order.

• Recognize the independent & dependent variables in an experiment or

hypothesis.

• What do you need to support your hypothesis if you are ‘doing’ science?

• Evaluate experiments as being viable or not

• Read & interpret graphs

9

D. Metric System

• Match each unit with what it measures (gram, liter, meter)&(mass, volume,

length)

• Use a ruler, graduated cylinder, or triple-beam balance to accurately determine

the length, volume or mass of an object.

• Determine the volume of an irregular solid.

E. Density

• Calculate the density, mass or volume of an object, given two of the three

• Explain how each of the following affects density:

• Different amount (bigger/smaller pieces)

• Change in temperature

• Change in pressure

• Predict how liquids of different densities would interact in a graduated cylinder

INTRO TO EARTH SCIENCE VOCABULARY http://quizlet.com/12933067/unit-one-intro-to-es-flash-cards/

TERM DEFINITION HELPFUL PICTURE OR WAY TO REMEMBER DEFINITION

astrology a religion (NOT a science) that claims that the position of the stars/planets at your birth determines your personality & future

astronomy the scientific study of the material universe beyond Earth's atmosphere

atmosphere the thin envelope of gases surrounding any celestial body

biosphere all living organisms on Earth & their environments

constant anything that is kept the same in an experiment

control

the group without the independent variable, which is used as a comparison to make sure outside factors don't interfere with the experiment

density a measure of how much mass is in a given volume of space; measured in grams per milliliters

dependent variable

the variable the scientist measures as a result of the experimental variable

fact a definite event observed with the senses

geology the study of Earth's physical structure, history & the processes that act on it

geosphere Earth's solid physical features, inside & out, except for water & life

11

hydrosphere all water in the Earth system, gas (water vapor), liquid (water) and solid (ice)

hypothesis an educated guess or prediction, based on observation

independent variable

the variable the scientist is testing with an experiment

law a mathematical description of HOW something happens, without exceptions, instead of why

mass a measure of the amount of material in a substance; measured in grams

meteorology the study of the Earth's atmosphere & phenomena, including the weather & climate

oceanography the exploration & study of the physical & biological processes of Earth's oceans

skepticism a questioning attitude towards knowledge, facts, or opinions/beliefs stated as facts

theory a current best explanation of WHY something is happening

variable something that changes in an experiment in order to test a hypothesis

volume a measure of the amount of space an object takes up; measured in mL or cm3

Potomac Falls High School Student Science Safety Rules and Regulations

Science is a hands-on laboratory class. You will be doing many laboratory activities, which require the use of potentially hazardous materials and equipment. Maintain a positive attitude toward safety. Students should not

fear doing experiments, using reagents, or equipment, but should respect them for potential hazards.1. Know the location of safety and first aid

equipment. 2. Wear safety goggles whenever you use

heat, chemicals, solutions, glassware or other dangerous materials.

3. Do not touch materials or equipment until instructed to do so by your teacher.

4. Do not engage in horseplay or other acts of carelessness.

5. Dispose of wastes properly. Do not put matches in the sink. Put broken glassware in proper containers

6. Never eat, drink or chew gum in the laboratory.

7. Never drink from the laboratory glassware.

8. Notify the teacher when you observe hazardous conditions in the classroom

9. Examine equipment for malfunction, cracks, or other defects before beginning.

10. Report all accidents to your teacher immediately.

11. Know the possible hazards of a lab experiment before conducting it.

12. Never reach over a flame or a heat source. Keep hair and clothing away from flames.

13. Use flammable chemicals only after ensuring that there are no flames anywhere in the lab.

14. Perform only authorized and approved experiments.

15. Follow instructions both verbal and written from your teacher.

16. If you do not understand a procedure, ask your teacher to explain.

17. Prepare for an experiment by reading the directions before coming to the lab.

18. Set up equipment away from table edges to avoid dropping it on the floor.

19. Read all labels twice before using. 20. Never return reagents to the stock bottle. 21. Never mix chemicals together unless the

instructions indicate for you to do so. 22. Never taste chemicals. 23. Always add acid to water when diluting

acids. 24. Always clean your lab equipment and

workspace after you finish a lab experiment or activity.

25. Wash hands after spills and at the end of each laboratory period.

I, ____________________________ (student’s printed name) have received, read and agree to follow the science safety rules and procedures listed above. I further agree to abide by all written and verbal instructions given in class. I understand that I may ask my instructor at any time about rules and regulations that are not clear to me. I am aware that my failure to follow these science laboratory rules and regulations will subject me to possible disciplinary action. _____________________________________ Student Signature Date

Dear Parent or Guardian: Please read the list of safety rules above. Your signature on this form indicates that you have read this Student Science Safety Rules and Regulations, are aware of the measures taken to make the science laboratory safer, and will instruct your son/daughter to uphold his/her agreement to follow these rules and procedures in the laboratory. _____________________________________ Parent Signature Date

13

Lab Emergency Procedures

1. Toxic chemicals are spilled down your back a. Immediately go to the _______________________. Pull down handle & shower for

______ minutes. Mrs. Rippa will hold up a shower curtain for privacy while you strip off _________ your clothing.

b. The rest of class goes out into the hallway. One person goes to the office for ___________________ while another goes to _______________.

c. Prevent it by wearing goggles and apron & work carefully with all dangerous chemicals. No running or horseplay!

2. Your hair or clothing catches on fire a. Stop, drop & roll, calling for the teacher. Mrs. Rippa will throw the

_________________ over you & smother the flames. b. The rest of class will get out of range. One person goes to the office for

___________________ while another goes to _______________. c. Prevent it by keeping long hair, sleeves & clothing out of range of the flames. Never

reach or lean over the flames. No running or horseplay!

3. Your partner’s notebook/book/backpack/etc. catches on fire a. Back away, calling for the teacher. Mrs. Rippa (if it is a small fire) will use a

__________ __________________. If it is too large to handle, she will evacuate the room as well.

b. Everyone leaves the room, staying far away from the fire. If Mrs. Rippa cannot contain the fire, pull the fire alarm. One person goes to the office for ___________________.

c. Prevent it by keeping all flammable objects out of range of the fire. Never hold anything over or near the flames unless the lab procedures tell you to do so. No running or horseplay!

4. Chemicals are splashed or rubbed into your eyes a. Calling for Mrs. Rippa, have your lab partner escort you to the _________________

& push down the lever. You will hold your eyes open & keep your eyes in the running water for ______ minutes.

b. Everyone stays back. One person goes to the office for ___________________ while another goes to _______________.

c. Prevent it by wearing goggles during the lab & washing your hands thoroughly with soap & water after putting your lab equipment away.

The Four Earth Sciences Video Link: https://youtu.be/Jly7DC5i_Dk 1. ________________________: The study of Earth's

________________________, _______________ & the processes that act on it. Includes minerals, tectonics, volcanoes, land forms, and natural resources.

2. ________________________: The study of the ___________________________ __________________________. Includes theories as to the formation of the stars, solar system, and planets. Primary focus is on the Earth's place in space.

3. ________________________: The study of the Earth's __________________ & phenomena, including the __________________ & __________________.

4. ________________________: The exploration & study of the physical & biological processes of Earth's ___________. Includes landforms on the __________________ & __________________ with their influences on weather.

15

Scientific Method Video Link: https://youtu.be/vc696o1OSZg Science is a tool for answering why & how things happen, using experimentation to test if we’re right.

1. ________________ an event. 2. Develop a _____________ (or ___________________) which makes a

_________________. 3. _____________ the prediction with an _______________________. 4. Record the ____________. _______________ the data to get a result. 5. Make a __________________________ based on the results. 6. Revise & repeat as needed. 7. ______________ conclusions & experiment with other scientists so they can test it,

as well. 8. A successful hypothesis becomes a scientific theory.

Experiment Example Use the video to help you decide what term goes with each section of this example of an experiment. Terms are: constants, control, DV, hypothesis, IV, question.

Does Miracle-Gro really get you bigger tomatoes? If tomato plants are treated with the recommended dosage of Miracle-Gro, their average mass per tomato will be greater than the average mass from untreated tomato plants. Same type of tomato plants, same soil, same original height/age, same pots, same sunlight, same location… One group of 10 plants gets recommended dosage of Miracle-Gro. Another group of 10 plants gets no Miracle-Gro. Monitor growth of tomatoes. Each time a tomato becomes fully ripe, pick it & measure the mass with an electronic balance. Record number & weight of each tomato from each plant. At the end of the summer, determine the average mass of a tomato from each group. Compare to see which group – Miracle-Gro or no Miracle-Gro – had the greatest average mass per tomato.

Experiments should…

• Match well to hypothesis • Be repeatable • Have lots of constants • Have a control group for comparison, if possible • Have multiple trials • Include accurate & precise measurements

Terminology _____________________: a __________________________________ towards knowledge, facts, or opinions/beliefs stated as facts, or doubt regarding claims that are taken for granted elsewhere ________________________ Variable: what the scientist is ______________ in the experiment, like added plant food or amount of water given to a plant. You can only have _________ IV. (What I change.) ________________________ Variable: the ________________ of the independent variable, like the growth of a plant. It depends on the IV. __________________: anything that you ____________________________ (or constant) in all your testing. You want __________ of these! Amount of sunlight, type of plant & type of soil are examples. You only want one variable in your experiment, the IV. _________________: the group ______________________________, like the group with no plant food. This allows you to make sure that no outside variables are messing with your experiment. Fact, Hypothesis, Theory or Law? Fact: something repeatedly observed with the five senses, sometimes with assistance from instruments like telescopes or microscopes. It is definite – not a prediction of the future or inference about what happened in the past or how or why something happens.

I saw the sun rise in the east this morning & every morning the past week.

Hypothesis: an educated guess, inference on what happened in the past or prediction for the future, based on observation. It can be supported or rejected through experimentation or more observation.

The sun will rise in the east tomorrow morning. Scientific Theory: if evidence accumulates to support a hypothesis, then the hypothesis can be accepted as a current best explanation of __________ something is happening – a scientific theory. Theories must be testable, explain what is happening & predict the future.

Heliocentric theory: Earth rotates on its axis, while revolving around the sun. Since Earth rotates counter-clockwise, this causes the sun to appear to rise from the eastern horizon when observed from a location at Earth’s surface.

Scientific Law: laws describe _________, or in what mathematical pattern something happens, instead of why. At the time it is made, there are no exceptions to the law. For example, Newton’s Law of Gravity allows us to predict the behavior of a dropped object, but doesn’t explain why.

Kepler’s laws of planetary motion, which mathematically describe planetary orbits.

17

We don't prove theories (and hypotheses) true. We just use the observations to convince ourselves (and others) that we have a good idea. Scientists have a lot of confidence in scientific theories, because they know there is a lot of evidence to back them up. No scientist will ever claim that a theory is true. What they will do is state that the evidence agrees with the theory. Of course, sometimes new evidence shows up that we didn't have before. Then we will reach a new conclusion! http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/educators/teachstuds/pdf/unit1.pdf

Scientific Method Questions Figure out what step in the scientific method the scientists are practicing. Write the name of the step in the blank. (question, hypothesis, experiment, analyze data, make a conclusion, communicate results) 1. “Wow! I can’t believe how green the grass is over there. Why isn’t it brown like on our side of the mountain?” ___________________________________________________________________________________ 2. “All right, Nan, flip that switch and cross your fingers.” ___________________________________________________________________________________ 3. “And that concludes my presentation on the effects of slope on infiltration rates. Are there any questions?” ___________________________________________________________________________________ 4. “Hmmmm . . . If the number of daylight hours is important to Earth’s temperature, then Earth will have higher global average temperatures when the number of hours of sunlight is greater.” ___________________________________________________________________________________ 5. “Interesting. My graph of temperatures shows that areas with more hours of sunlight are 10-15° hotter!” ___________________________________________________________________________________ 6. “The soil is richer where the grass is green. Shall we conclude that the soil is always richer on the other side?” ___________________________________________________________________________________ 7. The climates of densely populated industrial areas tend to be warmer than similarly located sparsely populated rural areas. From this observation, what can be inferred about the human influence on local climate? a. Local climates are not affected by increases in population density.

b. The local climate in densely populated areas can be changed by human activities c. In densely populated areas, human activities increase the amount of natural pollutants d. In sparsely populated areas, human activities have stabilize the rate of energy absorption

8. Which of the following is an inference, rather than an observation? a. The sun often appears red just before sunset

b. Some stars are visible only with a telescope c. Tomorrow the weather will be cool & rainy d. The outside temperature is 18° Celsius

9. A scientist observing the light given off by a star discovers that this star emits a kind of starlight never before observed by other scientists. Which of the following reactions would NOT be good science?

a. He contacts other astronomers to help him observe and understand this unusual star b. He extends his idea of what a star is to include this newly discovered object c. He changes his observations to conform to what he has learned from textbooks d. He repeats his observations to be sure that he has not made some kind of error

19

Graphing Practice This graph shows the mass and volume of different-sized samples of a substance.

1. What is the volume of a 200g mass of this substance?

2. What is the volume of a 500g mass of this substance?

3. The volume of a substance is 100mL. What is the mass?

4. The formula for density is mass/volume. What is the density of a 200g mass?

5. What is the density of a 500g mass?

6. Does the density of an object change based on its mass?

This graph shows the different layers of the atmosphere and how temperature and pressure vary with altitude. Pressure is labeled at the top & has the smooth curved line near the bottom left of the graph, temperature is labeled at the bottom & its line is sharper and changes direction.

7. What is the lowest layer of the atmosphere called? 8. What is the highest layer of the atmosphere called? 9. What is the temperature at 0m altitude? 10. What is the temperature at 10000m altitude? 11. What happens to temperature as you increase in altitude in the troposphere? 12. What is the pressure (mb) at 0m altitude? 13. What is the pressure at 30000m altitude? 14. In which atmospheric layer is the greatest pressure?

21

15.This image above shows three graphs of typical ocean water. The top is the surface of

the ocean. What are the x and y axis of each graph? a. Graph A describes ____________________ (x) vs _________________ (y) b. Graph B describes ____________________ (x) vs _________________ (y) c. Graph C describes ____________________ (x) vs _________________ (y)

16.What happens to temperature (graph A) as you go deeper into the ocean?

a. Temperature increases (hotter) b. Temperature decreases (cooler) c. Temperature decreases then increases d. Temperature increases then decreases

17.What happens to salinity (graph B) as you go deeper into the ocean?

a. Salinity increases (saltier) b. Salinity decreases (less salty) c. Salinity decreases then increases d. Salinity increases then decreases

18.What happens to density (graph C) as you go deeper into the ocean?

a. Density increases (more dense) b. Density decreases (less dense) c. Density decreases then increases d. Density increases then decreases

What is mass?

What is volume?

Does shape matter to volume?

DRAW: How do you find the volume of an irregularly-shaped object?

Explain:

23

Video Link: https://youtu.be/N8fH7JNNsTc

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

Units: g/mL or g/cm3

__ g/mL __ g/mL

The one on the right is more tightly packed, so is ______________ dense.

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

Changing Pressure

Changing Temperature

25

______________________________________________________________

Density Practice

Use the density triangle (above right) to figure out the following calculations:

5. The density of a substance is 2g/mL. What would the volume of 10g of it be?

6. The density of a substance is 5g/mL. What would the volume of 5g of it be?

7. The density of a substance is 3g/mL. What would the mass of a 10mL chunk of it be?

8. The density of a substance is 6g/mL. What would the mass of a 7mL chunk of it be?

27

FUN WITH DENSITY!

At or near your table you should have the following items: • Triple beam balance (or electronic scale) – to find _______________________ • Tall graduated cylinder – to find _______________________ • Graduated beaker • Clay • Calculator • Small plastic container to be filled with water • Paper towels

Procedures • Using the tall graduated cylinder, scale and a small amount of clay:

o Mold the clay into two balls of different sizes that will fit into the tall graduated cylinder. They should be as perfect as you can make them!

o Determine the mass of each ball o Determine the volume of each ball

HOW?? You will need to fill the graduated cylinder with a certain amount of water (you choose). The volume is how much the water rises.

o Determine the density of each ball. Round to the nearest whole number. Record the results in the table below.

o Pour the clay balls out of the graduated cylinder and dry them off COMPLETELY!

Mass (g) Volume (mL) Density (g/mL) [round to nearest whole

number] Small Ball 1

Small Ball 2

• Using the graduated cylinder, scale and ALL of the clay:

o Mold ALL of your clay into one ball that is as perfect as you can make it. o Determine the mass of the ball o Determine the volume of the ball using the graduated beaker, using the same method from

above o Determine the density of the ball, rounded to the nearest whole number. Record the results in

the table below. o Pour the clay out and dry it off COMPLETELY!

Mass (g) Volume (mL) Density (g/mL) [round to nearest whole

number] Large Ball

• Using the plastic tub of water and all of the clay:

o Try to mold the clay into a shape that will FLOAT on the water in the plastic tub. Keep changing the design until you are successful.

o Take the clay out and dry it off COMPLETELY! o Return all materials so the next group will be ready to go. Thank you!

Graph Your Data

Questions for review:

1. How do the densities of the two small balls compare with each other?

2. How do the densities of the two small balls compare with the large ball of clay?

3. Which numbers ended up being more similar, the masses of the clay, the volumes off the clay, or the densities of the three clay balls?

4. What does that tell you about density?

5. Did the balls sink or float when you dropped them into the water?

29

Unit Two – Mapping Given a map, be able to determine:

A. Latitude/longitude of a location

B. Distance between two points using a scale

C. Contour interval on a topographic map

D. Elevation of a location

E. Direction a river flows

F. Where the slope is steep/gentle

G. Highest possible elevation on a map Also, be able to:

H. Draw the profile of a line on a topographic map

I. Distinguish between a hill and a depression

J. Use a time zone map

K. Explain how GPS works & where it would/would not work

L. State problems with different types of map projections

M. Match vocabulary terms with their definitions

MAPPING VOCABULARY http://quizlet.com/13038491/unit-two-mapping-flash-cards/

TERM DEFINITION HELPFUL PICTURE OR WAY TO REMEMBER DEFINITION

Benchmark location marked on a map with the exact elevation at that spot, such as at the top of a mountain

Contour Interval

the difference in elevation between two consecutive contour lines

Contour Line narrow lines on a topographic map that indicate the landscape's elevation

Elevation height above sea level

Equator imaginary line dividing Northern & Southern hemispheres

Gnomonic map projection formed from laying a piece of paper down on the earth & tracing the shapes; only the center touches the globe & is true

Hemisphere half a sphere or globe

Index contour thick, bold lines on a topographic map that indicate the exact elevation of that line; usually every 5th line

Latitude imaginary line circling the world from east to west parallel to the equator (also called parallels)

Longitude imaginary line circling the world from north to south between the poles (also called meridians)

31

Magnetic Declination

angle by which a compass needle will vary from true north

Map Scale the comparison between distance units used on a map with the actual distances on Earth's surface

Mercator

cylindrical map projection in which the meridians and parallels of latitude appear as lines crossing at right angles and in which areas appear greater farther from the equator

Polaris

the star that is almost directly over the geographic North Pole, also called the north star; angle above the horizon is equal to the latitude of locations in the Northern Hemisphere

Polyconic map projection of the globe onto a cone with its point over one of the earth's poles; only accurate at the center meridian

Prime Meridian imaginary line dividing Eastern & Western hemispheres

Slope change in elevation divided by distance; how steep or gentle an incline is

Topographic map map showing the shape of the land

Introduction to Mapping Notes Latitude

• Latitude lines circle the globe in an east-west direction. • Latitude measures how far north or south a point on Earth lies from the

equator. • Latitude lines are also called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator. • The equator is at 0° latitude and separates Earth into Northern & Southern

hemispheres. • Locations north of the equator have latitudes between 0° (the equator)

and 90°N (the North Pole). • Locations south of the equator have latitudes between 0° (the equator)

and 90°S (the South Pole). • Measured by the angle of Polaris above the horizon in the northern sky.

Longitude

• Longitude lines run from the North Pole to the South Pole. • Longitude measures how far east or west a point on Earth lies from

the Prime Meridian. • Longitude lines are also called meridians. • The Prime Meridian, the line of longitude which passes through

Greenwich, England, is the 0° longitude line. • Locations east of the Prime Meridian have longitudes 0° to 180°E. • Locations west of Prime Meridian have longitudes 0° to 180° W. • 180° E or W is the International Date Line. • Measured by the time difference from the Prime Meridian.

Location

• A location is given by latitude & longitude together, in order, with directions: 40N 35W • Each degree of latitude or longitude is broken into 60 arc minutes: instead of 41.5°N, say 41°30’N • Each minute of latitude or longitude is broken into 60 arc seconds: instead of 41°30.5’N,

41°30’30”N Map Scale

• Verbal- “one inch equals one mile” • Fractional- 1/XXXXX or 1: XXXXX = one unit of distance equals XXXXX of those same units on

Earth’s surface • Graphical- line with inches on one side and miles or km on the other

Map Distance

1. Use the edge of a sheet of paper to mark off the distance between the two locations you are attempting to measure.

2. Lay the paper next to the graphical scale usually at the bottom of the map.

3. Use the scale as a ruler to determine how far apart the two marks are, being sure to start at the zero mark of the scale. OR

1. Copy the graphical scale onto the edge of a sheet of paper. 2. Use this sheet as a moveable ruler to measure the distance between two points.

33

What do you know about maps?

1. Draw a green "X" at the intersection of Oak Street and 2nd Avenue. Draw a black "X" where River Street meets Cat Bridge. 2. In red, draw a short street route from City High School to the City Library.

3. Which is farther east, the elementary or middle school? _____________________

4. Which is farther south, Lake Park or City Park? _____________________

5. How far (in miles) is it from the bus station to the hospital? _____________________

6. Which school's address is 250 Oak Street? _____________________

7. What city building is located at E3? _____________________

8. When you look northeast, you see River Park. When you look north, you see the Water Plant. When you look east, you see the Elementary School. Where are you?

_____________________

1. What is the name of the largest island above? ___________________________ 2. What is the name of the ocean in the map? ___________________________ 3. Which island is farthest west? ___________________________ 4. Which island is farthest south? ___________________________ 5. Draw a red "X" at latitude 20oN, longitude 157oW. 6. About how many miles is it from Hilo to Captain Cook? ___________________________

7. What direction would you travel to go from Hilo to Mauna Kea?

35

1. Do lines of latitude run east-west or north-south? _____________________

2. Name the three states that extend below latitude 30 degrees N (in the contiguous US).

_____________________

_____________________

_____________________

3. Name one US state that is mostly east of longitude 70 degrees W, and label it on the map. _____________________

4. Name three US states (shown on this map) that extend west of longitude 120 degrees W.

_____________________

_____________________

_____________________

5. Is the location 27 degrees N latitude, 85 degrees W longitude on land or under water? On the map, mark it with an X.

_____________________

6. Name the state that is located entirely between 40-45 degrees N latitude and between 90-100 degrees W longitude, and label it on the map.

Map Scales:

This type of scale is called a statement of equivalency.

Or you may see a bar scale as shown below:

How many miles of Highway 101 are shown on this map?

37

Another type of scale you may see is the representative fraction or ratio scale: NOTE: 1 mile = 63,360inches

This means that the real world is 253,440 times LARGER than this map. In other words, 1 inch on the map equals 253,440 inches on the ground. Or, 1 centimeter on the map equals 253,440 centimeters on the ground. [The problem is we don’t think in that many inches or centimeters. Since in the real world 1 mile = 63,360 inches, we can calculate that one inch on the map is equal to 253,440 inches, which is 4 miles in the real world.] Try these ratio scales… 1:24 000 means that 1 inch on the map = _____________ inches in the real world 1:250 000 means that 1 inch on the map = _____________ inches in the real world 1: 50 000 means that 1 inch on the map = _____________ inches in the real world

Which of these three scales would cover more area?

A little practice on map stuff…

Use the following map scale to determine the distances of the following lines |________|________| 0 50 100

1. _____________________________________________________ 2. ___________

3. ____________________________

4. __________________________________________________________________________

5. If a map scale looks like: , a. One inch equals 24,000 inches in real life b. Once inch equals 24,000 miles in real life c. One mile equals 24,000 miles in real life

6. 15° South Latitude, 75° East Longitude _____ 7. 60° North Latitude, 120° West Longitude _____ 8. 30° South Latitude, 0° Longitude _____ 9. 0° Latitude, 150° West Longitude _____ 10. 30° North Latitude, 180° East Longitude _____ 11. 75° North Latitude, 90° West Longitude _____

39

41

Procedure

43

Analysis Questions 1. Using your chart, in which state did Katrina make landfall first? 2. If the coordinates are 24 hours apart, at what latitude/longitude was a Hurricane Warning issued? 3. Using the data table, what is the difference between the highest and lowest air pressure readings on the data

table? Show your work. 4. Identify the wind speed and air pressure on August 28

th at 18:00UTC. Be sure to include the correct units.

a) wind speed = _________________ b) air pressure = _________________

5. In general, how was wind speed changing (a) before August 28

th at 18:00UTC and (b) after August 28

th at

18:00UTC? [increasing or decreasing]

a) ____________________________ b) ______________________________

6. In general, how was the air pressure changing (a) before August 28th

at 18:00UTC and (b) after August 28th

at 18:00UTC? [increasing or decreasing]

a) ____________________________ b) ______________________________

7. Based upon your answers to questions 5 and 6, what is the general relationship between changes in air pressure and wind speed in a hurricane? [As air pressure increases, wind speed…]

8. From 00:00UTC on August 26

th to 18:00UTC on August 28

th, Hurricane Katrina strengthened significantly.

According to the map, where was Katrina located at these times? What did this area provide to the storm to help strengthen it so much?

9. What caused Hurricane Katrina to slow down to a tropical depression on August 30

th?

10. According to this lab and lecture, which region of the United States is the most vulnerable to hurricanes? 11. What are the two main conditions that would cause a hurricane to die out? 12. Describe two things that you and your family can do to prepare for a hurricane.

Topographic Maps Video Link: https://youtu.be/FBNjPUjxkm8 Field- any region of space that has some measurable value at every point.

Ex: temperature, air pressure, elevation, wind speed Isolines- lines on a map that connect points of equal field value

Isotherms- lines of equal _______________ Isobars- lines of equal ___________________ Contour lines- lines of equal _______________

Contour interval- the difference in elevation between consecutive contour lines [in other words, what numbers are you counting by when you move from one line to the next]

calculate: Elevation at one labeled line – Elevation at next labeled line

# spaces between Contour Interval = _________________

Index Contour = _______, ________ contour lines on contour maps, usually every 5th line

Benchmark = a BM or X or where a metal marker is in the ground and labeled with an exact elevation

Draw the isolines! (connect

points of equal values)

45

Rules of Contour Lines

• Never intersect, branch or cross • Always close on themselves (making circle) or go off the edge of

the map • When crossing a stream, form V’s that point uphill (opposite of water flow)

Video Link: https://youtu.be/7Bc8Re_ieF0 • Concentric circles mean the elevation is increasing toward the top of

a hill, unless there are hachures showing a depression • Lines close together = steep slope Lines far apart = gentle slope

Label each as a depression or a hill: Color your map:

Index Contours: red Benchmarks: green Hills: yellow Stream ‘V’: gray (pencil) Stream direction: blue Contour Interval: ________

Drawing a Contour Map

Purpose

Topographic maps enable geologists, builders, engineers, and hikers to “see” the shape of a particular landscape in 3 dimensions- think of it as the length, width and height of a location. The beauty of a topo map is that all of this information and more (street names, landmarks, highways, political boundaries, etc.) fits onto a flat piece of paper that can be folded up and tucked away. It takes a great deal of practice before one can easily read and interpret the information on a topo map. Perhaps the most difficult part is envisioning the various changes in elevations and features- steep slopes, hills, valleys, and plateaus. This activity is designed to help you translate the map- in other words, help you to “see” the 2-D map in 3 dimensions.

Procedures 1. In your group, build a mountain with clay. Make it interesting – more than one hilltop, gentle & steep slopes,

etc. – but make sure there aren’t any overhangs. It must be at least 3cm high. This will be a small model of a real-size mountain. Each centimeter of elevation on your model will be 50m in the ‘real world.’

2. Make a stream coming down the side of your mountain, using the eraser of your pencil to dig the river channel. 3. Draw a rough side view of your mountain below:

4. Now, you’ll make a contour map of your mountain. First, trace the bottom of your mountain in the space

provided. This will be 0m elevation contour line, marking the outside (bottom) of the mountain. Label it as 0m. [Each cm in height on this scale model will be 50m on a real-size mountain.]

5. Next, use 2 sticks and fishing line to cut your mountain at the 1cm mark (which counts as the 50m elevation contour on a real-size mountain). Wrap the string around each stick 1cm above the bottom, stand the sticks on each side of your mountain with the line held taut between them, then slide/saw the string through the mountain. It should cut off the bottom 1cm of your mountain. MAKE SURE YOU DON’T BREAK OR BEND YOUR MOUNTAIN! Trace this new bottom of the mountain – which is the 1cm elevation (50m) contour line - in your map. This new contour line should fit inside your old contour line. Remember, contour lines cannot touch! Label the contour line with the elevation (50m).

6. Next, use the sticks & fishing line to cut another centimeter off your mountain. This will be the 2cm mark (100m real elevation). Trace this new contour line in the map & label it. Repeat until you have sliced the mountain into centimeters and the last slice is less than 1cm high.

47

7. When you finish, turn in the ruler, plastic sheet wrapped around your mountain, sticks and fishing line. Clean up your area.

Contour Map of My Mountain

Evaluation (don’t forget units!)

1. Each centimeter in elevation stands for 50m of a real mountain. What is the height and width of

your mountain in meters? Height_______________________________ Width______________________________

2. What was the contour interval? _____________________________________________________________________

3. Label all the contour lines on your map with their elevations.

4. When the lines are closer together, the mountain is [select one] steeper/gentler.

5. When the lines are farther apart, the mountain is [select one] steeper/gentler.

6. Describe how contour lines showed the river channel. Mark it on your map.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. In what compass direction does the river flow?

________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Map Scale

A) Fill in the values for the contour lines on the above map. Each box should contain a number

(19 boxes). [Hint: Work from south to north on the western side first, then follow the contour lines to fill in the east.]

B) Place the word “Steep” where the slope is steepest.

C) Place the word “Tallest” where you find the highest point of land.

D) Place an arrow (→) on Saphire River, indicating the direction that the water flows.

E) Place an arrow (→) on Ruby Creek, indicating the direction that the water flows.

F) Write the word “Beach” where you might expect to find a beach.

49

1. Label all the contour lines with their elevation.

2. In what direction does the Ert River flow?

3. Which is a taller hill – C or F?

4. What is the landform at E?

TOPOGRAPHIC MAP PRACTICE Draw contour lines on the field map at right. Be sure to follow the rules!

a. Draw the 8.5 contour line. b. Draw the 9.5 contour line. c. Draw the 7.5 contour line.

If a river were on this map, in which direction would it flow? Label all the contour lines for each map:

Any hills here? How many? Any hills here? How many? Any depressions? How many? Any depressions? How many?

Any hills here? How many? Any hills here? How many? Any depressions? How many? Any depressions? How many?

51

Working with USGS Topographic Maps Distance: Using the graphical scale

What is the distance in kilometers from point A to point B? What is the distance in kilometers from point A to point C? What is the distance in kilometers from point A to point D? What is the distance in kilometers from point C to point B?

Which location is more steep: Point C or point B? How can you tell? In which compass direction does the Bluebell Canyon stream flow?

Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MllKDgDenR0

Elevation: Using the contour interval & contour lines

When you are on a contour line:

1. Find the nearest labeled contour line (index).

2. Determine if your point is uphill or downhill of that contour line.

3. Check the contour interval. 4. Count how many lines away you are

away from the labeled (index) contour. Multiply that number by the contour interval.

5. Add or subtract your number from the labeled contour line.

When your point is between lines:

1. Determine the elevation of the two lines closest to that spot.

2. Since it isn’t on a line, we don’t know the exact elevation. Estimate a number between the two known elevations.

What is the exact elevation of point A? What is the exact elevation of point C? What is the exact elevation of Point E? What is the exact elevation of Point F?

What is the estimated elevation of point B? What is the estimated elevation of point D? Which location is steeper: point C or point B? How can you tell?

CONTOUR INTERVAL 40

Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DKbB32nQh1E

53

MAPPING STATIONS LAB – Use the maps around the room to answer these questions. A – Map Projections NOTE: Parallels are latitude lines. Meridians are longitude lines.

Type Accuracy of

Directions

Accuracy of

Distance

Accuracy of Shape/

Area

Biggest Problems

Globe

Accurate Accurate Accurate Small scale, no detail,

bulky

Mercator

Only along straight

lines

Only correct near equator

Large areas distorted,

esp at poles

Distance/ shapes

inaccurate, esp at

poles

Gnomonic

Only true from the

center

Ok @ center, bad away

Distorted away from center

Distorted distance/

shapes away from center

Polyconic

Only good @ center meridian

Only on latitude/ longitude

lines

Only @ center

meridian

Only good @ center

B – “G” Topographic Map & Model 1. The northwest corner of the model is the lowest point on the map. How many steps up

do you need to get to the highest point (in the SE corner)? __________ The contour interval is 100ft. So, given that & the number of steps, what is the total relief (difference between the highest & lowest point) on this map? ____________

2. If you dropped water onto the model at the letter G, in what compass direction would it flow? _________ How do contour lines on map show this?________ _____________________________________________________________

C – Time Zones Earth is a globe, son only one line of longitude on Earth is directly facing the sun at any moment. The time at that longitude is called solar noon (12p). The line of longitude on the opposite side of the globe is having midnight (12a). Since there are 360° around Earth and it turns once in 24 hours: 360/24 = 15°. So, the Earth rotates at 15° per hour. Each 15° of longitude has a different hour of time. [So the song is right, it’s ALWAYS 5 o’clock somewhere!] On a map, when you move 15° , subtract 1 hour. When you move 15° , add one hour. Since political boundaries rarely match longitude lines, countries redrew the time zones to fit what they wanted. It’s the same concept, though: each time you move one time zone you subtract 1 hour. When you move one time zone add one hour. The time zones on these maps are colored so it’s easier to see. For example, if it is 3pm in Libya (Africa), it is 2pm in Egypt, 1p in Ethiopia and 4pm in Mali.

1. When it is 6pm in Dallas, TX, it is _____ in Atlanta, _____ in DC, ____ in Phoenix and _____ in Los Angeles.

2. When it is 9am in Sterling, VA, it is _____ in Atlanta, _____ in DC, ____ in Phoenix, _____ in Dallas and _____ in Los Angeles.

3. TOUGH ONE: If it’s 8pm in DC, what time is it in London, England? [Hint: Look at the bottom of the map to see the colors & make sure you don’t get lost going across the Atlantic Ocean.]

4. If Olympic swimming is 4pm local time in London, what time is it here in Virginia?

55

D – Yosemite Falls Quadrangle Video Link (elevation): http://youtu.be/DKbB32nQh1E 1. Where is the name of a topographic map found? [Hint: The name of this

station is the name of the map.]

2. Find the scale of this map. One inch on the map is equal to ____________ inches on the real world.

3. What is the contour interval of this map? 4. Which location is more steep: A or B? 5. What is the elevation of point A?

Magnetic declination Video Link: https://youtu.be/IBlZbPsCuPw Compasses point to magnetic north (MN), which is currently in northern Canada, not at the geographic North Pole. But, maps are always oriented to the North Pole. So, if you are using a compass while looking at a map, you need to know how far off your compass is from true north so you walk in the right direction. Maps list the magnetic declination (The difference between true north and magnetic north) with a symbol like the one at right. This particular diagram shows that magnetic north is 18° west of true north.

6. Find magnetic declination on the Yosemite map. How far off is it from true north?

____° [E or W?] E – Old Faithful Quadrangle Video Link (distance): https://youtu.be/MllKDgDenR0

1. Which location is more steep: A or B? 2. What is the distance from A to B in kilometers? 3. What direction does Stream X flow? 4. What is the magnetic declination on this map? 5. What is the contour interval? 6. The Firehole River runs past most of the famous geysers, including Old Faithful. In

what direction does it flow? [Hint: check the benchmarks along the river.]

F – Satellite Image http://www.ssec.wisc.edu/data/comp/cmoll/cmoll.html [can do at home – only works on Explorer, and only if Java is up-to-date] 1. What is the name of this map?

___________________________________________________________ 2. How is this different from all the other maps in this room? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 3. What information does it provide? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 4. Follow a set of clouds near the poles over several hours/days. In what direction are the clouds moving at the poles? ____________________________________________________________ 5. Follow a set of clouds near the equator over several hours/days. In what direction are the clouds moving at the equator: ________________________________________________________ 6. What temperature scale are they using on this map – Kelvin, Celcius or Fahrenheit? ________________________________________________ BONUS: Why do you think the highest temperatures move from east to west across the globe? [Hint: This map covers several days in fast forward.]

PLEASE DO NOT MOVE OFF THIS WEBPAGE – DO NOT CLICK ON

ANYTHING!

57

Drawing a Topographic Profile

1) Find the line on your map where you want to draw your profile. 2) Place a blank piece of paper along the line you have drawn. 3) Make a tic mark wherever the paper crosses a contour line on the

map. Write the elevation of the contours below their tics on your paper. Do NOT count a river or stream as a contour line! If you cross a river/stream, remember that the numbers usually repeat from one side of a stream to the other.

4) Make a note of the highest and lowest points on the profile for use later. Be sure to check to see if you crossed a hill or a valley.

5) Once you are certain you have all of the appropriate tic marks and elevations, remove your paper from the map. Get a piece of graph paper that is at least as long as your line of section. Place your paper with the tic marks on the graph paper (once again, you may want to tape it down).

You will now graph the information. The tic marks are now the x-axis of your graph, illustrating distance. The numbers you recorded are the y-axis showing the elevation.

6) Use the maximum and minimum elevations along your line of section to determine the elevations you will write on the y-axis of the graph. For example, if your highest elevation is 8000m and your lowest elevation is 4000m, label your y-axis from 4000m up to 8000m.

Beginning with your starting elevation, go directly above the tic mark on your paper and make a small dot on the graph paper at the corresponding elevation. Make a small dot for each tic mark on your paper. Connect the dots on the graph paper, and you have a topographic profile.

Constructing Profiles of Islands Video Link: https://youtu.be/PG_nBwW0usg

Step 1: Label contour lines Step 2: Mark lines on scratch paper & label with contour elevations Step 3: Graph points, making sure to label y-axis Step 4: When consecutive points are at same elevation, dip up (hilltop) or down to keep a smooth ‘roller coaster’ ride

Ocean elevation 0 meters – Contour Interval 10m

Ocean elevation 0 meters – Contour Interval 10m

59

A B

C D

Hint: Start at outside (0m sea level) and label up to top of each hill. NOTE: Rivers & streams are NOT contour lines, so are not labeled on a profile.

61

GPS Global Positioning System GPS is a network of 32 satellites that orbit the Earth. If you have a GPS receiver (left) and a clear view of the sky, your receiver uses the satellites overhead to determine your position (below right). A GPS receiver determines its location by analyzing signals it receives from GPS satellites orbiting around Earth. Signals from satellites that are farther away take longer to reach the GPS receiver. Distances to several satellites are calculated based on the amount of time their signals took to reach the receiver.

After determining its distance from at least three satellites, the GPS receiver can calculate its own position using triangulation. (Any location can be identified using distances from three other known locations.) Circle the areas where GPS would work well. Open field

Mountaintop

In a tunnel

On a ship on the open ocean

In a cave

Underwater

In an airplane

Underground

On top of a building

In a submarine

Inside a building

www.gps-basics.com

63

The Relationship Between Slope & Speed QUESTION: How does the slope of a hill affect the speed at which water/ball/etc. flows down it? HYPOTHESIS: If the slope of a hill increases (becoming more steep), then the speed of a ball rolling

down it will ______________ [increase, decrease, stay the same] Independent Variable:

Dependent Variable: MATERIALS: textbooks, meter stick, timer, calculator, track, ball PROCEDURE: Use the textbooks lain down flat on top of each other to make different slopes –

some steep (many books), some gentle (fewer books). Lay the track down the side of each slope, measure elevation & track distance. Then, roll the ball down the slope & time it. Make your calculations.

Trial Elevation (cm)

Track Distance (cm)

Slope (elevation/distance) Time (sec)

Speed [distance/time]

(cm/sec)

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS OF RESULTS:

APPLICATION:

1. What is the relationship between the slope of a hill & the speed at which water flows down it?

2. How can you tell if the slope is steep or gentle on a topographic map?

3. Interpret the following topographic map at right. a. At which location(s) would you expect the water to flow most quickly?

Circle that location & draw an arrow pointing to it. What sort of landform do you think would be there?

b. At which location(s) would you expect the water to flow most slowly? Draw a square around it & an arrow pointing to it.

c. Assuming that north is at the top of this image, in what compass direction would the streams flow?

65

TOPOGRAPHIC MAP PRACTICE Draw contour lines on the field map at right. Be sure to follow the rules!

a. Draw the 8.5 contour line. b. Draw the 9.5 contour line. c. Draw the 7.5 contour line.

Label all the contour lines for each map:

Any hills here? How many? Any hills here? How many? Any depressions? How many? Any depressions? How many? What is the highest possible elevation of point K?

Any hills here? How many? Any hills here? How many? Any depressions? How many? Any depressions? How many?

A B

C

D

E

F

G

H

K

Draw a profile of each of the four maps at the bottom of the previous page, using the dark line that crosses

67

Mapping Study Guide – memorize these! [p68-72] Find the distance between two points, using a scale:

1. Use the edge of a sheet of paper to mark off the distance between the two locations you are attempting to measure.

2. Lay the paper next to the graphical scale usually at the bottom of the map. 3. Use the scale as a ruler to determine how far apart the two marks are, being sure to start at the zero

mark of the scale. Find the contour interval: It’s usually listed at the bottom center of the map. If it says CI=40m, you know that every line is 40m above or below the neighboring line. If not, do this equation:

Elevation at one labeled line minus Elevation at next labeled line # spaces between

Find the elevation of a location on a contour map: HINT: Go to https://www.una.edu/geography/topo_maps/ and do the Lesson.

1. Find the nearest labeled contour line (usually bold, called an index contour line). If your point is on that line, you now know what the elevation is! If it isn’t on that line, move to the next step.

2. Figure out if your point is uphill or downhill of that index contour. You could… a. Find another nearby index contour that is on the other side of your point. (You want to know

the index contours on each side, surrounding your point.) Then you know your point must be between those two labeled elevations.

b. See if your point is in the center of a circle. If it is, then your point is at the top of a hill. c. Look for a stream. Typically the stream will be at the low point, so you can work it out from

there. 3. Check the contour interval. That is the change in elevation between neighboring lines. So, count up or

down by the amount of the CI until you reach your point. (assuming it’s on a line). 4. If your point is NOT on a line, you don’t know the exact elevation. So just estimate between the nearest

contour lines. 5. HIGHEST POSSIBLE on a hill: Find the value of the highest contour line that surrounds your spot. Use

the contour interval to determine the next highest contour line. Subtract one from that number.

Direction a river flows: NOTE: Rivers flow DOWNHILL. They don’t care about compass direction! Here are a couple rules:

1. Rivers flow into the ocean. (That does not mean always into a lake – sometimes rivers flow out of lakes, so don’t assume.)

2. Rivers flow to the open side of the V. Whenever a contour line hits a river, it makes a V pointing up the hill. So, the river flows down to the open side of the V.

3. Rivers flow from a higher elevation to a lower elevation. Find a contour line at one end of the river, then the other end. It will flow from high to low. [NOTE: This goes for wind flowing from high pressure to low pressure, too.]

Draw a profile of a line on a contour map: 1. Label contour lines 2. Mark lines on scratch paper & label with contour elevations 3. Graph points, making sure to label y-axis 4. When consecutive points are at same elevation, swing up (hilltop) or dip down to keep a smooth ‘roller

coaster’ ride. HINT: Streams indicate at a dip down.

Given a map, be able to determine: Latitude/longitude of a location Distance between two points using a scale Contour interval on a topographic map Elevation of a location Direction a river flows Where the slope is steep/gentle Highest possible elevation on a map

Also, be able to: Draw the profile of a line on a topo map Distinguish between a hill and a depression Use a time zone map Explain how GPS works Match vocab terms with their definitions State problems with different types of map projections

PRACTICE EXAMPLES

Political Maps

1. What is the latitude, with direction, of point F? 2. What is the longitude, with direction, of point I? 3. What letter is located at approximately 18°N 158°W? 4. Which option at right shows latitude? 5. Which option at right shows longitude? 6. What is 0° latitude called? 7. What is 0° longitude called? 8. All locations in the United States are labeled [north,

south, east or west] latitude and [north, south, east or west] longitude.

What is the biggest problem with Mercator projections?

What do Mercator projections look like?

69

Topographic Maps (use the map to answer the questions)

1. Label all the contour lines in the map above. 2. Color the elevations:

Between 700-800 = blue 800-900 = green 900-1000 = orange 1000+ = red 3. What is the highest possible elevation on this map? 4. Write “steep” at the steepest slope. 5. What is the length of the mountain, from southwest tip to northeast tip?

______________________________________________________________________________________ 1. Label all the contour lines. 2. What is the contour interval of this mountain? 3. How many hilltops are there? 4. How many depressions? 5. What is the highest possible elevation on this map? 6. What is the elevation at point A? 7. Estimate the elevation at point B. 8. What is the distance between point A and B, in feet?

1. Using the contour interval, label the elevation at each contour line. 2. Draw the profile from X-Y. 3. Which side of the mountain is more steep? 4. What is the highest possible elevation on this map? 5. What is the distance between X and Y?

___________________________________________________________________________________

1. Label the contour lines, using the contour interval. 2. What is the highest possible elevation on this map? 3. What is the lowest possible elevation on this map? 4. In what direction does this river system flow?

5. How can you tell? 6. Draw a profile of line X-Y. 7. What is the distance between X and Y?

71

Time Zones [use the shaded portions to find the time zone, not the longitude] 1. As you move east across time zones, you ____________ one hour. 2. As you move west across time zones, you ____________ one hour. 3. If it is 5pm in San Francisco, what time is it in: a. Denver ____________ b. Dallas ____________ c. Buffalo ____________ d. New York City ____________ 4. If it is 3pm in New York City, what time is it in: a. Buffalo ____________ b. Dallas ____________ c. Denver ____________ d. San Francisco____________

______________________________________________________________________________________

Other Maps Use the map to answer the following questions.

1. Where are you more likely to experience an earthquake – in south Alaska or Virginia? 2. What hazard zone is Virginia in? 3. What hazard zone is Florida in? 4. Would you be more likely to experience an earthquake in Texas or Maine? 5. What part of the US has the greatest risk of earthquakes?

________________________________________________________________________________ Vocabulary List (be able to match each with its definition) http://quizlet.com/13038491/unit-two-mapping-flash-cards/

If you can answer these types of questions & know how to do everything on the first page of the study guide, you should be able to do well on the test. Email me if you have any questions at molly.rippa@lcps.org.

Name the renewable types of energy that we studied. Name the benefits and drawbacks of each.

Name nonrenewable types of energy that we studied. Name the benefits and drawbacks of each.

What makes something renewable or nonrenewable?

Causes Effects Prevention

Global Climate Change

Ozone Depletion

Acid Rain

Algal Blooms

Environment & Energy Study Guide Test Date:

73

What ocean do most of Virginia’s streams empty into?

What large body of water (ocean, bay, gulf, etc.) does the southwestern corner of Virginia empty into?

What is the largest river in Virginia?

What are some environmental problems in the Chesapeake Bay? What are they caused by?

Label the major watersheds of Virginia (Mississippi, Other, Chesapeake Bay, Atlantic, NC Sounds)

Distinguish between point and nonpoint source pollution.

VIRGINIA/ENVIRONMENT/ENERGY VOCABULARY https://quizlet.com/79360599/virginia-environment-energy-flash-cards/

TERM DEFINITION HELPFUL PICTURE OR WAY TO REMEMBER DEFINITION

Acid rain Precipitation carrying large amounts of dissolved acids which damages buildings, forests, and crops, and kills wildlife.

Chlorofluorocarbons

group of chemical compounds used in refrigerators, air conditioners, foam packaging, and aerosol sprays that may enter the atmosphere and destroy ozone

Filter feeder Organism that takes in water to filter out the food and then releases the extra water (clam, oysters, sponge)

Geothermal energy Energy from steam or hot water produced from hot or molten underground rocks.

Global warming

Theory that the Earth is gradually warming as a result of an enhanced greenhouse effect in the Earth's atmosphere caused by ever-increasing amounts of carbon dioxide produced by various human activities

Hydroelectric energy

Electricity generated from the force of moving water

Non-point source pollution

Pollution that comes from many places or sources that is not easily identified; pollution that results from water flow picking up trash, toxic chemicals, and other types of waste

Nonrenewable resource

A natural resource that cannot be replaced or that can be replaced only over thousands or millions of years

Nuclear power the use of controlled nuclear reactions to produce steam, which in turn drives turbines to produce electricity

Ozone hole

the reduction in the ozone layer over Antarctica;the ozone layer absorbs lethal wavelengths of ultraviolet light; caused by chlorofluorocarbons

75

Point source pollution

Pollutants discharged from a single identifiable location (e.g., pipes, ditches, channels, sewers, tunnels, containers of various types)

Renewable resource A natural resource that can be replaced at the same rate at which the resource is consumed

Solar energy energy from the sun that is converted into thermal or electrical energy

Sustainability Being able to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Turbidity A measure of how clear water is, due to suspended particles (dirt)

Wind energy The energy captured by transforming the motion of air into electrical energy using a turbine

77

Save the Chesapeake Bay WebQuest What is a watershed? Basically, a watershed is a section of land that drains to a common location, i.e., a catch basin or drainage basin. It is all the land surrounding a body of water that-when it rains-drains to that body of water. Land typically is located above the level of the water in streams and lakes, so naturally water flows downhill and collects in those streams and lakes. Go to Mrs. Rippa’s website. On the left, click on the Color Map of Virginia Watersheds. Use that map to color your black & white map and label the major rivers within Virginia’s borders. Don’t forget the other side of the Chesapeake Bay! Label all the rivers in Virginia. General Virginia Watersheds On the watershed map, looking ONLY within Virginia’s borders, which river is the longest & has the largest watershed? ______________________ Except for the ______________ watershed, all of Virginia’s rivers ultimately dump their water into the Atlantic Ocean. What major body of water (NOT a river) would the one exception ultimately flow into: ________________________. What major landform would cause the water in that portion of the state to flow away from the Atlantic Ocean: _____________________. Chesapeake Bay Operational Forecast System – Realtime animated map data from buoys throughout the Chesapeake Bay http://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/ofs/cbofs/cbofs.html. Most of the page is a map of the Bay, showing the locations of their buoys. Underneath the map are the categories of information that are available. Use the website to pick the most correct answer from the bolded options. Circle the best answer. Click on the Nowcast under Water Level. The water level animation which appears displays the most recent water levels in local time at a [(1)(2)(3)] – hour interval. Water levels are reported in the animation relative to the MLLW (Mean Lower Low Water) in feet and are color coded in the animation with the lowest water levels (indicating low tide) most likely represented by [(greens to reds)(blues and purples)]. Allow the animation to run while following the progress of either high water levels (high tides) or low water levels (low tides) through the Chesapeake Bay. You can use the control bar under the map to stop the animation and then click the “Next” button to set your own viewing pace. The animation shows the tides moving through the Bay [(towards)(away from)] the mouth of the Bay.

Image from Google

Watch the movement of a low or high tide as it travels the length of the Bay. There is a time reference listed at the bottom of the animation. The times below the map indicate it probably takes about [(3)(6)(12)] hours for a tide to travel the entire length of the Bay. Return to the main page. Click on the Nowcast under Currents. The animation shows the near surface current with arrows portraying current direction and color indicating speed (with blue to green showing the slower and orange and reds to black showing the faster moving water). Play the animation while watching for patterns in the Chesapeake Bay. The Chesapeake Bay experiences currents [(only into)(only out of)(into and out of)] the Bay. Return to the main page. Click on the Nowcast under Salinity. The color coding shows near surface salinities ranging from near 0 (darkest blue) to about 34 (deepest red). The color coding shows that the salinity of the open Atlantic near-surface water has values near [(1)(11)(21)(31)]. The color coding shows that the most northerly reaches of the Bay have salinities near [(1)(11)(21)(31)]. The pattern of near surface salinities throughout the Bay reveal that the waters entering the Bay from the ocean and from rivers flowing into the Bay [(do)(do not)] mix. Seasonal changes in the amount of fresh water from rivers and streams have effects on the salinity of the Chesapeake Bay. In spring, rains & snowmelt in the Chesapeake Bay watershed increase the discharge (cubic meters per second of flow) of rivers and streams draining into the Bay. On the other hand, in autumn, precipitation in the watershed tends to be lighter. Based on this information, you would expect the Bay waters overall to be [(less)(more)] salty in spring than in autumn. Chesapeake Bay Interpretive Buoy System – Realtime data from buoys throughout the Chesapeake Bay http://buoybay.noaa.gov/observations/data-snapshot.html

At left is a map of all the buoys in the bay. Go to the link above to get data. Make the Date Range as ‘Most Recent,’ the Select a platform as ‘All platforms,’ and the Select a parameter as ‘Water Salinity.’ Click ‘Load’. What happens to salinity as you move to more southern buoys? Why? There is one buoy in the south that doesn’t fit the pattern. Why is it different than the others?

Change the parameter to ‘Chlorophyll.’ Click

‘Load’. Fill in the table at right. These locations mark the mouths of the Potomac, Rappahannock &

Buoy Station (north to south)

Salinity (psu)

Susquehanna (S) Patapsco (SN) Annapolis (AN) Upper Potomac (UP) Gooses Reef (GR) Potomac (PL) Stingray Point (SR) Jamestown (J) Norfolk (N) First Landing (FL)

Buoy Station (north to south)

Chlorophyll (ug/L)

Potomac (PL) Stingray Point (SR) Norfolk (N)

79

James rivers, respectively. Which river is the most polluted by fertilizers, creating a surge in chlorophyll from algae? What could people along that river do to reduce the chlorophyll in that area? Save the Bay PowerPoint You can work with a partner. On Mrs. Rippa’s website, click on the Chesapeake Bay Webquest on the left. You will make a PowerPoint following the directions on the webquest. When you are finished, give it YOUR FULL NAMES and save it to your ‘My Documents’ folder on the school computer. Close the file. Open the ‘My Documents’ folder. Also click on ‘My Computer’. Open up the Global drive, RIPPA folder, then your period. Slide your PowerPoint file from the ‘My Documents’ folder into the Inbox for your class period. Make PowerPoint showing: 1) How fertilizers & pesticides are each negatively affecting Bay water quality. [2 slides – one for each]

a) What is this type of pollution & how does it get to or happen in the Bay? b) What specifically does that do to water quality or the Bay ecosystem?

2) What is an algal bloom? What causes an algal bloom? Why is it not good? How can we prevent algal

blooms? [1 slide] 3) How you (as someone who lives in the Bay watershed) can ‘save the Bay.’ [1 slide] 4) List of all websites you got information from. (Google is just a search engine, NOT a source of info!)

[1 slide] It should probably be 5 slides all together. With a title/author slide it’ll be 6. There is a blank template available on the WebQuest page.

Energy & Environmental Resources Read textbook pages 148-163. Then answer the following questions.

1. List four nonrenewable energy resources used today. Which one is NOT a fossil fuel?

2. Name TWO renewable energy resources & tell why they are considered renewable.

3. Fill in the following table:

Name of Energy Source Advantage of this Type

Disadvantage of this Type

Hydroelectric

Nuclear Power

Solar Power

Coal Power

Windmill Power

Petroleum Power

Geothermal Power

4. Although renewable energy resources cause fewer environmental problems, why don’t we use them more?

5. What type of energy is typically considered the CLEANEST with the fewest environmental problems?

81

Use the graph on page 163 to answer the following questions. 6. Air pollution can worsen the health of people with lung disease. According to the graph,

when is the best time for such a person to run errands?

7. What could be the cause of the peaks in the amounts of pollution on the two days?

8. Falling rain tends to clean pollutants from the air. What evidence is there that no rain fell Tuesday morning before 6am?

Virginia's Electricity Coal - 49% Nuclear - 42% Petroleum - 4% Gas - 3% Hydroelectric (Dams) - 0.4% Renewable (wind, etc.) - 0.001%

America's Electricity Coal - 56% Nuclear - 20% Gas - 10% Hydroelectric (Dams) - 10% Petroleum - 3% Renewable (wind, etc.) - 0.22%

9. According to the graphs above, what type of energy does Virginia use double what the rest of the country does, on average?

10. What type(s) of energy do YOU think is/are the best? Remember, all have problems! Explain & give your reasoning.

Environmental Problems Causes Effects Prevention

Global Climate Change

Ozone Depletion

Acid Rain

Algal Blooms

83

1. Release of CFCs and similar compounds are a possible cause of - a. acid rain in the northeast U.S. b. destruction of ozone in the upper atmosphere c. greenhouse gas build-up in the lower atmosphere d. increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration

2. Seawater is typically denser than freshwater due to seawater's -

a. lower freezing point c. smaller mass b. greater depth d. higher salinity

3. People have tried many methods to artificially produce rain. One

method, called cloud seeding, involves airplanes dropping particles of silver iodide onto clouds to help the clouds produce rain droplets. These silver iodide particles act as -

a. dew points c. condensation nuclei b. hailstones d. electrical charges

4. A volcanic eruption can affect the atmosphere by -

a. clearing away nearby clouds, increasing the amount of sunshine

b. adding large quantities of several gases, such as sulfur dioxide, to the atmosphere

c. increasing the amount of oxygen due to escaping gases d. reducing the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere

5. Which of the following would not prevent global climate change?

a. Increasing use of gasoline-powered cars b. Increasing use of nuclear power c. Decreasing CO2 emissions d. Decreasing use of coal power plants

6. Ozone molecules protect Earth from the harmful effects of the

sun by - a. regulating the heat from the sun b. condensing water particles in clouds c. insulating the temperature at the poles d. absorbing ultraviolet radiation

7. Government programs to reduce acid rain have resulted in cleaner emissions from U.S. industries in recent years. As a result, the sulfate concentration in rainwater has declined significantly. But the sulfate concentration in some lakes is showing little, if any, change. Why might this be true?

a. There is no connection between emissions from industry and the acidity of lake water.

b. The sulfate in American lakes is actually coming from industries in Europe & Asia.

c. Sulfate that accumulated earlier in the soil is still being flushed into the lakes by run-off.

d. Individual industries produce fewer emissions but the amount of precipitation has increased.

8. By increasing the height of smokestacks, industries in the Midwest reduced the local concentration of air pollutants. However, the pollution was carried by wind to the Northeast where it contributed significantly to –

a. Reduced rainfall b. Soil erosion c. Mass wasting d. Acid rain

9. Most water leaves the ocean through evaporation and returns to

the ocean through a. precipitation c. ground water b. transpiration d. surface runoff

10. Limestone is a valuable resource in Virginia because limestone

can be processed to make – a. Plastic b. Steel c. Concrete d. Plywood

Meteorology SOL Review The Origins of Earth’s Atmosphere

- composition of Earth’s atmosphere has changed over geologic time

- early atmosphere contained little oxygen and more carbon dioxide that today’s atmosphere

- early photosynthetic life such as cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) contained carbon dioxide and generated oxygen

- after early photosynthetic life generated oxygen, animal life became possible

Other Planets’ Atmospheres - Venus’s atmosphere is mostly carbon dioxide and is very

dense; runaway greenhouse effect as a result

- Mars’s atmosphere is mostly carbon dioxide and very thin

Earth’s Atmosphere Today - Earth’s atmosphere is unique in the solar system in that it

contains substantial oxygen (21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen, 1% trace gases)

- human activities have increased the carbon dioxide content of Earth’s atmosphere

- man-made chemicals have decreased the ozone concentration in the upper atmosphere

- volcanic activity and meteorite impacts can inject large quantities of dust and gases into the atmosphere

- ability of Earth’s atmosphere to absorb and retain heat is affected by the presence of gases like water vapor and carbon dioxide

Weather and Climate - weather: describes day-to-day changes in atmospheric

conditions ⋅ energy transfer between the Earth’s surface and the

atmosphere creates the weather ⋅ convection in the atmosphere is a major cause of weather ⋅ convection is the major mechanism of energy transfer in

the oceans, atmosphere, and the Earth’s interior ⋅ tornado: narrow, violent, funnel-shaped column of spiral

winds that extends downward from the cloud base toward Earth

⋅ hurricane: tropical cyclone (counterclockwise movement of air) characterized by sustained winds of 120 kilometers per hour (75 miles per hour) or greater

- climate: describes the typical weather patterns for a given location over a period of many years ⋅ four major factors affecting climate: latitude, elevation,

proximity to bodies of water, position relative to mountains ⋅ Earth’s major climate zones: polar, temperature, tropical

- both weather and climate are measurable to an extent predictable

The Sun

- Earth’s surface is much more efficiently heated by the sun than is the atmosphere

- amount of energy reaching any given point on the Earth’s surface is controlled by the angle of sunlight striking the surface and varies with the seasons

- areas near the equator receive more of the sun’s energy per unit area than areas nearer the poles

Winds - winds are created by uneven heat distribution at the Earth’s

surface by the sun and are modified by the Earth’s rotation (influenced by the Coriolis effect) ⋅ Coriolis effect causes deflections of the atmosphere due

to the Earth’s rotation ⋅ flows from high to low pressure

Clouds - the conditions for cloud formation are air at or below the dew

point and the presence of condensation nuclei

- cloud droplets can join together to form precipitation

- types: cirrus: light, thin, feathery (fair weather clouds); cumulus: puffy white clouds; stratus: low gray clouds

- During the day, they prevent sunlight from hitting surface, colling off the air; at night, they hold in heat, keeping it warmer

Measuring Devices - anemometer: measures wind speed

- barometer: measures atmospheric pressure

- psychrometer: measures relative humidity

Weather Maps - weather moves from west to east in the US

- symbols for cold fronts, warm fronts, pressure and precipitation should be known ⋅ high pressure (H): fair weather, circulates clockwise and air

sink ⋅ low pressure (L): bad weather, circulates counterclockwise

and air rises ⋅ air from high pressure always moves to areas of low

pressure (gradients)

- cold fronts: cold air invades warm air; rain and thunderstorms

- warm fronts: warm air invades cold air; steady rain

- isotherms: lines of equal temperature (like contours)

- isobars: lines of equal pressure (like contours)

85

METEOROLOGY VOCABULARY http://quizlet.com/13038569/unit-three-meteorology-flash-cards/

TERM DEFINITION HELPFUL PICTURE OR WAY TO REMEMBER DEFINITION

Air pressure the force air exerts per unit area

Anemometer instrument to measure wind speed

Barometer instrument used to measure atmospheric (air) pressure

Cold front the front of an advancing mass of colder air (produces thunderstorms or heavy snow)

Warm front the front of an advancing mass of warmer air

Occluded front A warm front that's overtaken by a cold front.

Stationary front A boundary between air masses that don't move possibly causing rain for several days

Climate an area's long-term pattern of weather

Condensation when water changes from a gas to a liquid

Condensation nuclei

microscopic particles on which water vapor condenses to form a cloud

Conduction transfer of heat by direct contact in solids

Convection transfer of heat by movement through a liquid or a gas

Coriolis effect the tendency of an object moving freely over Earth's surface to curve away from its path of travel, caused by Earth's rotation

Dewpoint the temperature at which the air becomes saturated with water vapor & condensation occurs

Front the boundary between two air masses of different characteristics

Isobar a line that joins points with the same air pressure

Isotherm lines that connect places with the same temperature

Jet stream concentrated curving band of high speed winds at the top of the troposphere

Meteorology the study of processes that govern Earth's atmosphere

Precipitation falling liquid or solid water from clouds toward Earth's surface

Radiation transfer of energy through space by electromagnetic wave

Relative humidity

comparison of the actual amount of water vapor in the air with the maximum amount it can hold at a given temp & pressure

Sling Psychrometer an instrument that measures relative humidity

Thermometer an instrument for determining temperature

Transpiration when water exits a plant though its leaves

Weather the state of the atmosphere at a given time & place

Wind vane an instrument for detecting which direction wind is coming from

87

Most (_____%) of the world’s water is in the ____________ ____% of world’s water is in glaciers & ice caps Remaining 1% is spread among lakes, rivers & ____________ Use these terms to fill in the diagram:

Condensation Discharge

Evaporation Infiltration

Precipitation Runoff

Transpiration Water Table

http://science360.gov/obj/video/e540c490-739f-47d4-b03e-f52e04918fcb/sustainability-water-water-cycle

Tools For Meteorology Temperature: Measured with a _____________________. Controlled by: Humidity: Measured with a _____________________. Controlled by: Air pressure: Measured with a _____________________. Controlled by: Wind Speed: Measured with a _____________________. Controlled by: Wind Direction: Measured with a _____________________. Controlled by:

Precipitation: Solid: Measured with a _____________________. Liquid: Measured with a _____________________.

89

Earth’s Climate Video Link: https://youtu.be/B64Sogfavzc

The source of all heat and weather on Earth is the sun.

Energy from the sun radiates through space to heat the atmosphere and Earth’s surface by conduction (within a foot of the ground) & convection (in the atmosphere).

Weather is just the transfer of heat throughout the atmosphere via the water cycle. In the atmosphere, most of the weather is caused by convection currents

Climate: a region’s overall weather conditions over many years (includes temp & moisture)

1. Climate Controls a. Latitude

i. Temperature - Because the Earth’s surface is curved, only one area gets the direct, strong rays from the sun. The rest get weak indirect rays.

1. Higher temperatures near the equator 2. Lower temperature near the poles

ii. Moisture: When air rises, clouds form producing precipitation & humid

climates. When air sinks, it dries out producing arid, desert-like climates.

1. Humid (wet climates) at latitudes: 0° and 60° 2. Arid (dry climates) at latitudes: 30° and 90°

b. Large Bodies of Water

i. marine climate- areas close to water that have cooler summers and warmer winters = small temperature range

91

ii. continental climates- areas inland that have hotter

summers and colder winters = large temperature range

c. Surface Ocean Currents – modify coastal climates i. Warm currents: warm, moist air causing more

precipitation ii. Cool currents: cool, dry air causing less precipitation

d. Mountain effect

i. Windward side (side facing wind) 1. Air rises, expands & cools, causing condensation & precipitation 2. Cool & wet climate

ii. Leeward side (side not facing wind) 1. Air sinks, compresses & warms causing less precipitation 2. Warm & dry climate

2. Climate Change

a. Ice Ages & Warm periods i. Ice age – time of widespread glaciations outside of polar areas (last ended

10,000yrs ago) ii. Between ice ages there were times when Earth was warmer than today

b. El Nino & La Nina Events

i. When the wind off the shore of Peru changes strength 1. changes in worldwide climate 2. El Nino: less upwelling in area, reducing local fisheries 3. La Nina: more upwelling in area, increasing local fisheries

c. Changes in Solar Energy reaching Earth

i. Sunspots: more sunspots mean more solar activity & more energy reaching Earth

ii. Changes in Earth’s orbit & tilt: Earth wobbles a bit, which is part of what caused past ice ages/warming periods

d. Volcanic eruptions: gases & ash from particularly large eruptions can block heat from entering Earth’s atmosphere, causing cooler temperatures

e. Human causes i. Desertification: overgrazing causes desert to expand & temperatures to

increase ii. Deforestation: cutting down of forests in tropical regions results in

hotter, drier climates iii. Urbanization: replacing land & plants with concrete & buildings causes

temperatures to rise iv. Greenhouse effect / global warming

1. Caused by increased carbon dioxide, methane & water vapor [from burning fossil fuels]

2. Sun’s energy enters atmosphere, but is trapped by greenhouse gases, keeping heat in

3. Increases global temperatures & causes more storms Recognize the meaning of the following pictures:

93

Which coast of the US would be more humid, based on currents: eastern or western? What do you see here that would explain why England is warmer than northern Canada?

The Greenhouse Effect WebQuest Greenhouse Effect http://www.ucar.edu/learn/1_3_1.htm

1. What does the web site report as the surface temperatures for the three “Goldilocks Planets”? Venus: _______ Earth _______ Mars: _______

2. What is the “blanket” composed of?

3. Compare the “blanket” present on Venus, Earth, and Mars.

4. What are the four major Greenhouse Gases and their formulas? Look at the graph about Solar Radiation. The X axis of this graph contains the various sizes of radiation of the electromagnetic spectrum (X rays on the left have the smallest wavelength, while Radio waves on the right have the largest wavelength). The Y axis of this graph indicates increased concentration of these types of radiation.

5. What is the size range of a single wavelength of visible light? (nm means nanometer)

6. What is the size range of a single wavelength of infrared light? The yellow line on this graph indicates the types and concentrations of the radiation released by our sun.

7. What kinds of radiation does our sun release?

8. Where on the electromagnetic spectrum is our sun’s energy the highest concentration? Look at the next diagram which shows how the Sun’s energy is either absorbed or reflected by various parts of our Earth system.

9. How much of our Sun’s energy makes it all the way through the atmosphere to the surface of the earth?

10. How much of our Sun’s energy is actually absorbed by the surface of the Earth?

11. Once the energy has been absorbed it is re-radiated from the Earth as what kind of energy?

12. Why is it that the Earth doesn’t get VERY HOT during the day and LOSE ALL OUR HEAT AT

NIGHT?

13. How do Carbon Dioxide and other greenhouse gases work to absorb infrared radiation?

14. Why don’t Nitrogen gas (N2) and Oxygen (O2) gas act as greenhouse gases too?

15. What other factors influence the Greenhouse effect?

16. What does Albedo mean? 95

Global Climate Change http://epa.gov/climatechange/kids/basics/index.html

1. Why is the Earth getting warmer?

Click on ‘Find out how and why the climate is changing”

2. What is the main reason why the climate is changing? Click on “Greenhouse Gases”

3. Use the pie chart to list the name of the major greenhouse gas from people’s activities and the %. At the top of the screen, scroll over “See the Impacts” then click on “The Signs of Climate Change”. Choose 2 of the signs of climate change on the bottom to learn more about. In the space below, write the sign of the change and a summary about what you learn from each.

1. _______________________________-

2. _______________________________-

THINK [http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/fcst/tmps/cld.rxml]:

Clouds also impact climate. If it is cloudy during the day, given what you’ve learned, how will that affect temperatures during the day? Why? If it is cloudy at night, given what you’ve learned, how will that affect temperatures during the night? Imagine you want a snow day tomorrow, but the temperature is not quite below freezing yet. Do you want the snow clouds to move in now, or an hour or two after sunset? Explain!

Moisture in the Atmosphere Video Link: https://youtu.be/SGsdvHgcayM Most of the moisture is evaporated from the ________________ and given off by plants

through ________________.

Humidity- the water vapor content of the atmosphere

• Absolute humidity- the mass of water in each unit volume of air o Hotter air can hold more moisture, so it takes more to ‘fill’ it up o Cooler air holds less moisture, so less will ‘fill’ it up

• Relative humidity- the amount of water vapor in the air compared to the amount of water vapor it can hold at a specific temperature (%)

o If the air is saturated with water vapor (_______%), then ___________________ o As air temperature increases, if absolute humidity is constant, the relative humidity

___________

• Measured with a ______________________ - determines dry bulb & wet bulb temps o Dry bulb = normal temperature o Wet bulb = temperature after evaporation

Wet bulb is lower due to _________________________________

Difference between dry & wet bulb tells relative humidity

• ______________ difference = lower relative humidity (______)

• ______________ difference = higher relative humidity (________)

• Dew point- the temperature at which air is filled with water vapor (100% humidity) & water begins

to __________________ [i.e. the temp when dew forms]

Cloud Formation When warm, wet air from the surface rises, it begins to cool.

Eventually, the temperature drops to its ______________, and

the water vapor can condense onto

___________________________ ______________________

Condensation level: the atmospheric level at which condensation

occurs

Cloud- collection of liquid water droplets and/or ice crystals

suspended in the atmosphere and dense enough to be visible

Absolute Humidity is constant in this case Relative humidity decreases as temp increases

97

____________- low density of water droplets or ice crystals

Cloud cover- the fraction or percent of the total sky at a location that is covered with clouds

_____________- a cloud on or just above Earth’s surface

Clouds form where the air temperature and dew point are _________________

Atmospheric transparency- how easily insolation can pass through the air

• More particles in the air = ___________ transparency

• Smog- brown, highly polluted haze or fog

• ____________________ _____________ the air of pollutants

• Visibility- how far you can see along Earth’s surface expressed in miles (poorer

atmospheric transparency = lower visibility)

Precipitation – only occurs when the droplets become too heavy to be held up by wind updrafts

• Rain • Snow • ______________: raindrops that refroze on their way to the surface

• ______________ ______________: raindrops that only freeze when they hit the surface

• ______________: when frozen raindrops are bounced up & down in the cloud until they fall in a

huge ball of ice

• Measured with a _____________________ or _____________________

• Precipitation requires _______________, ________________ air to form _______________.

• Orographic effect (rain shadow)

Label the diagram with clouds, leeward or windward, where cool/moist & where

warm/dry:

Dew Point Lab MATERIALS Shiny can, water, ice, stirring rod and thermometer PROCEDURE

1. Measure the air temperature. Hold the thermometer in the air for two minutes. Remember not to touch the bulb of the thermometer. Record in Data Table A.

2. Fill a clean, dry can about half full or leave half empty of water. Do not breathe on the can. If moisture forms on the can you will need to refill it with warmer water and wipe the outside dry. Measure the initial temperature of the water in Data Table A. Keep the thermometer in the water but do not let it touch the sides of the can. It must be suspended in the water to get an accurate reading.

3. Add a piece of ice to the water. Lightly stir with a stirring rod OTHER than the thermometer. Still being careful not to breathe on the can.

4. Look carefully at the can to see if dew or moisture is collecting on the surface of the can. It will be very similar to the sweat that forms on a pop can. You may have to run your fingers over to surface to feel the dew. Once dew starts to form remove the ice and measure the temperature in Data Table A.

5. When the room temperature equals the dew point clouds can form. The sweat on the can is a very poor man’s cloud. When the air temperature lowers to the dew point cloud can form given that they meet the requirement of cloud formation.

Data Table A

Room Temperature

Initial Water Temperature

Dew Point Temperature

Difference between room & dew point temperature

ANALYSIS [Hint: the term ‘dew point’ should appear in every answer.]

1. Why does a beverage can “sweat” on a hot humid summer day?

2. Why do eye glasses fog over when entering a warm building on a cold day?

3. Why do bathroom mirrors fog while you are taking a shower?

4. Explain why one may see fog over a lake during the morning, whereas the highway nearby is clear.

99

DETERMINING CLOUD BASE ALTITUDE Video Link: https://youtu.be/uBlYMriGyfo Problem: Why do clouds have flat bottoms? Introduction: You should have learned that pressure has an effect on the temperature of air. These temperature changes are called adiabatic temperature changes. Adiabatic temperature changes do not change the overall amount of heat energy in the air but do change the measured air temperature. As air expands the heat energy is spread out which brings about a change in the measured temperature of the air mass. As the temperature of the air decreases there comes a point where the dewpoint temperature is reached and water vapor condenses onto the condensation nuclei, forming tiny droplets that form clouds. In this laboratory you will use a psychrometer in order to find out the dewpoint, relative humidity and cloud base of the air in a given area. Background: Like the word moisture, humidity is a general term that refers to the amount of water vapor that is in the air. We have all felt days in which the air feels “muggy” or “heavy”, days in which we cannot seem to cool off even if we perspire. These are days when the air has a relatively high humidity or high percentage of moisture in the form of water vapor. We cannot see water vapor in the air but we can measure it with an instrument called a psychrometer. A psychrometer is a simple instrument made of two thermometers, one of which has an end covered in a wet cloth. As the thermometers are exposed to air, the thermometer with the wet bulb cools down due to the evaporation of the water. Calculate the difference between the thermometers and read the Dew Point or Relative Humidity from the charts on the ESRT. Make sure you are using the dry-bulb temperature and the difference between the dry and wet bulbs when you read information off your reference tables. Materials:

• Psychrometer • Dew point and relative humidity tables • Generalized graph for determining cloud base altitude

Procedure Part 3:

1. As a class read the Dry Bulb and Wet bulb thermometers on a psychrometer. 2. Find the Dew Point, Relative Humidity using the tables on the next page. 3. Find the Cloud Base Height using the diagram & table on the page after that. 4. Fill out the rest of your data table. 5. Answer the analysis and conclusion questions.

DATA TABLE

Location Dry Bulb °C

Wet Bulb °C

Difference Dew Point

°C

Relative Humidity

%

Cloud Base Height

km 1. Classroom 2. B 26° 22° 3. C 14° 13° 4. D 18° 11° 5. E 8° 7° 6. F 30° 17° 7. G 24° 14° 8. H 20° 12° 9. I 22° 22°

[ignore the page numbers given]

Procedure Example 1. Determine the dry & wet bulb temperatures.

2. Find the difference between dry & wet.

3. On the Relative Humidity table, locate the dry bulb temperature along the leftmost

column. Place your left finger there.

4. On the same table, locate the difference between dry & wet along the top row. Place your right finger there.

5. Slide your left finger across the dry bulb row, and your right finger down the difference row. Where they meet, record the number in the box. This is the current relative humidity. [Same steps for Dew Point table – should be 6°C.]

Dry = 12°C Wet = 9°C

12°C – 9°C = 3

12°C

3

67% relative humidity

101

Plot the “Relativity Humidity” on the x-axis and the “Difference” between the wet and dry bulb on the y-axis. Draw a best-fit line between the points on your graph.

Relative Humidity

Questions:

1. What is the cloud base for air with a dry-bulb temperature of 32ºC and dew point of 22ºC? _________________________

2. If the surface dew point temperature is 18ºC and the clouds in the sky have a base elevation of 2 km, what is the dry-bulb

surface temperature? ___________________

3. What is the cloud height when the dry-bulb temperature is equal to the dew-point temperature? ______________________ 4. What name do we give that type of cloud? Hint: Look in your textbook! ________________________________________

5. According to your graph, what happens to the relative humidity as the difference between the dry bulb and wet bulb

temperature increases? ________________________________________________________________________________

6. What happens to the relative humidity when the difference between the dry bulb and dew point decreases? _____________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. What happens to the cloud base altitude as relative humidity decreases? ________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

103

Layers of the Atmosphere

Use the graph above to answer the questions below.

1. What is the average temperature at 0km altitude? ___________ What layer of the atmosphere are

you in at 0km? ___________________________

2. What is the average temperature at 10km altitude? ___________ What layer of the atmosphere are

you in at 10km altitude? ___________________________

3. Given the answer to #1 & 2, what happens to the temperature of air in the troposphere when it rises?

__________________

4. What happens to the temperature of air in the troposphere when it sinks? _____________________

5. What happens to the pressure as altitude increases? _______________________________________

6. In what layer of the atmosphere is all water vapor contained? ________________________________

7. What happens to the temperature of rising air in the Stratosphere? ___________________________

Pressure & Winds Video Link: https://youtu.be/GyvcCqdkEI4

I. Air Pressure a. Measurement

i. barometer: instrument used to measure air pressure ii. sea level is 760mm or 30 inches of mercury

iii. meteorologists use millibars – 1013mb is normal sea level air pressure b. Air pressure changes because of...

i. Elevation • As elevation increases pressure decreases (i.e. 1013mb at sea level, but

835mb in Denver, CO) ii. Temperature

• As temperature increases, pressure decreases • A warm air mass has low pressure & rises b/c it’s less dense

iii. Humidity • Pressure is lower at high humidity because water molecules are less massive

than air • Humid air rises & has low pressure • Measured using a sling psychrometer or hygrometer

c. Isobar: a line that joins points with the same air pressure; lines closer together mean steeper pressure gradient

II. Wind a. Air flows from high pressure areas to low pressure areas, forming wind

H L b. Bigger pressure difference = stronger / faster wind c. Anemometer: instrument to measure wind speed d. Wind Vane: instrument to measure wind direction e. Caused by unequal heating of Earth’s surface

i. air over land heats faster & cools faster than air over water 1. sea breeze: when winds blow inland from the ocean, because a warm

low pressure area is over the land 2. land breeze: when winds blow off the land to the ocean because a warm

low pressure area is over the ocean

ii.

105

III. Factors Affecting Winds a. Coriolis effect: the tendency of an object moving freely over Earth’s surface to

curve away from its path of travel, caused by E’s rotation i. Northern hemisphere – objects curve to the right

1. Winds around a high pressure zone circle clockwise & outward

2. Winds around a low pressure zone circle counterclockwise & in

ii. Southern hemisphere – objects curve to the left • Winds around a high circle counterclockwise • Winds around a low circle clockwise

iii. Greatest near the poles & least near the equator iv. The faster an object is moving, the stronger the turn v. Only obvious in objects moving over great distance

b. Jet stream: band of swiftly moving wind, moving east to west, at the top of the troposphere, unaffected by friction

i. supplies energy to storms ii. pushes storms across a continent

IV. Global Wind Patterns Label which wind belt Virginia is found in. Winds are named for the direction they flow from

Practice What sort of weather would you expect around a low pressure (temperature & humidity)? What sort of weather would you expect around a high pressure (temperature & humidity)? Which of the following describes winds?

a. caused by unequal heating of atmosphere, move from low pressure to high pressure b. caused by unequal heating of atmosphere, move from high pressure to low pressure c. caused by equal heating of atmosphere, move from low temperature to high temperature d. caused by equal heating of atmosphere, move from high temperature to low temperature

For this map at left, place an H over the highest pressure and an L over the lowest pressure. Draw an arrow to show which direction the wind would blow. Where would the greatest wind speed be: point B or point C?

On the isobar map at right, place an H over the highest pressure and an L over the lowest pressure. Draw an arrow to show direction of wind flow. Which line (AB or CD) would have the greatest wind speed?

107

109

Video to help explain: http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/encyclopedia/rain-shadow/?ar_a=1

Or

111

Sea Breeze/Land Breeze Diagram http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/pd/oceans_weather_climate/media/sea_and_land_breeze.swf

Wind flows from __________ pressure to _________ pressure. Pressure differences occur when earth’s surface is heated __________ by the sun.

Use the animation at the link/QR code above to fill in/color in air flow & description of what is happening at various times.

At 8 AM, the land and sea temp. are ________. Heat is equal, so no air _________.

During the day, when the _____ comes up. The land gets _______ than the Ocean. The air above the land gets ____ too and is less dense, so it rises. Meanwhile, the air over the ocean is ______/more dense and falls. The falling dense air creates _____ pressure over the ocean & the rising thin air creates _____ pressure over the land. A “sea breeze” develops from the ______ to the ________.

Ocean Land

Land Temp.

Ocean Temp.

Time: 8

Ocean Land

Land Temp.

Ocean Temp.

Time: 12 Sea

At 6 PM, the land and sea temp. are ________. Heat is equal, so no air _________.

During the night, when the ______ is down. The land gets _______ than the Ocean. The air above the

land gets _______ too and is more dense, so it sinks. Meanwhile, the air over the ocean is _________ /less

dense and rises. The sinking dense air creates _______ pressure over the ______ & the rising air creates

_______ pressure over the __________. A “land breeze” develops from the ________ to the __________.

Ocean Land

Land Temp.

Ocean Temp.

Time: 6

Ocean Land

Land Temp.

Ocean Temp.

Time: 3 Land

113

If you need additional help, look at your Climate notes and the Land/Sea Breeze activity before this one.

115

When Winds Are High What happens when winds are high? STORMS! A storm would be a __________ pressure system.

Type When/Where do they form? What does the damage?

What warning do you get?

What should you do?

What should you NOT do?

Thunderstorm

Usu afternoon, b/c land is fully heated by sun

Winds, rain, hail

lightning

Generally move across continent predictably –

several hours

Tornado

During thunderstorms/ esp tornado alley b/c

warm-wet hits cold-dry

High winds carry debris

A few minutes (tornado warning) – hear train

approaching, hail, greenish sky

Rated w/ Enhanced _____

scale EF0-EF5 (worst)

Hurricane Late summer, early fall /

Near warm oceans

Winds & flooding

1-5 days (hurricanes are BIG so you see them

coming, but don’t know exactly where they’ll hit)

Rated w/ ______________ scale category 1-5 (worst)

Blizzard

Winter

Winds, heavy snow, possible lightning, low

visibility

Generally move across continent predictably –

several hours

Air Masses & Fronts Video Link: https://youtu.be/QjvSGQlZuG0 The United States is in the ______________ wind belt, so our weather

moves from __________________ to _____________________.

I. Air Masses & Weather

a. Air mass: a large body of air in the lower troposphere that has similar characteristics throughout

• Temperature & humidity depend on place of origin • Temperature & humidity move with the air mass

b. Types of air masses i. Continental: ____________

ii. Maritime: ____________ iii. Polar: ____________ iv. Tropical: ____________

Draw & describe the air masses that affect the continental U.S.

117

III. Fronts a. Front: boundary between two different air masses b. Kinds of fronts (Draw the front symbol next to each type.)

i. Cold fronts: boundary between ________________________ mass & a warmer air mass it is displacing

(a) since cold air is more dense than warm air, the cold air slides beneath the warm air & forces it upward

(b) Rising warm air usually produces precipitation if wet (c) Air becomes colder after front passes (d) Steep slopes, rapid changes in weather, ________________,

hail, tornadoes; cumulonimbus clouds ii. Warm fronts: boundary between ____________________ mass &

a colder air mass it is displacing (a) warm air rises slowly

over cold air, pushing it back

(b) 1st clouds days in advance, then light rain

(c) Air becomes warmer after front passes (d) _________ slope, long periods of ______________

and layered clouds

iii. Occluded front: when cold front ‘catches up’ to a warm front, producing clouds & precipitation

iv. Stationary front: when a front stops moving

forward, producing clouds & precipitation –causes ________ if stationary too long

c. Locating a front: use these clues to find fronts on a weather map • _________________________ changes • _________________________ changes sharply • _________________________ changes sharply

d. Keys to Weather Forecasting

• Storms move ___________________ in US • _____ is ___________, winds are counterclockwise • _____ is ___________, winds are clockwise • ______________ forms near the center of a ____ and along a

__________

Cloud Formation & Fronts

Warm fronts: You see high clouds (cirrostratus) a day in advance, then they get lower as the front approaches. Nimbostratus move in & can bring light rain/snow. Cold fronts: Move in quickly with cumulonimbus clouds, which produce thunderstorms.

119

Practice Identify the clouds & the type of weather they suggest.

Cloud type: Weather prediction:

Cloud type:

Weather prediction:

Cloud type: Weather prediction:

Cloud type:

Weather prediction:

Weather Maps, Fronts & Forecasting Use the maps to answer the questions that follow.

1. There are five fronts in the map above. Name them:

a. ____________ c. _______________

b. ____________ d. _______________ e. ______________

2. For each front, name what compass direction the front is moving to.

a. ____________ c. _______________

b. ____________ d. _______________ e. ______________

3. What does the H over Oklahoma stand for?

4. What sort of weather would you expect at the H?

5. What does the L near front d stand for?

6. What sort of weather would you expect at the L?

7. In what direction will most of the wind across the US flow?

a. North to south b. East to west c. South to north d. West to east

8. One of the H’s & one of the L’s have white circles around them. Which way

would the wind flow between them?

a. H L b. L H

9. Assume front b is coming towards you. As it passes, what will you expect your

temperature to do?

a. increase b. decrease c. stay the same d. not enough information

10. Mark where the greatest wind speeds would be. How do you know?

121

11. There are two fronts in the map above. Name them:

X. ______________ Y. ______________

12. For each front, name what compass direction the front is moving to.

X. ______________ Y. ______________

13. Where is the lowest pressure?

14. What sort of weather would you expect at a low pressure?

15. Where is the highest pressure?

16. What sort of weather would you expect at a high pressure?

17. What type of front is approaching Virginia?

18. What will happen to our temperature when it passes?

19. Draw arrows showing how the wind would flow around the L.

20. Shade in the area you believe will experience precipitation.

21. Below are weather reports from the same location before & after a front

passed. What type of front must have passed?

Tuesday Wednesday

Temperature: 48°F Temperature: 60°F

Barometric Pressure: 1012mb Barometric Pressure: 1001mb

Weather: Cloudy with light rain Weather: Clear & sunny

Wind direction: from the north Wind direction: from the south

22. Which of these is likely to occur after moist air is cooled below its dew

point?

a. water condenses c evaporation increases

b. ice crystals melt d. winds are generated

Interpreting Surface Observation Symbols a quick overview

Temperature:

The value located in the upper left corner is the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit. In this example, the temperature is 64°.

Weather Symbol:

The weather symbol in the middle left, underneath the temperature, indicates the type of weather occurring at the time the observation

is taken. In this case, fog was reported. If there were thunderstorms occurring when the observation was taken, then the symbol for

thunderstorms would have appeared instead.

Dew Point Temperature:

The value located in the lower left corner is the dew point temperature in degrees Fahrenheit. In this example, the reported

dew point temperature is 58°.

Cloud Cover:

The circular symbol in the center indicates the amount of cloud cover observed at the time the observation is taken. In this case,

75% cloud cover (mostly cloudy) was reported.

Sea Level Pressure:

The value located in the upper right corner represents the last three digits of the sea level pressure reading in millibars (mb), with the

last digit being after the decimal point. This example shows a pressure of 1002.7 mb. [Put in a decimal before the last digit, then

add a 9 or 10 in front of the number. It can be 960 to 1050mb.]

Wind Barb:

The long stick symbol in the bottom right is known as a wind barb. The wind barb indicates wind direction and wind speed. This

example shows the wind coming from the southeast at 15 knots.

123

Weather Symbols

Cloud Cover Symbols

Wind Barb Each short barb represents 5 knots, each long barb 10 knots. A long barb and a short barb is 15 knots, simply by adding the value of each barb together (10 knots + 5 knots = 15 knots). If only a station circle is plotted, the winds are calm.

1 Knot = 1.15 Miles Per Hour (MPH)

1 Knot = 1.9 Kilometers Per Hour (KM/HR)

Weather Station Model Practice Write the information for each station model. For the pressure, remember to add the decimal point between the 2nd & 3rd digit, then put a 9 or 10 in front of it. The acceptable range of pressures is 960mb to 1050mb. The first is an example. Temperature: 55°F Dew Point: 37°F Wind Direction: from the SW Wind Speed: 15mph Cloud Cover: 25% (or scattered) Pressure: 1013.8mb Current Weather: strong rain [more dots means more rain] Temperature: Dew Point: Wind Direction: Wind Speed: Cloud Cover: Pressure: Current Weather: Temperature: Dew Point: Wind Direction: Wind Speed: Cloud Cover: Pressure: Current Weather: Temperature: Dew Point: Wind Direction: Wind Speed: Cloud Cover: Pressure: Current Weather: Temperature: Dew Point: Wind Direction: Wind Speed: Cloud Cover: Pressure: Current Weather:

125

Draw a station model using the following information. Remember, to write the pressure, remove the decimal point & use only the last three digits. For example, 1012.5mb becomes 10125 then just 125. Sterling, VA Temperature: 33°F Dew Point: 16°F Wind Direction: from NW at 15mph Cloud Cover: 0% (or clear skies) Pressure: 1011.2mb Current Weather: none San Diego, CA Temperature: 72°F Dew Point: 36°F Wind Direction: from SW at 5mph Cloud Cover: 75% (or mostly cloudy) Pressure: 1016.3mb Current Weather: none San Jose, Argentina Temperature: 93°F Dew Point: 86°F Wind Direction: from NE at 20mph Cloud Cover: 25% (or partly cloudy) Pressure: 1000.1mb Current Weather: light rain Binghamton, NY Temperature: 19°F Dew Point: 11°F Wind Direction: from SE at 10mph Cloud Cover: 100% (or cloudy) Pressure: 1006.1mb Current Weather: snow

Human Effects on Climate & Weather Cloud seeding: adding condensation nuclei to clouds to increase the chances of rain during a drought

Urban Heat Island Effect: concrete & buildings make an area hotter than grass/trees do, so temperatures in cities are higher than in surrounding countryside [which is why we get more snow in

Sterling than they do in DC, because the temperature is less likely to get below freezing in the city]

127

Climate Change: caused by increased CO2 from burning fossil fuels, and methane release from permafrost melting; results in increased storms, rising sea level, warmer oceans, ocean acidification, heat waves & drought

Ozone depletion: caused by release of CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) from air conditioners and old aerosol cans; results in UV rays getting down to

the Earth’s surface, which causes skin cancer

Meteorology Study Guide Test: ___________________ Know the following concepts & the vocabulary from p86-87Climate

• Describe how latitude affects climate

• Why would the bottom of a mountain be warm while the summit/peak is covered in snow?

• Explain the rain shadow effect near mountains.

• How are temperatures near the ocean different from temperatures in the middle of a continent?

• Explain how large volcanic eruptions would affect climate

Cloud Formation

• Clouds form from (warm/cold) (rising/sinking) air.

• Why are condensation nuclei important?

• Use a table to determine dew point & relative humidity given the dry & wet bulb temperatures

• Use a diagram to determine cloud base altitude.

• Recognize what sort of precipitation would form when temperatures are above or below freezing.

Wind

• What is the source of all heat & weather on Earth?

• The sun heats the surface of the Earth by ____________

• The Earth’s surface heats the bottom of the atmosphere by ______________

• Heat is transferred through the movement of the atmosphere, which is called ______________

• Wind flows from a ____ pressure to a ____pressure

• What makes air move in the atmosphere?

• Land breezes & sea breezes are created by differences in what?

• The _____________ effect causes winds to curve.

129

Human’s Effect on Weather

• Greenhouse effect is caused by _________________ and causes

Earth’s average temperature to ___________

• Ozone depletion is caused by ___________________ and causes _________________________

• Explain how desertification & urbanization affect climate

Weather

• Warm air rises because it is _______ dense than cold air

• If more heat comes into the Earth than leaves, the temperature would_______

• If more heat leaves the Earth than comes in, the temperature would ___________

• On a cloudy day, the temperature will be ____________________ than normal, as the sun’s light is reflected back into space. On a cloudy night, the

temperature will be ____________________ than normal, as the energy the Earth’s surface absorbed during the day is reflected back down to Earth.

• Hurricanes form at the _______________, where the oceans are (warm/cold). Their strength is measured with the ____________________ scale.

• Their strength is measured with the ____________________ scale.

• Land heats & cools (faster/slower) than water. This gives areas near the water a more (extreme/moderate) range of temperatures.

• Match the following instruments with what they look like & what they measure: anemometer, barometer, sling psychrometer, thermometer,

wind vane.

• Recognize symbols for cold fronts, warm fronts, stationary fronts & occluded fronts on a map.

Explain how the temperature changes as cold & warm fronts move past.

• You would expect to find precipitation at a (high/low) pressure.

• Draw & interpret a station model.

• What should you do/not do in a hurricane? Tornado? Thunderstorm?

Label the fronts & pressure systems above.

Minerals & Rocks Vocabulary: http://quizlet.com/15724859/rocks-minerals-flash-cards/

MINERALS • What are the characteristics of a

mineral? Be able to determine whether something is a mineral or not based on those characteristics.

• Identify & use tools for testing streak, hardness and density.

• Identify a mineral using the tools & chart.

• Distinguish between different types of cleavage & fracture.

• Distinguish between metallic & non-metallic luster.

• What are the two most common ELEMENTS in Earth’s crust?

• Recognize & name common minerals and their uses (quartz, feldspar, mica, calcite, halite, galena, sulfur, pyrite).

• Match the major ore minerals to the metal they produce.

• What group of minerals is the largest?

• What is the difference between minerals & rocks?

ROCKS

Igneous • Classification • Formation • Texture & environment • Plutons • Names / examples

Sedimentary • Classification • Formation • Environment • Characteristics • Names / examples

Metamorphic • Types of metamorphism • Classification • Formation • Foliation • Names / examples

Rock Cycle • Rock cycle diagram • Understand how three types of

rocks interrelate • Explain how one type of rock

becomes another • Identify a rock based on

characteristics

131

Rock Cycle Fill in the rock cycle below with the processes that form each rock.

Classify the following rock names: basalt, breccia, coal, conglomerate, gneiss, granite, limestone, marble, obsidian, pumice, quartzite, rock salt, sandstone, schist, shale, siltstone, slate Igneous Metamorphic Sedimentary Be able to identify a rock sample as igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic. For example, state whether each rock diagram below is igneous, metamorphic or sedimentary. Then state why you made that determination & the environment that created it.

Rock Type: Rock Type: Rock Type: Rock Type: Why: Why: Why: Why: Environment: Environment: Environment: Environment: Why doesn’t obsidian have crystals? Large crystals in igneous rocks are caused by _________________

ROCK & MINERAL VOCABULARY http://quizlet.com/15724859/rocks-minerals-flash-cards/

TERM DEFINITION

HELPFUL PICTURE TO REMEMBER DEFINITION

Batholith large mass of intrusive igneous rock believed to have solidified deep within the earth

Cementation process in which minerals precipitate into pore spaces between sediment grains and bind sediments together to form rock

Clastic rocks formed when fragments of other rocks are compacted and cemented together

Cleavage the tendency of a mineral to split along planes of its crystalline structure where bonds are weakest; some minerals break only in one direction, others break in two or more directions

Conchoidal a type of fracture where it breaks along a curved, ridged surface like the inside of a clam shell

Contact metamorphism

a change in the texture, structure, or chemical composition of a rock due to contact with magma

Crystal solid substance in which atoms are arranged in an orderly pattern that repeats over & over again

Density the ratio between the mass & the volume of a substance

Dike igneous rock feature formed when magma is squeezed into a vertical crack that cuts across rock layers and hardens underground

Felsic a type of magma rich in silica that forms light-colored igneous rock; typically the basis of continental crust

Foliated rocks that have banding or striping due to extreme pressure

Fossil the remains, impression, or any other evidence of life from another geologic age preserved in rock

Fracture the property of a mineral that describes an irregular pattern of breakage in a direction other than along cleavage planes

Hardness the resistance of a mineral to scratching

Igneous rock rock formed by the cooling and hardening of magma or lava

Inorganic is not now & has never been living tissue

133

Lava molten rock that reaches Earth's surface

Luster the property of a mineral that describes the quality or appearance of light reflected from its surface

Mafic type of magma rich in iron and magnesium and low in silica; typically the basis of oceanic crust

Magma the hot molten rock that forms beneath Earth's surface

Metamorphic rock rock that has undergone chemical or structural change due to the effects of heat & pressure

Mineral a naturally-occurring inorganic solid with a distinct chemical composition and crystalline structure

Mineralogy the study of minerals and their properties

Organic composed of matter that is alive or was once alive

Pluton an intrusion of magma into Earth's crust

Regional metamorphism

the process of rock formation that results from large areas of rocks being under intense heat & pressure of mountain-building movements

Rock a naturally-formed group of minerals bound together

Rock cycle a repeated series of events by which rock gradually and continually changes between igneous, sedimentary & metamorphic forms

Sediment solid particles such as weathered rock fragments, plant & animal remains, or minerals that settle out of solution on lake & ocean bottoms

Sedimentary rock rock formed by the compaction and cementing of layers of sediments

Silicate any mineral that has it building block a tetrahedron of silicon & oxygen; most common group of minerals

Sill igneous rock feature formed when magma is squeezed into a horizontal crack between layers of rock and hardens underground

Specific gravity the ratio of the weight of a substance to the weight of an equal volume of water

Stratification the layering of sedimentary rock

Streak the property of a mineral that describes its color in powdered form

Unfoliated rocks that have no banding or striping from extreme pressure

Minerals – Definition & Properties Video Link: https://youtu.be/Z9XdIB17Nwo

Definition Definitions are important so we will all know exactly what we are talking about.

In Geology, a mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a specific chemical composition and a crystalline structure. OK but what does that mean?

Naturally occurring means ________________________________________________________ Humans can imitate nature and make artificial minerals like industrial diamonds. Inorganic means ________________________________________________________________ Your teeth are not minerals because your body made them. Specific chemical composition means _______________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ e.g. Quartz’s composition is SiO2 which means that for every silicon atom, there are 2

oxygen atoms. Hematite, a kind of iron ore, has the formula Fe2O3 which means that the ratio of iron (Fe) to oxygen (O) is 2 to 3.

Crystalline structure means ________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________ Although there are commonly little mistakes here and there and some impurities sprinkled in, 99% of a mineral’s chemical elements are listed in the formula and those atoms are in their specific place in the crystal pattern. Minerals tend to be pure, not mixtures.

Just to make sure we have it right, figure out which of the following are minerals and which are not. If it is a mineral, write fits the definition. If it is not a mineral, briefly explain why. e.g. Wood is not a mineral because it was made by a living thing, a tree.

A quartz crystal from a quarry ____________________________________________________________

A lump of coal _______________________________________________________________________

A clam shell on the beach _______________________________________________________________

A garnet sand grain on the beach __________________________________________________________

A gold nugget from a stream _____________________________________________________________

A fossilized shark tooth _________________________________________________________________

A dinosaur bone _______________________________________________________________________

A chunk of granite from a quarry __________________________________________________________

A diamond in a ring ____________________________________________________________________

Ice on a pond _______________________

Ice in the ice cube tray in the fridge ________________________

135

Video Link: https://youtu.be/SVjHsbUJQkE

Physical and Chemical Properties (Properties are just characteristics. e.g. Concrete is hard, pillows are soft; grass is green, fire engines are red; new cars are shiny, pavement is dull.) Because of their atomic structure and chemical composition, each mineral has a specific set of physical and chemical properties. They look and behave differently. If they didn’t, how could we tell them apart???

Crystals – the “flowers” of the mineral kingdom Every mineral, under the “right circumstances” will grow in a characteristic shape or shapes. Sometimes these are common enough to help identify a mineral. Pyrite or fool’s gold commonly forms in cubes and quartz commonly has a 6 sided prism topped with a 6 sided pyramid.

Luster Luster is the quality of the reflected light. To say a specimen is shiny is not good enough. As junior scientists, we have to describe the shine. The lusters we will be describing are the highest shine a mineral can have. It is the luster of a clean crystal face of a freshly broken surface. Chemical attack and scratching can reduce the luster. There are two major kinds of luster:

1. Metallic – lusters that look like metal – steel, chrome, silver, gold etc. – and are totally opaque light cannot penetrate.

2. Nonmetallic – lusters that do not look like metal a. Brilliant – the luster of gem stones like diamond or cubic zirconium b. Glassy – like shine of broken glass c. Pearly – the soft shine of a pearl d. Waxy – like candle wax e. Dull – like dull

Specific gravity

A comparison between an object’s weight in air & weight in water (very similar to density).

Color Color is the property of deception because:

1. Many minerals come in a number of colors e.g. quartz can be clear, yellow, purple, black, pink 2. Some minerals are always, always, always the same color. Azurite is always blue and malachite

is always green. 3. Some minerals can have exactly the same color as another mineral. E.g. fluorite and quartz can

have exactly the same purple color and glassy luster. Hardness will distinguish them. Which mineral - quartz or fluorite - can scratch glass? ____________ So color is the last property we use to identify a mineral.

Streak Streak is the color of the powdered mineral and much more reliable than color. Simply rub the mineral on a streak plate and observe the color produced. Streak may or may not be the color of the mineral specimen. No matter what the color of the mineral specimen is, TRUST THE STREAK!!!

Hardness Hardness is the “scratchability” of a mineral – how easy or difficult it is to scratch a mineral. Moh’s Scale, below, is the scale of hardness used by geologists.

Rating Reference Material Reference Tool 1 Talc 2 Gypsum Fingernail (2.5) 3 Calcite Copper penny (3.5) 4 Fluorite 5 Apatite Glass plate (5.5) 6 Potassium feldspar Steel file (6.5) 7 Quartz 8 Topaz 9 Corundum 10 Diamond

If an unknown mineral scratches your fingernail but is scratched by a penny, than its hardness value is between 2.5 and 3.5. An example of such a mineral is calcite.

Hardness – quick and dirty 1. If the mineral is softer than your fingernail, it is considered ________________. 2. If the mineral is softer than glass (it can’t scratch glass but glass can scratch it), it is

considered _________________________. 3. If a mineral is harder than glass, it is considered ________________________. 4. If a mineral is harder than a streak plate (leaves no streak) it is considered to be

____________________

Cleavage and Fracture All minerals break!! How they break can help identify them

Cleavage is the tendency for a mineral to break along a flat breakage surface. Minerals may have: 1 direction like the micas [makes thin, flat sheets] 2 directions like feldspars [sometimes you can see a corner between 2 flat surfaces] 3 directions like halite [breaks into cubes, rhombuses or rectangles] 4 directions like fluorite (uncommon) 6 directions like sphalerite (very rare) Fracture the other way minerals can break – breaking any way other than a flat surface Splintery – like wood Conchoidal – like broken glass [term to remember!!] Irregular – no pattern, just uneven

137

Other Properties 1. Magnetic – some minerals are attracted to a magnet like magnetite 2. Reaction to acid – minerals like calcite will bubble in contact with weak hydrochloric acid. 3. Feel – Some minerals have a distinctive feel. e.g. Talc feels soapy. 4. Taste – e.g. halite tastes salty 5. Smell – a few minerals have a smell. e.g. if you exhale on clay, it smells kind of funky 6. Double refraction – minerals like calcite make a double image of objects viewed through them 7. Fluorescence – some minerals will appear a different color under ultraviolet light (i.e. calcite

appears red, willemite appears green) 8. Phosphorescence – minerals that glow after being exposed to ultraviolet light

MAJOR ORE-FORMING MINERALS

Bauxite Aluminum

Magnetite Iron

Galena Lead

Pyrite Sulfur & Iron

Graphite Carbon for batteries & lubricants

Quartz Silica/Glass

Hematite Iron

Sulfur Sulfur

139

MINERAL IDENTIFICATION PRACTICE QUESTIONS Use the notes & the dichotomous key to answer the following. Video Link on Mineral ID: https://youtu.be/nZQpx3O7qxw

1. What is an unglazed ceramic tile used for?

2. What is the difference between cleavage & fracture?

3. A mineral has a metallic luster, is silver in color and has a gray/black streak. What mineral(s) could it be? What characteristic(s) could you use to determine exactly what it is?

4. You have a colorless mineral on your table. It has a glassy luster and breaks into cubes. Would you use it as cement or to flavor your food?

5. You have a mineral that breaks into flat sheets. What mineral(s) could it be?

6. You have a red glassy mineral that does not break into flat planes but is harder than steel. What mineral(s) could it be?

7. Your friend calls & tells you she has a yellow mineral that she wants you to identify for her. What mineral(s) could it be? What are some questions you could ask her to find out more precisely what it is?

Mineral Identification - Dichotomous Key Luster Hardness Range

Cleavage or Fracture

Streak Color Other Name

Metallic

Softer than fingernail Fracture Gray Metallic silver

Greasy feel; used for pencils Graphite

Harder than fingernail, Softer

than glass Cubic Cleavage Gray Metallic silver

Very dense; source of lead Galena

Harder than glass

Fracture Black Black, reddish or

silver

Attracted to magnet; source

of iron Magnetite

Fracture Dark green

or black Brassy yellow Attracted to

magnet; source of iron & sulfur

Pyrite

Nonmetallic

Softer than fingernail

‘Very Soft’

Fracture White Gray/ green/white Greasy feel Talc

Fracture White White/pink --- Gypsum

Fracture Yellow Yellow Strong odor Sulfur

Fracture White/dirty White, gray, orange, red

Source of aluminum Bauxite

Cleavage – thin sheets

None/ white Colorless to

yellow --- Muscovite mica

Cleavage – thin sheets

None/ black Black to dark

brown --- Biotite mica

Harder than fingernail, softer

than glass ‘Soft’

Cubic cleavage None/ white Colorless to white Source of salt Halite

Rhombus cleavage None/white Colorless or variable

Used for cement; reacts

with acid Calcite

Harder than glass

‘Hard’

Fracture None/white Dark green to

black Sparkly crystals Hornblende

Cleavage None/white Dull dark green to

black --- Augite

Cleavage None/white White to pink or gray

--- Feldspar

Fracture None/white Granular light green

--- Olivine

Conchoidal fracture None/white Colorless or variable

Hexagonal crystals (if any); glass & jewelry

Quartz

141

MINERAL GROUPS MINERALS MUST CONTAIN:

Silicates Silicon (Si) and oxygen (O) & sometimes other elements

Carbonates Carbon atom with three oxygen atoms (CO3) & some other elements

Halides Chlorine (Cl), fluorine (F), bromine (Br) or iodine (I) & some other elements

Native Elements A single element from the periodic table, alone & unmixed with other elements

Sulfates Sulfur with four oxygen atoms (SO4) & other elements

Sulfides Sulfur (S) & other elements, but doesn’t have SO4 or fit other groups

Oxides Oxygen (O) & other elements, but doesn’t fit other groups

MINERAL GROUP IDENTIFICATION

Read the given material & formula, then identify the proper mineral group to which it belongs. Put the answer in the left box.

1. Barite BaSO4

2. Calcite CaCO3

3. Copper Cu

4. Cromite FeCr2O4

5. Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2

6. Feldspar (orthoclase) KAlSi3O8

7. Fluorite CaF2

8. Gold Au

9. Gypsum CaSO4*2H2O

10. Halite NaCl

11. Magnetite Fe3O4

12. Muscovite KAl2(AlSi3O10)(F,OH)2

13. Olivine (Mg, Fe)2SiO4

14. Pyrite FeS2

15. Quartz SiO2

Common Elements of Earth’s Crust

1. What two elements make up most of Earth’s crust? _______________________ _______________________

2. Given this information and the list of mineral groups, which mineral group (sulfates, sulfides, native elements, oxides, halides, carbonates, or silicates) do you think most Earth rocks belong to? _______________________

3. Name one mineral that falls into this mineral group from question #2. _______________________

4. Do you think sulfides and sulfates would be very common? Why or why not? ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________

5. Why do you think we recycle aluminum cans? ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________

6. Using the information in this graph, why do you think soda cans are not made out of iron or magnesium instead of aluminum? ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________

143

Common Minerals to Know

These are minerals you should be able to identify by sight or by their characteristics. Go to each pile of minerals. Each pile is all the same mineral. (There are several samples of each so that you are getting an accurate representation.) Look over the samples & determine what that mineral’s characteristics are. Then name the mineral.

ID # Luster Hardness Cleavage or

Fracture? Streak Color

How you will remember it

MINERAL NAME

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

145

LET’S ROCK – IGNEOUS! Classified by ______________ & _______________

• Recall: When MAGMA or LAVA cools and hardens, we get IGNEOUS rock. • There are two main types of igneous rock (designated by where they form), what are they called?

o ________________________ o ________________________

• INTRUSIVE means the magma cooled and hardened _________________ the surface of the Earth.

• EXTRUSIVE means the magma (now lava) cooled and hardened ______ the surface of the Earth.

• INTRUSIVE igneous rocks probably cool ________________. So they have __________ crystals.

• EXTRUSIVE igneous rock probably cool ________________. So they have __________ crystals.

Crystal size determines __________________

147

A few IGNEOUS rocks that we need to know… Granite, Obsidian, Pumice, Basalt

• GRANITE [felsic-silica rich]

o INTRUSIVE or EXTRUSIVE? o LARGE crystals or SMALL crystals?

o Used for ______________________

• OBSIDIAN [felsic-silica rich]

o INTRUSIVE or EXTRUSIVE? o LARGE crystals or NO crystals?

o Used for _________________

• PUMICE [felsic-silica rich]

o INTRUSIVE or EXTRUSIVE o LARGE crystals or SMALL crystals?

o Used for ________________

• BASALT [mafic-iron rich]

o INTRUSIVE or EXTRUSIVE? o LARGE crystals or SMALL crystals

o Can be found where?

_________________ _________________

___________ or __________ is the Mineral Composition

Quartz: clear Feldspar:

white/pink/gray Hornblende:

black

TEXTURE

Large Crystals

Small Crystals

Vesicular/ Bubbly Glassy

MINERAL COMPOSITION

Felsic (light, silica

based) Granite Rhyolite Pumice

Obsidian Mafic (dark, iron

based) Gabbro Basalt Scoria

INTRUSIVE

slow cooling

EXTRUSIVE fast cooling

149

IGNEOUS INTRUSIONS Say what?

• Let’s say the picture below shows a few different rock layers. Usually when you have layers of rock the

YOUNGEST / OLDEST rock layers are on top. Place a “Y” in the layer that is the youngest.

• Now take a look at the rock layers…what has changed? Now place a “Y” in the layer that is the youngest.

• We have an INTRUDER, or an IGNEOUS INTRUSION. This formed because _______________ flowed upward from deep within the Earth. Eventually, the __________ cooled and hardened into place. We call this type of intrusion a DIKE.

• There is another type of intrusion that does not go “up and down”, but it goes parallel to the rock layers. This type of intrusion is called a SILL. Like a window sill.

• Why do you think magma would form a SILL instead of a DIKE? Well, ____________ in the rocks help to

determine where the magma flows.

• The last type of IGNEOUS INTRUSION we’ll look at is called a LACCOLITH.

• THINK, why would magma form a LACCOLITH instead of a SILL? Well, it is because the magma that forms the LACCOLITH is THICK / THIN. As a result, instead of spreading out evenly, the magma pushes up, forming a dome.

_______________________________ ____________________________

151

SEDIMENTARY is ELEMENTARY!

• So how do SEDIMENTARY rocks form anyway? SEDIMENTARY rocks are formed from ______________ of other rocks. These fragments are also called SEDIMENTS. • So what exactly is a SEDIMENT? A SEDIMENT can be two different things:

o Small pieces of other rock o The remains of dead ______________ and ______________.

• Take a look at the sediment pictures to the right. The largest particles are called PEBBLES, followed by GRAVEL, SAND, and SILT/CLAY.

• Can you label each picture as being PEBBLES, GRAVEL, SAND, or SILT/CLAY?

______________________ _____________

• Which particles are the SMALLEST?

o _______________

_______________ _________

SO HOW DO THESE SEDIMENTS FORM ROCK?

• Let’s talk about CEMENTATION? What smaller word can you pick out from that large word? __________________

* GREAT, so the SEDIMENTS become cemented together! BUT HOW? Let’s take a look at the picture below. It shows how sediments may become grouped together.

• Do the sediments fit together perfectly? YES / NO

• So what do we have between the sediments?

o __________________

• What do you think might fill those spaces?

o __________________

• Good, so when the water evaporates, it leaves behind minerals, which CEMENT the sediments together, forming a SEDIMENTARY rock!

Use your pencil to fill in the spaces between the sediments!

To review:

COMPACTION, combined with CEMENTATION of SEDIMENTS

over a long period of time will give us many different types of SEDIMENTARY ROCK!

Clastic – made from recognizable pieces (conglomerate/sandstone) Non-clastic: Organic – made primarily of plants (coal) or seashells Non-clastic: Chemical – made from evaporation of mineral-rich

water (like oceans depositing rock salt or limestone)

153

Let’s look at a few examples, shall we? • CONGLOMERATE

o Made up of large / small particles. o Forms in _________ o Type: ______

• SANDSTONE

o Made up of pieces of sand and _________ o Water can / can’t pass through it. o Forms in ________ or ____________ o Type: ______

• SHALE

o Made up of the smallest particles of silt and clay.

o Usually a _______ color. o Water can / can’t pass through it. o Forms in __________________ o Type: ______

• LIMESTONE [non-clastic]

o Made up of the remains of microscopic dead ocean animals.

o Has a lot of _________ o Forms in ______________ o Type: ______ o Mineral: _________

• COAL [non-clastic]

o Made up of the remains of dead plants and animals.

o Forms in ________________ o Type: ______

PERMEABILITY – the ability of _______ to pass through a material.

High means water can / can’t pass through. Low means water can / can’t pass through.

LET’S TALK METAMORPHIC

• Ok, so what does METAMORPHIC mean? o Metamorphic means to _________ o So this is when one type of rock is

changed into another type of rock. It’s kind of like putting food in a microwave – the food is heated up and changed; just like the rocks are heated up and changed.

* So heat is one way rocks can change form, but there is another force

involved. That force is called _________.

• All metamorphic rocks come from other rocks called _________ rocks. Parent rocks

can be any of the three kinds we’ve learned about (Sedimentary, Igneous, or even other Metamorphic rocks).

• Texture is ________________ (striped/layered from pressure) or _________________ (heat only)

Let’s see an example! – MARBLE

Here’s MARBLE:

It came from a sedimentary rock known as __________.

Texture: ________________ When LIMESTONE was exposed to heat and pressure, all of the spaces between the sediments became compacted together, making a denser and harder rock! Both are still made of the mineral __________________, which reacts with acid. So, what do you think happens to buildings & tombstones made with marble in areas with lots of acid rain? ______________________________________________

Classified based on _________________

155

Let’s see another example – SLATE Here’s SLATE:

It came from a sedimentary rock known as __________. Texture is _________________

Slate can be used in chalkboards!

Let’s see another example – GNEISS Here’s GNEISS:

It came from an igneous rock known as __________. Texture is ________________

How does one look different from the other?

________________________ What happened to the parent rock to make gneiss look different? ______________

It’s a gneiss rock, don’t take it for granite!

Other Metamorphic Rocks & Their Parent Rocks Quartzite – very

hard & uniform

Texture:

Sandstone (S) – visible

sand grains

Schist (M) –

glittery & flakey

Texture:

Slate (M) – some

sparkles, but solid

Both made of _______, so harder than glass.

Ok, so WHERE do metamorphic rocks form??

1. Where two ____________ plates collide!

Type of metamorphism: ____________ Texture: _____________

Here, rocks are squished together and heated up – changing them into metamorphic rocks!

2. Where __________ cuts through rock layers! Type of metamorphism: ____________

Magma heats up the rock around it, but it does NOT melt. The heat transforms the rock into a metamorphic rock! Texture is ________________

Metamorphic Rock Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2g-v-u5O3Xc

Igneous & Metamorphic Rock Formation

157

Sedimentary & Metamorphic Rock Formation

Igneous formed by ______________________ Where:

Sedimentary formed by _____________________ Where:

Metamorphic formed by ___________________ Where:

Rock Cycle Review https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IALC36xRjew

I know a rock is IGNEOUS if: I see random, interlocking crystals [spots/speckles]

I see vesicles (bubbles) where gases escaped as lava cooled The texture is glassy due to extremely rapid cooling

I know a rock is SEDIMENTARY if: I see sediment cemented together

I see fossils I see cobbles, pebbles or sand grains cemented together

I recognize coal (lightweight, black, carbon)

I know a rock is METAMORPHIC if: I see bands (stripes) of light and dark minerals

I see distorted/folded, foliated structure I see foliated “layers” of platey, flakey minerals like mica

I see a very hard, resistant, uniform & weathered quartzy boulder

159

Version ____________________ Eight different rock samples will be given to you during this lab. Indicate the type of rock each sample is by circling the correct term. In the space provided, list the characteristic you observed that enabled you to identify the rock. Finally, describe the process that produced the identifying characteristic (2 points for rock type, 2 points for identifying characteristic, 2 points for process). You’ll earn one extra credit point for each rock you properly identify by name. [9 possible extra credit] PROCESSES OPTIONS: Rapid cooling, slow cooling, cementation of sediments, pressure Rock ___ is Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic [circle one]

Identifying characteristic: _______________________________________________________________

Process that produced the identifying characteristics: _________________________________________

Rock name?________________

Rock ___ is Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic [circle one]

Identifying characteristic: _______________________________________________________________

Process that produced the identifying characteristics: _________________________________________

Rock name?________________

Rock ___ is Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic [circle one]

Identifying characteristic: _______________________________________________________________

Process that produced the identifying characteristics: _________________________________________

Rock name?________________

Rock ___ is Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic [circle one]

Identifying characteristic: _______________________________________________________________

Process that produced the identifying characteristics: _________________________________________

Rock name?________________

Rock ___ is Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic [circle one]

Identifying characteristic: _______________________________________________________________

Process that produced the identifying characteristics: _________________________________________

Rock name?________________

Rock ___ is Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic [circle one]

Identifying characteristic: _______________________________________________________________

Process that produced the identifying characteristics: _________________________________________

Rock name?________________

Rock ___ is Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic [circle one]

Identifying characteristic: _______________________________________________________________

Process that produced the identifying characteristics: _________________________________________

Rock name?________________

Rock ___ is Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic [circle one]

Identifying characteristic: _______________________________________________________________

Process that produced the identifying characteristics: _________________________________________

Rock name?________________

Rock ___ is Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic [circle one]

Identifying characteristic: _______________________________________________________________

Process that produced the identifying characteristics: _________________________________________

Rock name?________________

161

Rocks and Minerals - rocks and minerals are different

- minerals: naturally occurring inorganic solid substance with a definite composition and structure ⋅ can be identified by physical properties (hardness, color,

luster, streak) ⋅ important to human wealth and welfare ⋅ major rock-forming minerals:

quartz feldspar mica calcite

⋅ ore minerals:

pyrite magnetite hematite

galena graphite sulfur

⋅ most abundant group: silicates (contain the elements silicon and oxygen)

- rocks: most made of one or more minerals ⋅ can be identified based on mineral content and texture ⋅ defined by the processes by which they are formed:

igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic

⋅ igneous rocks: form from molten rock that cools and harden either below or on the Earth’s surface - extrusive igneous rocks: have small or no crystals resulting in fine-grained or glassy textures

pumice obsidian basalt

- intrusive igneous rocks: have larger crystals and a coarser texture

granite

⋅ sedimentary rocks: may either form from rock fragments or organic matter bound together or by chemical precipitation - clastic sedimentary rocks: made up of fragments of other rocks

sandstone conglomerate shale

- non-clastic sedimentary rocks:

limestone rock salt ⋅ limestone only rock that can be formed both chemically

and organically

⋅ metamorphic rocks: form when any rock is changed by the effects of heat, pressure, or chemical action; can be foliated or unfoliated (nonfoliated) - foliated metamorphic rocks: have bands of different minerals

slate schist gneiss

- unfoliated metamorphic rocks: have little or no banding and are relatively homogenous

marble quartzite

-parent rocks: all metamorphic rocks start out as a different rock, called the parent, which can be igneous, sedimentary or another metamorphic rock

Parent Metamorphic Rock

shale slate

sandstone quartzite

limestone marble

granite gneiss

slate schist

Rock Cycle - process by which all rocks are formed and how basic Earth

materials are recycled through time

TECTONICS STUDY GUIDE (P163-169) BOUNDARY TYPES

BOUNDARY

NAME DIVERGENT CONVERGENT

TRANSFORM Ocean-Ocean Continent-Continent Ocean-Continent

PICTURE

MOVEMENT (draw arrows)

LANDFORMS/ EFFECTS

(include volcano type, if applicable)

What evidence do we have that plate tectonics is real? List at least three.

1.

2.

3.

Where (exactly) are the youngest rocks? Where (exactly) are the oldest rocks?

163

How does rock age change as you move from Virginia to the mid-Atlantic ocean ridge to Europe? What causes plate tectonics, when the crustal plates move? Why wasn’t Wegener’s continental drift hypothesis accepted? What is the name of the giant landmass that occurred 250 million years ago, when all the current continents were one large one? Because of density, which type of crust can subduct beneath the other – oceanic crust or continental crust? Oceanic crust is made out of _________________ rock. Continental crust is made out of ______________________ rock. Shield Volcano Composite Volcano

Where forms

Explosive or quiet? Lava or pyroclastic

material?

Characteristics/Appearance

Examples

What is a hot spot? Give an example as well. Name the different layers of the earth. As you go deeper into the earth, what happens to temperature? What happens to density? EARTHQUAKES P-Waves S-Waves

HOW MOVE

WHEN ARRIVE

TRAVEL THROUGH

165

How do you find the epicenter of an earthquake? Where do most earthquakes happen? The instrument that detects earthquakes is a _________________________. One gives you the _____________________ the epicenter of an earthquake. You need _______ of them to determine the exact location of an earthquake. Liquefaction is: How do earthquakes tell us what the interior of the Earth looks like? Name the following diagrams, and name the type of force required to form it (compression, tension, or shear stress).

Name: Name: Name: Force: Force: Force:

Name: Name: Force: Force: Mountain Types:

Folded Mtn Fault-Block Dome Volcano

How Formed?

Example

167

TECTONICS VOCABULARY http://quizlet.com/15724328/tectonics-flash-cards/

TERM DEFINITION HELPFUL PICTURE OR WAY TO REMEMBER DEFINITION

Active continental margin

continental margin adjacent to a tectonic plate boundary, thin, narrow shelf

Aftershock smaller earthquake set off by a large one; the small ones usually come after the big one

Anticline an upfold in rock layers

Ash pyroclastic material with diameter <2mm

Asthenosphere the soft layer of the mantle on which the lithosphere floats

Bomb pyroclastic material with diameter >64mm

Caldera the crater-shaped basin formed when the top of a volcano collapses

Continental margin

a boundary between continental crust and oceanic crust

Convergent Boundary

A region where plates are pushing together and where a mountain range, island arc, and/or trench will eventually form; often a site of much seismic and volcanic activity

Craton The ancient core of a continent usually the oldest and most ancient rock of a continent

Divergent Boundary

boundary between tectonic plates in which the two plates move away from each other, and new crust is created between them

Epicenter the point on the Earth's surface directly above the focus of an earthquake

Fault a break in the Earth's crust along which movement has occurred

Focus the point inside the Earth where an earthquake begins

Hotspot

a tectonic feature where a stationary & narrow stream of abnormally hot mantle rock (mantle plume) penetrates lithospheric plate, forming a volcano

Liquefaction

a phenomenon, sometimes associated with earthquakes, in which soils and other unconsolidated materials saturated with water are turned into a liquid that is not able to support buildings

Lithosphere a rigid layer made up of the uppermost part of the mantle and the crust

Magnitude the strength of an earthquake

Mid-ocean ridge an undersea mountain chain where new ocean floor is produced; a divergent plate boundary

Passive continental margin

continental margin far from a tectonic plate boundary, broad shelf, felsic crust

Plate Tectonics the theory that pieces of Earth's lithosphere are in constant motion, driven by convection currents in the mantle

Pyroclastic material

The volcanic rock ejected during an eruption, including ash, bombs, and blocks

Rift valley Long, narrow depression that forms when continental crust begins to separate at a divergent boundary

Seismograph an instrument that detects & records waves produced by earthquakes

Shear stress The rock layers are being pushed in two different opposite directions

Syncline a downfold in rock layers

169

Terrane large block of lithospheric plate that has been moved & become attached to another continent

Transform Boundary

a boundary in which two plates slide past each other without creating or destroying lithosphere

Tsunami huge ocean wave started by underwater earthquakes

Volcano the opening in the Earth's crust through which molten rock, gases, and ash erupt

Earth’s Interior TECTONIC INTRO NOTES

Density, Temperature & Pressure in Earth’s Interior

Interpretation:

As depth increases, density ______________ As depth increases, temperature ______________ As depth increases, pressure ______________

Video Link: https://goo.gl/4jBFZ9

171

Map #1 – Location of Fossils & Geologic Features Interpretation: Fossils, folded mtns, glacial deposits on different continents MATCH, so the continents must have been attached some time in the past & moved away since

Map #2 – Location of Volcanoes & Earthquakes

Interpretation: Earthquakes (EQs) are places where the rock is moving. Most volcanoes & EQ's are along plate boundaries

Map #3 – Age of the Ocean Floor

Interpretation: Youngest rock is near the mid-ocean ridge. Rock gets older as you move away from mid-ocean ridge to the continents. Therefore, new igneous rock is being formed at the ridge, then moves away as newer rock forms at the ridge.

Map #4 – Magnetism Near Oceanic Ridges

On each side of the mid-ocean ridge, there is a mirror-image of magnetism, showing that rocks on each side of the mid-ocean ridge formed at the same time, but then

moved away as new magma moved in & made new rocks.

173

Theories

• Alfred Wegener (1912) - continental drift: the continents have moved, or drifted, from one location to another over time, as they float on deeper, more fluid layers. Evidence: fossils, mountains, glacial deposits & rocks on different continents match up, showing they used to be attached in the past & have moved since.

Rejected, because he couldn't explain HOW the continents moved

• Replaced with plate tectonic theory, which explains that the crustal plates holding the continents are moved by:

convection cells in the mantle &

slab pull -As the crustal plate moves further from the ridge, it cools & becomes more dense. This makes it sink beneath the continental crust. The weight of this sinking, cooling plate pulls the rest of the plate down after it.

Tectonic Plates

Video Link: https://youtu.be/q49waUsP5tc

I. Divergent Plate Boundaries: boundaries between 2 lithospheric plates that are

moving _________

a. Tensional force

b. Magma rises from below - called sea-floor spreading

c. If it occurs in continental crust, a continental rift valley (mountains & valley

with much faulting and volcanic activity) result

d. If it occurs in oceanic crust, a mid-ocean ridge forms (mountain range at the

bottom of the ocean that is mostly volcanoes and lava flows with a central rift

valley or depression)

e. New crust is cr____eated

f. Examples i. Mid-Atlantic Ridge

ii. Great Rift Valley of Africa

II. Convergent Plate Boundaries: boundaries between 2 plates that are moving

___________ each other, or converging [compressional forces]

a. Ocean-Ocean

i. Process: subduction: process in which the more dense plate at a

boundary sinks beneath the less

ii. Features

1. Ocean trench

2. Volcanic island arc

3. Earthquakes along subducting

crust – shallow near boundary, deeper underneath overhanging

plate

4. Ocean crust is destroyed

iii. Examples 1. Islands of Indonesia

2. Mariana Islands

mid-ocean ridge

175

b. Continent-Continent

i. Process: collision

ii. Features

1. _________________ (like

Appalachian Mtns)

2. earthquakes

iii. Example: Himalayas

c. Ocean-Continent

i. Process: subduction

ii. Features

1. Ocean trench in water

2. Young volcanic mountain range

3. Earthquakes along subducting crust – shallow near boundary,

deeper underneath overhanging plate

4. Ocean crust is destroyed

iii. Example: western coast of South America

III. Transform Plate Boundaries: boundaries between 2 plates that are

_________________ each other

a. Process: plates sliding past each other

[shearing forces]

b. Feature: earthquake activity

c. Examples i. San Andreas fault

ii. fracture zones along mid-ocean ridges

177

Tectonic Plate Boundaries

Label the boundary types. Use the following terms: C-C Convergent

O-O Convergent

O-C Convergent

Divergent

Folded Mountains

Mid-ocean ridge

Seafloor Spreading

Subduction

Transform

Trench

Volcanic Island Arc

Volcanic Mountains

Ring of Fire

1. How long did the Earth bubble with magma? _______________________

2. What did volcanoes do? ________________________________________

3. What happens along the ‘Ring of Fire?’ ____________________________

4. What city sits on the San Andreas Fault? ___________________________

5. How long did the World Series earthquake last? _____________________

6. Where was the largest eruption in modern history? ___________________

7. How do they evacuate when Sakurijima erupts? ______________________

8. How do the Japanese snow monkeys live so far north? _________________

9. How can a volcano be a health spa? _______________________________

10. What is the most fertile & eruptive nation on Earth? ___________________

11. What poisonous yellow mineral does the volcano produce, which people

harvest? ____________________________

12. What is the tallest volcano on Earth? ______________________________

13. How does an island grow? ______________________________________

14. How long was it before life emerged again? __________________________

179

VOLCANO TYPES Basaltic (mafic) Lava Granitic (felsic) Lava Intermediate Lava

Characteristics

Runny (low viscosity) High iron content

Forms more dense rock Oceanic crust

Thick (high viscosity) High quartz content

Forms less dense rock Continental crust

Mix of mafic & felsic, due to oceanic crust melting & mixing with continental at convergent

boundary

Where Occurs Oceanic hotspots Mid-ocean ridges

Ocean-continent convergent boundaries, further inland

Ocean-ocean convergent boundaries

Ocean-cont. convergent boundaries, near ocean

Volcano Type(s)

Shield volcano Stratovolcano / composite

Description Volcano

Big, broad, shield-shaped islands made of layer upon layer of lava Relatively gentle eruptions with

lots of lava

High, steep volcanoes made of alternating layers of lava & ash Highly explosive, very little lava

Produce: ash plume, lahar, pyroclastic flows, landslides

Example Hawaiian islands

Iceland Mt. St. Helens, Washington

Andes Mtns, Chile Volcano Type(s)

Cinder Cones

Description Volcano

Pile of volcanic debris formed on side of other volcano Forms from side vent w/o lava

Volcano Type(s)

Flood Basalt / Lava Plateau

Description Volcano

Very liquid lava erupted over many years that ‘floods’ a large

flat area Example Columbia River Plateau

Picture

181

Natural Hazards of Volcanoes

• Living and nonliving things can be harmed by flowing lava, falling rock and hot gas. • Secondary events-

1. Pyroclastic flow: fast-moving superheated mass of air & debris moving down the volcano burning, blasting & destroying all it touches

2. Lahar: mudflow set off by erupting volcano, usually from melted glaciers mixed with ash

3. If ash mixes with water it can cause mudslides, flooding, and poison drinking water

4. Gases ( sulfur and chlorine) can cause lung damage

5. Much ash in the atmosphere can cool Earth by blocking the sun Prediction of Volcanic Eruptions

• Satellites measure infrared energy to tell of increasing heat from rising magma.

• Tilt meters measure increasing slopes as the volcano fills with magma.

• Hundreds of small earthquakes sometimes precede volcanic eruptions, but NOT ALWAYS.

Volcano Prediction Essay You are the head volcanologist for the US Geological Survey in Potomac Falls state. You are preparing a message to the governor about the possible eruption of Mount Loudoun, a stratovolcano/composite volcano similar to Mt. St. Helens. Mount Loudoun has not erupted since 1870 and is covered in many large, deep glaciers. Your fellow volcanologists predict that the volcano may erupt at any time in the next four months. The annual Night at the Falls (a fair taking place along the Potomac River near the base of the volcano) is approaching, but your volcanologists are asking you to tell the governor to cancel or postpone the fair until after any eruption may occur. You know the governor will be reluctant to cancel, as the fair is a huge moneymaker for local businesses who are already struggling due to the poor economy. Tourists & businesses are visiting from all over the country to attend the fair, which is less than one month away, so either postponing or canceling will cause significant economic damage. The governor is hoping to be reelected this year, so a bad decision would cost him, as well. Write an essay (3-4 paragraphs) advising the governor to cancel, postpone OR continue with the fair [pick one]. In your essay, you must include:

• whether you think the fair should be cancelled, postponed or continue as scheduled • the evidence your experts have found to predict that the volcano will erupt [check notes for ideas] • why you think the fair should/should not be cancelled, and, • what damage the Mount Loudoun (composite volcano) would cause if it did erupt.

You should keep both your knowledge of volcanoes & the economic situation in mind when you make your decision. [Read this paper & your notes!] The essay is due __________________________

183

Earthquakes Video Link: https://youtu.be/1DlFLmnVuYk

P waves (compressional): body waves that squeeze and stretch rock as they pass through the Earth; can travel through _________________________; arrive ___________ S waves (shear): body waves that cause rock to move at right angles to the direction in which the waves are traveling; only travel through __________; arrive ___________

____________________: instrument for measuring earthquake magnitude & arrival time of seismic waves [you need three to find the location of the epicenter.] _______________________ scale- measures the effects of an earthquake on humans and the damage it causes

• closer to epicenter = ____________ damage • loose, unconsolidated soil = ___________ damage

________________________ scale- measures the strength of an earthquake (the energy released)

• Richter Scale, Rated 1 to 10

Time difference between P & S wave arrival: __________sec

Seismogram (printout)

Locating the Epicenter: A seismograph records the magnitude of an earthquake & the time the seismic waves arrive. We use the difference in speeds of P- and S-waves at three different seismographs to locate the epicenter of earthquakes. Finding the Distance from the Epicenter

1. Subtract the arrival time of the P-waves from the arrival time of the S-waves. (This can be expressed in hours, minutes & seconds, such as 08:06:40, or just hours & minutes such as 15:25 (3:25pm).

2. Using the graph and your S-P lag time, find the distance from that station to the epicenter.

*Locating (___________________) the Epicenter 1. Use a compass to draw a circle around your recording station, with a

radius equal to the distance between that station and the epicenter. The earthquake should be somewhere along that circle.

2. Do this with at least ___________ seismograph recording stations. The epicenter will be where all the circles intersect, as in Figure 3-6 below. (If the circles do not meet at an exact point, but make a small triangle, we assume the epicenter is in the center of the small triangle.)

185

Finding the Amplitude & Magnitude 1. Measure the height of the largest S-wave. This is the amplitude. In this case, it is 11mm. 2. On the table below, draw a line from the distance you found for the station, to the amplitude, through the middle scale. 3. Where the line hits the Magnitude scale, read the number. That number is the Richter scale magnitude of the earthquake.

The magnitude of this earthquake is __________________.

Earthquake Worksheet

1. Which of the following can be determined by knowing only the arrival time of both P and S waves at a single recording station?

a. Direction to an earthquake b. Depth of the earthquake focus c. Geographic location of the epicenter d. Distance to the epicenter

2. As the distance from the epicenter increases, the time between

p-wave arrival and s-wave arrival will a. Increase c. Decrease b. Remain the same

3. Which station above is furthest from the epicenter?

a. A c. C b. B d. D

4. This diagram shows energy waves passing through the middle of a solid object What kind of seismic wave is best shown by this diagram?

a. Rayleigh waves c. Surface waves b. S-waves d. P-waves

5. The map above shows the plotted distance from each of three stations to the epicenter of an earthquake. A coordinate system but no scale is provided. What are the map coordinates of the epicenter in the map above?

a. E-5 c. G-1 b. H-3 d. H-8

6. What type of earthquake wave is usually received first at a

recording station 2000km from the epicenter? a. Rayleigh-waves c. L-waves b. P-waves d. S-waves

7. What type of earthquake waves can pass through Earth’s liquid

outer core? a. P-waves b. S-waves

187

Mountains, Folds & Faults Video Link: https://youtu.be/Twuqz7OoFHQ I. Mountain-Building Forces

a. ________________ : rock layers are being squeezed inward i. makes rock layers thicker & shorter

ii. occurs at convergent boundaries b. ________________ : rock layers are being stretched

i. makes rock layers thinner & longer ii. occurs at divergent boundaries

c. ___________ __________: rock layers are being pushed in 2 different directions

i. changes the shapes of the rocks ii. occurs at transform boundaries

II. Folds (caused by compression)

a. ___________ : an upfold in rock layers draw picture:

b. ___________ : a downfold in rock layers draw picture:

III. Types of Mountains a. ________________ __________: mtns formed when 2 continental plates

collide & fold the rock • Appalachians, Himalayas, Urals

b. ________________ __________: almost circular folded mountain caused

by the mantle beneath it rising up and pushing the rocks up • Adirondack Mtns in NY, Black Hills of SD

c. Volcanic mtn

d. ________________ __________: mtns formed when there is uplift over a

wide area, making the land stretch & crack, forming normal faults along the surface; whole blocks of crust can be forced up into mtns

• Sierra Nevada of CA, Teton Range of WY

IV. Faults

1] _____________ Fault In this fault, the block above the fault moves down relative to the block below the fault. This fault motion is caused by tensional forces and results in extension.

2] _____________ Fault In this fault, the block above the fault moves up relative to the block below the fault. This fault motion is caused by compressional forces and results in shortening. A reverse fault is called a thrust fault if the dip of the fault plane is small.

3] _____________ FAULT In this fault, the movement of blocks along a fault is horizontal. The fault motion of a strike-slip fault is caused by shearing forces.

189

Earth’s Composition - solid, mostly iron inner core; a liquid, mostly iron outer core; a rocky, plastic mantle; and a rocky, brittle crust ⋅ core, mantle, and crust are dynamic systems – constantly in motion ⋅ two types of crust: oceanic and continental each has very different characteristics

- ocean (basalt) crust is relatively thin, young, and dense - continental crust is relatively thick, old, and less dense

⋅ Earth’s crust major elements: oxygen, silicon, aluminum, and iron ⋅ We haven’t drilled past the crust of the Earth, so only know about the deeper layers due to seismic waves (earthquakes) – while P-

waves can travel through anything, s-waves only travel through solids, so when the s-waves cannot travel through the outer core, we know that the outer core must be liquid

⋅ Tectonic Plates

- lithosphere: made of Earth’s crust and some of mantle; is divided into plates that are in motion with respect to one another ⋅ plate motion occurs as a consequence of convection in the Earth’s mantle ⋅ plate tectonics is driven by convection in the Earth’s mantle ⋅ relative plate motions and plate boundaries are

convergent (subduction and continental collision), divergent (sea-floor spreading), or transform

⋅ most geologic activity (earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain building) due to relative motion along plate boundaries

- convergent boundaries’ features: collision zones (folded & thrust-faulted mountains) and subduction zones (volcanoes, trenches)

ocean-continent

continent-continent

ocean-ocean

- divergent boundaries’ features: mid-ocean ridges, rift valleys, and fissure volcanoes

- transform boundaries’ features: strike-slip faults – San Andreas Fault

divergent boundary convergent boundary transform boundary

- earthquake activity is associated with all plate boundaries; result when movement occurs along a fault; 3 seismograph stations needed to locate the epicenter of an earthquake ⋅ faults are breaks or cracks in the crust along which movement has occurred

- most active faults are located at or near plate boundaries

- folds form when rocks are compressed horizontally and their layers can be deformed into these wave-like forms ⋅ commonly occurs during continent-continent collisions

- volcanoes openings where magma erupts onto the Earth’s surface ⋅ most volcanic activity associated with subduction, rifting, or

sea-floor spreading ⋅ hot-spot volcanic activity (example: volcanic islands) is exceptional in that it is not related to plate boundaries

Earth Science 1st Semester Cumulative Study Guide 1) Intro to Earth Science http://quizlet.com/12933067/unit-one-intro-to-es-flash-cards/

a) Fact (observation) vs. Inference (assumption/hypothesis)

Recognize whether a statement is a fact or an inference. For example:

The rock probably formed 200million years ago. The mineral sample is purple.

This desk has a mass of 150kg. The rock is black and shiny.

The rock is light-colored. The rock contains large crystals.

Tomorrow’s weather will be sunny & cool. The sun will explode in 3billion yrs.

b) Scientists use _____________________ to test their hypotheses. A well-

designed experiment should have lots of / very few [pick one] constants.

c) Lab safety:

i) What do you do if your clothes catch on fire?

ii) What if you spill acid on your clothing?

iii) What if you get acid in your eyes?

d) Geology studies ____________, meteorology studies ____________,

astronomy studies ____________, oceanography studies ____________

e) Density (formula, causes sink/float, effect of pressure & temperature)

f) Be able to read and interpret graphs

2) Mapping http://quizlet.com/13038491/unit-two-mapping-flash-cards/

a) Reading contour maps (contour interval, etc.)

b) Given a map, determine

i) Latitude/longitude of a location

ii) Distance between two points using a map scale

iii) Elevation of a location

iv) Direction a river flows 191

v) Where the slope is steep/gentle

c) Draw the profile of a line on a topographic map

d) Distinguish between a hill and a depression

e) Use a time zone map

f) GPS [Global Positioning System] – uses satellites, receivers & transmission

stations

3) Energy & Environment https://quizlet.com/79360599/virginia-environment-energy-flash-cards/

a) Renewable Energy Types

Energy Source Benefits Drawbacks

Solar

Geothermal

Wind

Hydroelectric

a) Nonrenewable Energy Types

Energy Source Benefits Drawbacks

Fossil Fuels

Uranium/Nuclear

b) What makes something renewable or nonrenewable?

Causes Effects Prevention

Global Climate Change

Ozone Depletion

Acid Rain

Algal Blooms

c) What ocean do most of Virginia’s streams empty into?

d) What large body of water (ocean, bay, gulf, etc.) does the southwestern corner

of Virginia empty into?

e) What is the largest river in Virginia?

f) What are some environmental problems in the Chesapeake Bay? What are they

caused by?

g) Label the major watersheds of Virginia (Mississippi, Other, Chesapeake Bay,

Atlantic, NC Sounds)

h) Distinguish between point and nonpoint source pollution. 193

2) Meteorology https://quizlet.com/13038569/unit-three-meteorology-flash-cards/

a) Tools: anemometer, barometer, sling psychrometer, thermometer, wind vane

[be able to recognize them & identify what they measure]

b) Water cycle (label a diagram & recognize definitions, including infiltration,

runoff, transpiration, evaporation, condensation, precipitation)

c) Atmosphere & Winds

i) Heat budget (what if more heat enters than leaves OR if more heat leaves

than enters)

ii) How does wind flow: L H or H L ?

iii) What happens to winds around high & low pressure areas in N. Hemisphere

iv) Read isotherm & isobar maps

v) What kind of weather do you expect at a low pressure?

vi) What kind of weather do you expect at a high pressure?

vii) What is the source of all heat & weather on Earth?

viii) The sun heats the surface of the Earth by ____________

ix) The Earth’s surface heats the bottom of the atmosphere by

______________

x) Heat is transferred through the movement of the atmosphere, which is

called ______________

xi) Wind flows from a ____ pressure to a ____pressure

xii) What makes air move in the atmosphere?

xiii) Land breezes & sea breezes are created by differences in what?

xiv) The _____________ effect causes winds to curve

d) Climate & Weather

i) Interpret a graph of atmospheric layers & where pressure/temp/water vapor

are. [see p126]

ii) Describe how latitude affects climate

iii) Why would the bottom of a mountain be warm while the summit/peak is

covered in snow?

iv) Explain the rain shadow effect near mountains.

v) Land heats & cools (faster/slower) than water. This gives areas near the

water a more (extreme/moderate) range of temperatures.

vi) Explain how large volcanic eruptions would affect climate

vii) How clouds form

viii) Precipitation types

ix) Read weather map

x) Warm air rises because it is _______ dense than cold air

xi) Hurricanes form at the _______________, where the oceans are

(warm/cold). Their strength is measured with the ____________________

scale.

xii) Tornadoes form when ____________________________________. Their

strength is measured with the ____________________ scale.

xiii) Recognize symbols for cold fronts, warm fronts, stationary fronts &

occluded fronts on a map. Explain how the temperature changes as cold &

warm fronts move past.

xiv) You would expect to find precipitation at a (high/low) pressure.

xv) Draw & interpret a station model.

xvi) What should you do/not do in a hurricane? Tornado? Thunderstorm?

e) Greenhouse effect: caused by ____________________________ & result is

_____________________

f) Ozone layer: useful b/c it protects Earth from ________________. Hole caused

by ________________

195

3) Rocks & Minerals http://quizlet.com/15724859/rocks-minerals-flash-cards/

a) Minerals

(1) What are the characteristics of a mineral? Be able to determine

whether something is a mineral or not, based on these characteristics.

(2) Be able to identify tools for testing for streak, hardness, & specific

gravity.

(3) Be able to identify a mineral using a chart & various tools.

(4) Distinguish between cleavage and fracture and between metallic

and non-metallic luster.

(5) What are two most common ELEMENTS in Earth’s crust?

(6) What group of minerals is the largest?

(7) Recognize common minerals & match ore minerals to their metals.

b) Rocks

i) How do igneous rocks form?

ii) What causes igneous rocks to have large crystals?

Glassy texture?

Vesicular texture?

iii) How do metamorphic rocks form?

iv) What causes metamorphic rocks to have a foliated texture?

v) What is regional metamorphism?

vi) What is contact metamorphism?

vii) What is the parent rock for each of the following:

(1) Marble

(2) Slate

(3) Gneiss

viii) How do sedimentary rocks form?

Be able to identify the following rocks as sedimentary, igneous or metamorphic:

Basalt

Coal

Conglomerate

Gneiss

Granite

Limestone

Marble

Obsidian

Pumice

Sandstone

Shale

Slate

ix) Identify a rock sample as sedimentary, igneous or metamorphic by sight.

4) Tectonics http://quizlet.com/15724328/tectonics-flash-cards/

BOUNDARY NAME

CONVERGENT Ocean-Ocean Continent-

Continent Ocean-

Continent

PICTURE

MOVEMENT (draw arrows)

LANDFORMS/ EFFECTS

(include volcano type, if applicable)

a) Fill in the chart above, describing the different types of plate boundaries.

b) How did the Appalachian Mountains form?

c) How did the Himalayan Mountains form?

d) How did the Andes Mountains form?

e) What evidence do we have that plate tectonics is real?

f) What happens to magnetism on either side of a mid-ocean ridge?

197

g) What are the differences between continental & oceanic crust?

h) Why was Wegener’s theory of continental drift rejected?

i) According to the theory of plate tectonics, what forces cause the crustal plates

to move?

j) Label the different layers of the earth on the

diagram at right.

k) As you go deeper into the earth, what happens to

temperature? What happens to density?

l) What type of volcano is extremely explosive with

abundant pyroclastic material? Where do they form?

m) What type of volcano is quiet with little pyroclastic material but lots of lava?

Where do they form?

n) What is a hotspot?

o) Fill in this chart about earthquake waves:

P-Waves S-Waves

HOW MOVE

WHEN ARRIVE

TRAVEL THROUGH

p) How do you find the epicenter of an earthquake? Find it on a map.

q) What information does one seismograph give you?

r) How many seismographs are necessary to triangulate the exact location of an

epicenter?

s) Where do earthquakes form?

t) What is liquefaction?

u) How do earthquakes tell us what the interior of the Earth looks like?

Name the following diagrams, and name the type of force required to form it (compression, tension, or shear stress).

Name: Name: Name: Force: Force: Force:

Name: Name: Force: Force:

Favorite SOL Words

Abundant

Distinguish

Manipulate

Skeptic/skepticism

Predominant

Variable / Vary

Practice

What is the contour interval of this map? What is the distance between point C and point D? What compass direction would Fish Creek flow?

199

What could be a possible elevation of point X? Draw the profile for line A-B. _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________

Which location has the greatest air pressure: A, B, C or D? Which location has the lowest air pressure: A, B, C or D? Which location has the steepest slope: A, B, C or D? Which location would have the greatest wind speed: A, B, C or D? Which location would have the most cloud cover: A,

B, C or D? [Hint: do you form clouds at high pressure or low pressure?] What tool would you use to determine air pressure? What is the formula for density? What is the volume of this sphere at right? If the mass of this sphere were 10g, what would its density be?

Use the image below to answer the following questions.

Which object has the greatest density? Which object has the lowest density? Which object has a density of 1.0 g/ml? If you compressed object D, what would happen to its

density?

Use the graph at bottom right to answer the following questions. After 1 half-life has elapsed, what percent of the parent element remains? How many half-lives have elapsed if 25% of the parent element is remaining?

201

GENERAL VOCABULARY TERMS https://quizlet.com/85765351/general-vocabulary-flash-cards/

TERM DEFINITION

abundant present in great quantity; lots of

accumulate collect or gather

analyze interpret data to reach conclusions

ascends to move upward, to arrange from smallest to largest

associated linked to or with

categorize to place into groups or classify

clarify to make clear or easier to understand

classify group together based on similar traits

communicate to exchange or give information

compare examine and describe the similarities or differences between 2 or more groups/items

composition what something is made of

conserved when a quantity does not change; kept carefully

contracting what happens when matter gets colder, coming closer together or tighter

contrast explain all the ways they are different

demonstrate to show or prove something clearly and convincingly

derived based on or made from something

descends to move downward, to arrange from largest to smallest

differentiate distinguish, tell apart

estimate a number that is not exact; a careful guess.

evaluate examine and judge carefully

expanding what happens when matter gets hotter, spreads out

generalize make general or broad statement by inferring from specific cases

horizontal going straight across from side to side, with the horizon

hypothesize to reach a conclusion based on an assumption or something not proven

infer to hypothesize

interpret explain

observation Information obtained through the senses

originates where something comes from, the beginning

overturned when something is tipped or flipped over, upside down

periodically once in a while, sometimes, every so often

persuade to convince

portray to describe in words

prevalent commonly occurring; widely accepted or practiced

primarily for the most part; mainly

primitive the first or earliest of the kind or in existence

reasoning the process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence

relationship a connection existing between people related to or having dealings with each other

relative location in relation to other places

stationary standing still; not moving

transform change in form or appearance

underlain being layered under an object, located below

verify To establish the truth or accuracy of, confirm

vertical going straight up & down

vicinity a surrounding or nearby region

203